vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Virus
The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA . These enzymes , called restriction endonucleases , cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells . Bacteria also contain a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of viruses that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past , which allows them to block the virus 's replication through a form of RNA interference . This genetic system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection .
Virus
Envelope Some species of virus envelop themselves in a modified form of one of the cell membranes , either the outer membrane surrounding an infected host cell or internal membranes such as nuclear membrane or endoplasmic reticulum , thus gaining an outer lipid bilayer known as a viral envelope . This membrane is studded with proteins coded for by the viral genome and host genome ; the lipid membrane itself and any carbohydrates present originate entirely from the host . The influenza virus and HIV use this strategy . Most enveloped viruses are dependent on the envelope for their infectivity .
Smallpox vaccine
Perhaps there was already an informal public understanding of some connection between disease resistance and working with cattle . The `` beautiful milkmaid '' seems to have been a frequent image in the art and literature of this period . But it is known for certain that in the years following 1770 , at least six people in England and Germany ( Sevel , Jensen , Jesty 1774 , Rendall , Plett 1791 ) tested successfully the possibility of using the cowpox vaccine as an immunization for smallpox in humans . In 1796 , Sarah Nelmes , a local milkmaid , contracted cowpox and went to Jenner for treatment . Jenner took the opportunity to test his theory . He inoculated James Phipps , the eight - year - old son of his gardener , with material taken from the cowpox lesions on Sarah 's hand . After a mild fever and the expected local lesion James recovered after a few days . About two months later Jenner inoculated James on both arms with material from a case of smallpox , with no effect ; the boy was immune to smallpox . The
Chickenpox
The duration of the visible blistering caused by varicella zoster virus varies in children usually from 4 to 7 days , and the appearance of new blisters begins to subside after the fifth day . Chickenpox infection is milder in young children , and symptomatic treatment , with sodium bicarbonate baths or antihistamine medication may ease itching . Paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) is widely used to reduce fever . Aspirin , or products containing aspirin , should not be given to children with chickenpox , as it can cause Reye 's Syndrome .
Virus
The body 's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system . This comprises cells and other mechanisms that defend the host from infection in a non-specific manner . This means that the cells of the innate system recognise , and respond to , pathogens in a generic way , but , unlike the adaptive immune system , it does not confer long - lasting or protective immunity to the host .
Lyme disease
Despite the lack of evidence that the complaints were caused by the vaccine , sales plummeted and LYMErix was withdrawn from the U.S. market by GlaxoSmithKline in February 2002 , in the setting of negative media coverage and fears of vaccine side effects . The fate of LYMErix was described in the medical literature as a `` cautionary tale '' ; an editorial in Nature cited the withdrawal of LYMErix as an instance in which `` unfounded public fears place pressures on vaccine developers that go beyond reasonable safety considerations . '' The original developer of the OspA vaccine at the Max Planck Institute told Nature : `` This just shows how irrational the world can be ... There was no scientific justification for the first OspA vaccine LYMErix being pulled . ''
Smallpox vaccine
The mortality of the severe form of smallpox -- variola major -- was very high without vaccination , up to 35 % in some outbreaks . A method of inducing immunity known as inoculation , insufflation or `` variolation '' was practiced before the development of a modern vaccine and likely occurred in Africa and China well before the practice arrived in Europe . It may also have occurred in India , but this is disputed ; other investigators contend the ancient Sanskrit medical texts of India do not describe these techniques . The first clear reference to smallpox inoculation was made by the Chinese author Wan Quan ( 1499 -- 1582 ) in his Douzhen xinfa ( 痘 疹 心 法 ) published in 1549 . Inoculation for smallpox does not appear to have been widespread in China until the reign era of the Longqing Emperor ( r . 1567 -- 1572 ) during the Ming Dynasty . In China , powdered smallpox scabs were blown up the noses of the healthy . The patients would then develop a mild case of the disease and from then on were immune to it . The technique did have a 0.5 -- 2.0 % mortality rate , but that was considerably less than the 20 -- 30 % mortality rate of the disease itself . Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700 ; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers . According to Voltaire ( 1742 ) , the Turks derived their use of inoculation to neighbouring Circassia . Voltaire does not speculate on where the Circassians derived their technique from , though he reports that the Chinese have practiced it `` these hundred years '' .
Smallpox vaccine
Publication of the Inquiry and the subsequent energetic promulgation by Jenner of the idea of vaccination with a virus other than variola virus constituted a watershed in the control of smallpox for which he , more than anyone else deserves the credit .
Dutch elm disease
Because of the ban on the use of chemicals on street and park trees in the Netherlands , the University of Amsterdam developed a biological vaccine by the late 1980s . Dutch Trig is nonchemical and nontoxic , consisting of a suspension in distilled water of spores of a strain of the fungus Verticillium albo - atrum that has lost much of its pathogenic capabilities , injected in the elm in spring . The strain is believed to have enough pathogenicity left to induce an immune response in the elm , protecting it against DED during one growing season . This is called induced resistance . Trials with the American elm have been very successful ; in a six - year experiment with the American elm in Denver , CO , annual Dutch elm disease losses declined significantly after the first year from 7 percent to between 0.4 and 0.6 percent ; a greater and more rapid reduction in disease incidence than the accompanying tree sanitation and plant health care programs .
Moth
Baculoviruses are parasite double - stranded DNA insect viruses that are used mostly as biological control agents . They are members of the Baculoviridae , a family that is restricted to insects . Most baculovirus isolates have been obtained from insects , in particular from Lepidoptera .
Lyme disease
If untreated , the bacteria may persist in the body for months or even years , despite the production of B. burgdorferi antibodies by the immune system . The spirochetes may avoid the immune response by decreasing expression of surface proteins that are targeted by antibodies , antigenic variation of the VlsE surface protein , inactivating key immune components such as complement , and hiding in the extracellular matrix , which may interfere with the function of immune factors .
Smallpox vaccine
An account from letter by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu to Sarah Chiswell , dated 1 April 1717 , from the Turkish Embassy describes this treatment :
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Regular testing for sexually transmitted infections is encouraged for prevention . The risk of contracting pelvic inflammatory disease can be reduced by the following :
T cell
The main pathogens of concern in T cell deficiencies are intracellular pathogens , including Herpes simplex virus , Mycobacterium and Listeria . Also , fungal infections are also more common and severe in T cell deficiencies .
Hormonal contraception
Combined hormonal contraceptives were developed to prevent ovulation by suppressing the release of gonadotropins . They inhibit follicular development and prevent ovulation as a primary mechanism of action .
Plant virus
Plant defenses against viral infection include , among other measures , the use of siRNA in response to dsRNA . Most plant viruses encode a protein to suppress this response . Plants also reduce transport through plasmodesmata in response to injury .
Lyme disease
Prevention includes efforts to prevent tick bites such as by wearing long pants and using DEET . Using pesticides to reduce tick numbers may also be effective . Ticks can be removed using tweezers . If the removed tick was full of blood , a single dose of doxycycline may be used to prevent development of infection , but is not generally recommended since development of infection is rare . If an infection develops , a number of antibiotics are effective , including doxycycline , amoxicillin , and cefuroxime . Standard treatment usually lasts for two or three weeks . Some people develop a fever and muscle and joint pains from treatment which may last for one or two days . In those who develop persistent symptoms , long - term antibiotic therapy has not been found to be useful .
Smallpox vaccine
The question of who first tried cowpox inoculation / vaccination can not be answered with certainty . Most , but still limited , information is available for Benjamin Jesty , Peter Plett and John Fewster . In 1774 Jesty , a farmer of Yetminster in Dorset , observing that the two milkmaids living with his family were immune to smallpox , inoculated his family with cowpox to protect them from smallpox . He attracted a certain amount of local criticism and ridicule at the time then interest waned . Attention was later drawn to Jesty , and he was brought to London in 1802 by critics jealous of Jenner 's prominence at a time when he was applying to Parliament for financial reward . During 1790 -- 92 Peter Plett , a teacher from Holstein , reported limited results of cowpox inoculation to the Medical Faculty of the University of Kiel . However , the Faculty favoured variolation and took no action . John Fewster , a surgeon friend of Jenner 's from nearby Thornbury , discussed the possibility of cowpox inoculation at meetings as early as 1765 . He may have done some cowpox inoculations in 1796 at about the same time that Jenner vaccinated Phipps . However Fewster , who had a flourishing variolation practice , may have considered this option but used smallpox instead . He thought vaccination offered no advantage over variolation , but maintained friendly contact with Jenner and certainly made no claim of priority for vaccination when critics attacked Jenner 's reputation . It seems clear that the idea of using cowpox instead of smallpox for inoculation was considered , and actually tried in the late 18th century , and not just by the medical profession . Therefore , Jenner was not the first to try cowpox inoculation . However , he was the first to publish his evidence and distribute vaccine freely , provide information on selection of suitable material , and maintain it by arm - to - arm transfer . The authors of the official World Health Organization ( WHO ) account Smallpox and its Eradication assessing Jenner 's role wrote :
Captive killer whales
Killer whales have been the subject of extensive medical research since their first capture , and much is known about prevention and treatment of the common viral and bacterial infections , including vaccination and use of antibiotics and other medicines . Allometric principles and therapeutic drug monitoring are used to accurately determine the doses and avoid toxicity .
Chickenpox
Infection in otherwise healthy adults tends to be more severe . Treatment with antiviral drugs ( e.g. acyclovir or valacyclovir ) is generally advised , as long as it is started within 24 -- 48 hours from rash onset . Remedies to ease the symptoms of chickenpox in adults are basically the same as those used for children . Adults are more often prescribed antiviral medication , as it is effective in reducing the severity of the condition and the likelihood of developing complications . Antiviral medicines do not kill the virus but stop it from multiplying . Adults are advised to increase water intake to reduce dehydration and to relieve headaches . Painkillers such as paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) are recommended , as they are effective in relieving itching and other symptoms such as fever or pains . Antihistamines relieve itching and may be used in cases where the itching prevents sleep , because they also act as a sedative . As with children , antiviral medication is considered more useful for those adults who are more prone to develop complications . These include pregnant women or people who have a weakened immune system .
Desert tortoise
Corollary to research , education may help preventing captive tortoises from coming in contact with wild populations . Education campaigns through veterinarians , government agencies , schools , museums , and community centers throughout the range of the desert tortoise could limit the spread of tortoise diseases into wild populations . Strategies may include encouraging people to not breed their captive tortoises , ensure that different species of turtles and tortoises are not housed in the same facility ( which would help to prevent the spread of novel diseases into the desert tortoise population ) , ensure captive tortoises are adequately housed to prevent them from escaping into the wild , and to ensure that captive turtles and tortoises are never released into the wild .
Virus
While not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell , viruses exist in the form of independent particles . These viral particles , also known as virions , consist of : ( i ) the genetic material made from either DNA or RNA , long molecules that carry genetic information ; ( ii ) a protein coat , called the capsid , which surrounds and protects the genetic material ; and in some cases ( iii ) an envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat . The shapes of these virus particles range from simple helical and icosahedral forms for some virus species to more complex structures for others . Most virus species have virions that are too small to be seen with an optical microscope . The average virion is about one one - hundredth the size of the average bacterium .
Retina
The unique architecture of the retina and its relatively immune - privileged environment help this process . Tight junctions that form the blood retinal barrier separate the subretinal space from the blood supply , thus protecting it from microbes and most immune - mediated damage , and enhancing its potential to respond to vector - mediated therapies . The highly compartmentalized anatomy of the eye facilitates accurate delivery of therapeutic vector suspensions to specific tissues under direct visualization using microsurgical techniques . In the sheltered environment of the retina , AAV vectors are able to maintain high levels of transgene expression in the retinal pigmented epithelium ( RPE ) , photoreceptors , or ganglion cells for long periods of time after a single treatment . In addition , the eye and the visual system can be routinely and easily monitored for visual function and retinal structural changes after injections with noninvasive advanced technology , such as visual acuities , contrast sensitivity , fundus auto - fluorescence ( FAF ) , dark - adapted visual thresholds , vascular diameters , pupillometry , electroretinography ( ERG ) , multifocal ERG and optical coherence tomography ( OCT ) .
Cell nucleus
The nuclear envelope acts as a barrier that prevents both DNA and RNA viruses from entering the nucleus . Some viruses require access to proteins inside the nucleus in order to replicate and / or assemble . DNA viruses , such as herpesvirus replicate and assemble in the cell nucleus , and exit by budding through the inner nuclear membrane . This process is accompanied by disassembly of the lamina on the nuclear face of the inner membrane .
Virus
A complete virus particle , known as a virion , consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a capsid . These are formed from identical protein subunits called capsomeres . Viruses can have a lipid `` envelope '' derived from the host cell membrane . The capsid is made from proteins encoded by the viral genome and its shape serves as the basis for morphological distinction . Virally coded protein subunits will self - assemble to form a capsid , in general requiring the presence of the virus genome . Complex viruses code for proteins that assist in the construction of their capsid . Proteins associated with nucleic acid are known as nucleoproteins , and the association of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called a nucleocapsid . The capsid and entire virus structure can be mechanically ( physically ) probed through atomic force microscopy . In general , there are four main morphological virus types :
Free clinic
The Volunteer Protection Act of 1997 provides immunity from tort claims such as negligence , bodily injury , pain and suffering that might be filed against the volunteers of nonprofit organizations . Thus , volunteers working on behalf of a nonprofit free clinic are covered under the Volunteer Protection Act from most liability claims .
Infertility
Antisperm antibodies ( ASA ) have been considered as infertility cause in around 10 -- 30 % of infertile couples . In both men and women , ASA production are directed against surface antigens on sperm , which can interfere with sperm motility and transport through the female reproductive tract , inhibiting capacitation and acrosome reaction , impaired fertilization , influence on the implantation process , and impaired growth and development of the embryo . Factors contributing to the formation of antisperm antibodies in women are disturbance of normal immunoregulatory mechanisms , infection , violation of the integrity of the mucous membranes , accidental rape and unprotected oral or anal sex . Risk factors for the formation of antisperm antibodies in men include the breakdown of the blood ‐ testis barrier , trauma and surgery , orchitis , varicocele , infections , prostatitis , testicular cancer , failure of immunosuppression and unprotected receptive anal or oral sex with men .
Hormonal contraception
In 1921 , Ludwig Haberlandt demonstrated a temporary hormonal contraception in a female rabbit by transplanting ovaries from a second , pregnant , animal . By the 1930s , scientists had isolated and determined the structure of the steroid hormones and found that high doses of androgens , oestrogens or progesterone inhibited ovulation . A number of economic , technological , and social obstacles had to be overcome before the development of the first hormonal contraceptive , the combined oral contraceptive pill ( COCP ) . In 1957 Enovid , the first COCP , was approved in the United States for the treatment of menstrual disorders . In 1960 , the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved an application that allowed Enovid to be marketed as a contraceptive .
Statin
In 1971 , Akira Endo , a Japanese biochemist working for the pharmaceutical company Sankyo , began the search for a cholesterol - lowering drug . Research had already shown cholesterol is mostly manufactured by the body in the liver , using the enzyme HMG - CoA reductase . Endo and his team reasoned that certain microorganisms may produce inhibitors of the enzyme to defend themselves against other organisms , as mevalonate is a precursor of many substances required by organisms for the maintenance of their cell walls ( ergosterol ) or cytoskeleton ( isoprenoids ) . The first agent they identified was mevastatin ( ML - 236B ) , a molecule produced by the fungus Penicillium citrinum .
Iodine-131
The risk can be mitigated by taking iodine supplements , raising the total amount of iodine in the body and , therefore , reducing uptake and retention in the face and chest and lowering the relative proportion of radioactive iodine . However , such supplements were not distributed to the population living nearest to the Chernobyl nuclear power plant after the disaster , though they were widely distributed to children in Poland .
Infertility
German scientists have reported that a virus called Adeno - associated virus might have a role in male infertility , though it is otherwise not harmful . Other diseases such as chlamydia , and gonorrhea can also cause infertility , due to internal scarring ( fallopian tube obstruction ) .
Lyme disease
Culture or PCR are the current means for detecting the presence of the organism , as serologic studies only test for antibodies of Borrelia . OspA antigens , shedded by live Borrelia bacteria into urine , are a promising technique being studied . The use of nanotrap particles for their detection is being looked at and the OspA has been linked to active symptoms of Lyme . High titers of either immunoglobulin G ( IgG ) or immunoglobulin M ( IgM ) antibodies to Borrelia antigens indicate disease , but lower titers can be misleading , because the IgM antibodies may remain after the initial infection , and IgG antibodies may remain for years .
Human brain
The brain , although protected by the blood - brain barrier , can be affected by infections including viruses , bacteria and fungi . Infection may be of the meninges ( meningitis ) , the brain matter ( encephalitis ) , or within the brain matter ( such as a cerebral abscess ) . Rare prion diseases including Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease and its variant , and kuru may also affect the brain .
Prairie dog
One common concern which led to the widespread extermination of prairie dog colonies was that their digging activities could injure horses by fracturing their limbs . However , according to writer Fred Durso , Jr. , of E Magazine , `` after years of asking ranchers this question , we have found not one example . '' Another concern is their susceptibility to bubonic plague . As of July 2016 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service plans to distribute an oral vaccine it had developed by unmanned aircraft or drones .
Respiratory system
Respiratory epithelium can secrete a variety of molecules that aid in the defense of the lungs . These include secretory immunoglobulins ( IgA ) , collectins , defensins and other peptides and proteases , reactive oxygen species , and reactive nitrogen species . These secretions can act directly as antimicrobials to help keep the airway free of infection . A variety of chemokines and cytokines are also secreted that recruit the traditional immune cells and others to site of infections .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
In June 2016 Tilman Ruff , co-president of the political advocacy group , the `` International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War '' argues that 174,000 people have been unable to return to their homes and ecological diversity has decreased and malformations have been found in trees , birds , and mammals . Although physiological abnormalities have been reported within the vicinity of the accident zone , the scientific community has largely rejected any such findings of genetic or mutagenic damage caused by radiation , instead showing it can be attributed either to experimental error or other toxic effects .
Smallpox vaccine
The inoculation technique was documented as having a mortality rate of only one in a thousand . Two years after Kennedy 's description appeared , March 1718 , Dr. Charles Maitland successfully inoculated the five - year - old son of the British ambassador to the Turkish court under orders from the ambassador 's wife Lady Mary Wortley Montagu , who four years later introduced the practice to England .