vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Apartheid
In parallel with student protests , labour unions started protest action in 1973 and 1974 . After 1976 unions and workers are considered to have played an important role in the struggle against apartheid , filling the gap left by the banning of political parties . In 1979 black trade unions were legalised and could engage in collective bargaining , although strikes were still illegal . Economist Thomas Sowell wrote that basic supply and demand led to violations of Apartheid `` on a massive scale '' throughout the nation , simply because there were not enough white South African business owners to meet the demand for various goods and services . Large portions of the garment industry and construction of new homes , for example , were effectively owned and operated by blacks , who either worked surreptitiously or who circumvented the law with a white person as a nominal , figurehead manager .
Jacobin
Probably because of the high level of repressive violence -- but also to discredit Robespierre and associates as sole responsibles for it -- historians have taken up the habit to roughly label the period June 1793 -- July 1794 as ' Reign of Terror ' . Later and modern scholars explain that high level of repressive violence with : France was menaced by civil war within and by a coalition of hostile powers without , requiring the discipline of the Terror to mold France into a united Republic capable of resisting this double peril .
St. Augustine, Florida
The Ku Klux Klan responded to these protests with violent attacks that were widely reported in national and international media . Popular revulsion against the Klan and police violence in St. Augustine generated national sympathy for the black protesters and became a key factor in Congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , leading eventually to passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , both of which provided federal enforcement of constitutional rights .
Soweto uprising
The aftermath of the uprising established the leading role of the ANC in the anti-apartheid struggle , as it was the body best able to channel and organise students seeking the end of apartheid . So , although the BCM 's ideas had been important in creating the climate that gave the students the confidence to strike out , it was the ANC 's non-racialism which came to dominate the discourse of the anti-apartheid movement amongst blacks . The perspectives set out in Joe Slovo 's essay No Middle Road -- written at just this time and predicting the apartheid government had only the choice between more repression and overthrow by the revolutionaries -- were highly influential .
Southern strategy
The `` Year of Birmingham '' in 1963 highlighted racial issues in Alabama . Through the spring , there were marches and demonstrations to end legal segregation . The Movement 's achievements in settlement with the local business class were overshadowed by bombings and murders by the Ku Klux Klan , most notoriously in the deaths of four girls in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing .
History of Germany (1945–90)
During the time leading up to the passing of the laws , there was fierce opposition to them , above all by the Free Democratic Party , the rising German student movement , a group calling itself Notstand der Demokratie ( Democracy in Crisis ) , the Außerparlamentarische Opposition and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament . In the late 1960s saw the rise of the student movement and university campuses in a constant state of uproar . A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967 when the Shah of Iran visited West Berlin . Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance . Supporters of the Shah ( later known as ' Jubelperser ' ) , armed with staves and bricks , attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched . A demonstration in the center was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head and killed by a plain - clothed policeman Karl - Heinz Kurras . ( It has now been established that the policeman , Kurras , was a paid spy of the East German Stasi security forces . ) Protest demonstrations continued , and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made , which was declared by the press , especially the tabloid Bild - Zeitung newspaper , to be acts of terrorism . The conservative Bild - Zeitung waged a massive campaign against the protesters who were declared to be just hooligans and thugs in the pay of East Germany . The press baron Axel Springer emerged as one of the principal hate figures for the student protesters because of Bild - Zeitung 's often violent attacks on them . Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam , mingled with anger over the vigor with which demonstrations were repressed , led to mounting militancy among the students at the universities of Berlin . One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called Rudi Dutschke who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin . Just before Easter 1968 , a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union , seriously injuring him . All over West Germany , thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students .
Vietnam War
Despite the Paris Peace Accord , which was signed by all parties in January 1973 , the fighting continued in the `` war - of - the - flags '' period in which both Saigon and Hanoi attempted to take territory before and after the accord and the ceasefire was broken just days after its signing . In the U.S. and the Western world , a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture , the largest such anti-war movement up to that point in history . The war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs , and altered North -- South relations , and had significantly influenced the political landscape in the United States , across much of Western Europe and U.S. ground - force intervention spurred the rise of transnational political movements and campaigning .
Karachi
The 1970s saw major labour struggles in Karachi 's industrial estates . Violence originated in the city 's university campuses , and spread into the city . Conflict was especially sharp between MQM party and ethnic Sindhis , Pashtuns , and Punjabis . The party and its vast network of supporters were targeted by Pakistani security forces as part of the controversial Operation Clean - up in 1992 , as part of an effort to restore peace in the city that lasted until 1994 .
National Convention
So long as it remained united , the Committee was virtually invulnerable , but it had scarcely attained the apogee of its power before signs of internal conflict appeared . The Committee of Public Safety had never been a homogeneous body . It was a coalition cabinet . Its members were kept together less by comradeship or common ideals than by calculation and routine . The press of business which at first prevented personal quarrels also produced tired nerves . Trifling differences were exaggerated into the issues of life and death . Small disputes estranged them from one another . Carnot , in particular , was irritated by the criticisms directed at his plans by Robespierre and Saint - Just , Dispute followed dispute . Bickering broke out on the Committee of Public Safety , with Carnot describing Robespierre and Saint - Just as `` ridiculous dictators '' and Collot making veiled attacks on the `` Incorruptible '' . From the end of June until 23 July Robespierre ceased to attend the Committee .
History of United States prison systems
Crime in Southern cities generally mirrored that of Northern ones during the antebellum years . Both sections experienced a spike in imprisonment rates during a national market depression on the eve of the American Civil War . The North had experienced a similar depression during the 1830s and 1840s -- with a concurrent increase in imprisonment -- that the agrarian South did not . But urban crime in the South differed from that in the North in one key way -- its violence . A significantly higher percentage of violence characterized Southern criminal offenders of all class levels . Young white males made up the bulk of violent offenders in the urban South .
United States free speech exceptions
One legal commentator has suggested that , along with fighting words , speech might be unprotected if the speaker intentionally , knowingly , or recklessly inflicts severe emotional distress . However , the United States Supreme Court has not implemented such an exception , and even if it does , the exception would probably be limited to private figures . The Court held in Hustler v. Falwell ( 1988 ) that satire which could be seen as offensive to a `` public figure '' is fully protected . Such speech is rooted in a historical protection of political satire . A notable example of a case involving offensive speech was the Court 's decision in Texas v. Johnson ( 1989 ) , which struck down a law criminalizing flag burning in Texas .
United Kingdom
From the late 1960s , Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence ( sometimes affecting other parts of the UK ) conventionally known as the Troubles . It is usually considered to have ended with the Belfast `` Good Friday '' Agreement of 1998 .
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
Most student antiwar organizations were locally or campus - based because they were easier to organize and participate in than national groups . Common antiwar demonstrations for college students featured attempts to sever ties between the war machine and universities through burning draft cards , protesting universities furnishing grades to draft boards , and protesting military and Dow Chemical job fairs on campus . From 1969 to 1970 , student protestors attacked 197 ROTC buildings on college campuses . Protests grew after the Kent State shootings , radicalizing more and more students . Although the media often portrayed the student antiwar movement as aggressive and widespread , only 10 % of the 2500 colleges in the United States had violent protests throughout the Vietnam War years . By the early 1970s , most student protest movements died down due to President Nixon 's de-escalation of the war , the economic downturn , and disillusionment with the powerlessness of the antiwar movement .
Nationalist Movements in India
This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints . Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints , or discuss the issue on the talk page . ( May 2011 )
Labor history of the United States
As strikers rallied against the McCormick plant , a team of political anarchists , who were not Knights , tried to piggyback support among striking Knights workers . A bomb exploded as police were dispersing a peaceful rally , killing seven policemen and wounding many others . The anarchists were blamed , and their spectacular trial gained national attention . The Knights of Labor were seriously injured by the false accusation that the Knights promoted anarchistic violence . Many Knights locals transferred to the less radical and more respectable AFL unions or railroad brotherhoods .
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
In the wake of the Panic of 1873 , a bitter antagonism between workers and the leaders of industry developed . Immigration from Europe was underway , as was migration of rural workers into the cities , increasing competition for jobs and enabling companies to drive down wages and easily lay off workers . By 1877 , 10 percent wage cuts , distrust of capitalists and poor working conditions led to workers conducting numerous railroad strikes that prevented the trains from moving , with spiraling effects in other parts of the economy . Suppressed by violence , workers continued to organize to try to improve their conditions . Management worked to break up such movements , and mainstream society and the Catholic Church feared labor organizing as signs of socialism . Tensions lingered well after the depression ended in 1878 -- 79 .
Savannah, Georgia
2015 saw a dramatic increase in the number of violent crimes , including at least 54 deaths due to gun violence , a number not seen since the early 1990s .
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
There were strike actions also further north in Albany , Syracuse and Buffalo , New York on other railroad lines . Workers in the cities in industries other than railroads still attacked them because of how they cut through the cities and dominated city life . Their resentment of the railroads ' economic power was expressed in physical attacks against them at a time when many workers ' wages were lowered . Protestors `` included cross-class elements from other work sites , small businesses , and commercial establishments . Some protestors acted out of solidarity with the strikers , but many more vented militant displeasure against dangerous railroad traffic that crisscrossed urban centers in that area . ''
Psychiatric hospital
The anti-psychiatry movement coming to the fore in the 1960s has opposed many of the practices , conditions , or existence of mental hospitals . The psychiatric consumer / survivor movement has often objected to or campaigned against conditions in mental hospitals or their use , voluntarily or involuntarily . The mental patient liberation movement emphatically opposes involuntary treatment but generally does not have any issue with any psychiatric treatments that are consensual , provided that both parties are free to withdraw consent at any time .
Labor history of the United States
Historians of the union movement in the 1930s have tried to explain its remarkable success in terms of the rank and file -- what motivated them to suddenly rally around leaders ( such as John L. Lewis ) who had been around for decades with little success . Why was the militancy of the mid-1930s so short lived ?
First Nations
On June 29 , 2007 , Canadian Aboriginal groups held countrywide protests aimed at ending First Nations poverty , dubbed the Aboriginal Day of Action . The demonstrations were largely peaceful , although groups disrupted transportation with blockades or bonfires ; a stretch of the Highway 401 was shut down , as was the Canadian National Railway 's line between Toronto and Montreal .
Labor history of the United States
The 1920s marked a period of sharp decline for the labor movement . Union membership and activities fell sharply in the face of economic prosperity , a lack of leadership within the movement , and anti-union sentiments from both employers and the government . The unions were much less able to organize strikes . In 1919 , more than 4 million workers ( or 21 percent of the labor force ) participated in about 3,600 strikes . In contrast , 1929 witnessed about 289,000 workers ( or 1.2 percent of the labor force ) stage only 900 strikes .
Civil–military relations
If agreement occurs among the three partners with respect to the four indicators , domestic military intervention is less likely to occur . In her book , The Military and Domestic Politics , she applied her theory to six international historical cases studies : U.S. , post -- Second World War period ; American Post-Revolutionary Period ( 1790 -- 1800 ) ; Israel ( 1980 -- 90 ) ; Argentina ( 1945 -- 55 ) ; India post-Independence and 1980s ; Pakistan ( 1958 -- 69 ) .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
The 1964 voter registration project called `` Freedom Summer '' focused on Mississippi and marked the beginning of SNCC 's rejection of Northern white volunteers . Under Stokely Carmichael 's leadership , SNCC shifted its focus to the North , where it focused on alleviating poverty in Northern urban areas . As SNCC became more radical in 1966 and 1967 , Carmichael established ties with several foreign governments . SNCC was eventually overshadowed by the Black Panther Party , who had a broader national reach .
Chartism
Chartism was a working - class movement for political reform in Britain that existed from 1838 to 1857 . It took its name from the People 's Charter of 1838 and was a national protest movement , with particular strongholds of support in Northern England , the East Midlands , the Staffordshire Potteries , the Black Country , and the South Wales Valleys . Support for the movement was at its highest in 1839 , 1842 , and 1848 , when petitions signed by millions of working people were presented to the House of Commons . The strategy employed was to use the scale of support which these petitions and the accompanying mass meetings demonstrated to put pressure on politicians to concede manhood suffrage . Chartism thus relied on constitutional methods to secure its aims , though there were some who became involved in insurrectionary activities , notably in south Wales and in Yorkshire .
Apartheid
In addition to the continuing `` black - on - black '' violence , there were a number of attacks on white civilians by the PAC 's military wing , the Azanian People 's Liberation Army ( APLA ) . The PAC was hoping to strengthen their standing by attracting the support of the angry , impatient youth . In the St James Church massacre on 25 July 1993 , members of the APLA opened fire in a church in Cape Town , killing 11 members of the congregation and wounding 58 .
Society of the United States
Since 1980 , the trend has been toward greater restrictions on alcohol and drug use . The focus this time , however , has been to criminalize behaviors associated with alcohol , rather than attempt to prohibit consumption outright . New York was the first state to enact tough drink - driving laws in 1980 ; since then all other states have followed suit . A `` Just Say No to Drugs '' movement replaced the more libertine ethos of the 1960s .
United States non-interventionism
The economic depression that ensued after the Crash of 1929 , also continued to abet non-intervention . The attention of the country focused mostly on addressing the problems of the national economy . The rise of aggressive expansionism policies by Fascist Italy and the Empire of Japan led to conflicts such as the Italian conquest of Ethiopia and the Japanese invasion of Manchuria . These events led to ineffectual condemnations by the League of Nations . Official American response was muted . America also did not take sides in the brutal Spanish Civil War .
History of women in the United States
Echols describes the movement 's end : `` Radical feminism remained the hegemonic tendency within the women 's liberation movement until 1973 when cultural feminism began to cohere and challenge its dominance . After 1975 , a year of internecine conflicts between radical and cultural feminists , cultural feminism eclipsed radical feminism as the dominant tendency within the women 's liberation movement , and , as a consequence , liberal feminism became the recognized voice of the women 's movement . '' The end of the counterculture movements and the government 's observation of the movement also contributed to its end . The radical feminist movement demonstrated that Second - wave feminism was diverse in its goals , but also divided within itself . Echols notes , `` To many women , liberal feminism 's considerably more modest goal of bringing women into the mainstream seemed more palatable , not to mention more realistic , than the radical feminist project of fundamentally reconstructing private and public life . '' She also states that despite the fact that younger generations do n't often see this movement as relevant , it is because feminist movements during this time actually did make significant changes .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
While it is often argued that the Black Power period led to a downgrading of women generally in the organization , historian Barbara Ransby notes that there is no real evidence of this . Carmichael appointed several women to posts as project directors during his tenure as chairman ; by the latter half of the 1960s , more women were in charge of SNCC projects than during the first half . Former SNCC member Kathleen Cleaver played a key role in the central committee of the Black Panther Party as communications secretary ( 1968 ) . Her position in this `` male dominated '' leadership was both effective and influential to Brown , Red and Yellow Power groups of the late 1960s and early 1970s .
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
The protest on June 23 in Los Angeles is particularly significant . It was one of the first massive war protests in the United States and the first in Los Angeles , Ending in a clash with riot police , it set a pattern for the massive protests which followed and due to the size and violence of this event , Johnson attempted no further public speeches in venues outside military bases . Play
Latin America
Rural movements have made diverse demands related to unequal land distribution , displacement at the hands of development projects and dams , environmental and indigenous concerns , neoliberal agricultural restructuring , and insufficient means of livelihood . These movements have benefited considerably from transnational support from conservationists and INGOs . The Movement of Rural Landless Workers ( MST ) is perhaps the largest contemporary Latin American social movement . As indigenous populations are primarily rural , indigenous movements account for a large portion of rural social movements , including the Zapatista rebellion in Mexico , the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador ( CONAIE ) , indigenous organizations in the Amazon region of Ecuador and Bolivia , pan-Mayan communities in Guatemala , and mobilization by the indigenous groups of Yanomami peoples in the Amazon , Kuna peoples in Panama , and Altiplano Aymara and Quechua peoples in Bolivia . Other significant types of social movements include labor struggles and strikes , such as recovered factories in Argentina , as well as gender - based movements such as the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina and protests against maquila production , which is largely a women 's issue because of how it draws on women for cheap labor .
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
Attempts to utilize local militia to quell violent outbreaks in 1877 highlighted their ineffectiveness , and in some cases their propensity to outright side with strikers and rioters . In response , as earlier riots in the mid 1800s had prompted the modernization of police forces , the violence of 1877 provided the impetus for the formation of the modern National Guard , `` to aid the civil officers , to suppress or prevent riot or insurrections . ''
Correlation does not imply causation
Children that watch a lot of TV are the most violent . Clearly , TV makes children more violent .
French Revolution
This exchange of ideas has been described as `` one of the great political debates in British history '' . Even in France , there was a varying degree of agreement during this debate , English participants generally opposing the violent means that the Revolution bent itself to for its ends .
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground , especially in the South . When local college students in Orangeburg , South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968 , they were violently attacked , leading to rioting and what became known as the `` Orangeburg massacre . '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade , with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County ( 1968 ) court decision .
Oklahoma
Social tensions were exacerbated by the revival of the Ku Klux Klan after 1915 . The Tulsa Race Riot broke out in 1921 , with whites attacking blacks . In one of the costliest episodes of racial violence in American history , sixteen hours of rioting resulted in 35 city blocks destroyed , $1.8 million in property damage , and a death toll estimated to be as high as 300 people . By the late 1920s , the Ku Klux Klan had declined to negligible influence within the state .