vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Income inequality in the United States
Household income measured over a multi-year period is more equally distributed than income measured over one year , although only modestly so . Given the fairly substantial movement of households across income groups over time , it might seem that income measured over a number of years should be significantly more equally distributed than income measured over one year . However , much of the movement of households involves changes in income that are large enough to push households into different income groups but not large enough to greatly affect the overall distribution of income . Multi-year income measures also show the same pattern of increasing inequality over time as is observed in annual measures .
Yahoo! Answers
In addition to points awarded for activity , Yahoo ! Answers staff may also award extra points if they are impressed with a user 's contributions . The Yahoo ! Answers community manager has stated that `` power users '' who defend the company should be thanked and rewarded .
Social exchange theory
Individuals choose those alternatives from which they expect the most profit . Cost being equal , they choose alternatives from which they anticipate the greatest rewards . Rewards being equal , they choose alternatives from which they anticipate the fewest costs . Immediate outcomes being equal , they choose those alternatives that promise better long - term outcomes . Long - term outcomes being perceived as equal , they choose alternatives providing better immediate outcomes . Costs and other rewards being equal , individuals choose the alternatives that supply or can be expected to supply the most social approval ( or those that promise the least social disapproval ) . Costs and other rewards being equal , individuals choose statuses and relationships that provide the most autonomy . Other rewards and costs equal , individuals choose alternatives characterized by the least ambiguity in terms of expected future events and outcomes . Other costs and rewards equal , they choose alternatives that offer the most security for them . Other rewards and costs equal , they choose to associate with , marry , and form other relationships with those whose values and opinions generally are in agreement with their own and reject or avoid those with whom they chronically disagree . Other rewards and costs equal , they are more likely to associate with , marry , and form other relationships with their equals , than those above or below them . ( Equality here is viewed as the sum of abilities , performances , characteristics , and statuses that determine one 's desirability in the social marketplace . ) In industrial societies , other costs and rewards equal , individuals choose alternatives that promise the greatest financial gains for the least financial expenditures .
United States Navy Reserve
The largest cohort , the SELRES , have traditionally drilled one weekend a month and two weeks of annual training during the year , receiving base pay and certain special pays ( i.e. , flight pay , dive pay , etc . ) when performing Inactive Duty Training ( IDT , aka `` drills '' ) , and full pay and allowances while on active duty for Annual Training ( AT ) , Active Duty for Training ( ADT ) , Active Duty for Operational Support ( ADOS ) , Active Duty for Special Work ( ADSW ) , or under Mobilization ( MOB ) orders or otherwise recalled to full active duty .
Business
A trade union ( or labor union ) is an organization of workers who have come together to achieve common goals such as protecting the integrity of its trade , improving safety standards , achieving higher pay and benefits such as health care and retirement , increasing the number of employees an employer assigns to complete the work , and better working conditions . The trade union , through its leadership , bargains with the employer on behalf of union members ( rank and file members ) and negotiates labor contracts ( collective bargaining ) with employers . The most common purpose of these associations or unions is `` maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment '' . This may include the negotiation of wages , work rules , complaint procedures , rules governing hiring , firing , and promotion of workers , benefits , workplace safety and policies .
Standardized test
Human scoring is relatively expensive and often variable , which is why computer scoring is preferred when feasible . For example , some critics say that poorly paid employees will score tests badly . Agreement between scorers can vary between 60 and 85 percent , depending on the test and the scoring session . Sometimes states pay to have two or more scorers read each paper ; if their scores do not agree , then the paper is passed to additional scorers .
Women's empowerment
However , despite the struggle for equal pay in the United States , the tech industry has made progress in helping to encourage equal pay across gender . In March 2016 , tech career website Dice released a study of more than 16,000 tech professionals that found that when you compare equivalent education , experience and position , there is no pay gap -- and has n't been for the last six years . This new industry is paving a way for other companies to do the same . However , this industry also struggles to employ women in executive positions . This is partially due to the barrier of sexual harassment and pregnancy that was aforementioned .
Health care in the United States
In March 2010 , Massachusetts released a report on the cost drivers which it called `` unique in the nation '' . The report noted that providers and insurers negotiate privately , and therefore the prices can vary between providers and insurers for the same services , and it found that the variation in prices did not vary based on quality of care but rather on market leverage ; the report also found that price increases rather than increased utilization explained the spending increases in the past several years .
House of Commons of the United Kingdom
The term `` Member of Parliament '' is normally used only to refer to members of the House of Commons , even though the House of Lords is also a part of Parliament . Members of the House of Commons may use the post-nominal letters `` MP '' . The annual salary of each member is £ 74,962 , effective from 1 April 2016 . Members may also receive additional salaries for other offices they hold ( for instance , the Speakership ) . Most members also claim for various office expenses ( staff costs , postage , travelling , etc . ) and , in the case of non-London members , for the costs of maintaining a home in the capital .
Right-to-work law
Wages in right - to - work states are 3.2 % lower than those in non-RTW states , after controlling for a full complement of individual demographic and socioeconomic variables as well as state macroeconomic indicators . Using the average wage in non-RTW states as the base ( $22.11 ) , the average full - time , full - year worker in an RTW state makes about $1,500 less annually than a similar worker in a non-RTW state . The study goes on to say `` How much of this difference can be attributed to RTW status itself ? There is an inherent `` endogeneity '' problem in any attempt to answer that question , namely that RTW and non-RTW states differ on a wide variety of measures that are also related to compensation , making it difficult to isolate the impact of RTW status . '' The rate of employer - sponsored health insurance ( ESI ) is 2.6 percentage points lower in RTW states compared with non-RTW states , after controlling for individual , job , and state - level characteristics . If workers in non-RTW states were to receive ESI at this lower rate , 2 million fewer workers nationally would be covered . The rate of employer - sponsored pensions is 4.8 percentage points lower in RTW states , using the full complement of control variables in ( the study 's ) regression model . If workers in non-RTW states were to receive pensions at this lower rate , 3.8 million fewer workers nationally would have pensions .
Labour in India
This law applies to all establishments employing 10 or more workers . Gratuity is payable to the employee if he or she resigns or retires . The Indian government mandates that this payment be at the rate of 15 days salary of the employee for each completed year of service subject to a maximum of ₹ 1000000 .
Executive compensation
In a modern corporation , the CEO and other top executives are often paid salary plus short - term incentives or bonuses . This combination is referred to as Total Cash Compensation ( TCC ) . Short - term incentives usually are formula - driven and have some performance criteria attached depending on the role of the executive . For example , the Sales Director 's performance related bonus may be based on incremental revenue growth turnover ; a CEO 's could be based on incremental profitability and revenue growth . Bonuses are after - the - fact ( not formula driven ) and often discretionary . Executives may also be compensated with a mixture of cash and shares of the company which are almost always subject to vesting restrictions ( a long - term incentive ) . To be considered a long - term incentive the measurement period must be in excess of one year ( 3 -- 5 years is common ) . The vesting term refers to the period of time before the recipient has the right to transfer shares and realize value . Vesting can be based on time , performance or both . For example , a CEO might get 1 million in cash , and 1 million in company shares ( and share buy options used ) . Vesting can occur in two ways : `` cliff vesting '' ( vesting occurring on one date ) , and `` graded vesting '' ( which occurs over a period of time ) and which maybe `` uniform '' ( e.g. , 20 % of the options vest each year for 5 years ) or `` non-uniform '' ( e.g. , 20 % , 30 % and 50 % of the options vest each year for the next three years ) . Other components of an executive compensation package may include such perks as generous retirement plans , health insurance , a chauffeured limousine , an executive jet , and interest - free loans for the purchase of housing .
Codetermination in Germany
On the worker side , representatives are to name a `` further member '' who acts explicitly in the interests of the community . The purpose was that in the lead up to World War , these companies were seen to openly support the Nazis financially . To prevent a stalemate on the board , a neutral member is to be appointed , which the parties must agree on . On the management board , one member must be a Staff - director ( Arbeitsdirecktor ) who can not be appointed against the votes of the worker directors on the supervisory board .
Tax incidence
Most markets fall between these two extremes , and ultimately the incidence of tax is shared between producers and consumers in varying proportions . In this example , the consumers pay more than the producers , but not all of the tax . The area paid by consumers is obvious as the change in equilibrium price ( between P without tax and P with tax ) ; the remainder , being the difference between the new price and the cost of production at that quantity , is paid by the producers . Inelastic
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
The post is largely honorary and ceremonial , but comes with a salary increase . By statute , the compensation granted to the position holder equals the rate of annual compensation paid to the president pro tempore , majority leader , and minority leader . ( See 2 U.S.C. § 6112 . )
PGA European Tour
The table below shows the top 10 career money leaders on the European Tour . Due to increases in prize money over the years , it is dominated by current players . The figures are not the players ' complete career earnings as most of them have earned millions more on other tours ( especially the PGA Tour ) or from non-tour events . In addition , elite golfers often earn several times as much from endorsements and golf - related business interests as they do from prize money .
Executive compensation
In Australia , shareholders can vote against the pay rises of board members , but the vote is non-binding . Instead the shareholders can sack some or all of the board members . Australia 's corporate watchdog , the Australian Securities and Investments Commission has called on companies to improve the disclosure of their remuneration arrangements for directors and executives .
Medicare Advantage
For each person who chooses to enroll in a Part C Medicare Advantage or other Part C plan , Medicare pays the health plan a set amount every month ( `` capitation '' ) . The capitated fee associated with a Medicare Advantage plan is specific to each county in the United States and is primarily driven by a government - administered benchmark / bidding process that uses that county 's average per - beneficiary FFS costs from a previous year as a starting point to determine the benchmark .
Executive compensation
Another proposed reform is the bonus - malus system , where executives carry down - side risk in addition to potential up - side reward . Progressive taxation is a more general strategy that affects executive compensation , as well as other highly paid people . There has been a recent trend to cutting the highest bracket tax payers , a notable example being the tax cuts in the U.S. For example , the Baltic States have a flat tax system for incomes . Executive compensation could be checked by taxing more heavily the highest earners , for instance by taking a greater percentage of income over $200,000 . Maximum wage is an idea which has been enacted in early 2009 in the United States , where they capped executive pay at $500,000 per year for companies receiving extraordinary financial assistance from the U.S. taxpayers . The argument is to place a cap on the amount that any person may legally make , in the same way as there is a floor of a minimum wage so that people can not earn too little . Debt Like Compensation - If an executive is compensated exclusively with equity , he will take risks to benefit shareholders at the expense of debtholders . Thus , there are several proposals to compensate executives with debt as well as equity , to mitigate their risk - shifting tendencies .
Tax incidence
The theory of tax incidence has a number of practical results . For example , United States Social Security payroll taxes are paid half by the employee and half by the employer . However , some economists think that the worker bears almost the entire burden of the tax because the employer passes the tax on in the form of lower wages . The tax incidence is thus said to fall on the employee . However , it could equally well be argued that in some cases the incidence of the tax falls on the employer . This is because both the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply affect on whom the incidence of the tax falls . Price controls such as the minimum wage which sets a price floor and market distortions such as subsidies or welfare payments also complicate the analysis .
Women's empowerment
Recent studies also show that women face more barriers in the workplace than do men . Gender - related barriers involve sexual harassment , unfair hiring practices , career progression , and unequal pay where women are paid less than men are for performing the same job . When taking the median earnings of men and women who worked full - time , year - round , government data from 2014 showed that women made $0.79 for every dollar a man earned . The average earnings for working mothers came out to even less -- $0.71 for every dollar a father made , according to a 2014 study conducted by the National Partnership for Women and Children . While much of the public discussion of the `` wage gap '' has focused around women getting equal pay for the same work as their male peers , many women struggle with what is called the `` pregnancy penalty '' . The main problem is that it is difficult to measure , but some experts say that the possibility of having a baby can be enough for employers to push women back from their line . Therefore , women are put in a position where they need to make the decision of whether to maintain in the workforce or have children . This problem has sparked the debate over maternity leave in the United States .
Labor history of the United States
The AFL was formed in large part because of the dissatisfaction of many trade union leaders with the Knights of Labor , an organization that contained many trade unions and that had played a leading role in some of the largest strikes of the era . The new AFL distinguished itself from the Knights by emphasizing the autonomy of each trade union affiliated with it and limiting membership to workers and organizations made up of workers , unlike the Knights which , because of its producerist focus , welcomed some who were not wage workers .
Millennials
That said , some research fails to find convincing differences . A meta study conducted by researchers from The George Washington University and The U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences questions the validity of workplace differences across any generational cohort . According to the researchers , disagreement in which events to include when assigning generational cohorts , as well as varied opinions on which age ranges to include in each generational category are the main drivers behind their skepticism . The analysis of 20 research reports focusing on the three work - related factors of job satisfaction , organizational commitment and intent to turn over proved any variation was too small to discount the impact of employee tenure and aging of individuals . Newer research shows that millennials change jobs for the same reasons as other generations -- namely , more money and a more innovative work environment . They look for versatility and flexibility in the workplace , and strive for a strong work -- life balance in their jobs and have similar career aspirations to other generations , valuing financial security and a diverse workplace just as much as their older colleagues .
Medicare (United States)
There are two ways for providers to be reimbursed in Medicare . `` Participating '' providers accept `` assignment , '' which means that they accept Medicare 's approved rate for their services as payment ( typically 80 % from Medicare and 20 % from the beneficiary ) . Some non participating doctors do not take assignment , but they also treat Medicare enrollees and are authorized to balance bill no more than a small fixed amount above Medicare 's approved rate . A minority of doctors are `` private contractors , '' which means they opt out of Medicare and refuse to accept Medicare payments altogether . These doctors are required to inform patients that they will be liable for the full cost of their services out - of - pocket in advance of treatment .
Executive compensation
Executive compensation or executive pay is composed of the financial compensation and other non-financial awards received by an executive from their firm for their service to the organization . It is typically a mixture of salary , bonuses , shares of or call options on the company stock , benefits , and perquisites , ideally configured to take into account government regulations , tax law , the desires of the organization and the executive , and rewards for performance .
Child care
Studies have been done to get an annual salary estimate for a female caregiver . One survey suggested that the value of a mother 's work , if she were paid the average wage for each task she performs in running the household and caring for her children , is $117,867 per year . The reason for the high salary is because mothers typically perform about 10 different job functions throughout the week . Some of these job functions are poorly paid , including cleaning , driving , caring for children , and washing laundry , but others , especially financial and managerial tasks that the survey equated with being the Chief Executive Officer of a company , are highly paid . Neither a nanny nor a housekeeper makes nearly as much money , and almost all of these tasks except direct child care also have to be done by non-parents . The value of unpaid childcare is also an important figure in various legal entities . Expert witnesses ( most often economists ) are occasionally brought into court cases to give estimates on the value of unpaid labor . By giving estimation , the plaintiff or defendant can be fairly compensated for their labor .
Medicare (United States)
Most Medicare enrollees do not pay a monthly Part A premium , because they ( or a spouse ) have had 40 or more 3 - month quarters in which they paid Federal Insurance Contributions Act taxes. The benefit is the same no matter how much or how little the beneficiary paid as long as the minimum number of quarters is reached . Medicare - eligible persons who do not have 40 or more quarters of Medicare - covered employment may buy into Part A for an annual adjusted monthly premium of :
Fair trade
There is no evidence that fair trade farmers get higher prices on average . Anecdotes state that farmers were paid more or less by traders than by Fairtrade cooperatives . Few of these anecdotes address the problems of price reporting in developing world markets , and few appreciate the complexity of the different price packages which may or may not include credit , harvesting , transport , processing , etc . Cooperatives typically average prices over the year , so they pay less than traders at some times , more at others . Bassett ( 2009 ) is able to compare prices only where Fairtrade and non-Fairtrade farmers have to sell cotton to the same monopsonistic ginneries which pay low prices . Prices would have to be higher to compensate farmers for the increased costs they incur to produce Fairtrade . For instance , Fairtrade encouraged Nicaraguan farmers to switch to organic coffee , which resulted in a higher price per pound , but a lower net income because of higher costs and lower yields . Effects
Economy of Nazi Germany
When it came to retail and small business , in order to coordinate workers and small businessmen , shop councils and the so - called Courts of Honour were set up to monitor retail units . Unlike Italian Fascism , Nazism perceived workers and employers in each enterprise as families ; each with different roles . In real terms this meant that wages , working hours and general business practices were determined by worker councils ( whose members ranged from 2 - 10 ) and employers , seeking a compromise . This was shown in their tax structure . The Nazis allowed industries to deduct from their taxable income all sums used to purchase new equipment . Rich families employing a maid were allowed to count the maid as a dependent child and reap the tax benefit .
Labour in India
This Act , applies to an enterprise employing 20 or more persons . The Act requires employer to pay a bonus to persons on the basis of profits or on the basis of production or productivity . The Act was modified to require companies to pay a minimum bonus , even if the employer suffers losses during the accounting year . This minimum is currently 8.33 percent of the salary .
Tax protester statutory arguments
To the extent Sullivan argues that he received no `` wages '' in 1983 because he was not an `` employee '' within the meaning of 26 U.S.C. § 3401 ( c ) , that contention is meritless . Section 3401 ( c ) , which relates to income tax withholding , indicates that the definition of `` employee '' includes government officers and employees , elected officials , and corporate officers . The statute does not purport to limit withholding to the persons listed therein .