vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Celts
Today , the term Celtic generally refers to the languages and respective cultures of Ireland , Scotland , Wales , Cornwall , the Isle of Man , and Brittany , also known as the Celtic nations . These are the regions where four Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent as mother tongues . The four are Irish Gaelic , Scottish Gaelic , Welsh , and Breton ; plus two recent revivals , Cornish ( one of the Brittonic languages ) and Manx ( one of the Goidelic languages ) . There are also attempts to reconstruct Cumbric , a Brittonic language from North West England and South West Scotland . Celtic regions of Continental Europe are those whose residents claim a Celtic heritage , but where no Celtic language has survived ; these areas include the western Iberian Peninsula , i.e. Portugal and north - central Spain ( Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , Castile and León , Extremadura ) .
Celtic Britons
Throughout their existence , the territory inhabited by the Britons was composed of numerous ever - changing areas controlled by Brittonic tribes . The extent of their territory before and during the Roman period is unclear , but is generally believed to include the whole of the island of Great Britain , at least as far north as the Clyde - Forth isthmus , and if the Picts are included as Brittonic speaking people ( as they more usually are ) , the entirety of Great Britain and its offshore island groups . The territory north of the Firth of Forth was largely inhabited by the Picts ; little direct evidence has been left of the Pictish language , but place names and Pictish personal names recorded in the later Irish annals suggest it was indeed related to the Common Brittonic language rather than to the Goidelic ( Gaelic ) languages of the Irish , Scots and Manx ; indeed their Goidelic Irish name , Cruithne , is cognate with Brythonic Priteni . After the invasion of north western Britain by Gaelic speaking Celts from Ireland from the 6th century AD onwards , part of the Pictish territory was eventually absorbed into the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata and Alba , which became Scotland . The Isle of Man , Shetland , Hebrides and the Orkney islands were originally inhabited by Britons also , but eventually became respectively Manx and Scots Gaelic speaking territories , while the Scilly isles and Anglesey ( Ynys Mon ) remained Brittonic and the originally Brittonic Isle of Wight was taken by Anglo - Saxons .
Celts
Diodorus Siculus , in his 1st - century History had this to say about Celtic head - hunting :
Republic of Ireland
Genetic research suggests that the earliest settlers migrated from Iberia following the most recent ice age . After the Mesolithic , Neolithic and Bronze Age , migrants introduced a Celtic language and culture . Migrants from the two latter eras still represent the genetic heritage of most Irish people . Gaelic tradition expanded and became the dominant form over time . Irish people are a combination of Gaelic , Norse , Anglo - Norman , French , and British ancestry .
Celts
In 391 BC , Celts `` who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the Apennine mountains and the Alps '' according to Diodorus Siculus . The Po Valley and the rest of northern Italy ( known to the Romans as Cisalpine Gaul ) was inhabited by Celtic - speakers who founded cities such as Milan . Later the Roman army was routed at the battle of Allia and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the Senones .
Celts
The Boii tribe gave their name to Bohemia , Bologna and possibly Bavaria , and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and Slovakia . A Celtic coin ( Biatec ) from Bratislava 's mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5 - crown coin .
Celts
The Proto - Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age . The earliest records of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul ( Northern Italy ) , the oldest of which predate the La Tène period . Other early inscriptions , appearing from the early La Tène period in the area of Massilia , are in Gaulish , which was written in the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest . Celtiberian inscriptions , using their own Iberian script , appear later , after about 200 BC . Evidence of Insular Celtic is available only from about 400 AD , in the form of Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions .
Celtic Britons
The earliest evidence for the Britons and their language in historical sources dates to the Iron Age . After the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century , a Romano - British culture emerged , and Latin and British Vulgar Latin coexisted with Brittonic . During and after the Roman era , the Britons lived throughout Britain . Their relationship with the Picts , who lived north of the Firth of Forth , has been the subject of much discussion , though most scholars now accept that the Pictish language was related to Common Brittonic , rather than a separate Celtic language .
Celts
In addition to linguistic evidence of a common Celtic / Iberian origin in the Iberian peninsula there is also genetic evidence of a common origin of the European Atlantic populations i.e. : Orkney Islands , Scottish , Irish , British , Bretons , Iberians ( Basques , Galicians ) , Guanches and Berbers .
Celts
The Canegrate culture represented the first migratory wave of the proto - Celtic population from the northwest part of the Alps that , through the Alpine passes , had already penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como ( Scamozzina culture ) . It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto - Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age , when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artefacts , including ornaments , to the western groups of the Tumulus culture . La Tène cultural material appeared over a large area of mainland Italy , the southernmost example being the Celtic helmet from Canosa di Puglia .
Celts
The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire . Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire 's control . Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion , the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class , especially religiously ; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether . Romano - Celtic deities also began to appear : these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes , combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities , and / or included couples with one Roman and one Celtic deity . Other changes included the adaptation of the Jupiter Column , a sacred column set up in many Celtic regions of the empire , primarily in northern and eastern Gaul . Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses . The Celts had only created wooden idols ( including monuments carved into trees , which were known as sacred poles ) previously to Roman conquest . A
Wales
Neolithic colonists integrated with the indigenous people , gradually changing their lifestyles from a nomadic life of hunting and gathering , to become settled farmers about 6,000 BP -- the Neolithic Revolution . They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land , developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production , and built cromlechs such as Pentre Ifan , Bryn Celli Ddu and Parc Cwm long cairn between about 5,800 BP and 5,500 BP . In common with people living all over Great Britain , over the following centuries the people living in what was to become known as Wales assimilated immigrants and exchanged ideas of the Bronze Age and Iron Age Celtic cultures . According to John T. Koch and others , Wales in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading - networked culture that also included the other Celtic nations , England , France , Spain and Portugal where Celtic languages developed . This view , sometimes called `` Atlantic - Celtic '' , stands against the view that the Celtic languages have their origins farther east with the Hallstatt culture . By the time of the Roman invasion of Britain the area of modern Wales had been divided among the tribes of the Deceangli , Ordovices , Cornovii , Demetae and Silures for centuries .
Celts
Place - and personal - name analysis and inscriptions suggest that the Gaulish Celtic language was spoken over most of what is now France . Iberia
Celts
For Venceslas Kruta , Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense Celtic settlement .
Celts
Linguists have been arguing for many years whether a Celtic language came to Britain and Ireland and then split or whether there were two separate `` invasions '' . The older view of prehistorians was that the Celtic influence in the British Isles was the result of successive invasions from the European continent by diverse Celtic - speaking peoples over the course of several centuries , accounting for the P - Celtic vs. Q - Celtic isogloss . This view has been challenged by the hypothesis that the Celtic languages of the British Isles form a phylogenetic Insular Celtic dialect group .
Celts
Among the insular Celts , there is a greater amount of historic documentation to suggest warrior roles for women . In addition to commentary by Tacitus about Boudica , there are indications from later period histories that also suggest a more substantial role for `` women as warriors '' , in symbolic if not actual roles . Posidonius and Strabo described an island of women where men could not venture for fear of death , and where the women ripped each other apart . Other writers , such as Ammianus Marcellinus and Tacitus , mentioned Celtic women inciting , participating in , and leading battles . Posidonius ' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes , primarily primitivism , extreme ferocity , cruel sacrificial practices , and the strength and courage of their women .
Celts
The Celts had hundreds of deities , some of which were unknown outside a single family or tribe , while others were popular enough to have a following that crossed lingual and cultural barriers . For instance , the Irish god Lugh , associated with storms , lightning , and culture , is seen in similar forms as Lugos in Gaul and Lleu in Wales . Similar patterns are also seen with the continental Celtic horse goddess Epona and what may well be her Irish and Welsh counterparts , Macha and Rhiannon , respectively .
Celts
There was also considerable cultural influence exerted by Gaul on Rome , particularly in military matters and horsemanship , as the Gauls often served in the Roman cavalry . The Romans adopted the Celtic cavalry sword , the spatha , and Epona , the Celtic horse goddess .
Celts
Greek traders founded Massalia about 600 BC , with some objects ( mostly drinking ceramics ) being traded up the Rhone valley . But trade became disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in the Italian peninsula . The Romans arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a mostly Celtic - speaking Gaul . Rome wanted land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the Saluvii at Entremont in 124 -- 123 BC . Gradually Roman control extended , and the Roman Province of Gallia Transalpina developed along the Mediterranean coast . The Romans knew the remainder of Gaul as Gallia Comata -- `` Hairy Gaul '' .
Celts
The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as `` Culture Groups '' , entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language , had started to grow by the end of the 19th century . At the beginning of the 20th century the belief that these `` Culture Groups '' could be thought of in racial or ethnic terms was strongly held by Gordon Childe whose theory was influenced by the writings of Gustaf Kossinna . As the 20th century progressed , the racial ethnic interpretation of La Tène culture became much more strongly rooted , and any findings of La Tène culture and flat inhumation cemeteries were directly associated with the Celts and the Celtic language . The Iron Age Hallstatt ( c. 800 -- 475 BC ) and La Tène ( c. 500 -- 50 BC ) cultures are typically associated with Proto - Celtic and Celtic culture . Expansion
Wales
In his 1707 work Archaeologia Britannica Edward Lhuyd , keeper of the Ashmolean Museum , noted the similarity between the two Celtic language families : Brythonic or P -- Celtic ( Breton , Cornish and Welsh ) ; and Goidelic or Q -- Celtic ( Irish , Manx and Scottish Gaelic ) . He argued that the Brythonic languages originated in Gaul ( France ) , and that the Goidelic languages originated in the Iberian Peninsula . Lhuyd concluded that as the languages had been of Celtic origin , the people who spoke those languages were Celts . ( According to a more recent hypothesis , also widely embraced today , Goidelic and Brythonic languages , collectively known as Insular Celtic languages , evolved together for some time separately from Continental Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Celtiberian . ) From the 18th century , the peoples of Brittany , Cornwall , Ireland , Isle of Man , Scotland and Wales were known increasingly as Celts , and they are regarded as the modern Celtic nations today .
Celts
Eastern Gaul became the centre of the western La Tène culture . In later Iron Age Gaul , the social organisation resembled that of the Romans , with large towns . From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage . Texts with Greek characters from southern Gaul have survived from the 2nd century BC .
Celts
Italy is home to Lepontic , the oldest attested Celtic language ( from the 6th century BC ) . Anciently spoken in Switzerland and in Northern - Central Italy , from the Alps to Umbria . According to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises , more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout present - day France -- with the notable exception of Aquitaine -- and in Italy , which testifies the importance of Celtic heritage in the peninsula .
Celts
The defeat of the combined Samnite , Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the Third Samnite War sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe , but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy . Expansion
Celtic Britons
The traditional view that the Celtic Britons originally migrated from the continent , mostly across the English Channel , with their languages , culture and genes in the Iron Age has been considerably undermined in recent decades by the contention of many scholars that Celtic languages had instead spread north along the Atlantic seaboard during the Bronze Age , and the results of genetic studies , which show a large continuity between Iron Age and older British populations , suggesting trans - cultural diffusion was also very important in the introduction of the Celtic languages .
Celts
Stephen Oppenheimer points out that the only written evidence that locates the Keltoi near the source of the Danube ( i.e. in the Hallstatt region ) is in the Histories of Herodotus . However , Oppenheimer shows that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the Pyrenees , which would place the Ancient Celts in a region which is more in agreement with later classical writers and historians ( i.e. in Gaul and the Iberian peninsula ) .
Celts
The myth that the Celtic monetary system consisted of wholly barter is a common one , but is in part false . The monetary system was complex and is still not understood ( much like the late Roman coinages ) , and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items , it is assumed that `` proto - money '' was used . This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and onwards , which were often in the shape of axeheads , rings , or bells . Due to the large number of these present in some burials , it is thought they had a relatively high monetary value , and could be used for `` day to day '' purchases . Low - value coinages of potin , a bronze alloy with high tin content , were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South - East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands . Higher - value coinages , suitable for use in trade , were minted in gold , silver , and high - quality bronze . Gold coinage was much more common than silver coinage , despite being worth substantially more , as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France , silver was more rarely mined . This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained . As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world , silver and bronze coinage became more common . This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand , due to the high value Romans put on the metal . The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded .
Brittany
Those people had strong economic ties to the Insular Celts , especially for the tin trade . Several tribes also belonged to an `` Armorican confederation '' which , according to Julius Caesar , gathered the Curiosolitae , the Redones , the Osismii , the Unelli , the Caletes , the Lemovices and the Ambibarii . The last four peoples mentioned by Caesar were respectively located in Cotentin ( Lower - Normandy ) , pays de Caux ( Upper - Normandy ) , Limousin ( Aquitany ) and the location of the Ambibarii is unknown . The Caletes are sometimes also considered as Belgians and '' Lemovices '' is probably a mistake for '' Lexovii '' ( Lower - Normandy ) .
Celts
The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age ( from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC ) in eastern France , Switzerland , Austria , southwest Germany , the Czech Republic , Slovakia and Hungary . It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break , under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from Greek , and later Etruscan civilisations . A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century .
Celts
Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views on gender divisions and societal status , though some archaeological evidence does suggest that their views of gender roles may differ from contemporary and less egalitarian classical counterparts of the Roman era . There are some general indications from Iron Age burial sites in the Champagne and Bourgogne regions of Northeastern France suggesting that women may have had roles in combat during the earlier La Tène period . However , the evidence is far from conclusive . Examples of individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been identified , such as the Vix Grave , and there are questions about the gender of some skeletons that were buried with warrior assemblages . However , it has been suggested that `` the weapons may indicate rank instead of masculinity '' .
Celts
While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire , unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland began to move from Celtic polytheism to Christianity in the 5th century . Ireland was converted by missionaries from Britain , such as Saint Patrick . Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of missionary work in Scotland , Anglo - Saxon parts of Britain , and central Europe ( see Hiberno - Scottish mission ) . Celtic Christianity , the forms of Christianity that took hold in Britain and Ireland at this time , had for some centuries only limited and intermittent contact with Rome and continental Christianity , as well as some contacts with Coptic Christianity . Some elements of Celtic Christianity developed , or retained , features that made them distinct from the rest of Western Christianity , most famously their conservative method of calculating the date of Easter . In 664 , the Synod of Whitby began to resolve these differences , mostly by adopting the current Roman practices , which the Gregorian Mission from Rome had introduced to Anglo - Saxon England .
Celts
There are records of Celtic mercenaries in Egypt serving the Ptolemies . Thousands were employed in 283 -- 246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC . They attempted to overthrow Ptolemy II .
Lithuania
The Baltic tribes did not maintain close cultural or political contacts with the Roman Empire , but they did maintain trade contacts ( see Amber Road ) . Tacitus , in his study Germania , described the Aesti people , inhabitants of the south - eastern Baltic Sea shores who were probably Balts , around the year 97 AD . The Western Balts differentiated and became known to outside chroniclers first . Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD knew of the Galindians and Yotvingians , and early medieval chroniclers mentioned Old Prussians , Curonians and Semigallians .
Celts
The interlace patterns that are often regarded as typical of `` Celtic art '' were characteristic of the whole of the British Isles , a style referred to as Insular art , or Hiberno - Saxon art . This artistic style incorporated elements of La Tène , Late Roman , and , most importantly , animal Style II of Germanic Migration Period art . The style was taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and illuminated manuscripts . Equally , the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world : Gospel books like the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne , chalices like the Ardagh Chalice and Derrynaflan Chalice , and penannular brooches like the Tara Brooch . These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art , which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries , before the Viking attacks sharply set back cultural life .
Celts
The Celts also expanded down the Danube river and its tributaries . One of the most influential tribes , the Scordisci , had established their capital at Singidunum in the 3rd century BC , which is present - day Belgrade , Serbia . The concentration of hill - forts and cemeteries shows a density of population in the Tisza valley of modern - day Vojvodina , Serbia , Hungary and into Ukraine . Expansion into Romania was however blocked by the Dacians .
Celts
Following the Gallic Wars of 58 -- 51 BC , Caesar 's Celtica formed the main part of Roman Gaul , becoming the province of Gallia Lugdunensis . This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne . The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighboring provinces Belgica and Aquitania , particularly under Augustus .
Celts
The Castro Culture in northwestern Iberia , modern day Galicia . Its high degree of continuity , from the Late Bronze Age , makes it difficult to support that the introduction of Celtic elements was due to the same process of Celticization of the western Iberia , from the nucleus area of Celtiberia . Two typical elements are the sauna baths with monumental entrances , and the `` Gallaecian Warriors '' , stone sculptures built in the 1st century AD . A large group of Latin inscriptions contain linguistic features that are clearly Celtic , while others are similar to those found in the non-Celtic Lusitanian language . The Astures and the Cantabri . This area was romanised late , as it was not conquered by Rome until the Cantabrian Wars of 29 -- 19 BC . Celts in the southwest , in the area Strabo called Celtica