vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire ( also called Fall of the Roman Empire or Fall of Rome ) was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule , and its vast territory was divided into several successor polities . The Roman Empire lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control ; modern historians mention factors including the effectiveness and numbers of the army , the health and numbers of the Roman population , the strength of the economy , the competence of the Emperor , the religious changes of the period , and the efficiency of the civil administration . Increasing pressure from barbarians outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse . The reasons for the collapse are major subjects of the historiography of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on state failure .
History of the Roman Empire
Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces , having posts all across the empire , both east and west . In the west he gave considerable favouritism to Hispania ( the Iberian Peninsula , comprising modern Spain and Portugal ) in which he granted Latin Rights to over three hundred towns and cities , promoting a new era of urbanisation throughout the western ( formerly barbarian ) provinces . Through the additions he made to the Senate he allowed greater influence of the provinces in the Senate , helping to promote unity in the empire . He also extended the borders of the empire , mostly done to help strengthen the frontier defenses , one of Vespasian 's main goals .
Eastern Orthodox Church
One of the decisions made by the First Council of Constantinople ( the second ecumenical council , meeting in 381 ) and supported by later such councils was that the Patriarch of Constantinople should be given equal honor to the Pope of Rome since Constantinople was considered to be the `` New Rome '' . According to the third Canon of the second ecumenical council : `` Because it is new Rome , the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honor after the bishop of Rome . '' This means that both enjoy the same privileges because they are both bishops of the imperial capitals , but the bishop of Rome will precede the bishop of Constantinople since Old Rome precedes New Rome .
Byzantine Empire
A nephew of the last Emperor , Constantine XI , Andreas Palaiologos claimed to have inherited the title of Byzantine Emperor . He lived in the Morea until its fall in 1460 , then escaped to Rome where he lived under the protection of the Papal States for the remainder of his life . Since the office of emperor had never been technically hereditary , Andreas ' claim would have been without merit under Byzantine law . However , the Empire had vanished , and Western states generally followed the Roman - church - sanctioned principles of hereditary sovereignty . Seeking a life in the west , Andreas styled himself Imperator Constantinopolitanus ( `` Emperor of Constantinople '' ) , and sold his succession rights to both Charles VIII of France and the Catholic Monarchs .
Byzantine Empire
The Arabs , now firmly in control of Syria and the Levant , sent frequent raiding parties deep into Asia Minor , and in 674 -- 678 laid siege to Constantinople itself . The Arab fleet was finally repulsed through the use of Greek fire , and a thirty - years ' truce was signed between the Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate . However , the Anatolian raids continued unabated , and accelerated the demise of classical urban culture , with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas within the old city walls , or relocating entirely to nearby fortresses . Constantinople itself dropped substantially in size , from 500,000 inhabitants to just 40,000 -- 70,000 , and , like other urban centres , it was partly ruralised . The city also lost the free grain shipments in 618 , after Egypt fell first to the Persians and then to the Arabs , and public wheat distribution ceased .
Byzantine Empire
This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century . It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century . During the 12th century , population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production . Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements , together with a notable upsurge in new towns . Trade was also flourishing ; the Venetians , the Genoese and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce , shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the Empire via Constantinople .
Western Roman Empire
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled , the new Germanic rulers who conquered the provinces upheld many Roman laws and traditions . Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized , although most were followers of Arianism . They quickly converted to official imperial Christianity , gaining more loyalty from the local Roman populations , as well as the recognition and support of the powerful Bishop of Rome . Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws , they were more influenced by Roman Law and gradually incorporated it as well . Roman Law , particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected by order of Justinian I , is the ancient basis on which the modern Civil law stands . In contrast , Common law is based on the Germanic Anglo - Saxon law . Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world , in force in some form in about 150 countries . Romance
Macedonia (terminology)
During the 7th century , most of the Balkans were overrun by Slavic invasions , which left only the fortified towns and the coasts in the hands of the Greek - speaking Byzantine Empire . `` Macedonia '' was then used for a new theme in the late 8th century under Irene of Athens . Geographically however it was located in Thrace and not in Macedonia , which was under the themes of Thessalonica , Strymon and other smaller commands such as Boleron or Drougoubiteia . Themes were not named geographically and the original sense was `` army '' . They became districts during the military and fiscal crisis of the seventh century , when the Byzantine armies were instructed to find their supplies from the locals , wherever they happened to be . Thus the Armeniac theme was considerably west of Armenia ; the Thracesian Theme was in Asia Minor , not in Thrace . The Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire acquired its name from its founder , Basil I the Macedonian , an Armenian by descent , who was born in the theme of Macedonia .
Byzantine Empire
The Plague of Justinian and the Arab conquests would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of stagnation and decline . Isaurian reforms and , in particular , Constantine V 's repopulation , public works and tax measures , marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204 , despite territorial contraction . From the 10th century until the end of the 12th , the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury and travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital .
Byzantine Empire
Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised , following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms . Painting in fresco , illuminated manuscripts and on wood panel and , especially in earlier periods , mosaic were the main media , and figurative sculpture very rare except for small carved ivories . Manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works . Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought - after in Western Europe , where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period . This was especially so in Italy , where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century , and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art . But few incoming influences affected Byzantine style . By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church , Byzantine forms and styles spread to all the Orthodox world and beyond . Influences from Byzantine architecture , particularly in religious buildings , can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania .
Middle Ages
The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history , marking a return of the Western Roman Empire , since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors . It also marks a change in Charlemagne 's relationship with the Byzantine Empire , as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state . There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire . The Frankish lands were rural in character , with only a few small cities . Most of the people were peasants settled on small farms . Little trade existed and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia , in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean . The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor , as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts , who administered the counties the empire had been divided into . Clergy and local bishops served as officials , as well as the imperial officials called missi dominici , who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters .
Byzantine Empire
The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the eastern Mediterranean , events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the Empire . The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy , but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces . Gradually , it also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms , and its control over the outflow of precious metals and , according to some scholars , even over the minting of coins .
Western Roman Empire
The deposition of Romulus Augustus and rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time . Overall , very little changed for the people ; there was still a Roman Emperor in Constantinople that Odoacer had subordinated himself to . Throne vacancies had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary . Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire , his role was not unlike that of Ricimer , and he effectively ruled as an imperial `` governor '' of Italy and was even awarded the title of patricius . Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the Eastern Augustus , rather than in his own name .
Byzantine Empire
The use of Latin as the language of administration persisted until formally abolished by Heraclius in the 7th century . Scholarly Latin would rapidly fall into disuse among the educated classes although the language would continue to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empire 's culture for some time . Additionally , Vulgar Latin remained a minority language in the Empire , mainly along the Dalmatian coast ( Dalmatian ) and among the Romanian peoples .
North Africa
North Africa remained a part of the Roman Empire , which produced many notable citizens such as Augustine of Hippo , until incompetent leadership from Roman commanders in the early fifth century allowed the Germanic peoples , the Vandals , to cross the Strait of Gibraltar , whereupon they overcame the fickle Roman defense . The loss of North Africa is considered a pinnacle point in the fall of the Western Roman Empire as Africa had previously been an important grain province that maintained Roman prosperity despite the barbarian incursions , and the wealth required to create new armies . The issue of regaining North Africa became paramount to the Western Empire , but was frustrated by Vandal victories . The focus of Roman energy had to be on the emerging threat of the Huns . In 468 AD , the Romans made one last serious attempt to invade North Africa but were repelled . This perhaps marks the point of terminal decline for the Western Roman Empire . The last Roman emperor was deposed in 476 by the Heruli general Odoacer . Trade routes between Europe and North Africa remained intact until the coming of Islam . Some Berbers were members of the Early African Church ( but evolved their own Donatist doctrine ) , some were Berber Jews , and some adhered to traditional Berber religion . African pope Victor I served during the reign of Roman emperor Septimius Severus
Ancient Greece
Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire , as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco - Roman . The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the East and in Italy , and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome .
Western Roman Empire
The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western Emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during the Gothic Wars under Justinian . Belisarius , an accomplished general that had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and large parts of Italy ( including Rome itself ) , was offered the position of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths during his siege of Ravenna ( the Ostrogothic , and previously Western Roman , capital ) in 540 . The Ostrogoths , desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy , offered the title and fealty to Belisarius as Western Augustus . Loyal to Justinian ( who hoped to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone , with the Codex Justinianus explicitly designating the new Praetorian Prefect of Africa as the subject of Justinian in Constantinople ) , Belisarius feigned to accept the title to enter the city , whereupon he immediately relinquished it . Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title , the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east .
History of the Catholic Church
During the 11th century , the East -- West schism permanently divided Christianity . It arose over a dispute on whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily and led to mutual excommunications in 1054 . The Western ( Latin ) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church , while the Eastern ( Greek ) branch became known as the Orthodox Church . The Second Council of Lyon ( 1274 ) and the Council of Florence ( 1439 ) both failed to heal the schism . Some Eastern churches have since reunited with the Catholic Church , and others claim never to have been out of communion with the pope . Officially , the two churches remain in schism , although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965 .
Western Roman Empire
The positions of Eastern and Western Augustus , established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy , had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories . Declaring himself the sole Augustus , Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer . The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control , and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler . Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper , Stotzas , had already risen from the province ( though he was quickly defeated ) . As such , the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the periods of time that the Eastern Empire still controlled large parts of the former West , both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West .
Third Rome
In 913 , Simeon I of Bulgaria was crowned Emperor ( Tsar ) by the Patriarch of Constantinople and imperial regent Nicholas Mystikos outside of the Byzantine capital . In its final simplified form , the title read `` Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Romans '' ( Tsar i samodarzhets na vsichki balgari i gartsi in the modern vernacular ) . The Roman component in the Bulgarian imperial title indicated both rulership over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans , however this component was never recognised by the Byzantine court .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In 439 the Vandals moved eastward ( temporarily abandoning Numidia ) and captured Carthage , where they established an independent state with a powerful navy . This brought immediate financial crisis to the Western Empire ; the diocese of Africa was prosperous , normally required few troops to keep it secure , contributed large tax revenues , and exported wheat to feed Rome and many other areas . Roman troops assembled in Sicily , but the planned counter-attack never happened . Huns attacked the Eastern empire , and
Third Rome
Within decades after the capture of Constantinople by Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453 , some Eastern Orthodox people were nominating Moscow as the `` Third Rome '' , or the `` New Rome '' . Stirrings of this sentiment began during the reign of Ivan III of Russia who had married Sophia Paleologue . Sophia was a niece of Constantine XI , the last Byzantine emperor . By the rules and laws of inheritance followed by most European monarchies of the time , Ivan could claim that he and his offspring were heirs of the fallen Empire , but the Roman traditions of the empire had never recognized automatic inheritance of the Imperial office. . It is also important to note that she was not the heiress of the Byzantine throne : her brother , Andreas Palaiologos , in fact had the rights of succession to the Byzantine throne . Andreas died in 1502 , having sold his titles and royal and imperial rights to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile . This would mean that , in a purely legal sense , the Russian tsars were never entitled to the Byzantine throne . A stronger claim was based on religious symbolism . The Orthodox faith was central to Byzantine notions of their identity and what distinguished them from `` barbarians '' . Vladimir the Great had converted Kievan Rus ' to Orthodoxy in 988 , in return for which he became the first barbarian to ever get an Imperial princess as a wife .
Western Roman Empire
In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire , the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe . With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as `` Emperor of the Romans '' in 800 AD , his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept of translatio imperii . Though the Carolingian Empire collapsed in 888 and Berengar , the last `` Emperor '' claiming succession from Charlemagne , died in 924 , the concept of a papacy - and Germanic - based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of the Holy Roman Empire in 962 . The Holy Roman Emperors would uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman Emperors of old until the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 .
Middle Ages
At the Emperor 's death , the Byzantines had control of most of Italy , North Africa , and a small foothold in southern Spain . Justinian 's reconquests have been criticised by historians for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the early Muslim conquests , but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian 's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire , which made raising troops difficult .
Byzantine Empire
During the Komnenian , or Comnenian , period from about 1081 to about 1185 , the five emperors of the Komnenos dynasty ( Alexios I , John II , Manuel I , Alexios II , and Andronikos I ) presided over a sustained , though ultimately incomplete , restoration of the military , territorial , economic , and political position of the Byzantine Empire . Although the Seljuk Turks occupied the heartland of the Empire in Anatolia , most Byzantine military efforts during this period were directed against Western powers , particularly the Normans .
Western Roman Empire
Anthemius was proclaimed Western Emperor on 12 April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius , the Western Empire , which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire , became closer to the Eastern Empire under Leo I , although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire . Anthemius ' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer , who deposed him in March or April of 472 .
Western Roman Empire
On September 4 , 476 , Odoacer , leader of the Germanic foederati in Italy , captured Ravenna , killed Orestes and deposed Romulus . Though Romulus was deposed , Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western Emperor from Dalmatia , with support from Constantinople . Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern Emperor Zeno . Zeno eventually granted Odoacer patrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy . Zeno , however , insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire . Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy . This , however , was mainly an empty political gesture , as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Julius Nepos . The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia , annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy .
Western Roman Empire
Theoderic inherited the role of Odoacer , the acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly a patricius and subject of the emperor in Constantinople . This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497 , four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer . Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler , he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position . Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer 's kingdom , essentially those of the Western Roman Empire , and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans . The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population , though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws . As a subordinate , Theodoric did not have the right to issue his own laws , only edicts or clarifications . The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths , however , largely settled in northern Italy .
Byzantine Empire
The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627 , and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony , as he marched into the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , where anarchy and civil war reigned as a result of the enduring war . Eventually , the Persians were obliged to withdraw all armed forces and return Sassanid - ruled Egypt , the Levant and whatever imperial territories of Mesopotamia and Armenia were in Roman hands at the time of an earlier peace treaty in c. 595 . The war had exhausted both the Byzantines and Sassanids , however , and left them extremely vulnerable to the Muslim forces that emerged in the following years . The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 , while Ctesiphon fell in 637 . Siege