vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
One-drop rule
Among the colonial slave societies , the United States was nearly unique in developing the one - drop rule ; it derived both from the Southern slave culture ( shared by other societies ) and the aftermath of the American Civil War , emancipation of slaves , and Reconstruction . In the late 19th century , Southern whites regained political power and restored white supremacy , passing Jim Crow laws and establishing racial segregation by law . In the 20th century , during the Black Power Movement , black race - based groups claimed all people of any African ancestry as black in a reverse way , to establish political power .
Emancipation Proclamation
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Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation has been ridiculed , notably in an influential passage by Richard Hofstadter for `` freeing '' only the slaves over which the Union had no power . These slaves were freed due to Lincoln 's `` war powers '' . This act cleared up the issue of contraband slaves . It automatically clarified the status of over 100,000 now - former slaves . Some 20,000 to 50,000 slaves were freed the day it went into effect in parts of nine of the ten states to which it applied ( Texas being the exception ) . In every Confederate state ( except Tennessee and Texas ) , the Proclamation went into immediate effect in Union - occupied areas and at least 20,000 slaves were freed at once on January 1 , 1863 . The
Atlantic slave trade
After being marched to the coast for sale , enslaved people were held in large forts called factories . The amount of time in factories varied , but Milton Meltzer states in Slavery : A World History that around 4.5 % of deaths attributed to the transatlantic slave trade occurred during this phase . In other words , over 820,000 people are believed to have died in African ports such as Benguela , Elmina , and Bonny , reducing the number of those shipped to 17.5 million .
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
On July 21 , disgruntled workers in the industrial rail hub of East St. Louis , Illinois , halted all freight traffic , with the city remaining in the control of the strikers for almost a week . The St. Louis Workingman 's Party led a group of approximately 500 men across the Missouri River in an act of solidarity with the nearly 1,000 workers on strike . It was a catalyst for labor unrest spreading , with thousands of workers in several industries striking for the eight - hour day and a ban on child labor . This was the first such general strike in the United States .
Labor history of the United States
By the 1970s , a rapidly increasing flow of imports ( such as automobiles , steel and electronics from Germany and Japan , and clothing and shoes from Asia ) undercut American producers . By the 1980s there was a large - scale shift in employment with fewer workers in high - wage sectors and more in the low - wage sectors . Many companies closed or moved factories to Southern states ( where unions were weak ) . The effectiveness of strikes declined sharply , as companies after the 1970s threatened to close down factories or move them to low - wage states or to foreign countries . The number of major work stoppages fell by 97 % from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010 . The accumulating weaknesses were exposed when President Ronald Reagan -- a former union president -- broke the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization ( PATCO ) strike in 1981 , dealing a major blow to unions .
Atlantic slave trade
On 30 July 2008 , the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws . The language included a reference to the `` fundamental injustice , cruelty , brutality and inhumanity of slavery and Jim Crow '' segregation . On 18 June 2009 , the United States Senate issued an apologetic statement decrying the `` fundamental injustice , cruelty , brutality , and inhumanity of slavery '' . The news was welcomed by President Barack Obama .
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
However , the Court did uphold some economic regulation , such as state Prohibition laws ( Mugler v. Kansas , 1887 ) , laws declaring maximum hours for mine workers ( Holden v. Hardy , 1898 ) , laws declaring maximum hours for female workers ( Muller v. Oregon , 1908 ) , and President Woodrow Wilson 's intervention in a railroad strike ( Wilson v. New , 1917 ) , as well as federal laws regulating narcotics ( United States v. Doremus , 1919 ) . The Court repudiated , but did not explicitly overrule , the `` freedom of contract '' line of cases in West Coast Hotel v. Parrish ( 1937 ) .
Labor history of the United States
President Franklin D. Roosevelt took office on March 4 , 1933 , and immediately began implementing programs to alleviate the economic crisis . In June , he passed the National Industrial Recovery Act , which gave workers the right to organize into unions . Though it contained other provisions , like minimum wage and maximum hours , its most significant passage was , `` Employees shall have the right to organize and bargain collectively through representative of their own choosing , and shall be free from the interference , restraint , or coercion of employers . ''
Colonial history of the United States
Laborers stood at the bottom of seaport society . These poor people worked on the docks unloading inbound vessels and loading outbound vessels with wheat , corn , and flax seed . Many of these were African American ; some were free , while others were enslaved . In 1750 , blacks made up about 10 percent of the population of New York and Philadelphia . Hundreds of seamen worked as sailors on merchant ships , some of whom were African American .
Modern history
The end date of the early modern period is usually associated with the Industrial Revolution , which began in Britain in about 1750 . Another significant date is 1789 , the beginning of the French Revolution , which drastically transformed the state of European politics and ushered in the Prince Edward Era and modern Europe .
American Revolution
While no southern state abolished slavery , for a period individual owners could free their slaves by personal decision , often providing for manumission in wills but sometimes filing deeds or court papers to free individuals . Numerous slaveholders who freed their slaves cited revolutionary ideals in their documents ; others freed slaves as a reward for service . Records also suggest that some slaveholders were freeing their own mixed - race children , born into slavery to slave mothers .
Famine
By 1650 , English agriculture had also become commercialized on a much wider scale . The last peace - time famine in England was in 1623 -- 24 . There were still periods of hunger , as in the Netherlands , but no more famines ever occurred . Common areas for pasture were enclosed for private use and large scale , efficient farms were consolidated . Other technical developments included the draining of marshes , more efficient field use patterns , and the wider introduction of industrial crops . These agricultural developments led to wider prosperity in England and increasing urbanization . By the end of the 17th century , English agriculture was the most productive in Europe . In both England and the Netherlands , the population stabilized between 1650 and 1750 , the same time period in which the sweeping changes to agriculture occurred . Famine still occurred in other parts of Europe , however . In East Europe , famines occurred as late as the twentieth century .
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 , sometimes referred to as the Great Upheaval , began on July 14 in Martinsburg , West Virginia , United States after the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad ( B&O ) cut wages for the third time in a year . This strike finally ended some 45 days later , after it was put down by local and state militias , and federal troops . Because of economic problems and pressure on wages by the railroads , workers in numerous other cities , in New York , Pennsylvania and Maryland , into Illinois and Missouri , also went out on strike . An estimated 100 people were killed in the unrest across the country . In Martinsburg , Pittsburgh , Philadelphia and other cities , workers burned down and destroyed both physical facilities and the rolling stock of the railroads -- engines and railroad cars . Local populations feared that workers were rising in revolution such as the Paris Commune of 1871 .
Atlantic slave trade
The historian Walter Rodney contends that it was a decline in the profitability of the triangular trades that made it possible for certain basic human sentiments to be asserted at the decision - making level in a number of European countries - Britain being the most crucial because it was the greatest carrier of African captives across the Atlantic . Rodney states that changes in productivity , technology , and patterns of exchange in Europe and the Americas informed the decision by the British to end their participation in the trade in 1807 . In 1809 President James Madison outlawed the slave trade with the United States .
Factory Acts
After the collapse of the Peel administration which had resisted any reduction in the working day to less than 12 hours , a Whig administration under Lord John Russell came to power . The new Cabinet contained supporters and opponents of a ten - hour day and Lord John himself favoured an eleven - hour day . The Government therefore had no collective view on the matter ; in the absence of Government opposition , the Ten Hour Bill was passed , becoming the Factories Act 1847 ( citation 10 & 11 Vict c. 29 ) . This law ( also known as the Ten Hour Act ) limited the work week in textile mills ( and other textile industries except lace and silk production ) for women and children under 18 years of age . Each work week contained 63 hours effective 1 July 1847 and was reduced to 58 hours effective 1 May 1848 . In effect , this law limited the workday for all millhands to 10 hours .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
Even before the end of the first outbreak of the Black Death , there were efforts by the authorities to stem the upward pressure on wages and prices , with parliament passing the emergency Ordinance of Labourers in 1349 and the Statute of Labourers in 1351 . The efforts to regulate the economy continued as wages and prices rose , putting pressure on the landed classes , and in 1363 parliament attempted unsuccessfully to centrally regulate craft production , trading and retailing . A rising amount of the royal courts ' time was involved in enforcing the failing labour legislation -- as much as 70 % by the 1370s . Many land owners attempted to vigorously enforce rents payable through agricultural service rather than money through their local manor courts , leading to attempts by many village communities to legally challenge local feudal practices using the Domesday Book as a legal basis for their claims . With the wages of the lower classes still rising , the government also attempted to regulate demand and consumption by reinstating the sumptuary laws in 1363 . These laws banned the lower classes from consuming certain products or wearing high - status clothes , and reflected the significance of the consumption of high - quality breads , ales and fabrics as a way of signifying social class in the late medieval period .
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
The Long Depression , beginning in the United States with the financial Panic of 1873 and lasting a total of 65 months , became the longest economic contraction in American history , including the later more famous , 45 month long Great Depression of the 1930s . The failure of the Jay Cooke bank in New York , was followed quickly by that of Henry Clews , and set off a chain reaction of bank failures , temporarily closing the New York stock market .
Gilded Age
The Gilded Age in United States history is the late 19th century , from the 1870s to about 1900 . The term for this period came into use in the 1920s and 1930s and was derived from writer Mark Twain 's and Charles Dudley Warner 's 1873 novel The Gilded Age : A Tale of Today , which satirized an era of serious social problems masked by a thin gold gilding . The early half of the Gilded Age roughly coincided with the middle portion of the Victorian era in Britain and the Belle Époque in France . Its beginning in the years after the American Civil War overlaps the Reconstruction Era ( which ended in 1877 ) . It was followed in the 1890s by the Progressive Era .
Indentured servitude
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 ) declares in Article 4 `` No one shall be held in slavery or servitude ; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms '' . More specifically , It is dealt with by article 1 ( a ) of the United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery .
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ( Pub. L. 88 -- 352 , 78 Stat. 241 , enacted July 2 , 1964 ) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race , color , religion , sex or national origin . It prohibited unequal application of voter registration requirements , racial segregation in schools , employment , and public accommodations .
Labor history of the United States
The Act was sponsored by Senator Robert A. Taft and Representative Fred Hartley , both Republicans . Congress overrode the veto on June 23 , 1947 , establishing the act as a law . Truman described the act as a `` slave - labor bill '' in his veto , but after it was enacted over his veto , he used its emergency provisions a number of times to halt strikes and lockouts . The new law required all union officials to sign an affidavit that they were not Communists or else the union would lose its federal bargaining powers guaranteed by the National Labor Relations Board .
Labor history of the United States
After 1960 public sector unions grew rapidly and secured good wages and high pensions for their members . While manufacturing and farming steadily declined , state - and local - government employment quadrupled from 4 million workers in 1950 to 12 million in 1976 and 16.6 million in 2009 .
Labor history of the United States
Organized labor became more active in 1932 , with the passage of the Norris - La Guardia Act . On March 23 , 1932 , Republican President Herbert Hoover signed the Norris - La Guardia Act , marking the first of many pro-union bills that Washington would pass in the 1930s . Also known as the Anti-Injunction Bill , it offered procedural and substantive protections against the easy issuance of court injunctions during labor disputes , which had limited union behavior in the 1920s . Although the act only applied to federal courts , numerous states would pass similar acts in the future . Additionally , the act outlawed yellow - dog contracts , which were documents some employers forced their employees to sign to ensure they would not join a union ; employees who refused to sign were terminated from their jobs .
Panic of 1837
The Panic of 1837 was a financial crisis in the United States that touched off a major recession that lasted until the mid-1840s . Profits , prices , and wages went down while unemployment went up . Pessimism abounded during the time . The panic had both domestic and foreign origins . Speculative lending practices in western states , a sharp decline in cotton prices , a collapsing land bubble , international specie flows , and restrictive lending policies in Great Britain were all to blame . On May 10 , 1837 , banks in New York City suspended specie payments , meaning that they would no longer redeem commercial paper in specie at full face value . Despite a brief recovery in 1838 , the recession persisted for approximately seven years . Banks collapsed , businesses failed , prices declined , and thousands of workers lost their jobs . Unemployment may have been as high as 25 % in some locales . The years 1837 to 1844 were , generally speaking , years of deflation in wages and prices .
Atlantic slave trade
The first enslaved Africans to reach what would become the United States arrived in July 1526 as part of a Spanish attempt to colonize San Miguel de Gualdape . By November the 300 Spanish colonists were reduced to 100 , and their slaves from 100 to 70 . The enslaved people revolted in 1526 and joined a nearby Native American tribe , while the Spanish abandoned the colony altogether ( 1527 ) . The area of the future Colombia received its first enslaved people in 1533 . El Salvador , Costa Rica and Florida began their stints in the slave trade in 1541 , 1563 and 1581 , respectively .
Labor history of the United States
During the major economic depression of the early 1890s , the Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages in its factories . Discontented workers joined the American Railway Union ( ARU ) , led by Eugene V. Debs , which supported their strike by launching a boycott of all Pullman cars on all railroads . ARU members across the nation refused to switch Pullman cars onto trains . When these switchmen were disciplined , the entire ARU struck the railroads on June 26 , 1894 . Within four days , 125,000 workers on twenty - nine railroads had people quit work rather than handle Pullman cars . Strikers and their supporters also engaged in riots and sabotage .
History of United States prison systems
Economic , rather than moral , concerns underlay the more successful attacks on leasing . Labor launched effective opposition movements to the lease in the post-war period . Birmingham , Alabama , and its Anti-Convict League , formed in 1885 , were the center of this movement , according to Ayers . Coal miner revolts against the lease occurred twenty - two recorded times in the South between 1881 and 1900 . By 1895 , Tennessee caved in to the demands of its miners and abolished its lease system . These revolts notably crossed racial lines . In Alabama , for instance , white and black free miners marched side - by - side to protest the use of convict labor in local mining operations .
Child labour
The Victorian era in particular became notorious for the conditions under which children were employed . Children as young as four were employed in production factories and mines working long hours in dangerous , often fatal , working conditions . In coal mines , children would crawl through tunnels too narrow and low for adults . Children also worked as errand boys , crossing sweepers , shoe blacks , or selling matches , flowers and other cheap goods . Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades , such as building or as domestic servants ( there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid-18th century ) . Working hours were long : builders worked 64 hours a week in summer and 52 in winter , while domestic servants worked 80 - hour weeks .
Child labour
Child labour has been a consistent struggle for children in Brazil ever since the country was colonised on April 22 , 1500 by Pedro Álvares Cabral . Work that many children took part in was not always visible , legal , or paid . Free or slave labour was a common occurrence for many youths and was a part of their everyday lives as they grew into adulthood . Yet due to there being no clear definition of how to classify what a child or youth is , there has been little historical documentation of child labour during the colonial period . Due to this lack of documentation , it is hard to determine just how many children were used for what kinds of work before the nineteenth century . The first documentation of child labour in Brazil occurred during the time of indigenous societies and slave labour where it was found that children were forcibly working on tasks that exceeded their emotional and physical limits . Armando Dias , for example , died in November 1913 whilst still very young , a victim of an electric shock when entering the textile industry where he worked . Boys and girls were victims of industrial accidents on a daily basis .
Midwestern United States
The Midwest , particularly Ohio , provided the primary routes for the Underground Railroad , whereby Midwesterners assisted slaves to freedom from their crossing of the Ohio River through their departure on Lake Erie to Canada . Created in the early 19th century , the Underground Railroad was at its height between 1850 and 1860 . One estimate suggests that by 1850 , 100,000 slaves had escaped via the Underground Railroad .
Boston African American National Historic Site
Boston 's first African residents arrived as slaves in 1638 with early colonists . Over time , more of their descendants were born free to white mothers ; in other cases slaveholders freed slaves for service . After the American Revolutionary War , Massachusetts effectively abolished slavery by the terms of its new constitution . By the 1790 census , no slaves were recorded in Massachusetts . African Americans became activists in the abolition movement , also working to gain racial equality and educational parity with whites . They engaged in political processes to meet their objectives .
Conclusion of the American Civil War
This is a timeline of the conclusion of the American Civil War which includes important battles , skirmishes , raids and other events of 1865 . These led to additional Confederate surrenders , key Confederate captures , and disbandments of Confederate military units that occurred after Gen. Robert E. Lee 's surrender on April 9 , 1865 .