vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of the Knights Templar
But in the early 1190s , in a remarkably short and powerfully effective campaign , Richard the Lionheart , King of England and leader of the Third Crusade , together with his allies the Templars , delivered a series of powerful blows against Saladin and recovered much of Christian territory . In name and number the revived Crusader states were as before , but their outlines were diminished . There was the Kingdom of Jerusalem , though its capital was at Acre , which the Templars made their new headquarters . To the north was the County of Tripoli . But the Muslims retained control of the Syrian coast around Latakia for some time , and so the Principality of Antioch further to the north was now no longer contiguous to the other Crusader states . Nevertheless , the Third Crusade , in which Richard relied heavily on the Templars , had saved the Holy Land for the Christians and went a long way towards restoring Frankish fortunes . In this he was abetted by the military orders , whose great castles stood like islands of Frankish power amid the Muslim torrent . More than ever the Crusader states were relying on the military orders in their castles and on the field of battle , and the power of the orders grew . In fact at no point in their history would the Templars be more powerful than in the century to come .
Yemen
Between 700 and 680 BC , the Kingdom of Awsan dominated Aden and its surroundings and challenged the Sabaean supremacy in the Arabian South . Sabaean Mukarrib Karib'il Watar I conquered the entire realm of Awsan , and expanded Sabaean rule and territory to include much of South Arabia . Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula . Instead , they established various colonies to control trade routes .
Colosseum
Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem . According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site , `` the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general 's share of the booty . '' Along with the spoils , estimated 100,000 Jewish prisoners were brought back to Rome after the war , and many contributed to the massive workforce needed for construction . The slaves undertook manual labor such as working in the quarries at Tivoli where the travertine was quarried , along with lifting and transporting the quarried stones 20 miles from Tivoli to Rome . Along with this free source of unskilled labor , teams of professional Roman builders , engineers , artists , painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum . The Colosseum was constructed with several different materials : wood , limestone , tuff , tiles , cement , and mortar .
Old City (Jerusalem)
Following the 1948 Arab - Israeli War , the Old City was captured by Jordan and all its Jewish residents were evicted . During the Six - Day War in 1967 , which saw hand - to - hand fighting on the Temple Mount , Israeli forces captured the Old City along with the rest of East Jerusalem , subsequently annexing them as Israeli territory and reuniting them with the western part of the city . Today , the Israeli government controls the entire area , which it considers part of its national capital . However , the Jerusalem Law of 1980 , which effectively annexed East Jerusalem to Israel , was declared null and void by United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 . East Jerusalem is now regarded by the international community as part of occupied Palestinian territory .
Sahara
Spain captured present - day Western Sahara after 1874 , although Rio del Oro remained largely under Sahrawi influence . In 1912 , Italy captured parts of what was to be named Libya from the Ottomans . To promote the Roman Catholic religion in the desert , Pope Pius IX appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan in 1868 ; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara .
Hellenistic period
During the Hellenistic period , Judea became a frontier region between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt and therefore was often the frontline of the Syrian wars , changing hands several times during these conflicts . Under the Hellenistic kingdoms , Judea was ruled by the hereditary office of the High Priest of Israel as a Hellenistic vassal . This period also saw the rise of a Hellenistic Judaism , which first developed in the Jewish diaspora of Alexandria and Antioch , and then spread to Judea . The major literary product of this cultural syncretism is the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible from Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic to Koiné Greek . The reason for the production of this translation seems to be that many of the Alexandrian Jews had lost the ability to speak Hebrew and Aramaic .
Hellenistic period
The kingdom grew to its largest extent under Mithridates VI , who conquered Colchis , Cappadocia , Paphlagonia , Bithynia , Lesser Armenia , the Bosporan Kingdom , the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos and , for a brief time , the Roman province of Asia . Mithridates VI , himself of mixed Persian and Greek ancestry , presented himself as the protector of the Greeks against the ' barbarians ' of Rome styling himself as `` King Mithridates Eupator Dionysus '' and as the `` great liberator '' . Mithridates also depicted himself with the anastole hairstyle of Alexander and used the symbolism of Herakles , from whom the Macedonian kings claimed descent . After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic wars , Pontus was defeated ; part of it was incorporated into the Roman Republic as the province of Bithynia , while Pontus ' eastern half survived as a client kingdom .
Western Roman Empire
After the death of Gratian , Valentinian II succeeded him , although he only controlled Italy itself , with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus . In 387 Maximus invaded Italy , to depose Valentinian . Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius , where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus , and to reinstate himself as Western Emperor , which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia . Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392 , when he was murdered by Arbogast .
Spice trade
In the second half of the first millennium BC the Arab tribes of South and West Arabia took control over the land trade of spices from South Arabia to the Mediterranean Sea . The tribes were the M'ain , Qataban , Hadhramaut , Saba and Himyarite . In the north the Nabateans took control of the trade route that crossed the Negev from Petra to Gaza . The trade made the Arab tribes very rich . The South Arabia region was called Eudaemon Arabia ( the elated Arabia ) by the Greeks and was on the agenda of conquests of Alexander of Macedonia before he died . The Indians and the Arabs had control over the sea trade with India . In the late second century BC , the Greeks from Egypt learned from the Indians how to sail directly from Aden to the West coast of India using the monsoon winds ( Hippalus ) and took control over the sea trade .
Horn of Africa
The Kingdom of Aksum ( also known as the Aksumite Empire ) was an ancient state located in the Eritrean highlands and Ethiopian highlands , which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE . A major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India , Aksum 's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency . The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula , eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom . Under Ezana ( fl. 320 -- 360 ) , the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt Christianity , and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time , along with Persia , Rome and China . Ancient
Lebanon
The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years , predating recorded history . Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites / Phoenicians and their kingdoms , a maritime culture that flourished for over a thousand years ( c. 1550 -- 539 BC ) . In 64 BC , the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire , and eventually became one of the Empire 's leading centers of Christianity . In the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established . As the Arab Muslims conquered the region , the Maronites held onto their religion and identity . However , a new religious group , the Druze , established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well , generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries . During the Crusades , the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church and asserted their communion with Rome . The ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era .
Western Roman Empire
Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire . Conquered tribes or cities would revolt , and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion . While this process was simple in peacetime , it could be considerably more complicated in wartime , as for example in the Great Jewish Revolt . In a full - blown military campaign , the legions , under generals such as Vespasian , were far more numerous . To ensure a commander 's loyalty , a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general 's family hostage . To this end , Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis , governor of Ostia , who were respectively the younger son and brother - in - law of Vespasian . The rule of Nero ended only with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard , who had been bribed in the name of Galba . The Praetorian Guard , a figurative `` sword of Damocles '' , were often perceived as being of dubious loyalty , primarily due their roles in court intrigues and their participation in overthrowing several emperors , such as Pertinax and Aurelian . Following their example , the legions at the borders increased participation in the civil wars . For instance , legions stationed in Egypt and the eastern provinces would see significant participation in the civil war of 218 between Emperor Macrinus and Elagabalus .
Crusades
Egypt was ruled by the Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty from 969 , independent from the Sunni Abbasid rulers in Baghdad and with a rival Shi'ite caliph -- considered the successor to the Muslim prophet Mohammad . The caliph 's chief administrator , called the vizier , was chiefly responsible for governance . From 1121 the system fell into murderous political intrigue and Egypt declined from its previous affluent state . This encouraged Baldwin III of Jerusalem to plan an invasion that was only halted by the payment by Egypt of a tribute of 160,000 gold dinars . In 1163 the deposed vizier , Shawar , visited Zengi 's son and successor , Nur ad - Din , atabeg of Aleppo , in Damascus seeking political and military support . Some historians have considered Nur ad - Din 's support as a visionary attempt to surround the Crusaders , but in practice he prevaricated before responding only when it became clear that the Crusaders might gain an unassailable foothold on the Nile . Nur al - Din sent his Kurdish general , Shirkuh , who stormed Egypt and restored Shawar . However , Shawar asserted his independence and allied with Baldwin 's brother and successor Amalric of Jerusalem . When Amalric broke the alliance in a ferocious attack , Shawar again requested military support from Syria , and Shirkuh was sent by Nur ad - Din for a second time . Amalric retreated , but the victorious Shirkuh had Shawar executed and was appointed vizier . Barely two months later he died , to be succeeded by his nephew , Yusuf ibn Ayyub , who has become known by his honorific ' Salah al - Din ' , ' the goodness of faith ' , which in turn has become westernised as Saladin . Nur al - Din died in 1174 . He was the first Muslim to unite Aleppo and Damascus in the Crusade era . Some Islamic contemporaries promoted the idea that there was a natural Islamic resurgence under Zengi , through Nur al - Din to Saladin although this was not as straightforward and simple as it appears . Saladin imprisoned all the caliph 's heirs , preventing them from having children , as opposed to having them all killed , which would have been normal practice , to extinguish the bloodline . Assuming control after the death of his overlord , Nur al - Din , Saladin had the strategic choice of establishing Egypt as an autonomous power or attempting to become the preeminent Muslim in the Eastern Mediterranean -- he chose the latter . Detail
North Africa
After the Middle Ages the area was loosely under the control of the Ottoman Empire , except Morocco . The Spanish Empire conquered several coastal cities between the 16th and 18th centuries . After the 19th century , the imperial and colonial presence of France , the United Kingdom , Spain and Italy left the entirety of the region under one form of European occupation .
Crusades
The French , led by Charles , similarly sought to expand their influence ; Charles seized Sicily and Byzantine territory while marrying his daughters to the Latin claimants to Byzantium . To create his own claim to the throne of Jerusalem , Charles executed one rival and purchased the rights to the city from another . In 1270 Charles turned his brother King Louis IX 's last Crusade , known as the Eighth Crusade , to his own advantage by persuading Louis to attack his rebel Arab vassals in Tunis . Louis ' army was devastated by disease , and Louis himself died at Tunis on 25 August . Louis ' fleet returned to France , leaving only Prince Edward , the future king of England , and a small retinue to continue what is known as the Ninth Crusade . Edward survived an assassination attempt organised by Baibars , negotiated a ten - year truce , and then returned to manage his affairs in England . This ended the last significant crusading effort in the Eastern Mediterranean . The 1281 election of a French pope , Martin IV , brought the full power of the papacy into line behind Charles . He prepared to launch a crusade against Constantinople but , in what became known as the Sicilian Vespers , an uprising fomented by Michael VIII Palaiologos deprived him of the resources of Sicily , and Peter III of Aragon was proclaimed king of Sicily . In response , Martin excommunicated Peter and called for an Aragonese Crusade , which was unsuccessful . In 1285 Charles died , having spent his life trying to amass a Mediterranean empire ; he and Louis had viewed themselves as God 's instruments to uphold the papacy .
Crusades
On a popular level , the First Crusade unleashed a wave of impassioned , pious Catholic fury -- expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied the Crusades and the violent treatment of the `` schismatic '' Orthodox Christians of the east which occurred at Antioch . The Islamic world seems to have barely registered the Crusade ; certainly there is limited written evidence before 1130 . This may be in part due to a reluctance to relate Muslim failure , but it is more likely to be the result of cultural misunderstanding . Al - Afdal and the Muslim world mistook the Crusaders for the latest in a long line of Byzantine mercenaries rather than religiously motivated warriors intent on conquest and settlement . In any case , the Muslim world was divided between the Sunnis of Syria and Iraq and the Shia Fatimids of Egypt . Even the Turks were divided , with rival rulers in Damascus and Aleppo . In Baghdad the Seljuk sultan vied with an Abbasid caliph in a Mesopotamian struggle . This gave the Franks a crucial opportunity to consolidate without any pan-Islamic counterattack .
Spice trade
The Greco - Roman world followed by trading along the Incense route and the Roman - India routes . During the first millennium , the sea routes to India and Sri Lanka ( the Roman -- Taprobane ) were controlled by the Indians and Ethiopians who became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea . The Kingdom of Axum ( c. 5th - century BC -- AD 11th century ) had pioneered the Red Sea route before the 1st century AD . By mid-7th century AD after the rise of Islam , Arab traders started dominating the maritime routes .
History of the Roman Empire
Julian died childless and with no designated successor . The officers of his army elected the rather obscure officer Jovian emperor . He is remembered for signing an unfavourable peace treaty with Persia , ceding territories won from the Persians , dating back to Trajan . He restored the privileges of Christianity . He is considered a Christian himself , though little is known of his beliefs . Jovian himself died on February 17 , 364 .
Hellenistic period
Succeeding his father , Alexander took over the Persian war himself . During a decade of campaigning , Alexander conquered the whole Persian Empire , overthrowing the Persian king Darius III . The conquered lands included Asia Minor , Assyria , the Levant , Egypt , Mesopotamia , Media , Persia , and parts of modern - day Afghanistan , Pakistan , and the steppes of central Asia . The years of constant campaigning had taken their toll however , and Alexander died in 323 BC .
Alaşehir
Philadelphia was an independent , neutral city under the influence of the Latin Knights of Rhodes , when taken in 1390 by Sultan Bayezid I and an auxiliary Christian force under the Byzantine emperor Manuel II after a prolonged resistance , by which time all the other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered to the Ottomans . Manuel had been forced by Bayezid to participate in subjugating Philadelphia to Turkish rule , a bitter irony given its long resistance . Twelve years later it was captured by Timur , who built a wall with the corpses of his prisoners .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Concerned over the growing independence of his Balkan Christian vassals , Musa turned on them . Unfortunately , he alienated the Islamic bureaucratic and commercial classes in his Balkan lands by continually favoring the lower social elements to gain wide popular support . Alarmed , the Balkan Christian vassal rulers turned to Mehmed , as did the chief Ottoman military , religious , and commercial leaders . In 1412 Mehmed invaded the Balkans , took Sofia and Nis , and joined forces with Lazarevicys Serbs . The following year Mehmed decisively defeated Musa outside of Sofia . Musa was killed , and Mehmed I ( 1413 -- 21 ) emerged as the sole ruler of a reunited Ottoman state .
Military history of Australia during World War I
The Australian mounted troops took part the Capture of Jerusalem in late 1917 . These operations included two battles fought in the Judean Hills ; the Battle of Nebi Samwil from 17 to 24 November and the Defence of Jerusalem from 26 to 30 December and another fought on the maritime plain ; the subsidiary Battle of Jaffa on 21 -- 22 December 1917 . This series of battles involved the British Empire 's XX Corps , XXI Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps fighting the Turkish 7th Army in the Judean Hills and the 8th Army north of Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast .
Crossing the Red Sea
The theme of Moses crossing the Red Sea was taken up by the panegyrists of Constantine the Great and applied to the battle of the Milvian Bridge ( 312 ) . The theme enjoyed a vogue during the fourth century on carved sarcophagi : at least twenty - nine have survived in full or in fragments . Eusebius of Caesarea cast Maxentius , drowned in the Tiber , in the role of Pharaoh , both in his Ecclesiastical History and in his eulogistic Life of Constantine .
A Child's Garden of Verses
A Child 's Garden of Verses is a collection of poetry for children about darkness and solitude by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson . The collection first appeared in 1885 under the title Penny Whistles , but has been reprinted many times , often in illustrated versions . It contains about 65 poems including the cherished classics `` Foreign Children , '' `` The Lamplighter , '' `` The Land of Counterpane , '' `` Bed in Summer , '' `` My Shadow '' and `` The Swing . ''
A Child's Garden of Verses
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A Child's Garden of Verses
The classical scholar Terrot Reaveley Glover published a translation of the poems into Latin in 1922 under the title Carmina non prius audita de ludis et hortis virginibus puerisque .
A Child's Garden of Verses
Disneyland Record released a LP record of the poems set to music . Gwyn Conger wrote the music which was performed by Francis Archer and Beverly Gile . The Italian composer Carlo Deri composed , in 2005 , a song for voice and piano , The Unseen Playmate , on Stevenson 's poem . This song is also included in Deri 's one - act opera Markheim ( 2008 ) . The contemporary Lithuanian composer Giedrius Alkauskas ( b . 1978 ) arranged five poems -- `` The Wind '' ( two alternative arrangements ) , `` Rain '' , `` Singing '' , `` Marching Song '' , and `` At the Sea - side '' -- as a six - song cycle , `` A Child 's Garden of Songs '' , for mezzo - soprano , piano , and trumpet in B ♭ , released in 2014 .
A Child's Garden of Verses
To Alison Cunningham Bed in Summer A Thought At the Sea - side Young Night Thought Whole Duty of Children Rain Pirate Story ( poem ) Foreign Lands Windy Nights Travelling Singing Looking Forward A Good Play Where Go the Boats ? Auntie 's Skirts The Land of Counterpane The Land of Nod My Shadow System A Good Boy Escape at Bedtime Marching Song The Cow Happy Thought The Wind Keepsake Mill Good and Bad Children Foreign Children The Sun 's Travels The Lamplighter My Bed is a Boat The Moon The Swing Time to Rise Looking - glass River Fairy Bread From a Railway Carriage Winter - time The Hayloft Farewell to the Farm Northwest Passage : Good Night , Shadow March , In Port
A Child's Garden of Verses
Night and Day Nest Eggs The Flowers Summer Sun The Dumb Soldier Autumn Fires The Gardener Historical Associations
A Child's Garden of Verses
To Willie and Henrietta To My Mother To Auntie To Minnie To My Name - child To Any Reader
A Child's Garden of Verses
The Unseen Playmate My Ship and I My Kingdom Picture - books in Winter My Treasures Block City The Land of Story - books Armies in the Fire The Little Land
Romanticism
Thomas Cole , Childhood , one of the 4 scenes in The Voyage of Life , 1842 William Blake , Albion Rose , 1794 - 5 Louis Janmot , from his series `` The Poem of the Soul '' , before 1854 Thomas Cole , 1842 , The Voyage of Life Old Age
Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary
Roald Dahl parodied the nursery rhyme in his poetry book Rhyme Stew ( 1989 ) , where Mary responds to the narrator that she is unable to tell how her garden grows , since : `` I live with my brat in a high - rise flat , so how in the world should I know ? ! ''