vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Cremation
In Europe , there are traces of cremation dating to the Early Bronze Age ( c. 2000 BCE ) in the Pannonian Plain and along the middle Danube . The custom became dominant throughout Bronze Age Europe with the Urnfield culture ( from c. 1300 BCE ) . In the Iron Age , inhumation again becomes more common , but cremation persisted in the Villanovan culture and elsewhere . Homer 's account of Patroclus ' burial describes cremation with subsequent burial in a tumulus , similar to Urnfield burials , and qualifying as the earliest description of cremation rites . This may be an anachronism , as during Mycenaean times burial was generally preferred , and Homer may have been reflecting the more common use of cremation at the time the Iliad was written , centuries later .
History of United States prison systems
By the second decade of the nineteenth century every state except North Carolina , South Carolina , and Florida had amended its criminal code to provide for incarceration ( primarily at hard labor ) as the primary punishment for all but the most serious offenses . Provincial laws in Massachusetts began to prescribe short terms in the workhouse for deterrence throughout the eighteenth century and , by mid-century , the first statutes mandating long - term hard labor in the workhouse as a penal sanction appeared . In New York , a 1785 bill , restricted in effect to New York City , authorized municipal officials to substitute up to six months ' hard labor in the workhouse in all cases where prior law had mandated corporal punishment . In 1796 , an additional bill expanded this program to the entire state of New York . Pennsylvania established a hard labor law in 1786 . Hard - labor programs expanded to New Jersey in 1797 , to Virginia in 1796 , to Kentucky in 1798 , and to Vermont , New Hampshire , and Maryland in 1800 .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
On 30 October 1991 , one of two backup generators of Reactor 1 failed , after flooding in the reactor 's basement . Seawater used for cooling leaked into the turbine building from a corroded pipe at 20 cubic meters per hour , as reported by former employees in December 2011 . An engineer was quoted as saying that he informed his superiors of the possibility that a tsunami could damage the generators . TEPCO installed doors to prevent water from leaking into the generator rooms .
Karachi
When it comes to sports Karachi has a distinction , because some sources cite that it was in 1877 at Karachi in ( British ) India , where the first attempt was made to form a set of rules of badminton and likely place is said to Frere Hall .
Rhode Island
Pelham Street in Newport was the first in America to be illuminated by gaslight in 1806 . The first strike in the United States in which women participated occurred in Pawtucket in 1824 . Watch Hill has the nation 's oldest flying horses carousel that has been in continuous operation since 1850 . The motion picture machine ( a machine showing animated pictures ) was patented in Providence on April 23 , 1867 . The first lunch wagon in America was introduced in Providence in 1872 . The first nine - hole golf course in America was completed in Newport in 1890 . The first state health laboratory was established in Providence on September 1 , 1894 . The Rhode Island State House was the first building with an all - marble dome to be built in the United States ( 1895 -- 1901 ) . The first automobile race on a track was held in Cranston on September 7 , 1896 . The first automobile parade was held in Newport on September 7 , 1899 on the grounds of Belcourt Castle .
History of United States prison systems
The jail was built in 1690 by order of Plimouth and Massachusetts Bay Colony Courts . Used as a jail from 1690 -- 1820 ; at one time moved and attached to the Constable 's home . The ' Old Gaol ' was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 .
Jamestown, Virginia
The settlers also arrived too late in the year to get crops planted . Many in the group were either gentlemen unused to work or their manservants , both equally unaccustomed to the hard labor demanded by the harsh task of carving out a viable colony . One of these was Robert Hunt , a former vicar of Reculver , England who celebrated the first known Eucharist in the territory of the future United States on June 21 , 1607 .
Carthage
In 1920 , the first seaplane base was built on the Lake of Tunis for the seaplanes of Compagnie Aéronavale . The Tunis Airfield opened in 1938 , serving around 5,800 passengers annually on the Paris - Tunis route . During World War II , the airport was used by the United States Army Air Force Twelfth Air Force as a headquarters and command control base for the Italian Campaign of 1943 . Construction on the Tunis - Carthage Airport , which was fully funded by France , began in 1944 , and in 1948 the airport become the main hub for Tunisair .
History of calendars
Marcus Terentius Varro introduced the Ab urbe condita epoch , assuming a foundation of Rome in 753 BC . The system remained in use during the early Middle Ages until the widespread adoption of the Dionysian era in the Carolingian period .
New Amsterdam
New Amsterdam ( Dutch : Nieuw Amsterdam , pronounced ( ˌniʋɑmstərˈdɑm ) or ( ˌniuˈʔɑms - ) ) was a 17th - century Dutch settlement established at the southern tip of Manhattan Island that served as the seat of the colonial government in New Netherland . The factorij became a settlement outside Fort Amsterdam . The fort was situated on the strategic southern tip of the island of Manhattan and was meant to defend the fur trade operations of the Dutch West India Company in the North River ( Hudson River ) . In 1624 , it became a provincial extension of the Dutch Republic and was designated as the capital of the province in 1625 .
First Transcontinental Railroad
Paddle steamers linked Sacramento to the cities and their harbor facilities in the San Francisco Bay until 1869 , when the CPRR completed and opened the WP grade ( which the CPRR had acquired control of in 1867 -- 68 ) to Alameda and Oakland .
Early skyscrapers
The first skyscrapers were mainly occupied by male workers , but this changed during the 1890s , with female employees becoming more common . The percentage of female clerical workers in Chicago , for example , increased from 11 percent in 1880 to 21 percent by 1890 , reaching 30 percent by 1900 . Various moral concerns were raised about men and women mixing in such offices , which were characterized as being masculine spaces , full of tobacco smoke and profanity and therefore unsuitable for women . The new female workers typically worked as typists or stenographers , using the recently invented typewriter , which grew in number in U.S. offices from 146 in 1879 to 65,000 by 1890 .
Kīlauea
The next era of Kīlauea 's history began with the establishment of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory on the volcano 's rim in 1912 . The first permanent such installation in the United States , the observatory was the brainchild of Thomas Jaggar , head of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; after witnessing the devastation of the 1908 Messina earthquake near Mount Etna in Italy , he declared that something must be done to support systematic volcanic and seismic study , and chose Kīlauea as the site of the first such establishment . After securing initial funding from MIT and the University of Hawaii , Jaggar took directorship of the observatory and , whilst its head between 1912 and 1940 , pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of active volcanoes . After initial funding ran out , the Observatory was successively funded by the National Weather Service , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , and the National Park Service , before settling on the USGS , under whose banner the observatory has been operating since 1947 . The main building has been moved twice since establishment , and today is positioned on the northwest rim of Kīlauea 's caldera .
Barbados
The first English ship , which had arrived on 14 May 1625 , was captained by John Powell . The first settlement began on 17 February 1627 , near what is now Holetown ( formerly Jamestown ) , by a group led by John Powell 's younger brother , Henry , consisting of 80 settlers and 10 English labourers . The latter were young indentured labourers who according to some sources had been abducted , effectively making them slaves .
San Jose, California
In April 1909 , Charles David Herrold , an electronics instructor in San Jose , constructed a radio station to broadcast the human voice . The station , `` San Jose Calling '' ( call letters FN , later FQW ) , was the world 's first radio station with scheduled programming targeted at a general audience . The station became the first to broadcast music in 1910 . Herrold 's wife Sybil became the first female `` disk jockey '' in 1912 . The station changed hands a number of times before eventually becoming today 's KCBS in San Francisco . Therefore , KCBS technically is the oldest radio station in the United States , and celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2009 with much fanfare .
Capital punishment in Australia
The first execution under British law was that of Midgegooroo , who on 22 May 1833 was executed by firing squad while bound to the door of the original Perth Gaol . John Gavin , a Parkhurst apprentice , was the first British settler to be executed in Western Australia . In 1844 he was hanged for murder at the Fremantle Round House , at the age of fifteen . Bridget Larkin was the first woman to be executed in Western Australia , for the murder of John Hurford , in 1855 .
History of United States prison systems
Eugenics studies of the day aimed to prevent the extinction or genetic deterioration of mankind through restraints on reproduction , according to author Scott Christianson . In the mid-1890s , the Kansas `` Home for the Feeble - Minded '' began performing mass castrations on all of its residents . And Indiana became the first state to enact a compulsory sterilization act for certain mentally ill and criminal persons in 1907 . John D. Rockefeller Jr. , a eugenics devotee , became involved in social Darwinist experiments in New York . In the 1910s , Rockefeller created the Bureau for Social Hygiene , which conducted experiments on female prisoners , with the state 's consent and financial support , to determine the roots of their criminality and `` mental defectiveness . '' Failure
Addicks Reservoir
The Addicks Reservoir and Addicks Dam in conjunction with the Barker Reservoir prevent downstream flooding of Buffalo Bayou in the City of Houston . Both reservoirs were authorized under the Rivers and Harbors Act of June 20 , 1938 , which was modified by the Flood Control Acts of August 11 , 1938 ; September 3 , 1954 ; and October 27 , 1965 .
Cremation
In the Netherlands , the foundation of the Association for Optional Cremation in 1874 ushered in a long debate about the merits and demerits of cremation . Laws against cremation were challenged and invalidated in 1915 ( two years after the construction of the first crematorium in the Netherlands ) , though cremation did not become legally recognised until 1955 .
Blue Nile
The first European to have seen the Blue Nile in Ethiopia and the river 's source was Pedro Páez , a Spanish Jesuit who reached the river 's source 21 April 1613 . Nevertheless , the Portuguese João Bermudes , the self - described `` Patriarch of Ethiopia '' , provided the first description of the Blue Nile Falls in his memoirs published in 1565 , and a number of Europeans who lived in Ethiopia in the late 15th century such as Pêro da Covilhã could have seen the river long before Páez , but not reached its places of source .
Blue Nile
In November 2012 , Ethiopia began a six - year project for the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam , a 6000 - megawatt hydroelectric dam on the river . The dam is expected to be a boost for the Ethiopian economy . Sudan and Egypt , meanwhile , voiced their concern over a potential reduction in water available .
Manhattan Project
In March 1943 , DuPont began construction of a plutonium plant on a 112 - acre ( 0.5 km ) site at Oak Ridge . Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford , it included the air - cooled X-10 Graphite Reactor , a chemical separation plant , and support facilities . Because of the subsequent decision to construct water - cooled reactors at Hanford , only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot . The X-10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite , 24 feet ( 7.3 m ) long on each side , weighing around 1,500 short tons ( 1,400 t ) , surrounded by 7 feet ( 2.1 m ) of high - density concrete as a radiation shield .
Manhattan Project
Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant , which came to be called Y - 12 , was assigned to Stone & Webster by the S - 1 Committee in June 1942 . The design called for five first - stage processing units , known as Alpha racetracks , and two units for final processing , known as Beta racetracks . In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks , known as Alpha II . Construction began in February 1943 .
Digboi
Mr. Goodenough of McKillop , Stewart & Co . Calcutta was the first in India to start a systematic programme of drilling for oil in November 1866 , at Nahorpung about 30 miles ( 48 km ) south east of Dibgoi , just seven years after the world 's first commercial oil well was drilled in 1859 , by Col Edwin L Drake in Pennsylvania , USA . This hand dug well -- the first oil well in India -- was drilled up to 102 feet ( 31 m ) and proved dry . However the second well struck oil at Makum near Tinsukia , about 14 miles ( 23 km ) from Digboi .
United States Postal Service
The Post Office Department owned and operated the first public telegraph lines in the United States , starting in 1844 from Washington to Baltimore , and eventually extending to New York , Boston , Buffalo , and Philadelphia . In 1847 the telegraph system was privatized , except for a period during World War I , when it was used to accelerate the delivery of letters arriving at night .
Jamestown, Virginia
The Jamestown settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas . It was located on the east bank of the Powhatan ( James ) River about 2.5 mi ( 4 km ) southwest of the center of modern Williamsburg . William Kelso writes that Jamestown `` is where the British Empire began '' . It was established by the Virginia Company of London as `` James Fort '' on May 4 , 1607 O.S. ; ( May 14 , 1607 N.S. ) , and was considered permanent after brief abandonment in 1610 . It followed several failed attempts , including the Lost Colony of Roanoke , established in 1585 on Roanoke Island . Jamestown served as the capital of the colony of Virginia for 83 years , from 1616 until 1699 .
Mexico City
During this era of Porfirian rule , the city underwent an extensive modernization . Many Spanish Colonial style buildings were destroyed , replaced by new much larger Porfirian institutions and many outlying rural zones were transformed into urban or industrialized districts with most having electrical , gas and sewage utilities by 1908 . While the initial focus was on developing modern hospitals , schools , factories and massive public works , perhaps the most long - lasting effects of the Porfirian modernization were creation of the Colonia Roma area and the development of Reforma Avenue . Many of Mexico City 's major attractions and landmarks were built during this era in this style .
History of United States prison systems
The rise and decline of the Elmira Reformatory in New York during the latter part of the nineteenth century represents the most ambitious attempt in the Reconstruction Era to fulfill the goals set by the National Congress in the Declaration of Principles . Built in 1876 , the Elmira institution was designed to hold first - time felons , between the ages of sixteen and thirty , who were serving an indeterminate term of imprisonment set by their sentencing judge . Elmira inmates had to earn their way out of the institution through good behavior , as assessed through an elaborate grading system . The only limits on inmates ' terms of imprisonment were whatever upper threshold the legislature set for their offense .
Coffee
In the 17th century , coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire , and coffeehouses were established and quickly became popular . The first coffeehouses in Western Europe appeared in Venice , as a result of the traffic between La Serenissima and the Ottomans ; the very first one is recorded in 1645 . The first coffeehouse in England was set up in Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob in the building now known as `` The Grand Cafe '' . A plaque on the wall still commemorates this and the Cafe is now a trendy cocktail bar . By 1675 , there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England .
Great Salt Lake
The first Saltair pavilion was destroyed by fire on April 22 , 1925 . A new pavilion was built and the resort was expanded at the same location by new investors , but after years of various challenges , it was eventually destroyed by an arsonist in 1970 .
Germ theory of disease
Later , researchers discovered that this public well had been dug only three feet from an old cesspit , which had begun to leak fecal bacteria . The diapers of a baby , who had contracted cholera from another source , had been washed into this cesspit . Its opening was originally under a nearby house , which had been rebuilt farther away after a fire . The city had widened the street and the cesspit was lost . It was common at the time to have a cesspit under most homes . Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil .
Belvedere, Vienna
Records indicate that the construction of the Lower Belvedere had started by 1712 , as Prince Eugene submitted the request for a building inspection on 5 July 1713 . Work proceeded swiftly , and Marcantonio Chiarini from Bologna started painting the quadratura in the central hall in 1715 . The ambassador from the Spanish Flanders visited the Lower Belvedere , as well as the Stadtpalais , in April 1716 . Extensive work was carried out on the grounds at the same time as construction went ahead on the Lustschloss , as the Lower Belvedere was described on an early cityscape . Dominique Girard changed the plans for the garden significantly between January and May 1717 , so that it could be completed by the following summer . Girard , who was employed as fontainier du roi , or the king 's water engineer , in Versailles from 1707 -- 15 , had started working as a garden inspector for the Bavarian elector Maximilian Emanuel from 1715 onwards . It was on the latter 's recommendation that he entered Prince Eugene 's employ . The statuary for the balustrade is the best known work of Giovanni Stanetti .
History of Maryland
As did other colonies , Maryland used the headright system to encourage people to bring in new settlers . Led by Leonard Calvert , Cecil Calvert 's younger brother , the first settlers departed from Cowes , on the Isle of Wight , on November 22 , 1633 , aboard two small ships , the Ark and the Dove . Their landing on March 25 , 1634 , at St. Clement 's Island in southern Maryland is commemorated by the state each year on that date as Maryland Day . This was the site of the first Catholic mass in the Colonies , with Father Andrew White leading the service . The first group of colonists consisted of 17 gentlemen and their wives , and about two hundred others , mostly indentured servants .
History of education in the United States
The earliest continually operating school for girls in the United States is the Catholic Ursuline Academy in New Orleans . It was founded in 1727 by the Sisters of the Order of Saint Ursula . The Academy graduated the first female pharmacist , and the first woman to write a book of literary merit . The first convent established in the United States supported the Academy . This was the first free school and first retreat center for young women . It was the first school to teach free women of color , Native Americans , and female African - American slaves . In the region , Ursuline provided the first center of social welfare in the Mississippi Valley ; and it was the first boarding school for girls in Louisiana , and the first school of music in New Orleans .
Fuel cell
The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838 . In a letter dated October 1838 but published in the December 1838 edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science , Welsh physicist and barrister William Grove wrote about the development of his first crude fuel cells . He used a combination of sheet iron , copper and porcelain plates , and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid . In a letter to the same publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839 , German physicist Christian Friedrich Schönbein discussed the first crude fuel cell that he had invented . His letter discussed current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water . Grove later sketched his design , in 1842 , in the same journal . The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today 's phosphoric - acid fuel cell .
Osmosis
Jean - Antoine Nollet first documented observation of osmosis in 1748 . The word `` osmosis '' descends from the words `` endosmose '' and `` exosmose '' , which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet ( 1776 -- 1847 ) from the Greek words ἔνδον ( éndon `` within '' ) , ἔξω ( éxō `` outer , external '' ) , and ὠσμός ( ōsmós `` push , impulsion '' ) .
History of Maryland
In 1827 city leaders obtained a charter from the Maryland General Assembly to build a railroad to the Ohio River . The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ( B&O ) became the first chartered railroad in the United States , and opened its first section of track for regular operation in 1830 , between Baltimore and Ellicott City . It became the first company to operate a locomotive built in America , with the Tom Thumb . The B&O built a branch line to Washington , D.C. in 1835 . The main line west reached Cumberland in 1842 , beating the C&O Canal there by eight years , and the railroad continued building westward . In 1852 it became the first rail line to reach the Ohio River from the eastern seaboard . Other railroads were built in and through Baltimore by mid-century , most significantly the Northern Central ; the Philadelphia , Wilmington and Baltimore ; and the Baltimore and Potomac . ( All of these came under the control of the Pennsylvania Railroad . ) Industrial
Manhattan Project
Kellex 's design for K - 25 called for a four - story 0.5 - mile ( 0.80 km ) long U-shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings . These were divided into nine sections . Within these were cells of six stages . The cells could be operated independently , or consecutively within a section . Similarly , the sections could be operated separately or as part of a single cascade . A survey party began construction by marking out the 500 - acre ( 2.0 km ) site in May 1943 . Work on the main building began in October 1943 , and the six - stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944 . In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages of the plant , directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540 - stage side feed unit , which became known as K - 27 . Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor , Union Carbide and Carbon , on 11 September 1945 . The total cost , including the K - 27 plant completed after the war , came to $480 million .
History of New York (state)
In 1614 , the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Christiaensen , built Fort Nassau ( now Albany ) the first Dutch settlement in North America and the first European settlement in what would become New York . It was replaced by nearby Fort Orange ( New Netherland ) in 1623 .