vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Celtic Britons
Wales , Cornwall and Brittany continued to retain a distinct Brittonic culture , identity and language , which they have maintained to the present day . The Welsh language and Breton language remain widely spoken , and the Cornish language , once close to extinction , has experienced a revival since the 20th century . The vast majority of place names and names of geographical features in Wales , Cornwall and Brittany are Brittonic , and Brittonic family and personal names remain common .
Lithuania
The Lithuanian language is considered to be very conservative for its close connection to Indo - European roots . It is believed to have differentiated from the Latvian language , the most closely related existing language , around the 7th century . Traditional Lithuanian pagan customs and mythology , with many archaic elements , were long preserved . Rulers ' bodies were cremated up until the conversion to Christianity : the descriptions of the cremation ceremonies of the grand dukes Algirdas and Kęstutis have survived . The
Mesolithic
As the `` Neolithic package '' ( including farming , herding , polished stone axes , timber longhouses and pottery ) spread into Europe , the Mesolithic way of life was marginalized and eventually disappeared . Mesolithic adaptations such as sedentism , population size and use of plant foods are cited as evidence of the transition to agriculture . In one sample from the Blätterhöhle in Hagen , it seems that the descendants of Mesolithic people maintained a foraging lifestyle for more than 2000 years after the arrival of farming societies in the area ; such societies may be called `` Subneolithic '' . In north - Eastern Europe , the hunting and fishing lifestyle continued into the Medieval period in regions less suited to agriculture , and in Scandinavia no Mesolithic period may be accepted , with the locally preferred `` Older Stone Age '' moving into the `` Younger Stone Age '' .
History of Australia (1788–1850)
In 1792 , two French ships , La Recherche and L'Espérance anchored in a harbour near Tasmania 's southernmost point they called Recherche Bay . This was at a time when Britain and France were trying to be the first to discover and colonise Australia . The expedition carried scientists and cartographers , gardeners , artists and hydrographers who , variously , planted , identified , mapped , marked , recorded and documented the environment and the people of the new lands that they encountered at the behest of the fledgling Société D'Histoire Naturelle .
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC . It has been identified as having `` inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel , the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script , mathematics , astronomy and agriculture . ''
History of West Africa
In the fifth millennium , as the ancestors of modern West Africans began entering the area , the development of sedentary farming began to take place in West Africa , with evidences of domesticated cattle having been found for this period , along with limited cereal crops . Around 3000 BCE , a major change began to take place in West , with the invention of harpoons and fish - hooks .
History of Native Americans in the United States
The history of Native Americans in the United States began in ancient times tens of thousands of years ago with the settlement of the Americas by the Paleo - Indians . Anthropologists and archeologists have identified and studied a wide variety of cultures that existed during this era . Their subsequent contact with Europeans had a profound impact on their history of the people
Celtic Britons
Wales and Brittany remained independent for some time however , with Brittany finally being absorbed into France during the 1490s , and Wales united with England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 -- 1542 in the mid 16th century during the rule of the Tudors ( Twdyr ) , who were themselves of Welsh heritage on the male side .
Lithuania
Since the Neolithic period the native inhabitants of the Lithuanian territory have not been replaced by any other ethnic group , so there is a high probability that the inhabitants of present - day Lithuania have preserved the genetic composition of their forebears relatively undisturbed by the major demographic movements , although without being actually isolated from them . The Lithuanian population appears to be relatively homogeneous , without apparent genetic differences among ethnic subgroups .
European exploration of Africa
As early as 1530 , English merchant adventurers started trading in West Africa , coming into conflict with Portuguese troops . In 1581 , Francis Drake reached the Cape of Good Hope . In 1663 , the English built Fort James in Gambia . One year later , another English colonial expedition attempted to settle southern Madagascar , resulting in the death of most of the colonists . The English forts on the West African coast were eventually taken by the Dutch .
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado
Scholars differ in their opinions as to which historical Indian group were the Teyas . A plurality believe they were Caddoan speakers and related to the Wichita . The place where Vázquez de Coronado found the Teyas has also been debated . The mystery may have been cleared up -- to the satisfaction of some -- by the discovery of a likely Vázquez de Coronado campsite . While Vázquez de Coronado was in the canyon country , his army suffered one of the violent climatic events so common on the plains . `` A tempest came up one afternoon with a very high wind and hail ... The hail broke many tents and tattered many helmets , and wounded many of the horses , and broke all the crockery of the army , and the gourds which was no small loss . ''
Ancient Roman architecture
There was considerable local variation in style , as Roman architects often tried to incorporate elements the population expected in its sacred architecture . This was especially the case in Egypt and the Near East , where different traditions of large stone temples were already millennia old . The Romano - Celtic temple was a simple style for small temples found in the Western Empire , and by far the most common type in Roman Britain . It often lacked any of the distinctive classical features , and may have had considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the Celtic religion .
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
When has it ever happened , either in ancient or modern times , that such amazing exploits have been achieved ? Over so many climes , across so many seas , over such distances by land , to subdue the unseen and unknown ? Whose deeds can be compared with those of Spain ? Not even the ancient Greeks and Romans . --
Cave painting
In 2002 , a French archaeological team discovered the Laas Geel cave paintings on the outskirts of Hargeisa in the northwestern region of Somaliland . Dating back around 5,000 years , the paintings depict both wild animals and decorated cows . They also feature herders , who are believed to be the creators of the rock art . In 2008 , Somali archaeologists announced the discovery of other cave paintings in Dhambalin region , which the researchers suggest includes one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback . The rock art is in the Ethiopian - Arabian style , dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE .
History of Maryland
The recorded history of Maryland dates back to the beginning of European exploration , starting with the Venetian John Cabot , who explored the coast of North America for England in 1498 . The first European settlements were made in 1634 , when the English arrived in significant numbers and created a permanent colony . Maryland was notable for having been established with religious freedom for Roman Catholics . Like other colonies of the Chesapeake Bay , its economy was based on tobacco as a commodity crop , cultivated primarily by African slave labor , although many young people came from Britain as indentured servants in the early years .
Indo-Roman trade relations
Muziris is a lost port city on the south - western coast of India which was a major center of trade in the ancient Tamil land between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire . Its location is generally identified with modern - day Cranganore ( central Kerala ) . Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of amphorae found at the town of Pattanam ( near Cranganore ) have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city .
Pre-Columbian era
The Cañari were the indigenous natives of today 's Ecuadorian provinces of Cañar and Azuay . They were an elaborate civilization with advanced architecture and complex religious beliefs . The Inca destroyed and burned most of their remains . The Cañari 's old city was replaced twice , first by the Incan city of Tumebamba and later on the same site by the colonial city of Cuenca . The city was also believed to be the site of El Dorado , the city of gold from the mythology of Colombia . ( see Cuenca )
Celtic music
There is also tremendous variation between Celtic regions . Ireland , Scotland , Brittany and Wales have living traditions of language and music , and there has been a recent major revival of interest in Celtic heritage in Cornwall and the Isle of Man . Galicia has a Celtic language revival movement to revive the Q - Celtic Gallaic language used into Roman times . Most of the Iberian Peninsula had a similar Celtic language in pre-Roman times . A Brythonic language was used in parts of Galicia and Asturias into early Medieval times brought by Britons fleeing the Anglo - Saxon invasions via Brittany . The Romance language currently spoken in Galicia , Galician ( Galego ) is closely related to the Portuguese language used mainly in Brazil and Portugal . Galician music is claimed to be Celtic . The same is true of the music of Asturias , Cantabria , and that of Northern Portugal ( some say even traditional music from Central Portugal can be labeled Celtic ) .
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
The first brief European contact with lolundland and Labrador came about 1000 AD when the Vikings briefly settled in L'Anse aux Meadows . Around 1500 , European explorers and fishermen from England , Portugal , France , and Spain ( mainly Basques ) began exploration . Fishing expeditions came seasonally ; the first small permanent settlements appeared around 1630 . Catholic - Protestant religious tensions were high but mellowed after 1860 . The British colony voted against joining Canada in 1869 and became an independent dominion in the early 20th century . Fishing was always the dominant industry , but the economy collapsed in the Great Depression of the 1930s and the people voluntarily relinquished their independence to become a British colony again . Prosperity and self - confidence returned during the Second World War , and after intense debate the people voted to join Canada in 1949 .
History of Native Americans in the United States
The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1,000 CE in the eastern part of North America . The term `` Woodland '' was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites dated between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures . The Hopewell tradition is the term for the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE .
Celtic music
Breton artist Alan Stivell was one of the earliest musicians to use the word Celtic and Keltia in his marketing materials , starting in the early 1960s as part of the worldwide folk music revival of that era with the term quickly catching on with other artists worldwide . Today , the genre is well established and incredibly diverse .
Carthage
On top of Byrsa hill , the location of the Roman Forum , a residential area from the last century of existence ( early second century BCE . ) of the Punic city was excavated by the French archaeologist Serge Lancel . The neighborhood , with its houses , shops , and private spaces , is significant for what it reveals about daily life there over 2100 years ago .
Colonies in antiquity
From Gadir the Phoenicians controlled access to the Atlantic Ocean and the trade routes to Britain . The most famous and successful of Phoenician colonies was founded by settlers from Tyre in 814 -- 813 BC and called Kart - Hadasht ( Qart - ḥadašt , literally `` New Town '' , known to history as Carthage . The Carthaginians later founded their own colony in the southeast of Spain , Carthago Nova , which was eventually conquered by their enemy , Rome .
Wales
Historically in Britain , the words were not restricted to modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used to refer to anything that the Anglo - Saxons associated with the Britons , including other non-Germanic territories in Britain ( e.g. Cornwall ) and places in Anglo - Saxon territory associated with Celtic Britons ( e.g. Walworth in County Durham and Walton in West Yorkshire ) , as well as items associated with non-Germanic Europeans , such as the walnut .
History of Native Americans in the United States
Adena culture : The Adena culture was a Native American culture that existed from 1000 BCE to 200 BCE , in a time known as the Early Woodland period . The Adena culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex and ceremonial system . A
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
The first European contact with North America was that of the medieval Norse sailing from Greenland . For several years after 1000 AD they lived in a village on the tip of the Great Northern Peninsula , known today as L'Anse aux Meadows . Remnants and artifacts of the occupation can still be seen at L'Anse aux Meadows , now a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The island was inhabited by the Beothuks and later the Mi'kmaq .
Celts
Druids fulfilled a variety of roles in Celtic religion , serving as priests and religious officiants , but also as judges , sacrificers , teachers , and lore - keepers . Druids organised and ran religious ceremonies , and they memorised and taught the calendar . Other classes of druids performed ceremonial sacrifices of crops and animals for the perceived benefit of the community .
Celts
Under Brehon Law , which was written down in early Medieval Ireland after conversion to Christianity , a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence , obesity , homosexual inclination or preference for other women .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
Omens were extremely important to the Aztecs , who believed that history repeated itself . A number of modern scholars cast doubt on whether such omens occurred or whether they were ex post facto ( retrospective ) creations to help the Mexica explain their defeat .
Pope
The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history . The popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes . In the Middle Ages , they played a role of secular importance in Western Europe , often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs . Currently , in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine , the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue , charitable work , and the defense of human rights .
Wales
Wales can claim one of the oldest unbroken literary traditions in Europe . The literary tradition of Wales stretches back to the sixth century and includes Geoffrey of Monmouth and Gerald of Wales , regarded by historian John Davies as among the finest Latin authors of the Middle Ages . The earliest body of Welsh verse , by poets Taliesin and Aneirin , survive not in their original form , but in medieval versions and have undergone significant linguistic changes . Welsh poetry and native lore and learning survived the Dark Ages , through the era of the Poets of the Princes ( c. 1100 -- 1280 ) and then the Poets of the Gentry ( c. 1350 -- 1650 ) . The Poets of the Princes were professional poets who composed eulogies and elegies to the Welsh princes while the Poets of the Gentry were a school of poets that favoured the cywydd metre . The period is notable for producing one of Wales ' greatest poets , Dafydd ap Gwilym . After the Anglicisation of the gentry the tradition declined . Bishop
Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state . Kings in France , England , and Spain consolidated their power , and set up lasting governing institutions . New kingdoms such as Hungary and Poland , after their conversion to Christianity , became Central European powers . The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King Árpád ( d.c. 907 ) after a series of invasions in the 9th century . The papacy , long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings , first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world ; the Papal Monarchy reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of Innocent III ( pope 1198 -- 1216 ) . Northern Crusades and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously pagan regions in the Baltic and Finnic north - east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture .
Byzantine law
During the early Middle Ages Roman / Byzantine Law played a major role throughout the Mediterranean region and much of Europe because of the economic and military importance of the Empire .
Celtic music
These styles are known because of the importance of Irish and Scottish people in the English speaking world , especially in the United States , where they had a profound impact on American music , particularly bluegrass and country music . The music of Wales , Cornwall , the Isle of Man , Brittany , Galicia , Cantabria and Asturias ( Spain ) and Portugal are also considered Celtic music , the tradition being particularly strong in Brittany , where Celtic festivals large and small take place throughout the year , and in Wales , where the ancient eisteddfod tradition has been revived and flourishes . Additionally , the musics of ethnically Celtic peoples abroad are vibrant , especially in Canada and the United States . In Canada the provinces of Atlantic Canada are known for being a home of Celtic music , most notably on the islands of Newfoundland , Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island . The traditional music of Atlantic Canada is heavily influenced by the Irish , Scottish and Acadian ethnic makeup of much of the region 's communities . In some parts of Atlantic Canada , such as Newfoundland , Celtic music is as or more popular than in the old country . Further , some older forms of Celtic music that are rare in Scotland and Ireland today , such as the practice of accompanying a fiddle with a piano , or the Gaelic spinning songs of Cape Breton remain common in the Maritimes . Much of the music of this region is Celtic in nature , but originates in the local area and celebrates the sea , seafaring , fishing and other primary industries .
Celtic Britons
7th Century AD ; Caer Lundein encompassing London , St. Albans and parts of the Home Counties fell from Brittonic hands by 600 AD , Bryneich which existed in modern Northumbria and County Durham with its capital of Din Guardi ( modern Bamburgh ) and which included Ynys Metcaut ( Lindisfarne ) had fallen by 605 AD becoming Anglo - Saxon Bernicia . Caer Celemion ( in modern Hampshire and Berkshire ) had fallen by 610 AD . Elmet , a large kingdom which covered much of modern Yorkshire , Lancashire and Cheshire and likely had its capital at modern Leeds , was conquered by the Anglo - Saxons in 627 AD . Pengwern , which covered Staffordshire , Shropshire , Herefordshire and Worcestershire , was largely destroyed in 656 AD , with only its westernmost parts in modern Wales remaining under the control of the Britons , and it is likely that Cynwidion which had stretched from modern Bedfordshire to Northamptonshire , fell in the same general period as Pengwern , though a sub-kingdom of Calchwynedd may have clung on in the Chilterns for a time .
Hundred Years' War
The war owes its historical significance to multiple factors . By its end , feudal armies had been largely replaced by professional troops , and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratisation of the manpower and weapons of armies . Although primarily a dynastic conflict , the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism . The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated , and artillery became important . The war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire and thus helping to change their role in warfare . With respect to the belligerents , in France , civil wars , deadly epidemics , famines , and bandit free - companies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically . English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture . The dissatisfaction of English nobles , resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings , became a factor leading to the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 -- 1487 ) .
Celtic music
Often , the term Celtic music is applied to the music of Ireland and Scotland because both lands have produced well - known distinctive styles which actually have genuine commonality and clear mutual influences . The definition is further complicated by the fact that Irish independence has allowed Ireland to promote ' Celtic ' music as a specifically Irish product . However , these are modern geographical references to a people who share a common Celtic ancestry and consequently , a common musical heritage .
Education in ancient Rome
Perhaps the most important role of the parents in their children 's education was to instill in them a respect for tradition and a firm comprehension of pietas , or devotion to duty . For a boy , this meant devotion to the state , and for a girl , devotion to her husband and family . As the Roman Republic transitioned into a more formal education beyond the 3 R 's , parents began to hire teachers for this level of advanced academic training . For this , `` the Romans began to bring Greek slaves to Rome '' to further enrich their children 's knowledge and potential ; yet , Romans still always cherished the tradition of pietas and the ideal of the father as his child 's teacher .
Celtic Britons
5th Century AD ; The kingdom of Ceint ( modern Kent ) fell in 456 AD , Linnuis ( which stood astride modern Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire ) was subsumed as early as 500 AD and became the English Kingdom of Lindsey .
Catalonia
After the Carthaginian defeat by the Roman Republic , the north - east of Iberia became the first to come under Roman rule and became part of Hispania , the westernmost part of the Roman Empire . Tarraco ( modern Tarragona ) was one of the most important Roman cities in Hispania and the capital of the province of Tarraconensis . Other important cities of the Roman period are Ilerda ( Lleida ) , Dertosa ( Tortosa ) , Gerunda ( Girona ) as well as the ports of Empuriæ ( former Emporion ) and Barcino ( Barcelona ) . As for the rest of Hispania , Latin law was granted to all cities under the reign of Vespasian ( 69 - 79 AD ) , while Roman citizenship was granted to all free men of the empire by the Edict of Caracalla in 212 AD ( Tarraco , the capital , was already a colony of Roman law since 45 BC ) . It was a rich agricultural province ( olive oil , vine , wheat ) , and the first centuries of the Empire saw the construction of roads ( the most important being the Via Augusta , parallel to Mediterranean coastline ) and infrastructure like aqueducts .
Celts
In Gods and Fighting Men , Lady Gregory 's Celtic Revival translation of Irish mythology , heads of men killed in battle are described in the beginning of the story The Fight with the Fir Bolgs as pleasing to Macha , one aspect of the war goddess Morrigu .