vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Elk
Recent DNA studies suggest that there are no more than three or four subspecies of elk . All American forms , aside from possibly the Tule and Roosevelt elk , seem to belong to one subspecies ( Cervus canadensis canadensis ) . Even the Siberian elk ( Cervus canadensis sibiricus ) are more or less identical to the American forms and therefore may belong to this subspecies , too . However the Manchurian wapiti ( Cervus canadensis xanthopygus ) is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms , but not distinguishable from the Alashan wapiti . The Chinese forms MacNeill 's deer , Kansu red deer , and Tibetan red deer belong also to the wapitis and were not distinguishable from each other by mitochondrial DNA studies . These Chinese subspecies are sometimes treated as a distinct species , namely the Central Asian red deer ( Cervus wallichi ) , which also includes the Kashmir stag .
History of agriculture
In China , rice and millet were domesticated by 8,000 BC , followed by mung , soy and azuki beans . In the Sahel region of Africa , local rice and sorghum were domesticated by 5,000 BC . Kola nut and coffee were domesticated in Africa . In New Guinea , ancient Papuan peoples began practicing agriculture around 7,000 BC , domesticating sugarcane and taro . In the Indus Valley from the eighth millennium BC onwards at Mehrgarh , 2 - row and 6 - row barley were cultivated , along with einkorn , emmer , and durum wheats , and dates . In the earliest levels of Merhgarh , wild game such as gazelle , swamp deer , blackbuck , chital , wild ass , wild goat , wild sheep , boar , and nilgai were all hunted for food . These are successively replaced by domesticated sheep , goats , and humped zebu cattle by the fifth millennium BC , indicating the gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture . Maize and squash were domesticated in Mesoamerica ; potato in South America , and sunflower in the Eastern Woodlands of North America .
New Zealand
Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles ( tuatara , skinks and geckos ) , frogs , spiders , insects ( weta ) and snails . Some , such as the tuatara , are so unique that they have been called living fossils . Three species of bats ( one since extinct ) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique , mouse - sized land mammal at least 16 million years old . Marine mammals however are abundant , with almost half the world 's cetaceans ( whales , dolphins , and porpoises ) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters . Many seabirds breed in New Zealand , a third of them unique to the country . More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country .
Neolithic Revolution
The Middle East served as the source for many animals that could be domesticated , such as sheep , goats and pigs . This area was also the first region to domesticate the dromedary . Henri Fleisch discovered and termed the Shepherd Neolithic flint industry from the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and suggested that it could have been used by the earliest nomadic shepherds . He dated this industry to the Epipaleolithic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic as it is evidently not Paleolithic , Mesolithic or even Pottery Neolithic . The presence of these animals gave the region a large advantage in cultural and economic development . As the climate in the Middle East changed and became drier , many of the farmers were forced to leave , taking their domesticated animals with them . It was this massive emigration from the Middle East that would later help distribute these animals to the rest of Afroeurasia . This emigration was mainly on an east - west axis of similar climates , as crops usually have a narrow optimal climatic range outside of which they can not grow for reasons of light or rain changes . For instance , wheat does not normally grow in tropical climates , just like tropical crops such as bananas do not grow in colder climates . Some authors , like Jared Diamond , have postulated that this East - West axis is the main reason why plant and animal domestication spread so quickly from the Fertile Crescent to the rest of Eurasia and North Africa , while it did not reach through the North - South axis of Africa to reach the Mediterranean climates of South Africa , where temperate crops were successfully imported by ships in the last 500 years . Similarly , the African Zebu of central Africa and the domesticated bovines of the fertile - crescent -- separated by the dry sahara desert -- were not introduced into each other 's region .
Dodo
In 2002 , American geneticist Beth Shapiro and colleagues analysed the DNA of the dodo for the first time . Comparison of mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12S rRNA sequences isolated from a tarsal of the Oxford specimen and a femur of a Rodrigues solitaire confirmed their close relationship and their placement within the Columbidae . The genetic evidence was interpreted as showing the Southeast Asian Nicobar pigeon ( Caloenas nicobarica ) to be their closest living relative , followed by the crowned pigeons ( Goura ) of New Guinea , and the superficially dodo - like tooth - billed pigeon ( Didunculus strigirostris ) from Samoa ( its scientific name refers to its dodo - like beak ) . This clade consists of generally ground - dwelling island endemic pigeons . The following cladogram shows the dodo 's closest relationships within the Columbidae , based on Shapiro et al. , 2002 :
Evidence of common descent
Tragopogon is one example where hybrid speciation has been observed . In the early 20th century , humans introduced three species of salsify into North America . These species , the western salsify ( Tragopogon dubius ) , the meadow salsify ( Tragopogon pratensis ) , and the oyster plant ( Tragopogon porrifolius ) , are now common weeds in urban wastelands . In the 1950s , botanists found two new species in the regions of Idaho and Washington , where the three already known species overlapped . One new species , Tragopogon miscellus , is a tetraploid hybrid of T. dubius and T. pratensis . The other new species , Tragopogon mirus , is also an allopolyploid , but its ancestors were T. dubius and T. porrifolius . These new species are usually referred to as `` the Ownbey hybrids '' after the botanist who first described them . The T. mirus population grows mainly by reproduction of its own members , but additional episodes of hybridization continue to add to the T. mirus population .
Origin of the domestic dog
Years BP Location Finding 36,000 -- 14,708 Europe Numerous disputed specimens across time that are proposed to be either Paleolithic dogs or wolves that are morphologically and genetically distinct from modern wolves . 33,500 Razboinichya Cave , Altai Mountains , Central Asia ( Russia ) Dog - like skull , mandibles ( both sides ) and teeth . Specimen is unlike ancient and modern wolves but similar to the skulls of fully domesticated prehistoric dogs from Greenland ( about 1,000 YBP ) and the putative dogs from Eliseevichi - I site in central Russia . No modern descendants , the morphological classification is that of a dog , the genetic classification of the species is inconclusive as it is not clear if it is a dog or a wolf - of 4 different types of tests two rated it as a wolf and two as a dog . In 2017 , two prominent evolutionary biologists reviewed the evidence on dog divergence and supported the `` Altai dog '' as being a dog from a lineage that is now extinct and that was derived from a population of small wolves that are also now extinct . 14,708 Bonn - Oberkassel , Germany Undisputed dog mandible directly associated with a human double grave of a 50 - year - old man and a 20 - 25 - year - old woman dated 14,708 - 13,874 . In 2013 , the DNA sequence was identified as Canis lupus familiaris - dog . Mitochondrial DNA analysis confirms that the Oberkasseler animal skeleton is a direct ancestor of today 's dogs . 13,000 Palegawra , Iraq Mandible 12,900 Ushki I , Kamchatka , Russia Complete skeleton 12,790 Nanzhuangtou , China 31 fragments including a complete mandible 12,500 Kartstein cave , Mechernich , Germany Ancient dog skull . In 2013 , the DNA sequence was identified as Canis lupus familiaris i.e. dog . 12,450 Yakutia , Siberia Mummified carcass . The `` Black Dog of Tumat '' was found frozen into the ice core of an oxbow lake steep ravine at the middle course of the Syalaah River in the Ust - Yana region . DNA analysis confirmed it as an early dog .
Platypus
Similar spurs are found on many archaic mammal groups , indicating that this is an ancient characteristic for mammals as a whole , and not exclusive to the platypus or other monotremes .
Origin of the domestic dog
Clade D contained sequences from 2 Scandinavian breeds ( Jamthund , Norwegian Elkhound ) and were sister to another 14,500 YBP wolf sequence also from the Kesserloch cave , with a common recent ancestor estimated to 18,300 YBP . Its branch is phylogenetically rooted in the same sequence as the `` Altai dog '' ( not a direct ancestor ) . The data from this study indicated a European origin for dogs that was estimated at 18,800 -- 32,100 years ago based on the genetic relationship of 78 % of the sampled dogs with ancient canid specimens found in Europe . The data supports the hypothesis that dog domestication preceded the emergence of agriculture and was initiated close to the Last Glacial Maximum when hunter - gatherers preyed on megafauna .
Species
Natural hybridisation presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species , as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations . For example , the carrion crow Corvus corone and the hooded crow Corvus cornix appear and are classified as separate species , yet they hybridise freely where their geographical ranges overlap .
Origin of the domestic dog
Comparison to the gray wolf lineage indicated that Taimyr - 1 was basal to gray wolves from the Middle East , China , Europe and North America but shared a substantial amount of history with the present - day gray wolves after their divergence from the coyote . This implies that the ancestry of the majority of gray wolf populations today stems from an ancestral population that lived less than 35,000 years ago but before the inundation of the Bering Land Bridge with the subsequent isolation of Eurasian and North American wolves .
Three wise monkeys
Outside Japan the monkeys ' names are sometimes given as Mizaru , Mikazaru , and Mazaru , as the last two names were corrupted from the Japanese originals . The monkeys are Japanese macaques , a common species in Japan .
Species
A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties ( a type ) , so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists . The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens ( i.e. longer or shorter tails ) would differentiate the species . This method was used as a `` classical '' method of determining species , such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory . However , different phenotypes are not necessarily different species ( e.g. a four - winged Drosophila born to a 2 - winged mother is not a different species ) . Species named in this manner are called morphospecies .
Lion
Based on morphology of 58 lion skulls in three European museums , the subspecies krugeri , nubica , persica , and senegalensis were assessed distinct ; but bleyenberghi overlapped with senegalensis and krugeri . The Asiatic lion persica was the most distinctive , and the Cape lion had characteristics allying it more with P. l. persica than the other sub-Saharan lions . Until 2016 , eight subspecies were accepted and considered valid . Phylogenetic
Evidence of common descent
In an additional study , the researchers studied two gall wasp species B. treatae and Disholcaspis quercusvirens and found strong morphological and behavioral variation among host - associated populations . This study further confounded prerequisites to speciation . Hawthorn
Border Collie
The Border Collie is descended from landrace collies , a type found widely in the British Isles . The name for the breed came from its probable place of origin along the Anglo - Scottish border . Mention of the `` Collie '' or `` Colley '' type first appeared toward the end of the 19th century , although the word `` collie '' is older than this and has its origin in the Scots language . It is also thought that the word ' collie ' comes from the old Celtic word for useful . Many of the best Border Collies today can be traced back to a dog known as Old Hemp .
Species
groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations , which are reproductively isolated from other such groups `` .
Origin of the domestic dog
The date estimated for the evolutionary divergence of a domestic lineage from a wild one does not necessarily indicate the start of the domestication process but it does provide an upper boundary . The divergence of the domestic horse from the lineage that led to the modern Przewalski 's horse is estimated at 45,000 YBP but the archaeological record indicates 5,500 YBP . The variance could be due to the modern wild population not being the direct ancestor of the domestic one , or the impact of a split due to climate , topography , or other environmental changes . The divergence time does not imply domestication during this specific period . Some researchers propose that the `` dog was the dog before it was domesticated '' and that the ancestor of Canis familiaris was a wild Canis familiaris , which had diverged from a common ancestor along with the gray wolf .
Red panda
Additionally , Pocock lists the vernacular names ye and nigálya ponya ( Nepal ) ; thokya and thongwa ( Limbu ) ; oakdonga or wakdonka and woker ( Bhotia ) ; saknam sunam ( Lepcha ) . Nigálya may originate from the Nepali word निङालो niṅālo or nĩgālo , a small bamboo , Arundinaria intermedia , but also refers to a kind of small leopard , or cat - bear . The word pónya may originate from the Nepali पञ्जा pajā ( `` claw '' ) or पौँजा paũjā ( `` paw '' ) . Nigálya pónya may translate to `` bamboo claw / paw '' . Nigálya pónya , nyala ponga , and poonya are also said to mean `` eater of bamboo '' . The name panda could originate from panjā .
Platypus
The platypus has been featured in the Dreamtime stories of indigenous Australians , who believed the animal was a hybrid of a duck and a water rat . According to one story , the major animal groups , the land animals , water animals and birds , all competed for the platypus to join their respective groups , but the platypus ultimately decided to not join any of them , feeling that he did not need to be part of a group to be special . A
Angora wool
There are four different types of Angora recognized by ARBA : English , French , Satin and Giant . There are many other breeds , one of the more common being German . Each breed produces different quality and quantity of fibre , and has a different range of colours .
Columbian Exchange
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock , which supported increases in population in both hemispheres , although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas . Traders returned to Europe with maize , potatoes , and tomatoes , which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century .
Evidence of common descent
Hybridization between two different species sometimes leads to a distinct phenotype . This phenotype can also be fitter than the parental lineage and as such , natural selection may then favor these individuals . Eventually , if reproductive isolation is achieved , it may lead to a separate species . However , reproductive isolation between hybrids and their parents is particularly difficult to achieve and thus hybrid speciation is considered a rare event . However , hybridization resulting in reproductive isolation is considered an important means of speciation in plants , since polyploidy ( having more than two copies of each chromosome ) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals .
History of West Africa
West African peoples were trading with the Arab world centuries before the influence of Europeans . Spices such as cinnamon were introduced and became part of the local culinary traditions . Centuries later , the Portuguese , French and British further influenced regional cuisines , but only to a limited extent . However , as far as is known , it was European explorers and slaves ships who brought chili peppers and tomatoes from the New World , and both have become ubiquitous components of West African cuisines , along with peanuts , corn , cassava , and plantains . In turn , these slave ships carried African ingredients to the New World , including black - eyed peas and okra . Around the time of the colonial period , particularly during the Scramble for Africa , the European settlers defined colonial borders without regard to pre-existing borders , territories or cultural differences . This bisected tribes and created colonies with varying culinary styles . As a result , it is difficult to sharply define , for example , Senegalese cuisine . Although the European colonists brought many new ingredients to the African continent , they had relatively little impact on the way people cook in West Africa . Its strong culinary traditions lives on despite the influence of colonisation and food migration that occurred long ago .
List of lemur species
The number of lemur species is likely to continue growing in the coming years , as field studies , cytogenetic and molecular genetic research continues . There is not complete agreement over the latest revisions to lemur taxonomy , with some experts preferring an estimated 50 lemur species . The debates are likely to continue , as some scholars label the explosive growth of species numbers as taxonomic inflation . In many cases , classifications will ultimately depend upon which species concept is used . In the case of the lemurs of Madagascar , which have suffered extensively from deforestation and habitat fragmentation , nearly 25 % of all species are either Endangered or Critically Endangered , most have yet to be extensively studied , and nearly all populations are in decline . For these reasons , taxonomists and conservationists favor splitting them into separate species to develop an effective strategy for the conservation of the full range of lemur diversity . Implicitly , this means that full species status will help grant genetically distinct populations added environmental protection .
Origin of the domestic dog
Haplogroup B : Includes 22 - 23 % of dogs . haplotypes of subclade b2 are derived from post-domestication wolf -- dog hybridization .
Species
A phenetic species is a set of organisms which have a similar phenotype to each other , but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms .
Evidence of common descent
Acanthiza pusilla and A. ewingii Acacia karroo Alophoixus Camarhynchus psittacula and C. pauper Crimson rosella ( Platycercus elegans ) complex Drosophila paulistorum Ensatina salamanders ( See figure 4b ) Great tit ( however , some studies dispute this example ) Greenish warbler ( Phylloscopus trochiloides ) species complex Hoplitis producta House mouse Junonia coenia and J. genoveva / J. evarete Lalage leucopygialis , L. nigra , and L. sueurii Larus gulls species complex Pelophylax nigromaculatus and P. porosus / P. porosus brevipodus ( the names and classification of these species have changed since the publication suggesting a ring species ) Pernis ptilorhynchus and P. celebensis Perognathus amplus and P. longimembris Peromyscus maniculatus Phellinus Phylloscopus collybita and P. sindianus Powelliphanta Rhymogona silvatica and R. cervina ( the names and classification of these species have changed since the publication suggesting a ring species ) Skylarks ( Alauda arvensis , A. japonica and A. gulgula ) Song sparrow ( Melospiza melodia ) Spurge ( Euphorbia tithymaloides ) Trumpetfish ( Aulostomus ) Todiramphus chloris and T. cinnamominus Willow warblers
Red fox
As of 2005 , 45 subspecies are recognised . In 2010 , another distinct subspecies , which inhabits the grasslands of the Sacramento Valley , V. v. patwin , was identified through mitochondrial haplotype studies .
Origin of the domestic dog
Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors . He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits , and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by - product of natural selection or from selection on other traits . Domestic animals have variations in coat color as well as texture , dwarf and giant varieties , and changes in their reproductive cycle , and many others have tooth crowding and floppy ears .
Ryukyu Islands
Mammals endemic to the islands include Amami Rabbit , Iriomote cat , the Ryukyu flying fox , the Ryukyu long - tailed giant rat , the Ryukyu mouse , the Ryukyu Inu and the Ryukyu shrew .
Brown bear
Several paleontologists suggest the possibility of two separate brown bear migrations : inland brown bears , also known as grizzlies , are thought to stem from narrow - skulled bears which migrated from northern Siberia to central Alaska and the rest of the continent , while Kodiak bears descend from broad - skulled bears from Kamchatka , which colonized the Alaskan peninsula . Brown bear fossils discovered in Ontario , Ohio , Kentucky and Labrador show the species occurred farther east than indicated in historic records . In North America , two types of the subspecies Ursus arctos horribilis are generally recognized -- the coastal brown bear and the inland grizzly bear ; these two types broadly define the range of sizes of all brown bear subspecies .
Origin of the domestic dog
In his 1868 book on Variation under Domestication , Charles Darwin assessed the arguments for single or multiple origins of dogs , and noted the paleontological research of de Blainville who proposed that dogs were descended from a single extinct species . In 1934 , an eminent paleontologist indicated that the ancestor of the dog lineage may have been the extinct Canis variabilis . In 1950 , a morphological study of Japanese prehistoric dogs compared to extant wolves concluded : `` Therefore the living wolf kinds have nothing to do with the ancestral forms of the prehistoric dog races . '' In 1999 , a study emphasized that while molecular genetic data seem to support the origin of dogs from wolves , dogs may have descended from a now extinct species of canid whose closest living relative was the wolf . The dog 's lineage may have been contributed to from a ghost population . The advent of rapid and inexpensive DNA sequencing technology has made it possible to significantly increase the resolving power of genetic data taken from both modern and ancient domestic dog genomes . Attention was now turned to studies based on ancient DNA from fossil canids .
Barn swallow
The barn swallow has been recorded as hybridising with the cliff swallow ( Petrochelidon pyrrhonota ) and the cave swallow ( P. fulva ) in North America , and the house martin ( Delichon urbicum ) in Eurasia , the cross with the latter being one of the most common passerine hybrids .
Red deer
Red deer are ruminants , characterized by a four - chambered stomach . Genetic evidence indicates the red deer as traditionally defined is a species group , rather than a single species , although it remains disputed as to exactly how many species the group includes . The closely related and slightly larger American elk or wapiti , native to North America and eastern parts of Asia , had been regarded as a subspecies of red deer , but recently it has been established as a distinct species . It is probable that the ancestor of all red deer , including wapiti , originated in central Asia and resembled sika deer .