vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Poverty in India
As with economic measures , there are many mixed or non-economic measures of poverty and experts contest which one is most appropriate for India . For example , Dandekar and Rath in 1971 suggested a measure of poverty rate that was based on number of calories consumed . In 2011 , Alkire et al. suggested a poverty rate measure so - called Multi-dimensional Poverty Index ( MPI ) , which put only 6.25 % weight to assets owned by a person and placed 33 % weight on education and number of years spent in school . These non-economic measures remain controversial and contested as a measure of poverty rate of any nation , including India .
Thar Desert
The Thar is one of the most heavily populated desert areas in the world with the main occupations of its inhabitants agriculture and animal husbandry . Agriculture is not a dependable proposition in this area because after the rainy season , at least one third of crops fail . Animal husbandry , trees and grasses , intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees , is the most viable model for arid , drought - prone regions . The region faces frequent droughts . Overgrazing due to high animal populations , wind and water erosion , mining and other industries have resulted in serious land degradation . Bajra
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Indian Agricultural Research Institute Abbreviation IARI Formation 1 April 1905 ( 1905 - 04 - 01 ) Purpose Agricultural research and education Location Pusa , Delhi 28 ° 04 ′ 48 '' N 77 ° 07 ′ 12 '' E ﻿ / ﻿ 28.080 ° N 77.120 ° E ﻿ / 28.080 ; 77.120 Director A.K. Singh ( Additional Charge ) Parent organisation Indian Council of Agricultural Research ( ICAR ) Website www.iari.res.in Formerly called Imperial Agricultural Research Institute
History of India
Considered a cradle of civilisation , the Indus Valley Civilisation , which spread and flourished in the north - western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1300 BCE , was the first major civilisation in South Asia . A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period , from 2600 to 1900 BCE . This civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilisation . The era saw the composition of the Vedas , the seminal texts of Hinduism , coalesce into Janapadas ( monarchical , state - level polities ) , and social stratification based on caste . The Later Vedic Civilisation extended over the Indo - Gangetic plain and much of the subcontinent , as well as witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas . In one of these kingdoms , Magadha , Gautama Buddha and Mahavira propagated their Shramanic philosophies during the fifth and sixth century BCE .
History of India
Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain . Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo - Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north - west . The peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda . Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later , like dharma , trace their roots to Vedic antecedents .
Environmental issues in India
Starting in the 1990s , reforms were introduced . Since then , for the first time in Indian history , major air pollutant concentrations have dropped in every 5 - year period . Between 1992 and 2010 , satellite data confirms India 's forest coverage has increased for the first time by over 4 million hectares , a 7 % increase .
Environmental issues in India
Major environmental issues are forest and agricultural degradation of land , resource depletion ( such as water , mineral , forest , sand , and rocks ) , environmental degradation , public health , loss of biodiversity , loss of resilience in ecosystems , livelihood security for the poor .
Green Revolution in India
Part of a series on the History of India Ancient ( show ) Madrasian Culture Soanian , c . 500,000 BCE Neolithic , c. 7600 -- c. 3300 BCE Bhirrana 7570 - 6200 BCE Indus Valley Civilization , c. 3300 -- c. 1700 BCE Post Indus Valley Period , c. 1700 -- c. 1500 BCE Vedic Civilization , c. 1500 -- c. 500 BCE Early Vedic Period Rise of Śramaṇa movement Later Vedic Period Spread of Jainism - Parshvanatha Spread of Jainism - Mahavira Rise of Buddhism Mahajanapadas , c. 500 -- c. 345 BCE Nanda Dynasty , c. 345 -- c. 322 BCE Classical ( show ) Maurya Dynasty , c. 322 -- c. 185 BCE Shunga Dynasty , c. 185 -- c. 75 BCE Kanva Dynasty , c. 75 -- c. 30 BCE Kushan Dynasty , c. 30 -- c. 230 CE Satavahana Dynasty , c. 30 BCE -- c. 220 CE Gupta Dynasty , c. 200 -- c. 550 CE Early Medieval ( show ) Chalukya Dynasty , c. 543 -- c. 753 CE Harsha 's Dynasty , c. 606 CE -- c. 647 CE Karakota Dynasty , c. 724 -- c. 760 CE Arab Invasion , c. 738 CE Tripartite Struggle , c. 760 -- c. 973 CE Gurjara - Pratihara Dynasty Rastrakuta Dynasty Pala Dynasty Chola Dynasty , c. 848 -- c. 1251 CE 2nd Chalukya Dynasty , c. 973 -- c. 1187 CE Late Medieval ( show ) Delhi Sultanate , c. 1206 -- c. 1526 CE Slave Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sayyid Dynasty Lodhi Dynasty Pandyan Dynasty , c. 1251 -- c. 1323 CE Vijayanagara , c.
Forestry in India
The role of forests in the national economy and in ecology was further emphasized in the 1988 National Forest Policy , which focused on ensuring environmental stability , restoring the ecological balance , and preserving the remaining forests . Other objectives of the policy were meeting the need for fuelwood , fodder , and small timber for rural and tribal people while recognising the need to actively involve local people in the management of forest resources . Also in 1988 , the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was amended to facilitate stricter conservation measures . A new target was to increase the forest cover to 33 % of India 's land area from the then - official estimate of 23 % . In June 1990 , the central government adopted resolutions that combined forest science with social forestry , that is , taking the sociocultural traditions of the local people into . The cumulative area afforested during the 1951 - 91 period was nearly 179,000 square kilometres . However , despite large - scale tree planting programmes , forestry is one arena in which India has actually regressed since independence . Annual fellings at about four times the growth rate are a major cause . Widespread pilfering by villagers for firewood and fodder also represents a major decrement . In addition , the 1988 National Forest Policy noted , the forested area has been shrinking as a result of land cleared for farming and development programmes .
Forestry in India
In the 1970s , India declared its long - term strategy for forestry development to compose of three major objectives : to reduce soil erosion and flooding ; to supply the growing needs of the domestic wood products industries ; and to supply the needs of the rural population for fuelwood , fodder , small timber , and miscellaneous forest produce . To achieve these objectives , the National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 recommended the reorganisation of state forestry departments and advocated the concept of social forestry . The commission itself worked on the first two objectives , emphasising traditional forestry and wildlife activities ; in pursuit of the third objective , the commission recommended the establishment of a new kind of unit to develop community forests . Following the leads of Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh , a number of other states also established community - based forestry agencies that emphasized programmes on farm forestry , timber management , extension forestry , reforestation of degraded forests , and use of forests for recreational purposes .
Forestry in India
India is home to 12 % of world 's recorded flora , some 47000 species of flowering and non-flowering plants . Over 59000 species of insects , 2500 species of fishes , 17000 species of angiosperms live in Indian forests . About 90000 animal species , representing over 7 % of earth 's recorded faunal species have been found in Indian forests . Over 4000 mammal species are found here . India has one of the richest variety of bird species on earth , hosting about 12.5 % of known species of birds . Many of these flora and fauna species are endemic to India .
Environmental issues in India
Malthus theory , published between 1798 and 1826 , has been analysed and criticised ever since . The American thinker Henry George , for example , observed with his characteristic piquancy in dismissing Malthus : `` Both the jayhawk and the man eat chickens ; but the more jayhawks , the fewer chickens , while the more men , the more chickens . '' Similarly , the American economist Julian Lincoln Simon criticised Malthus 's theory . He noted that the facts of human history have proven the predictions of Malthus and of the Neo-Malthusians to be flawed . Massive geometric population growth in the 20th century did not result in a Malthusian catastrophe . The possible reasons include : increase in human knowledge , rapid increases in productivity , innovation and application of knowledge , general improvements in farming methods ( industrial agriculture ) , mechanisation of work ( tractors ) , the introduction of high - yield varieties of wheat and other plants ( Green Revolution ) , the use of pesticides to control crop pests .
Agriculture in Sudan
Agricultural products in total account for about 95 percent of the country 's exports . In 1998 there was an estimated 16.9 million hectares ( 41.8 million acres ) of arable land and approximately 1.9 million hectares ( 4.7 million acres ) set aside for irrigation , primarily in the north of the country along the banks of the Nile and other rivers . Cash crops ( as of 1999 ) grown under irrigation in these areas include cotton and cottonseed , which is of primary importance to the economy with 172,000 tons and 131,000 tons produced annually respectively , sesame ( 220,000 tons ) , sugarcane ( 5,950,000 tons ) , peanuts ( 980,000 tons ) , dates ( 176,000 tons ) , citrus fruits , yams ( 136,000 tons ) , tomatoes ( 240,000 tons ) , mangoes , coffee , and tobacco . The main subsistence crops produced in Sudan are sorghum ( 3,045,000 tons ) , millet ( 1,499,000 tons ) , wheat ( 168,000 tons ) , cowpeas , beans , pulses , corn ( 65,000 ) , and barley . Cotton is the principal export crop and an integral part of the country 's economy and Sudan is the world 's third largest producer of sesame after India and China .
Mechanised agriculture
Mechanisation was one of the large factors responsible for urbanisation and industrial economies . Besides improving production efficiency , mechanisation encourages large scale production and sometimes can improve the quality of farm produce . On the other hand , it can displace unskilled farm labour and can cause environmental degradation ( such as pollution , deforestation , and soil erosion ) , especially if it is applied shortsightedly rather than holistically .
Environmental issues in India
Environmental issues are one of the primary causes of disease , health issues and long term livelihood impact for India .
Cremation
In agriculturally dependent India , it was believed quite early that interring bodies to rot in the soil might render the soil infertile . This is why cremation was preferred initially , even before it was introduced into the Rigveda .
Education in India
India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three - quarters of the population in the 7 -- 10 age group , by 2011 . India 's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development . Much of the progress , especially in higher education and scientific research , has been credited to various public institutions . While enrollment in higher education has increased steadily over the past decade , reaching a Gross Enrollment Ratio of 24 % in 2013 , there still remains a significant distance to catch up with tertiary education enrollment levels of developed nations , a challenge that will be necessary to overcome in order to continue to reap a demographic dividend from India 's comparatively young population .
India
Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years . During the Vedic period ( c. 1700 -- 500 BCE ) , the foundations of Hindu philosophy , mythology , theology and literature were laid , and many beliefs and practices which still exist today , such as dhárma , kárma , yóga , and mokṣa , were established . India is notable for its religious diversity , with Hinduism , Buddhism , Sikhism , Islam , Christianity , and Jainism among the nation 's major religions . The predominant religion , Hinduism , has been shaped by various historical schools of thought , including those of the Upanishads , the Yoga Sutras , the Bhakti movement , and by Buddhist philosophy .
India
Indian cuisine encompasses a wide variety of regional and traditional cuisines , often depending on a particular state ( such as Maharashtrian cuisine ) . Staple foods of Indian cuisine include pearl millet ( IAST : Bājra ) , rice , whole - wheat flour ( aṭṭa ) , and a variety of lentils , such as masoor ( most often red lentils ) , toor ( pigeon peas ) , urad ( black gram ) , and mong ( mung beans ) . Lentils may be used whole , dehusked -- for example , dhuli moong or dhuli urad -- or split . Split lentils , or dal , are used extensively . The spice trade between India and Europe is often cited by historians as the primary catalyst for Europe 's Age of Discovery .
Environmental issues in India
Air pollution , poor management of waste , growing water scarcity , falling groundwater tables , water pollution , preservation and quality of forests , biodiversity loss , and land / soil degradation are some of the major environmental issues India faces today .
Early Nationalists
Reduction in land revenue and protection of peasants against unjust demands of the zamindars ( hereditary land owners ) . Reduction in expenditure on the army , and the money thus saved to be spent on welfare activities such as health and education . An enquiry into India 's growing poverty and famines . Availability of cheap credit to peasants through agricultural banks . Development of banking , irrigation , medical and health facilities for the people . Industrial growth through trade protection . That meant that a heavy tax should be imposed on imported goods and the government should give loans for the development of iron , coal , paper and sugar industries in India . Total abolition of the salt tax and the duty on sugar .
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
The campus is spread over 500 hectares ( 5.0 km ) , 8 km west of New Delhi Railway Station . This was initially outside Delhi , but over the decades the city has grown much beyond the campus . Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute is affiliated with and is located in the campus of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute .
History of India
During the Late Vedic Period , the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture , situated even farther to the East ( in what is today Nepal and Bihar state in India ) ; reaching its prominence under the king Janaka , whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya , Aruni , and Gargi Vachaknavi . The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms , called mahajanapadas , all across Northern India .
Famine
Long term measures to improve food security , include investment in modern agriculture techniques , such as fertilizers and irrigation , but can also include strategic national food storage .
Education in India
The community development programmes comprise agriculture , animal husbandry , cooperation , rural industries , rural engineering ( consisting of minor irrigation , roads , buildings ) , health and sanitation including family welfare , family planning , women welfare , child care and nutrition , education including adult education , social education and literacy , youth welfare and community organisation . In each of these areas of development there are several programmes , schemes and activities which are additive , expanding and tapering off covering the total community , some segments , or specific target populations such as small and marginal farmers , artisans , women and in general people below the poverty line .
Subsistence agriculture
Subsistence agriculture also emerged independently in Mexico where it was based on maize cultivation , and the Andes where it was based on the domestication of the potato . Subsistence agriculture was the dominant mode of production in the world until recently , when market - based capitalism became widespread . Subsistence horticulture may have developed independently in South East Asia and Papua New Guinea .
Yemen
Agriculture previously represented 18 -- 27 % of the GDP , but its apportionment began changing due to emigration of rural labor , and structural changes within the sector . Principal agricultural commodities produced in the nation include grain , vegetables , fruits , pulses , qat , coffee , cotton , dairy products , fish , livestock ( sheep , goats , cattle , camels ) , and poultry . A
History of agriculture
Irrigation , crop rotation , and fertilizers were introduced soon after the Neolithic Revolution and developed much further in the past 200 years , starting with the British Agricultural Revolution .
Mechanised agriculture
The entire history of agriculture contains many examples of the use of tools , such as the hoe and the plough . But the ongoing integration of machines since the Industrial Revolution has allowed farming to become much less labour - intensive .
History of India
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture , sculpture , and painting . The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa , Aryabhata , Varahamihira , Vishnu Sharma , and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields . The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture : the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule , but they also patronised Buddhism , which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy . The military exploits of the first three rulers -- Chandragupta I , Samudragupta , and Chandragupta II -- brought much of India under their leadership . Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era . Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma , Sri Lanka , Maritime Southeast Asia , and Indochina .
Caste system in India
The life expectancy of various caste groups in modern India has been raised ; but the International Institute for Population Sciences report suggests that poverty , not caste , is the bigger differentiation in life expectancy in modern India .
Education in India
As per the Annual Status of Education Report ( ASER ) 2012 , 96.5 % of all rural children between the ages of 6 - 14 were enrolled in school . This is the fourth annual survey to report enrollment above 96 % . Another report from 2013 stated that there were 22.9 crore students enrolled in different accredited urban and rural schools of India , from Class I to XII , representing an increase of 23 lakh students over 2002 total enrollment , and a 19 % increase in girl 's enrollment . While quantitatively India is inching closer to universal education , the quality of its education has been questioned particularly in its government run school system . Some of the reasons for the poor quality include absence of around 25 % of teachers every day . States of India have introduced tests and education assessment system to identify and improve such schools .
Environmental issues in India
The annual crop burning practice in northwest India , north India and eastern Pakistan , after monsoons , from October to December , are a major seasonal source of air pollution . Approximately 500 million tons of crop residue is burnt in open , releasing smoke , soot , NOx , SOx , PAHs and particulate matter into the air . This burning has been found to be a leading cause of smog and haze problems through the winter over Punjab , cities such as Delhi , and major population centers along the rivers through West Bengal . In other states of India , rice straw and other crop residue burning in open is a major source of air pollution .
Subsistence agriculture
However , despite the primacy of self - sufficiency in subsistence farming , today most subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree , though usually it is for goods that are not necessary for survival , and may include sugar , iron roofing sheets , bicycles , used clothing , and so forth . Most subsistence farmers today reside in developing countries , although their amount of trade as measured in cash is less than that of consumers in countries with modern complex markets , many have important trade contacts and trade items that they can produce because of their special skills or special access to resources valued in the marketplace .
Social development theory
The Indian government realized that it needed to do many things to win the cooperation of Indian farmers to make the green revolution successful . First , the government had to convince farmers to accept the hybrid varieties that would lead to increased yields . Then , they had to assure farmers that increased production would not drive down prices as bumper harvests had done in the past . The government had to ensure a supply of quality seeds , fertilizers , and provide adequate storage space . It also had to train a network of extension agents to train farmers to cultivate their fields with new methods .
Chola dynasty
The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society . These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group . Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people . Besides the landowners , there were others dependent on agriculture . The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers , providing the courtiers , most of the army officers , the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry .
Forestry in India
As of 2010 , the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations estimates India 's forest cover to be about 68 million hectares , or 22 % of the country 's area . The 2013 Forest Survey of India states its forest cover increased to 69.8 million hectares by 2012 , per satellite measurements ; this represents an increase of 5,871 square kilometers of forest cover in 2 years . However , the gains were primarily in northern , central and southern Indian states , while northeastern states witnessed a net loss in forest cover over 2010 to 2012 .
Subsistence agriculture
In this type of agriculture , a patch of forest land is cleared by a combination of felling and burning , and crops are grown . After 2 - 3 years the fertility of the soil begins to decline , the land is abandoned and the farmer moves to clear a fresh piece of land elsewhere in the forest as the process continues . While the land is left fallow the forest regrows in the cleared area and soil fertility and biomass is restored . After a decade or more , the farmer may return to the first piece of land . This form of agriculture is sustainable at low population densities , but higher population loads require more frequent clearing which prevents soil fertility from recovering , opens up more of the forest canopy , and encourages scrub at the expense of large trees , eventually resulting in deforestation and land erosion . Shifting cultivation is called Dredd in India , Ladang in Indonesia , Milpa in Central America and Mexico and Jhumming in North East India .