vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Social exchange theory
A study conducted by A. Saks serves as an example to explain engagement of employees in organizations . This study uses one of the tenets of social exchange theory to explain that obligations are generated through a series of interactions between parties who are in a state of reciprocal interdependence . The research identified that when individuals receive economic and socioemotional resources from their organization , they feel obliged to respond in kind and repay the organization . This is a description of engagement as a two - way relationship between the employer and employee . One way for individuals to repay their organization is through their level of engagement . The more engaged the employee are to their work , the greater amounts of cognitive , emotional , and physical resources they will devote to perform their job duties . When the organization fails to provide economic or emotional resources , the employees are more likely to withdraw and disengage themselves from their roles .
British Army during World War I
Of the 252 officers tried , 76 per cent were found guilty , the most common offence ( 52 per cent of cases ) being drunkenness . Although three officers were executed , an officer was most likely to receive a severe reprimand ( 60 per cent of cases -- a severe blow to his career ) or be cashiered ( 30 per cent of cases -- stripped of his commission , which brought total social disgrace and barred him from any employment under the Crown , even working for the local council -- but a cashiered officer could still be conscripted as a private to a different unit ) .
Whole life insurance
Limited pay policies may be either participating or non-par , but instead of paying annual premiums for life , they are only due for a certain number of years , such as 20 . The policy may also be set up to be fully paid up at a certain age , such as 65 or 80 . The policy itself continues for the life of the insured . These policies would typically cost more up front , since the insurance company needs to build up sufficient cash value within the policy during the payment years to fund the policy for the remainder of the insured 's life . With Participating policies , dividends may be applied to shorten the premium paying period .
History of insurance
All workers who earned under £ 160 a year had to pay 4 pence a week to the scheme ; the employer paid 3 pence , and general taxation paid 2 pence . As a result , workers could take sick leave and be paid 10 shillings a week for the first 13 weeks and 5 shillings a week for the next 13 weeks . Workers also gained access to free treatment for tuberculosis , and the sick were eligible for treatment by a panel doctor . The National Insurance Act also provided maternity benefits . Time - limited unemployment benefit was based on actuarial principles and it was planned that it would be funded by a fixed amount each from workers , employers , and taxpayers . It was restricted to particular industries , cyclical / seasonal industries like construction of ships , and neither made any provision for dependants . By 1913 , 2.3 million were insured under the scheme for unemployment benefit and almost 15 million insured for sickness benefit .
Income inequality in the United States
Market income , or income before taxes & transfers : Expertise , productiveness and work experience , inheritance , gender , and race have had a strong influence on distribution of personal income in the United States as in other countries . After taxes & transfers : Reducing the progressivity of the income tax system and transfers increases income inequality . CBO reported in 2011 that : `` The equalizing effect of transfers declined over the 1979 -- 2007 period primarily because the distribution of transfers became less progressive . The equalizing effect of federal taxes also declined over the period , in part because the amount of federal taxes shrank as a share of market income and in part because of changes in the progressivity of the federal tax system . ''
Right-to-work law
Unions are already governed by regulations and laws , including public policy on labor - management relations ( e.g. , a university central office professional position on labor relations ) . Typically , unions are organized by industry ( e.g. , healthcare , restaurant , steel workers , teachers , state government - professional , non-professional ) , and they are required to be first voted in by employees and management , typically with an open ended representation with no renewal or reauthorization or recall ability ( the only recourse being to petition to decertify as required by federal law ) , with provisions on dues payments required as of 2011 . For example , while municipal employees have their unions , as do police and firefighters , other non-profit agencies in localities may not be offered these same protections .
Education in India
Sita Anantha Raman also mentions that while the educated Indian women workforce maintains professionalism , the men outnumber them in most fields and , in some cases , receive higher income for the same positions .
Letter of credit
Legal writers have failed to satisfactorily reconcile the bank 's obligation to pay on behalf of the applicant with any contractually - founded , academic analysis . That is to say , they have not examined legal effect of the banks obligation through a conclusive theoretical lens . This has produced several conflicting theories as to the contractual effect of a letter of credit . Some theorists suggest that the obligation to pay arises through the implied promise , assignment , novation , reliance , agency , estoppel and even trust and the guarantees . Although documentary credits are enforceable once communicated to the beneficiary , it is difficult to show any consideration given by the beneficiary to the banker prior to the tender of documents . In such transactions the undertaking by the beneficiary to deliver the goods to the applicant is not sufficient consideration for the bank 's promise because the contract of sale is made before the issuance of the credit , thus consideration in these circumstances is past . However , the performance of an existing duty under a contract may be a valid consideration for a new promise made by the bank , provided that there is some practical benefit to the bank A promise to perform owed to a third party may also constitute a valid consideration .
Tax incidence
If , in contrast to the previous example , the producer is perfectly inelastic , he will continue producing the same quantity no matter the price . In case that the consumer is elastic ; the consumer becomes very sensitive and weary of the price ( Melville 24 ) . A small increase in the price of something leads to a large drop in the quantity that is being demanded . The imposition of taxes causes the market price to have an increase from P without taxes . It rises to P with taxes . In most markets , elasticities of the supply and demand are similar to the short - run and result in the burden of the taxes that has been imposed . The tax that has been imposed is shared between two groups and in varying proportions . In general , the group that will have a greater tax burden is the one that exhibits greater relative inelasticity ( Prasad 49 ) . When there is an increase in elasticity in one place , the demand for the quantity changes so that it can suit the different needs that have been set by the tax burden . Tax burden , therefore , varies a lot with elasticity in materials .
Income inequality in the United States
However the Pew Research Center found household income has appeared to decline less than individual income in the twenty - first century because those who are no longer able to afford their own housing have increasingly been moving in with relatives , creating larger households with more income earners in them . The 2011 CBO study `` Trends in the Distribution of Household Income '' mentioned in this article adjusts for household size so that its quintiles contain an equal number of people , not an equal number of households . Looking at the issue of how frequently workers or households move into higher or lower quintiles as their income rises or falls over the years , the CBO found income distribution over a multi-year period `` modestly '' more equal than annual income . The CBO study confirms earlier studies .
Migration in China
In terms of wage payment , although labor law regulates a minimum wage , many employers either ignore the regulation or consider it to be the maximum wage . According to an article in China Daily in 2006 , nearly 30 % of migrant workers earned RMB 300 and 500 on average per month , nearly 40 % between RMB 500 and 800 and about 28 % more than RMB 800 . Moreover , it is common for migrant workers not to receive their wage on time , due to the lack of protection of labor rights . The government has realized the seriousness of wage arrears and taken many measures to deal with this issue . The situation has been improved a lot , but overall the problem of wage arrears still exists . In 2006 , around 10 % of rural - urban migrant workers received their wages on average seven months late .
Whole life insurance
Participating policies are typically ( although not exclusively ) issued by Mutual life insurance companies . However , Stock companies sometimes issue participating policies . Premiums for a participating policy will be higher than for a comparable non-par policy , with the difference ( or , `` overcharge '' ) being considered as `` paid - in surplus '' to provide a margin for error equivalent to stockholder capital . It should be emphasized that illustrations of future dividends are never guaranteed .
Double-entry bookkeeping system
For the accounts to remain in balance , a change in one account must be matched with a change in another account . These changes are made by debits and credits to the accounts . Note that the usage of these terms in accounting is not identical to their everyday usage . Whether one uses a debit or credit to increase or decrease an account depends on the normal balance of the account . Assets , Expenses , and Drawings accounts ( on the left side of the equation ) have a normal balance of debit . Liability , Revenue , and Capital accounts ( on the right side of the equation ) have a normal balance of credit . On a general ledger , debits are recorded on the left side and credits on the right side for each account . Since the accounts must always balance , for each transaction there will be a debit made to one or several accounts and a credit made to one or several accounts . The sum of all debits made in each day 's transactions must equal the sum of all credits in those transactions . After a series of transactions , therefore , the sum of all the accounts with a debit balance will equal the sum of all the accounts with a credit balance .
New Edition
While promoting their second album , the group was dismayed to realize that they were n't actually signed to MCA Records , but instead with the production company Jump and Shoot , which had its own deal with MCA ; subsequently , all business matters pertaining to the group were controlled by the former . To buy themselves out of the stifling production deal , each of the five members borrowed $100,000 from MCA . Though it effectively separated the group from Jump and Shoot and allowed them to sign a new ( and very long - term ) contract to record for MCA directly , they were now in mortgage to the label . As a result , the group would be forced to continually record and tour during this period in order to pay off its debt .
Talk:Mode (statistics)
I do n't understand why in `` a sample from a continuous distribution ( ... ) each value will occur precisely once . '' I 'm not particularly familiar with statistics ( I did n't know what a ' mode ' was before reading this article ) , so this may just reflect confusion on my part , but I do n't see why sample from a continuous distribution will contain every element only once ( although it seems to me that it would do so with probabililty 1 , i.e. , almost certainly ) . Could someone explain ? Benja 13 : 23 , 15 May 2006 ( UTC )
Law firm
At local firms in Singapore , associates in their first three years typically make $60,000 to $100,000 , while midlevel ( 4 -- 7 years ) associates make $110,000 to $180,000 and senior ( 8 + years ) associates make $160,000 or more . International firms pay significantly more , with senior associates often making more than $250,000 .
Medicare (United States)
`` Physicians in geographic Health Professional Shortage Areas ( HPSAs ) and Physician Scarcity Areas ( PSAs ) can receive incentive payments from Medicare . Payments are made on a quarterly basis , rather than claim - by - claim , and are handled by each area 's Medicare carrier . ''
Medicare (United States)
Public Part C Medicare Advantage health plan members typically usually also pay a monthly premium in addition to the Medicare Part B premium to cover items not covered by traditional Medicare ( Parts A & B ) , such as the OOP limit , prescription drugs , dental care , vision care , annual physicals , coverage outside the United States , and even gym or health club memberships as well as -- and probably most importantly -- reduce the 20 % co-pays and high deductibles associated with Original Medicare . But in some situations the benefits are more limited ( but they can never be more limited than Original Medicare and must always include an OOP limit ) and there is no premium . In some cases , the insurer even rebates part or all of the Part B premium , though these types of Part C plans are becoming rare .
Child care
Parents spend a significant amount of time raising their children . These parents nurture and develop their children into being functional members of society . This hard work is not motivated by monetary gain . For centuries it has been assumed that women will stay home and take care of the children while their husbands go out and work . In most cases , the husbands get all the credit for providing for the family . However , the wife who is the homemaker , deserves just as much credit for her care work . Caregivers do not receive monetary compensation and they must pay a ' care - penalty .
Medicare (United States)
Congress also attempted to reduce payments to public Part C Medicare health plans by aligning the rules that establish Part C plans ' capitated fees more closely with the FFS paid for comparable care to `` similar beneficiaries '' under Parts A and B of Medicare . Primarily these reductions involved much discretion on the part of CMS and examples of what CMS did included effectively ending a Part C program Congress had previously initiated to increase the use of Part C in rural areas ( the so - called Part C PFFS plan ) and reducing over time a program that encouraged employers and unions to create their own Part C plans not available to the general Medicare beneficiary base ( so - called Part C EGWP plans ) by providing higher reimbursement . These two types of Part C plans had been identified by MedPAC as the programs that most negatively affected parity between the cost of Medicare beneficiaries on Parts A / B / C and the costs of beneficiaries not on Parts A / B / C. These efforts to reach parity have been more than successful . As of 2015 , all beneficiaries on A / B / C cost 4 % less per person than all beneficiaries not on A / B / C. But whether that is because the cost of the former decreased or the cost of the latter increased is not known .
Medicare (United States)
Payment for physician services under Medicare has evolved since the program was created in 1965 . Initially , Medicare compensated physicians based on the physician 's charges , and allowed physicians to bill Medicare beneficiaries the amount in excess of Medicare 's reimbursement . In 1975 , annual increases in physician fees were limited by the Medicare Economic Index ( MEI ) . The MEI was designed to measure changes in costs of physician 's time and operating expenses , adjusted for changes in physician productivity . From 1984 to 1991 , the yearly change in fees was determined by legislation . This was done because physician fees were rising faster than projected .
Provisions of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
The subsidy is reduced by 3.35 percentage points per additional employee and 2 percentage points per additional $1,000 of average compensation . As an example , a 16 FTE firm with a $35,000 average salary would be entitled to a 10 % premium subsidy . A $2,000 per employee penalty will be imposed on employers with more than 50 full - time employees who do not offer health insurance to their full - time workers ( as amended by the reconciliation bill ) -- the ' Employer mandate ' . `` Full - time '' is defined as , with respect to any month , an employee who is employed on average at least 30 hours of service per week . In July 2013 , the Obama administration announced this penalty would not be enforced until January 1 , 2015 . For employer - sponsored plans , a $2,000 maximum annual deductible is established for any plan covering a single individual or a $4,000 maximum annual deductible for any other plan ( see 111HR3590ENR , section 1302 ) . These limits can be increased under rules set in section 1302 . This provision was repealed on April 1 , 2014 To finance part of the new spending , spending and coverage cuts are made to Medicare Advantage , the growth of Medicare provider payments are slowed ( in part through the creation of a new Independent Payment Advisory Board ) , Medicare and Medicaid drug reimbursement rates are decreased , and other Medicare and Medicaid spending is cut . Members of Congress and their staff are only offered health care plans through the exchanges or plans otherwise established by the bill ( instead of the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program that they currently use ) . A new excise tax goes into effect that is applicable to pharmaceutical companies and is based on the market share of the company ; it is expected to create $2.5 billion in annual revenue . Health insurance companies become subject to a new excise tax based on their market share ; the rate gradually rises between 2014 and 2018 and thereafter increases at the rate of inflation . The tax is expected to yield up to $14.3 billion in annual revenue . The qualifying medical expenses deduction for Schedule A tax filings increases from 7.5 % to 10 % of adjusted gross income ( AGI ) for taxpayers under age 65 .
Income inequality in the United States
At the same time , corporations began to shift compensation packages of managers toward stock options , increasing incentives for managers to make short - term decisions to increase share prices . Over this period , CEO options increased from $500,000 to over $3 million per year , allowing stocks to comprise almost 50 % of CEO compensation . This further incentivized managers to make decisions on shareholder payout rather than toward long - term contracts with workers ; between 2000 and 2007 , nearly 75 % of increased stock growth has been at the cost of labor wages and salaries . immigration of less - educated workers -- relatively high levels of immigration of low skilled workers since 1965 may have reduced wages for American - born high school dropouts ; policy , politics and race -- movement conservatives increased their influence over the Republican Party beginning in the 1970s , moving it politically rightward . Combined with the Party 's expanded political power ( enabled by a shift of southern white Democrats to the Republican Party following the passage of Civil Rights legislation in the 1960s ) , this resulted in more regressive tax laws , anti-labor policies , and further limited expansion of the welfare state relative to other developed nations ( e.g. , the unique absence of universal healthcare ) . Further , variation in income inequality across developed countries indicates policy has a significant influence on inequality ; Japan , Sweden and France have income inequality around 1960 levels .
Medicare Advantage
Original Medicare provides no similar OOP spending cap and the exposure of an Original Medicare beneficiary to a financial catastrophe is unlimited ( but also rare ) . Once the OOP maximum is reached for an individual , the plan pays 100 % of medical services for the remainder of the calendar year ( with no lifetime maximum ) . This OOP limit does not apply to a Part C plan 's Part - D - like self - administered drug coverage ( which uses another means of addressing catastrophic costs ) .
Federal Reserve System
In its role as the central bank of the United States , the Fed serves as a banker 's bank and as the government 's bank . As the banker 's bank , it helps to assure the safety and efficiency of the payments system . As the government 's bank or fiscal agent , the Fed processes a variety of financial transactions involving trillions of dollars . Just as an individual might keep an account at a bank , the U.S. Treasury keeps a checking account with the Federal Reserve , through which incoming federal tax deposits and outgoing government payments are handled . As part of this service relationship , the Fed sells and redeems U.S. government securities such as savings bonds and Treasury bills , notes and bonds . It also issues the nation 's coin and paper currency . The U.S. Treasury , through its Bureau of the Mint and Bureau of Engraving and Printing , actually produces the nation 's cash supply and , in effect , sells the paper currency to the Federal Reserve Banks at manufacturing cost , and the coins at face value . The Federal Reserve Banks then distribute it to other financial institutions in various ways . During the Fiscal Year 2013 , the Bureau of Engraving and Printing delivered 6.6 billion notes at an average cost of 5.0 cents per note . Federal
Golden Key International Honour Society
The business practices of Golden Key also attracted the Chronicle 's notice , as well as that of the Washington Post . Sponsoring corporations , who paid a minimum of $55,000 a year ( 2002 ) to access Golden Key 's membership lists , sent students `` mass mailings for such products as credit cards and auto insurance . '' Golden Key responded to these criticisms by stating that it was standard practice among alumni groups and honor societies . The Chronicle quoted former employees who thought the institution 's expenditures on parties and upper executive salaries , as well as its maintenance of the Druid Hills headquarters , were lavish and inconsistent with the former ideal of `` a student - centered , nonprofit organization . '' The Atlanta Journal - Constitution reported poor accounting practices under Lewis 's tenure in the late 1990s , and investigators were unable to determine exactly how much he was paid due to bookkeeping discrepancies . A 2016 investigation by Australian student newspaper Honi Soit found that Golden Key continued to release data about students , without their consent , to corporate sponsors .
Social class in the United States
`` Everyone wants to believe they are middle class . For people on the bottom and the top of the wage scale the phrase connotes a certain Regular Joe cachet . But this eagerness to be part of the group has led the definition to be stretched like a bungee cord . '' -- Dante Chinni , the Christian Science Monitor ,
Executive compensation
The share of corporate income devoted to compensating the five highest paid executives of ( each ) public firms more than doubled from 4.8 % in 1993 - 1995 to 10.3 % in 2001 - 2003 . The pay for the five top - earning executives at each of the largest 1500 American companies for the ten years from 1994 to 2004 is estimated at approximately $500 billion in 2005 dollars .