vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the `` Roman Empire '' , the `` Empire of the Romans '' ( Latin : Imperium Romanum , Imperium Romanorum ; Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn , Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , `` Romania '' ( Latin : Romania ; Greek : Ῥωμανία Rhōmania ) , the `` Roman Republic '' ( Latin : Res Publica Romana ; Greek : Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , and also as Rhōmais ( Greek : Ῥωμαΐς ) . The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi , and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika .
Byzantine Empire
No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds , where the Empire was more straightforwardly seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire . In the Islamic world , the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm . The name millet - i Rûm , or `` Roman nation , '' was used by the Ottomans through the 20th century to refer to the former subjects of the Byzantine Empire , that is , the Orthodox Christian community within Ottoman realms .
Byzantine Empire
Although the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character during most of its history and preserved Romano - Hellenistic traditions , it became identified by its western and northern contemporaries with its increasingly predominant Greek element . The occasional use of the term `` Empire of the Greeks '' ( Latin : Imperium Graecorum ) in the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire and of the Byzantine Emperor as Imperator Graecorum ( Emperor of the Greeks ) were also used to separate it from the prestige of the Roman Empire within the new kingdoms of the West .
Byzantine Empire
Apart from the Imperial court , administration and military , the primary language used in the eastern Roman provinces even before the decline of the Western Empire was Greek , having been spoken in the region for centuries before Latin . Following Rome 's conquest of the east its ' Pax Romana ' , inclusionist political practices and development of public infrastructure , facilitated the further spreading and entrenchment of Greek language in the east . Indeed , early on in the life of the Roman Empire , Greek had become the common language of the Church , the language of scholarship and the arts , and , to a large degree , the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations . Greek for a time became diglossic with the spoken language , known as Koine ( eventually evolving into Demotic Greek ) , used alongside an older written form until Koine won out as the spoken and written standard .
Byzantine Empire
The first use of the term `` Byzantine '' to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557 , when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ , a collection of historical sources . The term comes from `` Byzantium '' , the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantine 's capital . This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts . The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre ( Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae ) , and in 1680 of Du Cange 's Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of `` Byzantine '' among French authors , such as Montesquieu . However , it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world .
History of democracy
The Roman Empire was eventually divided between the Western Roman Empire which fell in 476 AD and the Eastern Roman Empire ( also called the Byzantine Empire ) which lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD .
History of the Roman Empire
Diocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two fronts . He therefore split the Empire in half along a northwest axis just east of Italy , and created two equal Emperors to rule under the title of Augustus . Diocletian himself was the Augustus of the eastern half , and he made his long - time friend Maximian Augustus of the western half . In doing so , he effectively created what would become the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire . On
Eastern Orthodox Church
The common name of the Church , Eastern Orthodox Church , is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use . From ancient times through the first millennium , Greek was the most prevalent shared language in the demographic regions where the Byzantine Empire flourished , and Greek , being the language in which the New Testament was written , was the primary liturgical language of the church . For this reason , the eastern churches were sometimes identified as `` Greek '' ( in contrast to the `` Roman '' or `` Latin '' church , which used a Latin translation of the Bible ) , even before the great schism . After 1054 , `` Greek Orthodox '' or `` Greek Catholic '' marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople , much as `` Roman Catholic '' did for communion with Rome . This identification with Greek , however , became increasingly confusing with time . Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks , where the Greek language was not spoken . In addition , struggles between Rome and Constantinople to control parts of southeastern Europe resulted in the conversion of some churches to Rome , which then also used `` Greek Catholic '' to indicate their continued use of the Byzantine rites . Today , many of those same Roman churches remain , while a very large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin , and do not use Greek as the language of worship . `` Eastern '' , then , indicates the geographical element in the Church 's origin and development , while `` Orthodox '' indicates the faith , as well as communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople . There are additional Christian churches in the east that are in communion with neither Rome nor Constantinople , who tend to be distinguished by the category named `` Oriental Orthodox '' . While the Church continues officially to call itself `` Catholic '' , for reasons of universality , the common title of `` Eastern Orthodox Church '' avoids casual confusion with the Roman Catholic Church .
Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων Basileía Rhōmaíōn Imperium Romanum c. 330 -- 1453 Tremissis with the image of Justinian the Great ( r . 527 -- 565 ) ( see Byzantine insignia ) The Empire at its greatest extent in AD 555 under Justinian the Great ( its vassals in pink ) Capital Constantinople Languages Latin ( official until 610 ) Greek ( official after 610 ) Religion Christianity ( Eastern Orthodox ) ( tolerated after the Edict of Milan in 313 ; state religion after 380 ) Government Autocratic monarchy Notable emperors c. 330 -- 337 Constantine I 457 -- 474 Leo I 527 -- 565 Justinian I 610 -- 641 Heraclius 976 -- 1025 Basil II 1081 -- 1118 Alexius I 1259 -- 1282 Michael VIII 1449 -- 1453 Constantine XI Historical era Late Antiquity to Late Middle Ages Partition of the Roman Empire 285 Founding of Constantinople 330 Death of Theodosius I 395 Nominal end of the Western Roman Empire 476 Fourth Crusade - establishment of Latin Empire 1204 Reconquest of Constantinople by Palaiologos 1261 Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 Fall of Trebizond 15 August 1461 Fall of Principality of Theodoro December 1475 Population 565 AD est . 26,000,000 780 AD est . 7,000,000 1025 AD est . 12,000,000 Currency Solidus , Hyperpyron and Follis Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Ottoman Empire a . ^ Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων may be transliterated in Latin as Basileia Rhōmaiōn , meaning Roman Empire . b . ^ Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea , the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus , which were all contenders for rule of the Empire . The Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Byzantine Empire because they managed to re-take Constantinople . c . ^ See Population of the Byzantine Empire for more detailed figures taken provided by McEvedy and Jones , Atlas of World Population History , 1978 , as well as Angeliki E. Laiou , The Economic History of Byzantium , 2002 .
Byzantine Empire
After the fall of Attila , the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace , while the Western Empire deteriorated due to continuing migration and expansion by the Germanic nations ( its end is usually dated in 476 when the Germanic Roman general Odoacer deposed the usurper Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus ) .
Byzantine Empire
Many other languages existed in the multi-ethnic Empire , and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times . Notably , by the beginning of the Middle Ages , Syriac had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces . Similarly Coptic , Armenian , and Georgian became significant among the educated in their provinces , and later foreign contacts made Old Church Slavic , Middle Persian , and Arabic important in the Empire and its sphere of influence .
Byzantine Empire
Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire 's Greek East and Latin West divided . Constantine I ( r . 324 -- 337 ) reorganised the empire , made Constantinople the new capital , and legalised Christianity . Under Theodosius I ( r . 379 -- 395 ) , Christianity became the Empire 's official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed . Finally , under the reign of Heraclius ( r . 610 -- 641 ) , the Empire 's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin . Thus , although the Roman state continued and Roman state traditions were maintained , modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was centred on Constantinople , oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture , and characterised by Orthodox Christianity .
Byzantine Empire
Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths , who had settled in Moesia , convincing the Gothic king Theodoric to depart for Italy as magister militum per Italiam ( `` commander in chief for Italy '' ) with the aim of deposing Odoacer . By urging Theodoric to conquer Italy , Zeno rid the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate ( Odoacer ) and moved another ( Theodoric ) further from the heart of the Empire . After Odoacer 's defeat in 493 , Theodoric ruled Italy de facto , although he was never recognised by the eastern emperors as `` king '' ( rex ) .
Byzantine Empire
Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism , orthodox spirituality , orientalism and exoticism , while the terms `` Byzantine '' and `` Byzantinism '' have been used as bywords for decadence , complex bureaucracy , and repression . In the countries of Central and Southeast Europe that exited the Eastern Bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s , the assessment of Byzantine civilisation and its legacy was strongly negative due to their connection with an alleged `` Eastern authoritarianism and autocracy . '' Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious , political , and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West . Even in 19th - century Greece , the focus was mainly on the classical past , while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations .
Byzantine Empire
At his death , the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III , Grand duke of Muscovy . He had married Andreas ' sister , Sophia Paleologue , whose grandson , Ivan IV , would become the first Tsar of Russia ( tsar , or czar , meaning caesar , is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors ) . Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople . The idea of the Russian Empire as the successive Third Rome was kept alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution .
Byzantine Empire
The West also suffered more heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD . This distinction between the established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised West persisted and became increasingly important in later centuries , leading to a gradual estrangement of the two worlds .
Byzantine Empire
Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider themselves heirs to the Roman Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century following World War 1 . They considered that they had simply shifted its religious basis as Constantine had done before , and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants ( Orthodox Christians ) as Rûm . Meanwhile , the Danubian Principalities ( whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors ) harboured Orthodox refugees , including some Byzantine nobles .
Byzantine Empire
Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 , Sultan Mehmed II took the title `` Kaysar - i Rûm '' ( the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of Rome ) , since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire . According to Cameron , regarding themselves as `` heirs '' of Byzantium , the Ottomans preserved important aspects of its tradition , which in turn facilitated an `` Orthodox revival '' during the post-communist period of the Eastern European states .
Byzantine Empire
Aside from these , since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond , virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time , even Chinese . As the Empire entered its final decline , the Empire 's citizens became more culturally homogeneous and the Greek language became integral to their identity and religion .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Locality is also expressed in regional terms of churchly jurisdiction , which is often also drawn along national lines . Many Orthodox churches adopt a national title ( e.g. Albanian Orthodox , Bulgarian Orthodox , Antiochian Orthodox , Georgian Orthodox , Greek Orthodox , Montenegrin Orthodox , Romanian Orthodox , Russian Orthodox , Serbian Orthodox , Ukrainian Orthodox , etc . ) and this title can identify which language is used in services , which bishops preside , and which of the typica is followed by specific congregations . In the Middle East , Orthodox Christians are usually referred to as Rum ( `` Roman '' ) Orthodox , because of their historical connection with the Eastern Roman ( Byzantine ) Empire .
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine emperors appealed to the West for help , but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the See of Rome . Church unity was considered , and occasionally accomplished by imperial decree , but the Orthodox citizenry and clergy intensely resented the authority of Rome and the Latin Rite . Some Western troops arrived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople , but most Western rulers , distracted by their own affairs , did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining Byzantine territories .
Byzantine Empire
The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed , legally defined system . With the decline of Rome , and internal dissension in the other Eastern Patriarchates , the Church of Constantinople became , between the 6th and 11th centuries , the richest and most influential center of Christendom . Even when the Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self , the Church continued to exercise significant influence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers . As George Ostrogorsky points out :
Byzantine Empire
In the Byzantine state , the emperor was the sole and absolute ruler , and his power was regarded as having divine origin . The Senate had ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary council with titular members . By the end of the 8th century , a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large - scale consolidation of power in the capital ( the rise to pre-eminence of the position of sakellarios is related to this change ) . The most important administrative reform , which probably started in the mid-7th century , was the creation of themes , where civil and military administration was exercised by one person , the strategos . The
Western Roman Empire
Following the final fall of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 , the title of `` Emperor '' became widespread among European monarchs . The Austrian Empire laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria 's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule . The German Empire , established in 1871 , also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire . Both of these empires used the imperial title Kaiser ( derived from Latin Caesar ) , the German word for emperor . The German Empire and Austria - Hungary , successor of the Austrian Empire , would both fall in the aftermath of the First World War along with the Russian and Ottoman Empires who had claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire .
Medieval theatre
As the Western Roman Empire fell into severe decay through the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. , the seat of Roman power shifted to Constantinople and the Eastern Roman Empire , later called the Byzantine Empire . While surviving evidence about Byzantine theatre is slight , existing records show that mime , pantomime , scenes or recitations from tragedies and comedies , dances , and other entertainments were very popular . Constantinople had two theatres that were in use as late as the 5th century A.D. However , the true importance of the Byzantines in theatrical history is their preservation of many classical Greek texts and the compilation of a massive encyclopedia called the Suda , from which is derived a large amount of contemporary information on Greek theatre . In the 6th century , the Emperor Justinian finally closed down all theatres for good .
Byzantine Empire
Urban saw Alexios 's request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church under his rule . On 27 November 1095 , Pope Urban II called together the Council of Clermont , and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims . The response in Western Europe was overwhelming . The
Byzantine Empire
Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the state church itself , which came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church or Eastern Christianity , the latter never represented all Christians in Byzantium . Mango believes that , in the early stages of the Empire , the `` mad and foolish persons '' , those labelled `` heretics '' by the state church , were the majority of the population . Besides the pagans , who existed until the end of the 6th century , and the Jews , there were many followers -- sometimes even emperors -- of various Christian doctrines , such as Nestorianism , Monophysitism , Arianism , and Paulicianism , whose teachings were in some opposition to the main theological doctrine , as determined by the Ecumenical Councils .
History of the Roman Empire
Diocletian divided the empire into four regions , each ruled by a separate Emperor ( the Tetrarchy ) . Confident that he fixed the disorders plaguing Rome , he abdicated along with his co-emperor , and the Tetrarchy soon collapsed . Order was eventually restored by Constantine , who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity , and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire . During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties , the Empire was divided along an east -- west axis , with dual power centers in Constantinople and Rome . The reign of Julian , who attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion , only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors . Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule over both East and West , died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the Empire .
Western Roman Empire
In historiography , the Western Roman Empire refers to the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any one time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court , coequal with that administering the eastern half , then referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire . The terms `` Western Roman Empire '' and `` Eastern Roman Empire '' are modern inventions that describe political entities that were de facto independent ; however , at no point did the Romans themselves consider the Empire to have been split into two separate Empires , but rather continued to consider it a single state but governed by two separate Imperial courts of administrative expediency . A system of government of this kind is known as a diarchy .
Byzantine Empire
The void left by the disappearance of the old semi-autonomous civic institutions was filled by the theme system , which entailed dividing Asia Minor into `` provinces '' occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration . This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius , but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance . The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the Empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire . Late
Byzantine Empire
After the fall of Rome , the key challenge to the Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its neighbours . When these nations set about forging formal political institutions , they often modelled themselves on Constantinople . Byzantine diplomacy soon managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter-state relations . This network revolved around treaty making , and included the welcoming of the new ruler into the family of kings , and the assimilation of Byzantine social attitudes , values and institutions . Whereas classical writers are fond of making ethical and legal distinctions between peace and war , Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means . For example , a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus ' .
Western Roman Empire
Marcellinus Comes , a sixth century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I , mentions the Western Roman Empire at some points in his Chronicle , which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534 . In the Chronicle , it is made clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West , with both mentions of a geographical east ( `` Oriens '' ) and west ( `` Occidens '' ) and an imperial east ( `` Orientale imperium '' and `` Orientale respublica '' ) and an imperial west ( `` Occidentalie imperium '' , `` Occidentale regnum '' , `` Occidentalis respublica '' , `` Hesperium regnum '' , `` Hesperium imperium '' and `` principatum Occidentis '' ) . Furthermore , Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being `` Eastern '' , `` Orientalibus principibus '' and `` Orientalium consulum '' respectively . The term Hesperium Imperium , simply translating to `` Western Empire '' , has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well .