vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Eastern Orthodox Church
Free - standing statues ( three - dimensional depictions ) are almost non-existent within the Eastern Orthodox Church . This is partly due to the rejection of the previous pagan Greek age ( Greek gods ) of idol worship and partly because icons are meant to show the spiritual nature of man , not the sensual earthly body . Bas reliefs , however , became common during the Byzantine period and led to a tradition of covering a painted icon in a silver or gold ' riza ' in order to preserve the icon . Such bas relief coverings usually leave the faces and hands of the saints exposed for veneration .
Libya
On the Eastern side , Cyrenaica 's first Christian communities were established by the time of the Emperor Claudius but was heavily devastated during the Kitos War and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike , and , although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies , from then started its decline . Libya was early to convert to Nicene Christianity and was the home of Pope Victor I ; however , Libya was a hotbed for early heresies such as Arianism and Donatism .
Islamic architecture
The Dome of the Rock ( Qubbat al - Sakhrah ) in Jerusalem ( 691 ) is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture . It is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background . The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian style . The Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces , a circular dome , and the use of stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns . Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria ( for example , Mshatta , Qasr Amra , and Khirbat al - Mafjar ) served the caliphs as living quarters , reception halls , and baths , and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury .
Byzantine law
Byzantine culture Aristocracy and bureaucracy Army Art Architecture Calendar Coinage Cuisine Dance Diplomacy Dress Economy Gardens Law Literature Medicine Music Navy People Science
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Eastern Orthodox Church places heavy emphasis and awards a high level of prestige to traditions of monasticism and asceticism with roots in Early Christianity in the Near East and Byzantine Anatolia . The most important centres of Christian Orthodox monasticism are Saint Catherine 's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula ( Egypt ) and Mount Athos in Northern Greece .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Part of a series on the Eastern Orthodox Church Mosaic of Christ Pantocrator , Hagia Sophia Overview Structure Theology ( History of theology ) Liturgy Church history Holy Mysteries View of salvation View of Mary View of icons Background ( show ) Crucifixion / Resurrection / Ascension of Jesus Christianity Christian Church Apostolic succession Four Marks of the Church Orthodoxy Organization ( show ) Autocephaly Patriarchate Ecumenical Patriarch Episcopal polity Clergy Bishops Priests Deacons Monasticism Degrees of monasticism Autocephalous jurisdictions ( show ) Constantinople Alexandria Antioch Jerusalem Russia Serbia Romania Bulgaria Georgia Cyprus Greece Poland Albania Czech lands and Slovakia North America Ecumenical Councils ( show ) Seven Ecumenical Councils : First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Other important councils : Quinisext Council Constantinople IV Constantinople V Jassy Jerusalem History ( show ) Church Fathers Pentarchy Byzantine Empire Christianization of Bulgaria Christianization of Kievan Rus ' Great Schism Russia Ottoman Empire North America Theology ( show ) History of Orthodox Theology ( 20th century ( Neo-Palamism ) ) Apophaticism Chrismation Contemplative prayer Essence vs. Energies Hesychasm Holy Trinity Hypostatic union Icons Metousiosis Mystical
Eastern Orthodox Church
Eastern Orthodox theology is based in Nicene Creed , and the Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One , Holy , Catholic and Apostolic church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission , and that its bishops are the successors of Christ 's apostles . It maintains that it practices the original Christian faith , passed down by sacred tradition . Of its several patriarchates four reminiscent the pentarchy , while its autocephalous and autonomous churches reflect a variety of hierarchical organisation . Of its innumerable sacred mysteries , it recognises seven `` major sacraments '' of which the Eucharist is the principal one , celebrated liturgically in synaxis . The church teaches that through consecration invoked by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ . Virgin Mary is venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the Mother of God , honoured in devotions .
Russian Orthodox Church
Part of a series on the Eastern Orthodox Church Mosaic of Christ Pantocrator , Hagia Sophia Overview Structure Theology ( History of theology ) Liturgy Church history Holy Mysteries View of salvation View of Mary View of icons Background ( show ) Crucifixion / Resurrection / Ascension of Jesus Christianity Christian Church Apostolic succession Four Marks of the Church Orthodoxy Organization ( show ) Autocephaly Patriarchate Ecumenical Patriarch Episcopal polity Clergy Bishops Priests Deacons Monasticism Degrees of monasticism Autocephalous jurisdictions ( hide ) Constantinople Alexandria Antioch Jerusalem Russia Serbia Romania Bulgaria Georgia Cyprus Greece Poland Albania Czech lands and Slovakia America Ecumenical councils ( show ) Seven Ecumenical Councils : First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Other important councils : Quinisext Council Constantinople IV Constantinople V Jassy Jerusalem History ( show ) Church Fathers Pentarchy Byzantine Empire Christianization of Bulgaria Christianization of Kievan Rus ' Great Schism Russia Ottoman Empire North America Theology ( show ) History of Eastern Orthodox theology ( 20th century ( Neo-Palamism ) ) Apophaticism Chrismation Contemplative prayer Essence vs. Energies Hesychasm Holy Trinity Hypostatic union Icons Metousiosis Mystical
Russian Orthodox Church
By the mid-10th century , there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility , under the leadership of Byzantine Greek priests , although paganism remained the dominant religion . Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus ′ to convert to Christianity , either in 945 or 957 . Her grandson , Vladimir of Kiev , made Rus ' officially a Christian state . The official Christianization of Kievan Rus ' is widely believed to have occurred in 988 AD , when Prince Vladimir was baptised himself and ordered his people to be baptised by the priests from the Eastern Roman Empire .
Medieval household
In the Byzantine Empire , slaves were employed until the end of the Empire , as were eunuchs . Little is known of the living arrangements of the Byzantines , as very few buildings remain . From historical and architectural evidence it is known that , even though castles were rare , the wealthy lived in palaces of varying magnitude , with chapels and gardens , and rich decorations of mosaics and frescoes .
Middle Ages
In Eastern Europe , Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I ( r . 867 -- 886 ) and his successors Leo VI ( r . 886 -- 912 ) and Constantine VII ( r . 913 -- 959 ) , members of the Macedonian dynasty . Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces . The military was reorganised , which allowed the emperors John I ( r . 969 -- 976 ) and Basil II ( r . 976 -- 1025 ) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts . The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning , a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance . Writers such as John Geometres ( fl . early 10th century ) composed new hymns , poems , and other works . Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the Moravians , Bulgars , Bohemians , Poles , Magyars , and Slavic inhabitants of the Kievan Rus ' . These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples -- the states of Moravia , Bulgaria , Bohemia , Poland , Hungary , and the Kievan Rus ' . Bulgaria , which was founded around 680 , at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea . By 1018 , the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire .
Christianity in Africa
Christianity also grew in northwestern Africa ( today known as the Maghreb ) . The churches there were linked to the Church of Rome and provided Pope Gelasius I , Pope Miltiades and Pope Victor I , all of them Christian Berbers like Saint Augustine and his mother Saint Monica .
Pope
Though the progressive Christianisation of the Roman Empire in the 4th century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state , the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome , as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire . This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I 's confrontation with Attila in 452 . The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the Donation of Sutri , which in turn was substantially increased in 754 , when the Frankish ruler Pippin the Younger gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the Lombards . The pope may have utilized the forged Donation of Constantine to gain this land , which formed the core of the Papal States . This document , accepted as genuine until the 15th century , states that Constantine the Great placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule . In 800 , Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman Emperor , a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire ; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor , though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of Charles V in 1530 . Pope Pius VII was present at the coronation of Napoleon I in 1804 but did not actually perform the crowning . As mentioned above , the pope 's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy .
Third Rome
Although the European Union has never officially claimed to be the resurrection of the Roman Empire , it has a substantial cultural , geographical and historical claim . Greco - Roman culture was spread throughout Europe during the Empire and has laid the foundation of European civilisation , and as such , Roman laws , philosophy and cultural institutions have largely survived in Europe and the territories that make up the European Union , whereas they have been close to completely lost in the non-European parts of the Empire post the Islamic Expansion . With the spread of Latin Christendom , the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire , and the survival of the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church , the Roman identity was never completely lost , but transformed into a Christian Identity , as Europe became synonymous with the Land of Christendom during the Carolingian Renaissance . As Greco - Roman culture was imitated and consciously resurrected during the Italian Renaissance of the 14th century , this Christian identity lost its emphasis on religion and gained focus on shared linguistic , historic and cultural origins , transforming into the European Identity . These three identities ( Roman , Christian and European ) are ultimately based on a sense of belonging to European Civilisation , and as such , one can claim that the European identity is a modern version of the Roman , making a union of Europeans a modern version of Rome .
Pope
Gregory 's successors were largely dominated by the Exarch of Ravenna , the Byzantine emperor 's representative in the Italian Peninsula . These humiliations , the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in the face of the Muslim conquests , and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the Lombards , made Pope Stephen II turn from Emperor Constantine V. He appealed to the Franks to protect his lands . Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the papacy . When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne ( 800 ) as Roman Emperor , he established the precedent that , in Western Europe , no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope .
History of the Catholic Church
Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095 when he received an appeal from Byzantine emperor Alexius I to help ward off a Turkish invasion . Urban further believed that a Crusade might help bring about reconciliation with Eastern Christianity . Fueled by reports of Muslim atrocities against Christians , the series of military campaigns known as the Crusades began in 1096 . They were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control . The goal was not permanently realized , and episodes of brutality committed by the armies of both sides left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians . The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade left Eastern Christians embittered , despite the fact that Pope Innocent III had expressly forbidden any such attack . In 2001 , Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 .
Hellenistic period
The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world , followed by the spread of Islam , ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy ( often forcefully , as under Justinian I ) , which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions : Jewish philosophy , Christian philosophy , and early Islamic philosophy . In spite of this shift , Hellenistic philosophy continued to influence these three religious traditions and the renaissance thought which followed them .
Humanism
The humanists ' close study of Latin literary texts soon enabled them to discern historical differences in the writing styles of different periods . By analogy with what they saw as decline of Latin , they applied the principle of ad fontes , or back to the sources , across broad areas of learning , seeking out manuscripts of Patristic literature as well as pagan authors . In 1439 , while employed in Naples at the court of Alfonso V of Aragon ( at the time engaged in a dispute with the Papal States ) the humanist Lorenzo Valla used stylistic textual analysis , now called philology , to prove that the Donation of Constantine , which purported to confer temporal powers on the Pope of Rome , was an 8th - century forgery . For the next 70 years , however , neither Valla nor any of his contemporaries thought to apply the techniques of philology to other controversial manuscripts in this way . Instead , after the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Turks in 1453 , which brought a flood of Greek Orthodox refugees to Italy , humanist scholars increasingly turned to the study of Neoplatonism and Hermeticism , hoping to bridge the differences between the Greek and Roman Churches , and even between Christianity itself and the non-Christian world . The refugees brought with them Greek manuscripts , not only of Plato and Aristotle , but also of the Christian Gospels , previously unavailable in the Latin West .
Alaşehir
It was the center of several revolts against ruling Byzantine emperors - in 1182 , led by John Komnenos Vatatzes , and 1188 -- 1205 or 1206 , led by Theodore Mangaphas , a local Philadelphian , against Isaac II Angelos . At that time , the bishopric of Philadelphia was promoted to metropolis . In the 14th century , Philadelphia was made the metropolis of Lydia by the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople , a status it still holds . It was granted this honor because the city did not capitulate to the Ottomans . The city was prosperous especially in the 13th and 14th centuries ; there was a Genoese trading colony and the city was an important producer of leather goods and red - dyed silk ( whence , perhaps , its Turkish name , which probably means `` red city '' ) . By the 14th century , the city was surrounded by Turkish emirates but maintained nominal allegiance to the Byzantine emperor . The town remained prosperous through trade and its strategic location .
Islamic architecture
Russian - Islamic architecture is a feature of the architecture of the Tatars , formed under the influence of a sedentary and nomadic way of life in ancient times , developing in the epochs of the Golden Horde , the Tatar khanates and under the rule of the Russian Empire . The architecture was formed in the modern form for many centuries and depended on the culture , aesthetics and religion of the population , therefore combines a unique combination of Eastern , Russian , Bulgarian , Golden Horde architecture , European styles dominating in Russia at one time or another , especially this Is clearly reflected in the Tatar mosques .
Islamic architecture
When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople , they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches , the largest and most prominent amongst them was the Hagia Sophia . The brickwork - and - mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia were built simultaneously , as a self - supporting structure without any wooden centring . In the early Byzantine church of Hagia Irene , the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into the shell , similar to Western Roman domes , and thus are not visible from within the building . In the dome of the Hagia Sophia , the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central medallion at the apex of the dome , the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell : Shell and ribs form one single structural entity . In later Byzantine buildings , like the Kalenderhane Mosque , the Eski Imaret Mosque ( formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes ) or the Pantokrator Monastery ( today : Zeyrek Mosque ) , the central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became separate structural elements : The ribs are more pronounced and connect to the central medallion , which also stands out more pronouncedly , so that the entire construction gives the impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from , and underpin , the proper shell of the dome .
Pope
Other traditional Christian churches ( Assyrian Church of the East , the Oriental Orthodox Church , the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Old Catholic Church , the Anglican Communion , the Independent Catholic churches , etc . ) accept the doctrine of Apostolic succession and , to varying extents , papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop . Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope 's position as bishop of the original capital city of the Roman Empire , a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon . These churches see no foundation to papal claims of universal immediate jurisdiction , or to claims of papal infallibility . Several of these churches refer to such claims as ultramontanism .
Ancient Egypt
From the mid-first century AD , Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted . However , it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from Egyptian Religion and Greco - Roman religion and threatened popular religious traditions . This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity , culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303 , but eventually Christianity won out . In 391 the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples . Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed . As a consequence , Egypt 's native religious culture was continually in decline . While the native population certainly continued to speak their language , the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished . The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert .
Byzantine law
All this books were compiled later by the Athonite Monk Saint Nicodemus the Hagiorite and became the basis of the Modern Eastern Orthodox Law which is his Pedalion .
Eastern Orthodox Church
The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 ; the final break with Rome occurred circa 1450 . The sacking of Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day . In 2004 , Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 , which was importantly also strongly condemned by the Pope at the time ( Innocent III , see reference at end of paragraph ) ; the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople . Many things that were stolen during this time -- holy relics , riches , and many other items -- were not returned and are still held in various European cities , particularly Venice .
The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
Weber based much of his analysis on the early period of Chinese history . By 200 B.C. , the Chinese state had emerged from a loose federation of feudal states of the Warring States period to the unified empire with patrimonal rule . Confucianism emerged to dominate the other schools that had developed in the fertile social upheavals of pre-imperial China such as Daoism ( Taoism ) , Mohism , and Legalism , all of which had criticised Confucianism ( c. 400 -- c. 200 B.C. ) . One of Confucius 's disciples , Mencius , ( c. 372 -- c. 289 B.C. ) developed a more idealistic version of Confucianism , while Xunzi ( Hsün Tzu , c. 313 -- c. 238 B.C. ) argued that all inclinations are shaped by acquired language and other social forms . Confucianism rose to the position of an official orthodoxy during the Han dynasty ( 206 B.C. -- A.D. 220 ) .
Eastern Orthodox Church
In the Greek tradition , bishops who occupy an ancient see are called metropolitans , while the lead bishop in Greece is the archbishop . ( In the Russian tradition , however , the usage of the terms `` metropolitan '' and `` archbishop '' is reversed . ) Priests can be archpriests , archimandrites or protopresbyters . Deacons can also be archdeacons or protodeacons . The position of deacon is often occupied for life . The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop .
Old City (Jerusalem)
Muslims occupied Byzantine Jerusalem in the 7th century ( 637 CE ) under the second caliph , ` Umar Ibn al - Khattab who annexed it to the Islamic Arab Empire . He granted its inhabitants an assurance treaty . After the siege of Jerusalem , Sophronius welcomed ` Umar , allegedly because , according to biblical prophecies known to the Church in Jerusalem , `` a poor , but just and powerful man '' would rise to be a protector and ally to the Christians of Jerusalem . Sophronius believed that ` Umar , a great warrior who led an austere life , was a fulfillment of this prophecy . In the account by the Patriarch of Alexandria , Eutychius , it is said that ` Umar paid a visit to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and sat in its courtyard . When the time for prayer arrived , however , he left the church and prayed outside the compound , in order to avoid having future generations of Muslims use his prayer there as a pretext for converting the church into a mosque . Eutychius adds that ` Umar also wrote a decree which he handed to the Patriarch , in which he prohibited Muslims gathering in prayer at the site .