vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Declaration of nullity
However , there are some significant differences between divorce and annulment . Divorce is concerned merely with the legal effects of marriage . Annulment , however , is also concerned with the reality of whether or not a true marriage was ever formed . This leads to the second difference . At least in most countries , divorce is always possible . However , not all applications for marriage nullity are granted .
Chinese marriage
Beside the traditional desire for male children to carry on the family name , this allowance partially resolves a dilemma created by the emperor himself . He had recently banned all non-patrilineal forms of inheritance , while wanting to preserve the proper order in the Chinese kinship . Therefore , a couple without son can not adopt one from within the extended family . They either have to adopt from outside ( which was regarded by many as passing the family wealth to unrelated `` outsiders '' ) , or become heirless . The multiple inheritance marriages provided a way out when the husband 's brother has a son .
History of women in the United States
French Canadian women saw New England as a place of opportunity and possibility where they could create economic alternatives for themselves distinct from the expectations of their subsistence farms in Quebec . By the early 20th century some saw temporary migration to the United States to work as a rite of passage and a time of self - discovery and self - reliance . Most moved permanently to the United States , using the inexpensive railroad system to visit Quebec from time to time . When these women did marry , they had fewer children with longer intervals between children than their Canadian counterparts . Some women never married , and oral accounts suggest that self - reliance and economic independence were important reasons for choosing work over marriage and motherhood . These women conformed to traditional gender ideals in order to retain their ' Canadienne ' cultural identity , but they also redefined these roles in ways that provided them increased independence in their roles as wives and mothers .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
A screening program a year later in 2012 found that more than a third ( 36 % ) of children in Fukushima Prefecture have abnormal growths in their thyroid glands . As of August 2013 , there have been more than 40 children newly diagnosed with thyroid cancer and other cancers in Fukushima prefecture as a whole . In 2015 , the number of thyroid cancers or detections of developing thyroid cancers numbered 137 . However , whether these incidences of cancer are elevated above the rate in un-contaminated areas and therefore were due to exposure to nuclear radiation is unknown at this stage . Data from the Chernobyl accident showed that an unmistakable rise in thyroid cancer rates following the disaster in 1986 only began after a cancer incubation period of 3 -- 5 years ; however , whether this data can be directly compared to the Fukushima nuclear disaster is yet to be determined .
First Nations
Overall , First Nations individuals have some of the highest rates of suicide globally . Suicide rates are more than twice the sex - specific rate and also three times the age - specific rates of non-Aboriginal Canadians . Residential Aboriginals between ages 10 and 29 show an elevated suicide risk as compared to non-residential Aboriginals by 5 -- 6 times . One theory for the increased incidences of suicide within Aboriginal populations as compared to the general Canadian population is called acculturation stress which results from the intersection of multiple cultures within one 's life . This leads to differing expectations and cultural clashes within the community , the family and the individual . At the community level , a general economic disadvantage is seen , exacerbated by unemployment and low education levels , leading to poverty , political disempowerment and community disorganization . The family suffers through a loss of tradition as they attempt to assimilate into mainstream Canadian culture . These lead to low self - esteem in the individual as First Nations culture and tradition are marginalized affecting one 's sense of self - identity . These factors combine to create a world where First Nations individuals feel they can not identify completely as Aboriginal , nor can they fully identify as mainstream Canadians . When that balance can not be found , many ( particularly youths ) turn to suicide as a way out . Drinking
Gambler's fallacy
Another variety , known as the `` retrospective gambler 's fallacy '' , occurs when individuals judge that a seemingly rare event must come from a longer sequence than a more common event does . For example , the belief that an imaginary sequence of die rolls is more than three times as long when a set of three sixes is observed as opposed to when there are only two sixes . This effect can be observed in isolated instances , or even sequentially . A real - world example is considered in the following : if we hear that a teenager has unprotected sex and becomes pregnant on a given night , we might infer that she has been engaging in unprotected sex for longer than if we hear she had unprotected sex but did n't become pregnant , whereas , to our knowledge at least , the probability of becoming pregnant as a result of each intercourse is independent of the amount of prior intercourse .
Luteinizing hormone
In children with precocious puberty of pituitary or central origin , LH and FSH levels may be in the reproductive range instead of the low levels typical for their age .
Adolescence
The timing of puberty can have important psychological and social consequences . Early maturing boys are usually taller and stronger than their friends . They have the advantage in capturing the attention of potential partners and in becoming hand - picked for sports . Pubescent boys often tend to have a good body image , are more confident , secure , and more independent . Late maturing boys can be less confident because of poor body image when comparing themselves to already developed friends and peers . However , early puberty is not always positive for boys ; early sexual maturation in boys can be accompanied by increased aggressiveness due to the surge of hormones that affect them . Because they appear older than their peers , pubescent boys may face increased social pressure to conform to adult norms ; society may view them as more emotionally advanced , despite the fact that their cognitive and social development may lag behind their appearance . Studies have shown that early maturing boys are more likely to be sexually active and are more likely to participate in risky behaviors .
Adolescence
Another set of significant physical changes during puberty happen in bodily distribution of fat and muscle . This process is different for females and males . Before puberty , there are nearly no sex differences in fat and muscle distribution ; during puberty , boys grow muscle much faster than girls , although both sexes experience rapid muscle development . In contrast , though both sexes experience an increase in body fat , the increase is much more significant for girls . Frequently , the increase in fat for girls happens in their years just before puberty . The ratio between muscle and fat among post-pubertal boys is around three to one , while for girls it is about five to four . This may help explain sex differences in athletic performance .
Adolescence
For girls , early maturation can sometimes lead to increased self - consciousness , though a typical aspect in maturing females . Because of their bodies ' developing in advance , pubescent girls can become more insecure and dependent . Consequently , girls that reach sexual maturation early are more likely than their peers to develop eating disorders ( such as anorexia nervosa ) . Nearly half of all American high school girls ' diets are to lose weight . In addition , girls may have to deal with sexual advances from older boys before they are emotionally and mentally mature . In addition to having earlier sexual experiences and more unwanted pregnancies than late maturing girls , early maturing girls are more exposed to alcohol and drug abuse . Those who have had such experiences tend to perform not as well in school as their `` inexperienced '' peers .
Interphase
In gamete production interphase is succeeded by meiosis . In programmed cell death , interphase is followed or preempted by apoptosis .
Testosterone
Pubertal effects begin to occur when androgen has been higher than normal adult female levels for months or years . In males , these are usual late pubertal effects , and occur in women after prolonged periods of heightened levels of free testosterone in the blood . The effects include :
BRCA1
Level of BRCA1 expression is also relevant to ovarian cancer treatment . Patients having sporadic ovarian cancer who were treated with platinum drugs had longer median survival times if their BRCA1 expression was low compared to patients with higher BRCA1 expression ( 46 compared to 33 months ) .
Adolescence
Girls have usually reached full physical development around ages 15 -- 17 , while boys usually complete puberty around ages 16 -- 17 . Any increase in height beyond the post-pubertal age is uncommon . Girls attain reproductive maturity about four years after the first physical changes of puberty appear . In contrast , boys accelerate more slowly but continue to grow for about six years after the first visible pubertal changes . Approximate
BRCA1
As noted above , the BRCA1 protein plays a key role in homologous recombinational repair . This is the only known cellular process that can accurately repair DNA double - strand breaks . DNA double - strand breaks accumulate with age in humans and mice in primordial follicles . Primordial follicles contain oocytes that are at an intermediate ( prophase I ) stage of meiosis . Meiosis is the general process in eukaryotic organisms by which germ cells are formed , and it is likely an adaptation for removing DNA damages , especially double - strand breaks , from germ line DNA . ( Also see article Meiosis ) . Homologous recombinational repair employing BRCA1 is especially promoted during meiosis . It was found that expression of 4 key genes necessary for homologous recombinational repair of DNA double - strand breaks ( BRCA1 , MRE11 , RAD51 and ATM ) decline with age in the oocytes of humans and mice , leading to the hypothesis that DNA double - strand break repair is necessary for the maintenance of oocyte reserve and that a decline in efficiency of repair with age plays a role in ovarian aging .
Fallopian tube
The fallopian tube can prolapse into the vagina and can be mistaken for a neoplastic tissue mass . This usually happens after a hysterectomy .
Luteinizing hormone
LH levels are normally low during childhood and , in women , high after menopause . As LH is secreted as pulses , it is necessary to follow its concentration over a sufficient period of time to get proper information about its blood level .
Thalidomide
Hence , while initially considered safe , the drug was responsible for teratogenic deformities in children born after their mothers used it during pregnancies , prior to the third trimester . In November 1961 , thalidomide was taken off the market due to massive pressure from the press and public . Experts estimate that the drug thalidomide led to the death of approximately 2,000 children and serious birth defects in more than 10,000 children , about 5,000 of them in West Germany . The regulatory authorities in East Germany did not approve thalidomide . One reason for the initially unobserved side effects of the drug and the subsequent approval in West Germany was that at that time drugs did not have to be tested for teratogenic effects . They had been tested on rodents only , as was usual at the time .
Cell division
Interphase is the process a cell must go through before mitosis , meiosis , and cytokinesis . Interphase consists of four main stages : G1 , S , G0 , and G2 . G1 is a time of growth for the cell . If the cell does not progress through G1 , the cell then enters a stage called G0 . In G0 , cells are still living but they are put on hold . The cells may later be called back into interphase if needed at a later time . There are checkpoints during interphase that allow the cell to be either progressed or denied further development . In S phase , the chromosomes are replicated in order for the genetic content to be maintained . During G2 , the cell undergoes the final stages of growth before it enters the M phase . The M phase , can be either mitosis or meiosis depending on the type of cell . Germ cells undergo meiosis , while somatic cells will undergo mitosis . After the cell proceeds successfully through the M phase , it may then undergo cell division through cytokinesis . The control of each checkpoint is controlled by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases . The progression of interphase is the result of the increased amount of cyclin . As the amount of cyclin increases , more and more cyclin dependent kinases attach to cyclin signaling the cell further into interphase . The peak of the cyclin attached to the cyclin dependent kinases this system pushes the cell out of interphase and into the M phase , where mitosis , meiosis , and cytokinesis occur .
Cytokinesis
After cytokinesis , non-kinetochore microtubules reorganize and disappear into a new cytoskeleton as the cell cycle returns to interphase ( see also cell cycle ) .
Adolescence
Pubertal development also affects circulatory and respiratory systems as an adolescents ' heart and lungs increase in both size and capacity . These changes lead to increased strength and tolerance for exercise . Sex differences are apparent as males tend to develop `` larger hearts and lungs , higher systolic blood pressure , a lower resting heart rate , a greater capacity for carrying oxygen to the blood , a greater power for neutralizing the chemical products of muscular exercise , higher blood hemoglobin and more red blood cells '' .
Adolescence
Some of the most significant parts of pubertal development involve distinctive physiological changes in individuals ' height , weight , body composition , and circulatory and respiratory systems . These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activity . Hormones play an organizational role , priming the body to behave in a certain way once puberty begins , and an active role , referring to changes in hormones during adolescence that trigger behavioral and physical changes .
Appendix cancer
Pseudomyxoma peritonei treatment includes cytoreductive surgery which includes the removal of visible tumor and affected essential organs within the abdomen and pelvis . The peritoneal cavity is infused with heated chemotherapy known as HIPEC in an attempt to eradicate residual disease . The surgery may or may not be preceded or followed with intravenous chemotherapy or HIPEC .
Bone age
An advanced bone age is common when a child has had prolonged elevation of sex steroid levels , as in precocious puberty or congenital adrenal hyperplasia .
Nuclear weapon
Initial stage -- the first 1 -- 9 weeks , in which are the greatest number of deaths , with 90 % due to thermal injury and / or blast effects and 10 % due to super-lethal radiation exposure . Intermediate stage -- from 10 -- 12 weeks . The deaths in this period are from ionizing radiation in the median lethal range -- LD50 Late period -- lasting from 13 -- 20 weeks . This period has some improvement in survivors ' condition . Delayed period -- from 20 + weeks . Characterized by numerous complications , mostly related to healing of thermal and mechanical injuries , and if the individual was exposed to a few hundred to a thousand millisieverts of radiation , it is coupled with infertility , sub-fertility and blood disorders . Furthermore , ionizing radiation above a dose of around 50 -- 100 millisievert exposure has been shown to statistically begin increasing one 's chance of dying of cancer sometime in their lifetime over the normal unexposed rate of ~ 25 % , in the long term , a heightened rate of cancer , proportional to the dose received , would begin to be observed after ~ 5 + years , with lesser problems such as eye cataracts and other more minor effects in other organs and tissue also being observed over the long term .
Estrogen
Estrogen , in conjunction with growth hormone ( GH ) and its secretory product insulin - like growth factor 1 ( IGF - 1 ) , is critical in mediating breast development during puberty , as well as breast maturation during pregnancy in preparation of lactation and breastfeeding . Estrogen is primarily and directly responsible for inducing the ductal component of breast development , as well as for causing fat deposition and connective tissue growth . It is also indirectly involved in the lobuloalveolar component , by increasing progesterone receptor expression in the breasts and by inducing the secretion of prolactin . Allowed for by estrogen , progesterone and prolactin work together to complete lobuloalveolar development during pregnancy .
Testosterone
Early infancy androgen effects are the least understood . In the first weeks of life for male infants , testosterone levels rise . The levels remain in a pubertal range for a few months , but usually reach the barely detectable levels of childhood by 4 -- 6 months of age . The function of this rise in humans is unknown . It has been theorized that brain masculinization is occurring since no significant changes have been identified in other parts of the body . The male brain is masculinized by the aromatization of testosterone into estrogen , which crosses the blood -- brain barrier and enters the male brain , whereas female fetuses have α - fetoprotein , which binds the estrogen so that female brains are not affected .
Female reproductive system
In the absence of fertilization , the ovum will eventually traverse the entire reproductive tract from the fallopian tube until exiting the vagina through menstruation .
Estrogen
Estrogen levels vary through the menstrual cycle , with levels highest near the end of the follicular phase just before ovulation .
Testosterone
In non-human primates , it may be that testosterone in puberty stimulates sexual arousal , which allows the primate to increasingly seek out sexual experiences with females and thus creates a sexual preference for females . Some research has also indicated that if testosterone is eliminated in an adult male human or other adult male primate 's system , its sexual motivation decreases , but there is no corresponding decrease in ability to engage in sexual activity ( mounting , ejaculating , etc . ) .
Germ cell
The developing male germ cells do not complete cytokinesis during spermatogenesis . Consequently , cytoplasmic bridges assure connection between the clones of differentiating daughter cells to form a syncytium . In this way the haploid cells are supplied with all the products of a complete diploid genome . Sperm that carry a Y chromosome , for example , is supplied with essential molecules that are encoded by genes on the X chromosome .
Thalidomide
In the late 1950s and early 1960s , more than 10,000 children in 46 countries were born with deformities such as phocomelia as a consequence of thalidomide use . The severity and location of the deformities depended on how many days into the pregnancy the mother was before beginning treatment ; thalidomide taken on the 20th day of pregnancy caused central brain damage , day 21 would damage the eyes , day 22 the ears and face , day 24 the arms , and leg damage would occur if taken up to day 28 . Thalidomide did not damage the fetus if taken after 42 days gestation .
Adolescence
In studying adolescent development , adolescence can be defined biologically , as the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth ; cognitively , as changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally ; or socially , as a period of preparation for adult roles . Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs , height , weight , and muscle mass , as well as major changes in brain structure and organization . Cognitive advances encompass both increment in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively . The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations . For example , researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations . Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles ( e.g. , worker or romantic partner ) and how this varies across cultures or social conditions . Developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status . Some scientists have questioned the universality of adolescence as a developmental phase , arguing that traits often considered typical of adolescents are not in fact inherent to the teenage years .
Testosterone
Anabolic effects include growth of muscle mass and strength , increased bone density and strength , and stimulation of linear growth and bone maturation . Androgenic effects include maturation of the sex organs , particularly the penis and the formation of the scrotum in the fetus , and after birth ( usually at puberty ) a deepening of the voice , growth of facial hair ( such as the beard ) and axillary ( underarm ) hair . Many of these fall into the category of male secondary sex characteristics .
Estrogen
Estrogens are responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty , including breast development , widening of the hips , and female fat distribution . Conversely , androgens are responsible for pubic and body hair growth , as well as acne and axillary odor . Breast
Thalidomide
There are no expected pharmacokinetic interactions between thalidomide and other medicines due to its neutral effects on p - glycoprotein and P450 cytochromes . It may interact with sedatives due to its sedative action . It may also interact with bradycardic agents due to its bradycardia - inducing effects . The risk of peripheral neuropathy may be increased by concomitant treatment with other agents known to cause peripheral neuropathy . The risk of venous thromboembolisms with thalidomide seems to be increased when patients are treated with oral contraceptives or other cytotoxic agents ( including doxorubicin and melphalan ) concurrently . Thalidomide may interfere with the contraceptive effects of various contraceptives and hence it is advised that women of reproductive age use at least two different means of contraception to ensure that no child will be conceived while they are receiving thalidomide .
Germ cell
Primordial germ cells , germ cells that still have to reach the gonads , also known as PGCs , precursor germ cells or gonocytes , divide repeatedly on their migratory route through the gut and into the developing gonads .