vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
White blood cell
Basophils are chiefly responsible for allergic and antigen response by releasing the chemical histamine causing the dilation of blood vessels . Because they are the rarest of the white blood cells ( less than 0.5 % of the total count ) and share physicochemical properties with other blood cells , they are difficult to study . They can be recognized by several coarse , dark violet granules , giving them a blue hue . The nucleus is bi - or tri-lobed , but it is hard to see because of the number of coarse granules that hide it .
Sickle cell disease
Because of its narrow vessels and function in clearing defective red blood cells , the spleen is frequently affected . It is usually infarcted before the end of childhood in individuals suffering from sickle cell anaemia . This spleen damage increases the risk of infection from encapsulated organisms ; preventive antibiotics and vaccinations are recommended for those lacking proper spleen function .
Femur
The femur ( / ˈfiːmər / , pl . femurs or femora / ˈfɛmərə , ˈfɛmrə / ) or thigh bone , is the most proximal ( closest to the hip joint ) bone of the leg in tetrapod vertebrates capable of walking or jumping , such as most land mammals , birds , many reptiles such as lizards , and amphibians such as frogs . In vertebrates with four legs such as dogs and horses , the femur is found only in the hindlimbs . The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the hip joint , while the distal part of the femur articulates with the tibia and kneecap forming the knee joint . By most measures the femur is the strongest bone in the body . The femur is also the longest bone in the human body .
Efferent arteriole
Blood in this plexus and returning from the inner medulla finds its way to the renal vein and the general circulation by pathways similar to those providing drainage for the rest of the cortex .
Cellular waste product
Cellular respiration takes place in the cristae of the mitochondria within cells . Depending on the pathways followed , the products are dealt with in different ways .
Cobalt-60
After entering a living mammal ( such as a human being ) , some of the Co is excreted in feces . The remainder is taken up by tissues , mainly the liver , kidneys , and bones , where the prolonged exposure to gamma radiation can cause cancer . Over time , the absorbed cobalt is eliminated in urine .
Heart
Arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system . In this system , deoxygenated blood collects around the heart in cavities ( sinuses ) . This blood slowly permeates the heart through many small one - way channels . The heart then pumps the blood into the hemocoel , a cavity between the organs . The heart in arthropods is typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body , under the back and from the base of the head . Instead of blood the circulatory fluid is haemolymph which carries the most commonly used respiratory pigment , copper - based haemocyanin as the oxygen transporter ; iron - based haemoglobin is used by only a few arthropods .
Skeletal muscle
B.K. Pedersen and her colleagues have conducted research showing that skeletal muscle functions as an endocrine organ by secreting cytokines and other peptides , now referred to as myokines . Myokines in turn are believed to mediate the health benefits of exercise .
Skeletal muscle
Another group of cells , the myosatellite cells are found between the basement membrane and the sarcolemma of muscle fibers . These cells are normally quiescent but can be activated by exercise or pathology to provide additional myonuclei for muscle growth or repair .
Thymus
The arteries supplying the thymus are branches of the internal thoracic , and inferior thyroid arteries , with branches from the superior thyroid artery sometimes seen . The branches reach the thymus and travel with the septa of the capsule into the area between the cortex and medulla , where they enter the thymus itself .
Human brain
The brain is protected by the skull , suspended in cerebrospinal fluid , and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood -- brain barrier . However , the brain is still susceptible to damage , disease , and infection . Damage can be caused by trauma , or a loss of blood supply known as a stroke . The brain is susceptible to degenerative disorders , such as Parkinson 's disease , dementias including Alzheimer 's disease , and multiple sclerosis . Psychiatric conditions , including schizophrenia and clinical depression , are thought to be associated with brain dysfunctions . The brain can also be the site of tumours , both benign and malignant ; these mostly originate from other sites in the body . The study of the anatomy of the brain is neuroanatomy , while the study of its function is neuroscience . A number of techniques are used to study the brain . Specimens from other animals , which may be examined microscopically , have traditionally provided much information . Medical imaging technologies such as functional neuroimaging , and electroencephalography ( EEG ) recordings are important in studying the brain . The medical history of people with brain injury has provided insight into the function of each part of the brain .
Anemia
Megaloblastic anemia , the most common cause of macrocytic anemia , is due to a deficiency of either vitamin B , folic acid , or both . Deficiency in folate or vitamin B can be due either to inadequate intake or insufficient absorption . Folate deficiency normally does not produce neurological symptoms , while B deficiency does . Pernicious anemia is caused by a lack of intrinsic factor , which is required to absorb vitamin B from food . A lack of intrinsic factor may arise from an autoimmune condition targeting the parietal cells ( atrophic gastritis ) that produce intrinsic factor or against intrinsic factor itself . These lead to poor absorption of vitamin B . Macrocytic anemia can also be caused by removal of the functional portion of the stomach , such as during gastric bypass surgery , leading to reduced vitamin B / folate absorption . Therefore , one must always be aware of anemia following this procedure . Hypothyroidism Alcoholism commonly causes a macrocytosis , although not specifically anemia . Other types of liver disease can also cause macrocytosis . Drugs such as methotrexate , zidovudine , and other substances may inhibit DNA replication such as heavy metals
Germ cell
A germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually . In many animals , the germ cells originate in the primitive streak and migrate via the gut of an embryo to the developing gonads . There , they undergo meiosis , followed by cellular differentiation into mature gametes , either eggs or sperm . Unlike animals , plants do not have germ cells designated in early development . Instead , germ cells can arise from somatic cells in the adult ( such as the floral meristem of flowering plants ) .
Anemia
A dimorphic appearance on a peripheral blood smear occurs when there are two simultaneous populations of red blood cells , typically of different size and hemoglobin content ( this last feature affecting the color of the red blood cell on a stained peripheral blood smear ) . For example , a person recently transfused for iron deficiency would have small , pale , iron deficient red blood cells ( RBCs ) and the donor RBCs of normal size and color . Similarly , a person transfused for severe folate or vitamin B12 deficiency would have two cell populations , but , in this case , the patient 's RBCs would be larger and paler than the donor 's RBCs . A person with sideroblastic anemia ( a defect in heme synthesis , commonly caused by alcoholism , but also drugs / toxins , nutritional deficiencies , a few acquired and rare congenital diseases ) can have a dimorphic smear from the sideroblastic anemia alone . Evidence for multiple causes appears with an elevated RBC distribution width ( RDW ) , indicating a wider - than - normal range of red cell sizes , also seen in common nutritional anemia . Heinz
Collagen
As the skeleton forms the structure of the body , it is vital that it maintains its strength , even after breaks and injuries . Collagen is used in bone grafting as it has a triple helical structure , making it a very strong molecule . It is ideal for use in bones , as it does not compromise the structural integrity of the skeleton . The triple helical structure of collagen prevents it from being broken down by enzymes , it enables adhesiveness of cells and it is important for the proper assembly of the extracellular matrix .
Cell nucleus
Promyelocytic leukaemia bodies ( PML bodies ) are spherical bodies found scattered throughout the nucleoplasm , measuring around 0.1 -- 1.0 μm . They are known by a number of other names , including nuclear domain 10 ( ND10 ) , Kremer bodies , and PML oncogenic domains . PML bodies are named after one of their major components , the promyelocytic leukemia protein ( PML ) . They are often seen in the nucleus in association with Cajal bodies and cleavage bodies . PML bodies belong to the nuclear matrix , an ill - defined super-structure of the nucleus proposed to anchor and regulate many nuclear functions , including DNA replication , transcription , or epigenetic silencing . The PML protein is the key organizer of these domains that recruits an ever - growing number of proteins , whose only common known feature to date is their ability to be SUMOylated . Yet , pml - / - mice ( which have their PML gene deleted ) can not assemble nuclear bodies , develop normally and live well , demonstrating that PML bodies are dispensable for most basic biological functions . Splicing
Fallopian tube
The tube allows passage of the egg from the ovary to the uterus . When an oocyte is developing in an ovary , it is encapsulated in a spherical collection of cells known as an ovarian follicle . Just prior to ovulation the primary oocyte completes meiosis I to form the first polar body and a secondary oocyte which is arrested in metaphase of meiosis II . This secondary oocyte is then ovulated . The follicle and the ovary 's wall rupture , allowing the secondary oocyte to escape . The secondary oocyte is caught by the fimbriated end and travels to the ampulla of the uterine tube where typically the sperm are met and fertilization occurs ; meiosis II is promptly completed . The fertilized ovum , now a zygote , travels towards the uterus aided by activity of tubal cilia and activity of the tubal muscle . The early embryo requires critical development in the Fallopian tube . After about five days the new embryo enters the uterine cavity and on about the sixth day implants on the wall of the uterus .
Mitochondrion
The mitochondrion ( plural mitochondria ) is a double - membrane - bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms . Some cells in some multicellular organisms may , however , lack them ( for example , mature mammalian red blood cells ) . A number of unicellular organisms , such as microsporidia , parabasalids , and diplomonads , have also reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures . To date , only one eukaryote , Monocercomonoides , is known to have completely lost its mitochondria . The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek μίτος , mitos , `` thread '' , and χονδρίον , chondrion , `` granule '' or `` grain - like '' . Mitochondria generate most of the cell 's supply of adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , used as a source of chemical energy .
Testosterone
The bones and the brain are two important tissues in humans where the primary effect of testosterone is by way of aromatization to estradiol . In the bones , estradiol accelerates ossification of cartilage into bone , leading to closure of the epiphyses and conclusion of growth . In the central nervous system , testosterone is aromatized to estradiol . Estradiol rather than testosterone serves as the most important feedback signal to the hypothalamus ( especially affecting LH secretion ) . In many mammals , prenatal or perinatal `` masculinization '' of the sexually dimorphic areas of the brain by estradiol derived from testosterone programs later male sexual behavior .
Axial skeleton
Flat bones house the brain and other vital organs . This article mainly deals with the axial skeletons of humans ; however , it is important to understand the evolutionary lineage of the axial skeleton . The human axial skeleton consists of 80 different bones . It is the medial core of the body and connects the pelvis to the body , where the appendix skeleton attaches . As the skeleton grows older the bones get weaker with the exception of the skull . The skull remains strong to protect the brain from injury .
Ground tissue
Collenchyma cells are most often found adjacent to outer growing tissues such as the vascular cambium and are known for increasing structural support and integrity .
Heart
Other blood tests are often taken to help understand a person 's general health and risk factors that may contribute to heart disease . These often include a full blood count investigating for anaemia , and basic metabolic panel that may reveal any disturbances in electrolytes . A coagulation screen is often required to ensure that the right level of anticoagulation is given . Fasting lipids and fasting blood glucose ( or an HbA1c level ) are often ordered to evaluate a person 's cholesterol and diabetes status , respectively . Electrocardiogram
Tooth decay
In response , the fluid inside the tubules brings immunoglobulins from the immune system to fight the bacterial infection . At the same time , there is an increase of mineralization of the surrounding tubules . This results in a constriction of the tubules , which is an attempt to slow the bacterial progression . In addition , as the acid from the bacteria demineralizes the hydroxyapatite crystals , calcium and phosphorus are released , allowing for the precipitation of more crystals which fall deeper into the dentinal tubule . These crystals form a barrier and slow the advancement of caries . After these protective responses , the dentin is considered sclerotic .
Stem cell
Most adult stem cells are lineage - restricted ( multipotent ) and are generally referred to by their tissue origin ( mesenchymal stem cell , adipose - derived stem cell , endothelial stem cell , dental pulp stem cell , etc . ) . Muse cells ( multi-lineage differentiating stress enduring cells ) are a recently discovered pluripotent stem cell type found in multiple adult tissues , including adipose , dermal fibroblasts , and bone marrow . While rare , muse cells are identifiable by their expression of SSEA - 3 , a marker for undifferentiated stem cells , and general mesenchymal stem cells markers such as CD105 . When subjected to single cell suspension culture , the cells will generate clusters that are similar to embryoid bodies in morphology as well as gene expression , including canonical pluripotency markers Oct4 , Sox2 , and Nanog .
White blood cell
Lymphocytes are much more common in the lymphatic system than in blood . Lymphocytes are distinguished by having a deeply staining nucleus that may be eccentric in location , and a relatively small amount of cytoplasm . Lymphocytes include :
Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
MRI is used to image every part of the body , and is particularly useful for neurological conditions , for disorders of the muscles and joints , for evaluating tumors , and for showing abnormalities in the heart and blood vessels .
Endocrine system
The pituitary gland ( or hypophysis ) is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams ( 0.018 oz ) in humans . It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain , and rests in a small , bony cavity ( sella turcica ) covered by a dural fold ( diaphragma sellae ) . The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem or pituitary stalk . The anterior pituitary ( adenohypophysis ) is connected to the hypothalamus via the hypothalamo -- hypophyseal portal vessels , which allows for quicker and more efficient communication between the hypothalamus and the pituitary . Anterior
Spinal cord
Proprioceptive information in the body travels up the spinal cord via three tracks . Below L2 , the proprioceptive information travels up the spinal cord in the ventral spinocerebellar tract . Also known as the anterior spinocerebellar tract , sensory receptors take in the information and travel into the spinal cord . The cell bodies of these primary neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia . In the spinal cord , the axons synapse and the secondary neuronal axons decussates and then travel up to the superior cerebellar peduncle where they decussate again . From here , the information is brought to deep nuclei of the cerebellum including the fastigial and interposed nuclei .
Mitochondrion
Under certain conditions , protons can re-enter the mitochondrial matrix without contributing to ATP synthesis . This process is known as proton leak or mitochondrial uncoupling and is due to the facilitated diffusion of protons into the matrix . The process results in the unharnessed potential energy of the proton electrochemical gradient being released as heat . The process is mediated by a proton channel called thermogenin , or UCP1 . Thermogenin is a 33 k Da protein first discovered in 1973 . Thermogenin is primarily found in brown adipose tissue , or brown fat , and is responsible for non-shivering thermogenesis . Brown adipose tissue is found in mammals , and is at its highest levels in early life and in hibernating animals . In humans , brown adipose tissue is present at birth and decreases with age .
Megaloblastic anemia
Due to the lack of available radioactive Vitamin B , the Schilling test is now largely a historical artifact . The Schilling test was performed in the past to help determine the nature of the vitamin B deficiency . An advantage of the Schilling test was that it often included Vitamin B with intrinsic factor .
Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
Diseased tissue , such as tumors , can be detected because the protons in different tissues return to their equilibrium state at different rates ( i.e. , they have different relaxation times ) . By changing the parameters on the scanner this effect is used to create contrast between different types of body tissue .
Kidney
According to studies in modern and ancient Hebrew , various body organs in humans and animals served also an emotional or logical role , today mostly attributed to the brain and the endocrine system . The kidney is mentioned in several biblical verses in conjunction with the heart , much as the bowels were understood to be the `` seat '' of emotion - grief , joy and pain .
Connective tissue
Various types of specialized tissues and cells are classified under the spectrum of connective tissue , and are as diverse as brown and white adipose tissue , blood , cartilage and bone . Cells of the immune system , such as macrophages , mast cells , plasma cells and eosinophils are found scattered in loose connective tissue , providing the ground for starting inflammatory and immune responses upon the detection of antigens .
Sickle cell disease
Increased risk of severe bacterial infections due to loss of functioning spleen tissue ( and comparable to the risk of infections after having the spleen removed surgically ) . These infections are typically caused by encapsulated organisms such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae . Daily penicillin prophylaxis is the most commonly used treatment during childhood , with some haematologists continuing treatment indefinitely . Patients benefit today from routine vaccination for S. pneumoniae . Stroke , which can result from a progressive narrowing of blood vessels , prevents oxygen from reaching the brain . Cerebral infarction occurs in children and cerebral haemorrhage in adults . Silent stroke causes no immediate symptoms , but is associated with damage to the brain . Silent stroke is probably five times as common as symptomatic stroke . About 10 -- 15 % of children with SCD suffer strokes , with silent strokes predominating in the younger patients . Cholelithiasis ( gallstones ) and cholecystitis may result from excessive bilirubin production and precipitation due to prolonged haemolysis . Avascular necrosis ( aseptic bone necrosis ) of the hip and other major joints may occur as a result of ischaemia . Decreased immune reactions due to hyposplenism ( malfunctioning of the spleen ) Priapism and infarction of the penis Osteomyelitis ( bacterial bone infection ) , the most common cause of osteomyelitis in SCD is Salmonella ( especially the atypical serotypes Salmonella typhimurium , Salmonella enteritidis , Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella paratyphi B ) , followed by Staphylococcus aureus and Gram - negative enteric bacilli perhaps because intravascular sickling of the bowel leads to patchy ischaemic infarction . Acute papillary necrosis in the kidneys Leg ulcers In eyes , background retinopathy , proliferative retinopathy , vitreous haemorrhages , and retinal detachments can result in blindness . Regular annual eye checks are recommended .
Spinal cord
The spinal cord is continuous with the caudal portion of the medulla , running from the base of the skull to the body of the first lumbar vertebra . It does not run the full length of the vertebral column in adults . It is made of 31 segments from which branch one pair of sensory nerve roots and one pair of motor nerve roots . The nerve roots then merge into bilaterally symmetrical pairs of spinal nerves . The peripheral nervous system is made up of these spinal roots , nerves , and ganglia .
Smooth muscle tissue
It occurs in the walls of hollow organs , including the stomach , intestines , urinary bladder and uterus , and is found in the walls of passageways , such as the arteries and veins of the circulatory system , and the tracts of the respiratory , urinary , and reproductive systems . Furthermore , it is present in the eyes , where it functions to change the size of the iris and alter the shape of the lens ; and in the skin where it causes hair to stand erect in response to cold temperature or fear .
Tyrannosaurus
In the March 2005 issue of Science , Mary Higby Schweitzer of North Carolina State University and colleagues announced the recovery of soft tissue from the marrow cavity of a fossilized leg bone from a Tyrannosaurus rex . The bone had been intentionally , though reluctantly , broken for shipping and then not preserved in the normal manner , specifically because Schweitzer was hoping to test it for soft tissue . Designated as the Museum of the Rockies specimen 1125 , or MOR 1125 , the dinosaur was previously excavated from the Hell Creek Formation . Flexible , bifurcating blood vessels and fibrous but elastic bone matrix tissue were recognized . In addition , microstructures resembling blood cells were found inside the matrix and vessels . The structures bear resemblance to ostrich blood cells and vessels . Whether an unknown process , distinct from normal fossilization , preserved the material , or the material is original , the researchers do not know , and they are careful not to make any claims about preservation . If it is found to be original material , any surviving proteins may be used as a means of indirectly guessing some of the DNA content of the dinosaurs involved , because each protein is typically created by a specific gene . The absence of previous finds may be the result of people assuming preserved tissue was impossible , therefore not looking . Since the first , two more tyrannosaurs and a hadrosaur have also been found to have such tissue - like structures . Research on some of the tissues involved has suggested that birds are closer relatives to tyrannosaurs than other modern animals . T.
Stem cell
Stem cell treatments may require immunosuppression because of a requirement for radiation before the transplant to remove the person 's previous cells , or because the patient 's immune system may target the stem cells . One approach to avoid the second possibility is to use stem cells from the same patient who is being treated .