vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Big Five personality traits
A study of gender differences in 55 nations using the Big Five Inventory found that women tended to be somewhat higher than men in neuroticism , extraversion , agreeableness , and conscientiousness . The difference in neuroticism was the most prominent and consistent , with significant differences found in 49 of the 55 nations surveyed . Gender differences in personality traits are largest in prosperous , healthy , and more gender - egalitarian cultures . A plausible explanation for this is that acts by women in individualistic , egalitarian countries are more likely to be attributed to their personality , rather than being attributed to ascribed gender roles within collectivist , traditional countries . Differences in the magnitude of sex differences between more or less developed world regions were due to differences between men , not women , in these respective regions . That is , men in highly developed world regions were less neurotic , extraverted , conscientious and agreeable compared to men in less developed world regions . Women , on the other hand tended not to differ in personality traits across regions . The most simple explanation for this gender data is that women remain relatively resource - poor , regardless of the circumstances of males within a first - world country . However , the authors of this study speculated that resource - poor environments ( that is , countries with low levels of development ) may inhibit the development of gender differences , whereas resource - rich environments facilitate them . This may be because males require more resources than females in order to reach their full developmental potential . The authors also argued that due to different evolutionary pressures , men may have evolved to be more risk taking and socially dominant , whereas women evolved to be more cautious and nurturing . Ancient hunter - gatherer societies may have been more egalitarian than later agriculturally oriented societies . Hence , the development of gender inequalities may have acted to constrain the development of gender differences in personality that originally evolved in hunter - gatherer societies . As modern societies have become more egalitarian , again , it may be that innate sex differences are no longer constrained and hence manifest more fully than in less - developed cultures . Currently , this hypothesis remains untested , as gender differences in modern societies have not been compared with those in hunter - gatherer societies .
Women in Vietnam
Recent studies have shown a shift in Vietnam 's sex ratio to match that of other countries in the region , where proportions are uneven and men outnumber women . In 2006 , the sex ratio was found to be 110 men per 100 women throughout Vietnam , higher than the established normal sex ratio of 106 men per 100 women . Researchers have pointed to the preference for a small family size , which stems from Vietnam 's two - child policy , preference for sons , and increase in ultrasound and abortion usage for the cause of the sex ratio shift . Sex
Ejaculatory duct
Ejaculation and orgasm may occur simultaneously , however they are not coupled , in that one may occur without the other . For example , a man may have a dry orgasm ( termed Retrograde ejaculation ) ; there is no expulsion of ejaculate however the man still experiences orgasm . Also , paraplegics may ejaculate seminal fluid but not experience the sensation of orgasm .
Ejaculatory duct
Surgery to correct benign prostatic hyperplasia may destroy these ducts resulting in retrograde ejaculation . Retrograde ejaculation empties the seminal fluid formed in the emission phase into the bladder of the male instead of expelling it through the urethra and out the tip of the penis . This results in a dry orgasm , where orgasm may still be experienced but without expulsion of semen from the ejaculatory ducts .
Endocrine system
Secreted hormone From cells Effect Glucocorticoids ( chiefly cortisol ) zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells Stimulates gluconeogenesis Stimulates fat breakdown in adipose tissue Inhibits protein synthesis Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Inhibits immunological responses ( immunosuppressive ) Inhibits inflammatory responses ( anti-inflammatory ) Mineralocorticoids ( chiefly aldosterone ) Zona glomerulosa cells Stimulates active sodium reabsorption in kidneys Stimulates passive water reabsorption in kidneys , thus increasing blood volume and blood pressure Stimulates potassium and H secretion into nephron of kidney and subsequent excretion Androgens ( including DHEA and testosterone ) Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells In males : Relatively small effect compared to androgens from testes In females : masculinizing effects Adrenal
Testosterone
Attention , memory , and spatial ability are key cognitive functions affected by testosterone in humans . Preliminary evidence suggests that low testosterone levels may be a risk factor for cognitive decline and possibly for dementia of the Alzheimer 's type , a key argument in life extension medicine for the use of testosterone in anti-aging therapies . Much of the literature , however , suggests a curvilinear or even quadratic relationship between spatial performance and circulating testosterone , where both hypo - and hypersecretion ( deficient - and excessive - secretion ) of circulating androgens have negative effects on cognition .
Fallopian tube
Fallopian tube cancer , which typically arises from the epithelial lining of the Fallopian tube , has historically been considered to be a very rare malignancy . Recent evidence suggests it probably represents a significant portion of what has been classified as ovarian cancer in the past . While tubal cancers may be misdiagnosed as ovarian cancer , it is of little consequence as the treatment of both ovarian and Fallopian tube cancer is similar .
Birth control in the United States
In 2006 - 2008 , the most popular contraceptive methods among those at risk of unintended pregnancy were oral contraceptive pills ( 25 % ) , female sterilization ( 24.2 % ) , male condoms ( 14.5 % ) and male sterilization ( 8.8 % ) . Intrauterine device ( 4.9 % ) , Withdrawal ( 4.6 % ) . Depo - Provera is used by 2.9 % , primarily younger women ( 7.5 % of those 15 - 19 and about 4.5 % of those 20 - 30 ) .
Testosterone
Testosterone is only one of many factors that influence aggression and the effects of previous experience and environmental stimuli have been found to correlate more strongly . A few studies indicate that the testosterone derivative estradiol ( one form of estrogen ) might play an important role in male aggression . Studies have also found that testosterone facilitates aggression by modulating vasopressin receptors in the hypothalamus .
Fallopian tube
This article 's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents . Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article . Please discuss this issue on the article 's talk page . ( March 2015 )
Female reproductive system
The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina , uterus , Fallopian tubes , and ovaries .
Sperm motility
Sperm movement is activated by changes in intracellular ion concentration . The changes in ion concentration that provoke motility are different among species . In marine invertebrates and sea urchins , the rise in pH to about 7.2 -- 7.6 activates ATPase which leads to a decrease in intracellular potassium , and thus induces membrane hyperpolarization . As a result , sperm movement is activated . The change in cell volume which alters intracellular ion concentration can also contribute to the activation of sperm motility . In some mammals , sperm motility is activated by increase in pH , calcium ion and cAMP , yet it is suppressed by low pH in the epididymis .
Caenorhabditis elegans
The male can inseminate the hermaphrodite , which will preferentially use male sperm ( both types of sperm are stored in the spermatheca ) . Once
Hormonal contraception
Insufficient evidence exists on whether changes in the endometrium could actually prevent implantation . The primary mechanisms of action are so effective that the possibility of fertilization during combined hormonal contraceptive use is very small . Since pregnancy occurs despite endometrial changes when the primary mechanisms of action fail , endometrial changes are unlikely to play a significant role , if any , in the observed effectiveness of combined hormonal contraceptives .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
A number of other causes may produce similar symptoms including appendicitis , ectopic pregnancy , hemorrhagic or ruptured ovarian cysts , ovarian torsion , and endometriosis and gastroenteritis , peritonitis , and bacterial vaginosis among others .
Semen
Women were believed to have their own version , which was stored in the womb and released during climax . Retention was believed to cause female hysteria .
Gynaecology
The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus , dated to about 1800 BC , deals with women 's complaints -- gynaecological diseases , fertility , pregnancy , contraception , etc . The text is divided into thirty - four sections , each section dealing with a specific problem and containing diagnosis and treatment ; no prognosis is suggested . Treatments are non surgical , comprising applying medicines to the affected body part or swallowing them . The womb is at times seen as the source of complaints manifesting themselves in other body parts .
Germ cell
Meiosis Extensive morphological differentiation Incapacity of surviving for very long if fertilization does not occur
Collagen
Ehlers - Danlos syndrome -- Six different types of this disorder , which lead to deformities in connective tissue , are known . Some types can be lethal , leading to the rupture of arteries . Each syndrome is caused by a different mutation , for example type four of this disorder is caused by a mutation in collagen type 3 .
One-child policy
The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth , for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999 . Thus , a large majority of couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy , whether it is a boy or a girl . If the first child is a girl , and they are able to have a second child , then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is a boy . If a couple already has two or more boys , the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine direction . This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring , a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play . Zeng 1993 reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys . A study by Anderson & Silver ( 1995 ) found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province : a strong preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already borne two or more boys . This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coale and Banister , who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males , it was also much more likely to engage in `` stopping behavior '' , i.e. , to stop having more children .
Luteinizing hormone
LH is released from the pituitary gland , and is controlled by pulses of gonadotropin - releasing hormone . When T levels are low , GnRH is released by the hypothalamus , stimulating the pituitary gland to release LH . As the levels of T increase , it will act on the hypothalamus and pituitary through a negative feedback loop and inhibit the release of GnRH and LH consequently . Androgens ( T , DHT ) inhibit monoamine oxidase ( MAO ) in pineal , leading to increased melatonin and reduced LH and FSH by melatonin - induced increase of GnIH synthesis and secretion . T can also be aromatized into estradiol ( E2 ) to inhibit LH . E2 decreases pulse amplitude and responsiveness to GnRH from the hypothalamus onto the pituitary .
Testosterone
Falling in love decreases men 's testosterone levels while increasing women 's testosterone levels . There has been speculation that these changes in testosterone result in the temporary reduction of differences in behavior between the sexes . However , it is suggested that after the `` honeymoon phase '' ends -- about four years into a relationship -- this change in testosterone levels is no longer apparent . Men who produce less testosterone are more likely to be in a relationship and / or married , and men who produce more testosterone are more likely to divorce ; however , causality can not be determined in this correlation . Marriage or commitment could cause a decrease in testosterone levels . Single men who have not had relationship experience have lower testosterone levels than single men with experience . It is suggested that these single men with prior experience are in a more competitive state than their non-experienced counterparts . Married men who engage in bond - maintenance activities such as spending the day with their spouse / and or child have no different testosterone levels compared to times when they do not engage in such activities . Collectively , these results suggest that the presence of competitive activities rather than bond - maintenance activities are more relevant to changes in testosterone levels .
Luteinizing hormone
LH acts upon the Leydig cells of the testis and is regulated by gonadotropin - releasing hormone ( GnRH ) . The Leydig cells produce testosterone ( T ) under the control of LH , which regulates the expression of the enzyme 17β - hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase that is used to convert androstenedione , the hormone produced by the testes , to testosterone , an androgen that exerts both endocrine activity and intratesticular activity on spermatogenesis .
Sperm motility
In mammals , spermatozoa mature functionally through a process which is known as capacitation . When spermatozoa reach the isthmic oviduct , their motility has been reported to be reduced as they attach to epithelium . Near the time of ovulation , hyperactivation occurs . During this process , the flagella move with high curvature and long wavelength . Hyperactivation is initiated by extracellular calcium ; however , the factors that regulate calcium level is unknown .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Pelvic inflammatory disease is more likely to reoccur when there is a prior history of the infection , recent sexual contact , recent onset of menses , or an IUD ( intrauterine device ) in place or if the partner has a sexually transmitted infection .
Egg donation
Pregnancies with egg donation are associated with a slightly increased risk of placental pathology . The local and systemic immunologic changes are also more pronounced than in natural pregnancies , so it has been suggested that the association is caused by reduced maternal immune tolerance towards the fetus , as the genetic similarity between the carrier and fetus from an egg donation is less than in a natural pregnancy . In contrast , the incidence of other perinatal complications , such as intrauterine growth restriction , preterm birth and congenital malformations , is comparable to conventional IVF without egg donation .
Egg donation
Women may resort to egg donation because their ovaries may not be able to produce a substantial number of viable eggs . Women may experience premature ovarian failure and stop producing viable eggs during their reproductive years . Some women may be born without ovaries . Ovaries damaged by chemotherapy or radiotherapy may also no longer produce healthy eggs . Older women with diminished ovarian reserves or older women who are going through menopause could also become pregnant with egg donation .
Estrogen
Other endogenous estrogens , the biosyntheses of which do not involve aromatase , include 27 - hydroxycholesterol , dehydroepiandrosterone ( DHEA ) , 7 - oxo - DHEA , 7α - hydroxy - DHEA , 16α - hydroxy - DHEA , 7β - hydroxyepiandrosterone , androstenedione ( A4 ) , androstenediol ( A5 ) , 3α - androstanediol , and 3β - androstanediol , and may have important endogenous functions as estrogens . Some estrogen metabolites , such as the catechol estrogens 2 - hydroxyestradiol , 2 - hydroxyestrone , 4 - hydroxyestradiol , and 4 - hydroxyestrone , as well as 16α - hydroxyestrone , are also estrogens with varying degrees of activity . Pharmaceutical
Hormonal contraception
In anovulatory cycles using progestogen - only contraceptives , the endometrium is thin and atrophic . If the endometrium was also thin and atrophic during an ovulatory cycle , this could theoretically interfere with implantation of a blastocyst ( embryo ) .
Endocrine system
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary , secondary , or tertiary . Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands . Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland . Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones .
Estrogen
Estrogen ( American English ) or oestrogen ( British English ) is the primary female sex hormone as well as a medication . It is responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics . Estrogen may also refer to any substance , natural or synthetic , that mimics the effects of the natural hormone . The estrane steroid estradiol is the most potent and prevalent endogenous estrogen , although several metabolites of estradiol also have estrogenic hormonal activity . Estrogen supplements may be used in some oral contraceptives , in hormone replacement therapy for postmenopausal , hypogonadal , and by transgender women , and estrogen suppressants may be used in the treatment of certain hormone - sensitive cancers like prostate cancer and breast cancer . They are one of three types of sex hormones , the others being androgens / anabolic steroids like testosterone and progestogens like progesterone .
Adolescence
The major landmark of puberty for males is spermarche , the first ejaculation , which occurs , on average , at age 13 . For females , it is menarche , the onset of menstruation , which occurs , on average , between ages 12 and 13 . The age of menarche is influenced by heredity , but a girl 's diet and lifestyle contribute as well . Regardless of genes , a girl must have a certain proportion of body fat to attain menarche . Consequently , girls who have a high - fat diet and who are not physically active begin menstruating earlier , on average , than girls whose diet contains less fat and whose activities involve fat reducing exercise ( e.g. ballet and gymnastics ) . Girls who experience malnutrition or are in societies in which children are expected to perform physical labor also begin menstruating at later ages .
Cell-free fetal DNA
If analysis of cffDNA obtained from a sample of maternal plasma lacks genetic markers found only on the Y chromosome , it is suggestive of a female fetus . However , it might also indicate a failure of the analysis itself ( a false negative result ) . Paternal genetic polymorphisms and sex - independent markers may be used to detect cffDNA . An high degree of heterozygosity of these markers must be present for this application .
Luteinizing hormone
Tests for luteinising hormone may be combined with testing for estradiol in tests such as the Clearblue fertility monitor .
Sperm motility
Sperm motility describes the ability of sperm to move properly through the female reproductive tract ( internal fertilization ) or through water ( external fertilization ) to reach the egg . Sperm motility can also be thought of as the quality , which is a factor in successful conception ; sperm that do not `` swim '' properly will not reach the egg in order to fertilize it . Sperm motility in mammals also facilitates the passage of the sperm through the cumulus oophorus ( a layer of cells ) and the zona pellucida ( a layer of extracellular matrix ) , which surround the mammalian oocyte .
Self-pollination
Both hermaphrodite and monoecious species have the potential for self - pollination leading to self - fertilization unless there is a mechanism to avoid it . Eighty percent of all flowering plants are hermaphroditic , meaning they contain both sexes in the same flower , while 5 percent of plant species are monoecious . The remaining 15 % would therefore be dioecious ( each plant unisexual ) . Plants that self - pollinate include several types of orchids , and sunflowers . Dandelions are also capable of self - pollination as well as cross-pollination .
Estrogen
Estrogens are responsible for both the pubertal growth spurt , which causes an acceleration in linear growth , and epiphyseal closure , which limits height and limb length , in both females and males . In addition , estrogens are responsible for bone maturation and maintenance of bone mineral density throughout life . Due to hypoestrogenism , the risk of osteoporosis increases during menopause .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Pelvic inflammatory disease Synonyms Pelvic inflammatory disorder Drawing showing the usual sites of infection in pelvic inflammatory disease Specialty Gynecology Symptoms Lower abdominal pain , vaginal discharge , fever , burning with urination , pain with sex , irregular menstruation Complications Infertility , ectopic pregnancy , chronic pelvic pain , cancer Causes Bacteria that spread from the vagina and cervix Risk factors Gonorrhea , chlamydia Diagnostic method Based on symptoms , ultrasound , laparoscopic surgery Prevention Not having sex , having few sexual partners , using condoms Treatment Antibiotics Frequency 1.5 percent of young women yearly ( edit on Wikidata )
Testosterone
Testosterone is necessary for normal sperm development . It activates genes in Sertoli cells , which promote differentiation of spermatogonia . It regulates acute HPA ( hypothalamic -- pituitary -- adrenal axis ) response under dominance challenge . Androgen including testosterone enhances muscle growth . Testosterone also regulates the population of thromboxane A receptors on megakaryocytes and platelets and hence platelet aggregation in humans .
Cell-free fetal DNA
In congenital adrenal hyperplasia , the adrenal cortex lacks appropriate corticosteroid synthesis , leading to excess adrenal androgens and affects female fetuses . There is an external masculinization of the genitalia in the female fetuses . Mothers of at risk fetuses are given dexamethasone at 6 weeks gestation to suppress pituitary gland release of androgens .