vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Birth control in the United States
In 2014 , the Supreme Court decided that for - profit corporations may offer insurance plans that do not cover contraception , by the rationale that the owners may hold that certain contraceptives violate their religious beliefs . This was a setback for the federal government 's attempt to create a uniform set of health care insurance benefits .
Business
General partners in a partnership ( other than a limited liability partnership ) , plus anyone who personally owns and operates a business without creating a separate legal entity , are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business . Generally , corporations are required to pay tax just like `` real '' people . In some tax systems , this can give rise to so - called double taxation , because first the corporation pays tax on the profit , and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners , individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns , at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed . In most countries , there are laws which treat small corporations differently from large ones . They may be exempt from certain legal filing requirements or labor laws , have simplified procedures in specialized areas , and have simplified , advantageous , or slightly different tax treatment . `` Going public '' through a process known as an initial public offering ( IPO ) means that part of the business will be owned by members of the public . This requires the organization as a distinct entity , to disclose information to the public , and adhering to a tighter set of laws and procedures . Most public entities are corporations that have sold shares , but increasingly there are also public LLC 's that sell units ( sometimes also called shares ) , and other more exotic entities as well , such as , for example , real estate investment trusts in the USA , and unit trusts in the UK . A general partnership can not `` go public '' .
Whole life insurance
Although life insurance is often sold with a view toward the `` living benefits '' ( accumulated cash and dividend values ) , this feature is a byproduct of the level premium nature of the contract . The original intent was not to `` sugar coat '' the product ; rather it is a necessary part of the design . However , prospective purchasers are often more motivated by the thought of being able to `` count my money in the future . '' Policies purchased at younger ages will usually have guaranteed cash values greater than the sum of all premiums paid after a number of years . Sales tactics frequently appeal to this self - interest ( sometimes called `` the greed motive '' ) . It is a reflection of human behavior that people are often more willing to talk about money for their own future than to discuss provisions for the family in case of premature death ( the `` fear motive '' ) . On the other hand , many policies purchased due to selfish motives will become vital family resources later in a time of need .
Business
A company or association of persons can be created at law as legal person so that the company in itself can accept limited liability for civil responsibility and taxation incurred as members perform ( or fail ) to discharge their duty within the publicly declared `` birth certificate '' or published policy .
Baby boom
The market became a seller 's market . Many families were adapting to popular culture changes that included purchasing TVs , opening credit card accounts , and buying mouse ears to wear while watching The Mickey Mouse Club . Overall , the baby boom time period was a blessing but it also had its flaws once economists realized how many children were being born . Concern arose about enough resources being available , especially when those born in the baby boom time period started having kids of their own .
BRCA1
Methods to test for the likelihood of a patient with mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 developing cancer were covered by patents owned or controlled by Myriad Genetics . Myriad 's business model of offering the diagnostic test exclusively led from Myriad being a startup in 1994 to being a publicly traded company with 1200 employees and about $500 M in annual revenue in 2012 ; it also led to controversy over high prices and the inability to obtain second opinions from other diagnostic labs , which in turn led to the landmark Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics lawsuit .
Perfect competition
However , some economists , for instance Steve Keen , a professor at the University of Western Sydney , argue that even an infinitesimal amount of market power can allow a firm to produce a profit and that the absence of economic profit in an industry , or even merely that some production occurs at a loss , in and of itself constitutes a barrier to entry .
Perfect competition
In a perfect market the sellers operate at zero economic surplus : sellers make a level of return on investment known as normal profits .
Account planning
Account planning is the solution to the advertising industry 's malaise . ( While account planning can strengthen an agency 's creative product , no one discipline can solve all of the problems of an agency . ) Account planning leads to breakthrough creative . ( Account planning does provide the background and consumer research to develop creative work , but breakthrough creative is a result of a superior creative staff . ) Account Planning is the key to winning the new - business pitch . ( Pitching is a `` team sport '' that requires all of the departments of an agency to work together . ) There is a process for account planning . ( There are numerous ways to execute proper account planning ; Intuitive skills , a passion for advertising , and personal involvement are all essential and are a good place to start . ) Account planning is a continuous process . ( Advertising is expensive ! ) Account planning is new name for research , qualitative or otherwise . ( Research is only one of the tools that account planners use to discover insightful information . ) Account planning and research departments can coexist . ( Each department must have a clear definition of its role and must know who is in charge of whom . ) Clients like account planning . ( They LOVE it - if it is free ) . Account planning is the role of the account planner . ( Good solutions can come from anywhere or anyone . ) Account planning is glamorous . ( It is fun as well , if you have the passion to fight for your beliefs . ) Account planners sit in the room while the ads are made . ( The account planner must articulate strategy to the creative team before the ad is created . ) Good account planners are hard to find . ( Account planners can come from all backgrounds and disciplines . ) The best account planners are the English . ( No particular culture . race , religion , sex . sexuality , or national origin is better at account planning than another . )
Franchising
It was not until the 1960s and 1970s that people began to take a close look at the attractiveness of franchising . The concept intrigued people with entrepreneurial spirit . However , there were serious pitfalls for investors , which almost ended the practice before it became truly popular .
Franchising
On 22 May 2007 , hearings were held in the UK Parliament concerning citizen - initiated petitions for special regulation of franchising by the government of the UK due to losses incurred by citizens who had invested in franchises . The Minister of Industry , Margaret Hodge , conducted hearings but saw no need for any government regulation of franchising with the advice that government regulation of franchising might lull the public into a false sense of security . Mr Mark Prisk MP suggested that the costs of such regulation to the franchisee and franchisor could be prohibitive and would in any case provide a system which mirrored the work already being completed by the BFA . The Minister of Industry indicated that if due diligence were performed by the investors and the banks , the current laws governing business contracts in the UK offered sufficient protection for the public and the banks . The debate also made reference to the self - regulatory function performed by the BFA recognizing that the association `` punched above its weight '' .
Perfect competition
In a single - goods case , a positive economic profit happens when the firm 's average cost is less than the price of the product or service at the profit - maximizing output . The economic profit is equal to the quantity of output multiplied by the difference between the average cost and the price .
Chick-fil-A
In January 2011 , the media reported that Chick - fil - A was co-sponsoring a marriage conference with the Pennsylvania Family Institute ( PFI ) , an organization that has opposed same - sex marriage legislation . Chick - fil - A clarified that `` one of our independent Restaurant Operators in Pennsylvania was asked to provide sandwiches to two Art of Marriage video seminars '' . The WinShape Foundation , a charitable organization founded by Truett and his wife , also stated that it would not allow same - sex couples to participate in its marriage retreats .
International Financial Reporting Standards
Booking of payables in the general ledger according to national accounting standards can only be made upon receipt of the actual acceptance protocol ( good 's receipt ) . Indeed , in Russia , in contrast to IFRS and US - GAAP , the invoice ( outgoing or incoming ) is not an official tax or accounting document and does not trigger any booking . There is also no provision to book in the General Ledger any expense for goods and services that according to a contract are effectively received but for whom documents are still not exchanged . There is no possibility under Russian GAAP to recognise the good - will as an intangible asset in the balance sheet of a company . This has a major consequence when a company is sold . Indeed , if a company ( or part of it ) is sold at a higher value than its book value ( i.e. to account for the good - will value ) , the selling party need to pay tax at the relevant profit tax rate ( 20 % in 2013 ) on the difference in value between selling and accounting value and the buyer has no possibility to amortize the cost and deduct it from present and future revenues . There is no equivalent of IAS 37 in the Russian GAAP . Loans and monetary securities are not discounted , so the present value of such financial assets is not discounted for the relevant interest rates at the different maturities of the loans .
Somatic cell nuclear transfer
SCNT can be inefficient . Stresses placed on both the egg cell and the introduced nucleus in early research were enormous , resulting in a low percentage of successfully reprogrammed cells . For example , in 1996 Dolly the sheep was born after 277 eggs were used for SCNT , which created 29 viable embryos . Only three of these embryos survived until birth , and only one survived to adulthood . As the procedure was not automated , but had to be performed manually under a microscope , SCNT was very resource intensive . The biochemistry involved in reprogramming the differentiated somatic cell nucleus and activating the recipient egg was also far from understood . However , by 2014 , researchers were reporting success rates of 70 - 80 % with cloning pigs and in 2016 a Korean company , Sooam Biotech , was reported to be producing 500 cloned embryos a day .
Business
Businesses serve as conductors of economic activity , and are prevalent in capitalist economies , where most of them are privately owned and provide goods and services allocated through a market to consumers and customers in exchange for other goods , services , money , or other forms of exchange that hold intrinsic economic value .
UNICEF
In 2009 , the British retailer Tesco used `` Change for Good '' as advertising , which is trademarked by UNICEF for charity usage but not for commercial or retail use . This prompted the agency to say , `` it is the first time in Unicef 's history that a commercial entity has purposely set out to capitalise on one of our campaigns and subsequently damage an income stream which several of our programs for children are dependent on '' . They went on to call on the public `` who have children 's welfare at heart , to consider carefully who they support when making consumer choices '' .
Franchising
Franchising brings with it several advantages and disadvantages for firms looking to expand into new areas and foreign markets . The primary advantage is that the firm does not have to bear the development cost and risks of opening a foreign market on its own , as the Franchisee is typically responsible for those costs and risks , putting the onus on the Franchisee to build a profitable operation as quickly as possible . Through franchising a firm has the potential of building a global presence quickly and also at a low cost and risk .
Fair trade
The Fairtrade Foundation does not monitor how much of the extra money paid to the exporting cooperatives reaches the farmer . The cooperatives incur costs in reaching the Fairtrade political standards , and these are incurred on all production , even if only a small amount is sold at Fairtrade prices . The most successful cooperatives appear to spend a third of the extra price received on this : some less successful cooperatives spend more than they gain . While this appears to be agreed by proponents and critics of Fairtrade , there is a dearth of economic studies setting out the actual revenues and what the money was spent on . FLO figures are that 40 % of the money reaching the developing world is spent on ' business and production ' which would include these costs , as well as costs incurred by any inefficiency and corruption in the cooperative or the marketing system . The rest is stated to be spent on social projects , rather than being passed on to farmers .
Economy of New Zealand
In 2007 a new individual saving scheme was introduced by the same Government , known as KiwiSaver . The main purpose of KiwiSaver is for retirement savings , but younger participants can also use it to save a deposit for their first home . The scheme is voluntary , work - based and managed by private sector companies called KiwiSaver providers . As at 30 June 2014 , KiwiSaver had 2.3 million active members or 60.9 % of New Zealand 's population under 65 . NZ $4 billion was contributed annually , and a total of NZ $19.1 billion has been contributed since 2007 .
Chick-fil-A
Chick - fil - A retains ownership of each restaurant . Chick - fil - A selects the restaurant location and builds it . Chick - fil - A franchisees need only a $10,000 initial investment to become an operator . Each operator is handpicked and goes through a rigorous training program ; the interviews plus training can take months and is not a easy process . Chick - fil - A states on their site : `` This is not the right opportunity for you if you : - Are seeking a passive investment in a business . - Want to sell property to Chick - fil - A , Inc . - Are requesting that Chick - fil - A , Inc. build at a specified location . - Are seeking multi-unit franchise opportunities . '' This goes to show how vastly different it is to be a Chick - fil - A store operator rather than being part of a regular franchise opportunity . Since 2010 , Chick - fil - A has led the fast food industry in average sales per restaurant , despite being open only six days a week , earning an average $4.8 million per restaurant in 2016 ( Whataburger was second with $2.7 million per restaurant ) .
Lobbying in the United States
The general consensus view is that lobbying generally works overall in achieving sought - after results for clients , particularly since it has become so prevalent with substantial and growing budgets , although there are dissenting views . A study by the investment - research firm Strategas which was cited in The Economist and the Washington Post compared the 50 firms that spent the most on lobbying relative to their assets , and compared their financial performance against that of the S&P 500 in the stock market ; the study concluded that spending on lobbying was a `` spectacular investment '' yielding `` blistering '' returns comparable to a high - flying hedge fund , even despite the financial downturn of the past few years . A 2009 study by University of Kansas professor Raquel Meyer Alexander suggested that lobbying brought a substantial return on investment . A 2011 meta - analysis of previous research findings found a positive correlation between corporate political activity and firm performance . There are numerous reports that the National Rifle Association or NRA successfully influenced 45 senators to block a proposed rule to regulate assault weapons , despite strong public support for gun control . The NRA spends heavily to influence gun policy ; it gives $3 million annually to the re-election campaigns of congresspersons directly , and gives additional money to PACs and others to influence legislation indirectly , according to the BBC in 2016 .
History of women in the United States
Business opportunities were very rare , unless it was a matter of a widow taking over her late husband 's small business . However the rapid acceptance of the sewing machine made housewives more productive and opened up new careers for women running their own small millinery and dressmaking shops .
Fair trade
The effectiveness of Fairtrade is questionable ; workers on Fairtrade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the Fairtrade system . Sustainability
Perfect competition
The existence of economic profits depends on the prevalence of barriers to entry : these stop other firms from entering into the industry and sapping away profits , like they would in a more competitive market . In cases where barriers are present , but more than one firm , firms can collude to limit production , thereby restricting supply in order to ensure the price of the product remains high enough to ensure all of the firms in the industry achieve an economic profit .
Franchising
Franchising has grown rapidly in Europe in recent years , but the industry is largely unregulated . Unlike the United States , the European Union has not adopted a uniform franchise law . Only six of the 28 member states have a pre-contractual disclosure law . They are France ( 1989 ) , Spain ( 1996 ) , Romania ( 1997 ) , Italy ( 2004 ) Sweden ( 2004 ) and Belgium ( 2005 ) . Estonia and Lithuania have franchise laws that impose mandatory terms on franchise agreements . In Spain there is also mandatory registration on a public registry . Although they have no franchise specific laws , Germany and those countries with a legal system based upon that of Germany , such as Austria , Greece and Portugal , probably impose the greatest regulatory burden on franchisors due to their tendency to treat franchisees as quasi consumers in certain circumstances and the willingness of the judiciary to use the concept of good faith to make pro-franchisee decisions . In the UK , the recent Papa John case shows that there is also a need for pre-contractual disclosure and the Yam Seng case shows that there is a duty of good faith in franchise relationships .
Franchising
The boom in franchising did not take place until after World War II . Nevertheless , the rudiments of modern franchising date back to the Middle Ages when landowners made franchise - like agreements with tax collectors , who retained a percentage of the money they collected and turned the rest over . The practice ended around 1562 but spread to other endeavors . For example , in 17th century England franchisees were granted the right to sponsor markets and fairs or operate ferries . There was little growth in franchising , though , until the mid-19th century , when it appeared in the United States for the first time .
Right-to-work law
Economist Thomas Holmes compared counties close to the border between states with and without right - to - work laws ( thereby holding constant an array of factors related to geography and climate ) . He found that the cumulative growth of employment in manufacturing in the right - to - work states was 26 percentage points greater than that in the non-right - to - work states . However , given the study design , Holmes points out `` my results do not say that it is right - to - work laws that matter , but rather that the ' probusiness package ' offered by right - to - work states seems to matter . '' Moreover , as noted by Kevin Drum and others , this result may reflect business relocation rather than an overall enhancement of economic growth , since `` businesses prefer locating in states where costs are low and rules are lax . ''
Cocoa production in Ghana
Ghana Cocoa Board 's experimentation with privatisation has created a hybrid system whereby despite all exports being controlled by the state , there are now around 25 private companies buying the crop in all areas of the country where it is grown . After 14 years , the successes and failures of this hybrid system have been the subject of a study by researchers at the Overseas Development Institute . Competition was clearly found to have increased production levels throughout the country , yet access to credit remained one of the most important factors determining the level of competition . Farmers rarely made the most of all the available options to sell their crop ( often they only made use of one ) . Their choice was based on the ability of a company to pay promptly in cash and thus there were only five major players on the market : PBC ( formerly state - owned ) , Kuapa Kokoo ( a hugely successful farmers - based cooperative working on fair trade principle ) , Adwumapa ( a Ghanaian buying company ) , Olam and Armajaro ( both foreign - owned companies , from Singapore and the UK respectively ) . Another key determining factor is the distance of the plantation from the main market , as more remote farms more often found it easier to sell to the formerly state - owned PBC .
Fair trade
Producers and producer - groups spend this social premium to support socioeconomic development in a variety of ways . One common way to spend the social premium of fair trade is to privately invest in public goods that infrastructure and the government are lacking in . These public goods include environment initiatives , public schools , and water projects . At some point , all producer - groups re-invest their social premium back into their farms and businesses . They buy capital , like trucks and machinery , and education for their members , like organic farming education . Thirty - eight percent of producer - groups spend the social premium in its entirety on themselves , but the rest invest in public goods , like paying for teachers ' salaries , providing a community health care clinic , and improving infrastructure , such as bringing in electricity and bettering roads .
Fair trade
With the rise of ethical labeling , consumers are able to take moral responsibility for their economic decisions and actions . This supports the notion of fair trade practices as `` moral economies . '' The presence of labeling give consumers the feeling of `` doing the right thing '' with a simple purchase .
Karnataka
In the field of speciality health care , Karnataka 's private sector competes with the best in the world . Karnataka has also established a modicum of public health services having a better record of health care and child care than most other states of India . In spite of these advances , some parts of the state still leave much to be desired when it comes to primary health care .
Fair trade
Consumers have been shown to be content paying higher prices for Fairtrade products , in the belief that this helps the very poor . The main ethical criticism of Fairtrade is that this premium over non-Fairtrade products does not reach the producers and is instead collected by businesses , employees of co-operatives or used for unnecessary expenses . Furthermore , research has cited the implementation of certain Fairtrade standards as a cause for greater inequalities in markets where these rigid rules are inappropriate for the specific market .