vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of the Roman Empire
Conflicts continued for the following two years . Valens led a campaign against them in 378 . Gratian provided his uncle with reinforcements from the Western Roman army . However , this campaign proved disastrous for the Romans . The two armies approached each other near Adrianople . Valens was apparently overconfident of the numerical superiority of his own forces over the Goths . Some of his officers advised caution and to await the arrival of Gratian , others urged an immediate attack and eventually prevailed over Valens , who , eager to have all of the glory for himself , rushed into battle . On August 9 , 378 , the Battle of Adrianople resulted in the crushing defeat of the Romans and the death of Valens . Contemporary historian Ammianus Marcellinus estimated that two - thirds of the Roman army were lost in the battle .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Corruption , in this context the diversion of public finance from the needs of the army , may have contributed greatly to the Fall . The rich senatorial aristocrats in Rome itself became increasingly influential during the fifth century ; they supported armed strength in theory , but did not wish to pay for it or to offer their own workers as army recruits . They did , however , pass large amounts of money to the Christian Church . At a local level , from the early fourth century , the town councils lost their property and their power , which often became concentrated in the hands of a few local despots beyond the reach of the law .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
This settlement represented a real success for the Empire -- a poem by Rutilius Namatianus celebrates his voyage back to Gaul in 417 and his confidence in a restoration of prosperity . But it marked huge losses of territory and of revenue ; Rutilius travelled by ship past the ruined bridges and countryside of Tuscany , and in the west the River Loire had become the effective northern boundary of Roman Gaul . In the east of Gaul the Franks controlled large areas ; the effective line of Roman control until 455 ran from north of Cologne ( lost to the Ripuarian Franks in 459 ) to Boulogne . The Italian areas which had been compelled to support the Goths had most of their taxes remitted for several years . Even in southern Gaul and Hispania large barbarian groups remained , with thousands of warriors , in their own non-Roman military and social systems . Some occasionally acknowledged a degree of Roman political control , but without the local application of Roman leadership and military power they and their individual subgroups pursued their own interests .
Siege
Fire was often used as a weapon when dealing with wooden fortifications . The Byzantine Empire used Greek fire , which contained additives that made it hard to extinguish . Combined with a primitive flamethrower , it proved an effective offensive and defensive weapon . Defensive
Western Roman Empire
Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium , Pannonia . He was the third son of Constantine the Great , and second by his second wife Fausta , the daughter of Maximian . Constantius was made Caesar by his father on 13 November 324 . The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor , but , with the death of Constantine in 337 , the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs . Constantius received the eastern provinces , including Constantinople , Thrace , Asia Minor , Syria , Egypt , and Cyrenaica ; Constantine II received Britannia , Gaul , Hispania , and Mauretania ; and Constans , initially under the supervision of Constantine II , received Italy , Africa , Illyricum , Pannonia , Macedonia , and Achaea . The provinces of Thrace , Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled by Dalmatius , nephew of Constantine I and a caesar and not an Augustus , until his murder by his own soldiers in 337 . The West was unified in 340 under Constans , who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper Magnentius ; after Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and committed suicide , a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353 .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The ineffectiveness of Roman military responses from Stilicho onwards has been described as `` shocking '' , with little evidence of indigenous field forces or of adequate training , discipline , pay , or supply for the barbarians who formed most of the available troops . Local defence was occasionally effective , but was often associated with withdrawal from central control and taxes ; in many areas , barbarians under Roman authority attacked culturally - Roman `` Bagaudae '' .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
The fall of the Aztec Empire was the key event in the formation of the Spanish overseas empire , with New Spain , which later became Mexico .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Theodosius restored Valentinian II , still a very young man , as Augustus in the West . He also appointed Arbogast , a pagan general of Frankish origin , as Valentinian 's commander - in - chief and guardian . Valentinian quarreled in public with Arbogast , failed to assert any authority , and died , either by suicide or by murder , at the age of 21 . Arbogast and Theodosius failed to come to terms and Arbogast nominated an imperial official , Eugenius ( r . 392 -- 394 ) , as emperor in the West . Eugenius made some modest attempts to win pagan support , and with Arbogast led a large army to fight another destructive civil war . They were defeated and killed at the Battle of the Frigidus , which was attended by further heavy losses especially among the Gothic federates of Theodosius . The north - eastern approaches to Italy were never effectively garrisoned again . The
History of the Roman Empire
In 392 Valentinian II was murdered in Vienne . Arbogast arranged for the appointment of Eugenius as emperor . However , the eastern emperor Theodosius refused to recognise Eugenius as emperor and invaded the West , defeating and killing Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus . He thus reunited the entire Roman Empire under his rule .
Western Roman Empire
Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452 . With Aetius not having enough forces to attack , the road to Rome was open . Valentinian sent Pope Leo I and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila . This embassy , combined with a plague among Attila 's troops , the threat of famine , and news that the Eastern Emperor Marcian had launched an attack on Hun homelands along the Danube , forced Attila to turn around and leave Italy . With Attila dying unexpectedly in 453 , the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Murad acted swiftly , besieging Constantinople and sending his armies to Salonika . The Venetians had gained reinforcements by sea but when the Ottomans stormed the city the outcome was forgone and the Venetians fled to their ships . But when the Turks entered and began plundering the city the Venetian fleet started bombarding the city from the sea - side . The Ottomans fled and the fleet was able to hold off the Ottomans until new Venetian reinforcements arrived to recapture the city . The outcome of the Battle of Salonika was a setback for Murad and Serbia and Hungary allied themselves with Venice . Pope Martin V encouraged other Christian states to join the war against the Ottomans , though only Austria ever sent any troops to the Balkans .
Western Roman Empire
When Julian died in 363 , he left no heir , causing a succession crisis . The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor . Jovian reigned only seven months , in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire , under Shapur II . In this agreement , Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians , in exchange for a 30 year truce . Jovian died on 16 February 364 , due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation .
Crusades
The two - century attempt to recover the Holy Land ended in failure . Following the First Crusade there were six major Crusades and numerous less significant ones . After the last Catholic outposts fell in 1291 there were no more Crusades but the gains were longer lasting in Northern and Western Europe . The Wendish Crusade and those of the Archbishop of Bremen brought all the North - East Baltic and the tribes of Mecklenburg and Lusatia under Catholic control in the late 12th century . In the early 13th century the Teutonic Order created a Crusader state in Prussia and the French monarchy used the Albigensian Crusade to extend the kingdom to the Mediterranean Sea . The rise of the Ottoman Empire in the late 14th century prompted a Catholic response which led to further defeats at Nicopolis in 1396 and Varna in 1444 . Catholic Europe was in chaos and the final pivot of Christian -- Islamic relations was marked by two seismic events : the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 and a final conclusive victory for the Spanish over the Moors with the conquest of Granada in 1492 . The idea of Crusading continued , not least in the form of the Knights Hospitaller , until the end of the 18th century but the focus of Western European interest moved to the New World .
Ancient Roman architecture
Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD , after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture . Almost no substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC , and most of the major survivals are from the later empire , after about 100 AD . Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries , and the style used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms .
Colonies in antiquity
The Greek city - states began establishing colonies around 900 - 800 BC , at first at Al Mina on the coast of Syria and the Greek emporium Pithekoussai at Ischia in the Bay of Naples , both established about 800 BC by Euboeans . Ancient
Mali Empire
The Mali Empire ( Manding : Nyeni or Niani ; also historically referred to as the Manden Kurufaba , sometimes shortened to Manden ) was an empire in West Africa from c. 1230 to 1670 . The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers , especially Musa Keita . The Manding languages were spoken in the empire . It was the largest empire in West Africa and profoundly influenced the culture of West Africa through the spread of its language , laws and customs . Much of the recorded information about the Mali Empire comes from 14th century North African Arab historian Ibn Khaldun , 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta and 16th century Moroccan traveller Leo Africanus . The other major source of information is Mandinka oral tradition , through storytellers known as griots .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
In 1422 the first regular war against Venice began with the Siege of Thessalonica ( 1422 -- 30 ) . Byzantine involvement in the war ended with the transfer of the city to the Venetian Republic in 1423 , which ended Murad 's siege of Constantinople . Thessalonica continued to be under siege until 1430 , with the Turkish sack of the city . Thessalonika
Silk Road
Byzantine Greek historian Procopius stated that two Nestorian Christian monks eventually uncovered the way of how silk was made . From this revelation , monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian ( ruled 527 -- 565 ) as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs , resulting in silk production in the Mediterranean , particularly in Thrace in northern Greece , and giving the Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe . In 568 the Byzantine ruler Justin II was greeted by a Sogdian embassy representing Istämi , ruler of the Turkic Khaganate , who formed an alliance with the Byzantines against Khosrow I of the Sasanian Empire that allowed the Byzantines to bypass the Sasanian merchants and trade directly with the Sogdians for purchasing Chinese silk . Although the Byzantines had already procured silkworm eggs from China by this point , the quality of Chinese silk was still far greater than anything produced in the West , a fact that is perhaps emphasized by the discovery of coins minted by Justin II found in a Chinese tomb of Shanxi province dated to the Sui dynasty ( 581 -- 618 ) . Coin
Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire founded by Chandra Gupta 1 . The empire existed at its zenith from approximately 319 to 485 CE and covered much of the Indian subcontinent . This period is called the Golden Age of India , an idea contested by some scholars . Chandragupta I , Samudragupta , and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty . The 5th - century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty - one kingdoms , both in and outside India , including the kingdoms of Parasikas , the Hunas , the Kambojas , tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys , the Kinnaras , Kiratas , and others .
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th -- 9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity ( c. 600 AD ) . Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era . Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece , Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC , ushering in the period of Archaic Greece and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin . This was followed by the period of Classical Greece , an era that began with the Greco - Persian Wars , lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC . Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia , Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea . The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic , which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece , and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire .
St. Augustine, Florida
St. Augustine was founded on September 8 , 1565 , by Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés , Florida 's first governor . He named the settlement `` San Agustín '' , as his ships bearing settlers , troops , and supplies from Spain had first sighted land in Florida eleven days earlier on August 28 , the feast day of St. Augustine . The city served as the capital of Spanish Florida for over 200 years . It was designated as the capital of British East Florida when the territory briefly changed hands between Spain and Britain .
Ancient Greece
Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period ( 323 -- 146 BC ) , during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East . This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest . Roman Greece is usually considered to be the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330 . Finally , Late Antiquity refers to the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD , sometimes taken to be complete with the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529 .
Ancient Roman architecture
Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the imperial period . By the fourth century AD there were 36 such arches in Rome , of which three have survived -- the Arch of Titus ( AD 81 ) , the Arch of Septimius Severus ( 203 - 205 ) and the Arch of Constantine ( 312 ) . Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire . The single arch was the most common , but many triple arches were also built , of which the Triumphal Arch of Orange ( circa AD 21 ) is the earliest surviving example . From the 2nd century AD , many examples of the arcus quadrifrons -- a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads , with arched openings on all four sides -- were built , especially in North Africa . Arch - building in Rome and Italy diminished after the time of Trajan ( AD 98 - 117 ) but remained widespread in the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD ; they were often erected to commemorate imperial visits .
Western Roman Empire
There were several different kingdoms of differing size , power , and origins . The Visigothic Kingdom was the earliest one established , founded as a vassal state to the Western Roman Empire through the Visigoths being granted land in southern Gaul by Emperor Honorius in 418 . After its establishment , relations between the Visigoths and the Western court were mixed . Though federated vassals , the Visigoths remained de facto independent and began a rapid period of expansion at the expense of the Western empire . The Visigoths were thus periodically enemies with the Western court , though they had allied with the Western Roman army against the Huns and assisted in defeating Attila at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451 . At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476 / 480 , the Visigoths controlled large swaths of Southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania , their increased domain having been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western Emperor Avitus in the 450s - 60s . Like the Germanic kingdoms of Italy , the Visigoths continued to recognise the Emperor in Constantinople as somewhat of a nominal sovereign , continuing to mint coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century . The Visigothic Kingdom continued to control most of the Iberian peninsula until it fell to the Umayyad Caliphate in the 720s . The Kingdom of Asturias was founded by a Visigoth nobleman around the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths . Asturias would be transformed into the Kingdom of León in 924 , which would come to develop into the predecessors of modern - day Spain .
Western Roman Empire
Avitus was proclaimed Western Emperor on 9 July 455 , with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II . While he held support from the Visigoths , his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people . In 456 Ricimer , a senior officer had Avitus deposed , and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472 .
Islamic Golden Age
The Islamic Golden Age is the era in the history of Islam , traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 14th century , during which much of the historically Islamic world was ruled by various caliphates , and science , economic development and cultural works flourished . This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al - Rashid ( 786 to 809 ) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad , where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world 's classical knowledge into the Arabic language . This period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258 AD . A few contemporary scholars place the end of the Islamic Golden Age as late as the end of 15th to 16th centuries .
Timeline of the Ottoman Empire
Year Date Event c. 1299 The reign of Osman I , founder of the Ottoman Empire , began . 1302 July 27 Battle of Bapheus . The first war between the Ottomans and Byzantines . 1326 Orhan Gazi 's accession to the throne . 1326 Siege of Bursa . The Ottomans conquered Bursa . After the conquest the city was the capital . 1329 June 10 -- 11 Battle of Pelekanon . The Ottomans completed their conquest of Bythinia and the north - western corner of Anatolia . 1328 - 31 Siege of Nicaea . The Ottomans conquered Nicaea . 1362 March Orhan Gazi 's to death . Murad I accession to the throne . 1364 Battle of Sırp Sındığı . Bulgaria had to pay taxes , and the decline of the Bulgarian Empire . 1369 Edirne was conquered . From 1413 to 1458 the city was the capital . 1371 September 27 Battle of Maritsa . Serbia was forced to declare loyalty to the Ottoman Empire . 1385 - 87 Battle of Pločnik ... 1389 June 15 Battle of Kosovo . Most of Serbia is conquered . Murad I lost his life in this war . Bayezid I accession to the throne . 1396 September 25 Battle of Nicopolis . Bulgaria was conquered . 1399 The Bursa great mosque was built by the Bayezid I . The first to be built by the Ottoman Darü'ş - şifa ( worship and education center ) Bayezid 1 . 1402 July 20 Battle of Ankara . Ottomans entered the short - term period of stagnation . The battle is also significant in Ottoman history as being the only time a Sultan has been captured in person . 1402 - 13 Ottoman Interregnum or Ottoman Civil War . This process Bayezid I 1402 at the Battle of Ankara , Turco - Mongol warlord Tamerlane defeated as a result of falling prisoner appeared . Crumbling Ottoman unity , the year in 1413 was restored by Mehmed I . 1413 July 5 Battle of Çamurlu .
Griot
The Mali Empire ( Malinke Empire ) , at its height in the middle of the 14th century , extended from central Africa ( today 's Chad and Niger ) to West Africa ( today 's Mali and Senegal ) . The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita , whose exploits remain celebrated in Mali today . In the Epic of Sundiata , King Naré Maghann Konaté offered his son Sundiata a griot , Balla Fasséké , to advise him in his reign . Balla Fasséké is considered the founder of the Kouyaté line of griots that exists to this day .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
When in 1451 the bankrupt Byzantines asked Mehmed to double the tribute for holding an Ottoman pretender for the throne , he used the request as a pretext for annulling all treaties with the Byzantine Empire . Nevertheless , when he proposed in 1452 to siege Constantinople most of the divan , and especially the Grand Vizier , Çandarlı Halil Pasha , was against it and criticized the Sultan for being too rash and overconfident in his abilities . On April 15 , 1452 , Mehmed ordered preparations to be made for the siege of Constantinople .
Ancient Greek architecture
The architecture of ancient Greece is the architecture produced by the Greek - speaking people ( Hellenic people ) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland , the Peloponnese , the Aegean Islands , and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD , with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC .
Libya
In 630 BC , the ancient Greeks colonized Eastern Libya and founded the city of Cyrene . Within 200 years , four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as Cyrenaica . In 525 BC the Persian army of Cambyses II overran Cyrenaica , which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule . Alexander the Great was greeted by the Greeks when he entered Cyrenaica in 331 BC , and Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks , this time as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
In 1422 , Murad II laid siege to Constantinople for several months and lifted it only after forcing the Byzantine emperor , Manuel II Palaiologos to pay additional tribute .