vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
European exploration of Africa
Exploration of Africa Nero expedition Roman expeditions The search for the source of the Nile First Zambesi expedition Second Zambesi expedition First trans - Africa exploration Scramble for Africa
European exploration of Africa
By the Roman imperial period the Horn of Africa was well - known to Mediterranean geographers . The trading post of Rhapta , described as `` the last marketplace of Azania , '' may correspond to the coast of Tanzania . The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , dated to the 1st century AD , appears to extend geographical knowledge further south , to Southeast Africa . Ptolemy 's world map of the 2nd century is well aware that the African continent extents significantly further south than the Horn of Africa , but has no geographic detail south of the equator ( it is unclear whether it is aware of the Gulf of Guinea )
Philippines
The current demarcation between the Prehistory and the Early history of the Philippines is 21 April 900 , which is the equivalent on the Proleptic Gregorian calendar for the date indicated on the Laguna Copperplate Inscription -- the earliest known surviving written record to come from the Philippines . This date came in the middle of what anthropologists refer to as the Philippines ' `` Emergent Phase '' ( 1st -- 14th centuries CE ) , which was characterized by newly emerging socio - cultural patterns , the initial development of large coastal settlements , greater social stratification and specialization , and the beginnings of local and international trade . By the 1300s , a number of the large coastal settlements had become progressive trading centers , and became the focal point of societal changes , ushering complex lifeways which characterized what F. Landa Jocano called the `` Barangic Phase '' of early Philippine history , beginning from the 14th century through the arrival of Spanish colonizers and the beginning of the Philippines ' colonial period .
Dodo
Until 1860 , the only known dodo remains were the four incomplete 17th - century specimens . Philip Burnard Ayres found the first subfossil bones in 1860 , which were sent to Richard Owen at the British Museum , who did not publish the findings . In 1863 , Owen requested the Mauritian Bishop Vincent Ryan to spread word that he should be informed if any dodo bones were found . In 1865 , George Clark , the government schoolmaster at Mahébourg , finally found an abundance of subfossil dodo bones in the swamp of Mare aux Songes in Southern Mauritius , after a 30 - year search inspired by Strickland and Melville 's monograph . In 1866 , Clark explained his procedure to The Ibis , an ornithology journal : he had sent his coolies to wade through the centre of the swamp , feeling for bones with their feet . At first they found few bones , until they cut away herbage that covered the deepest part of the swamp , where they found many fossils . The swamp yielded the remains of over 300 dodos , but very few skull and wing bones , possibly because the upper bodies were washed away or scavenged while the lower body was trapped . The situation is similar to many finds of moa remains in New Zealand marshes . Most dodo remains from the Mare aux Songes have a medium to dark brown colouration .
Indo-Roman trade relations
The site of Berenice , since its discovery by Belzoni ( 1818 ) , has been equated with the ruins near Ras Banas in Southern Egypt . However , the precise location of Myos Hormos is disputed with the latitude and longitude given in Ptolemy 's Geography favoring Abu Sha'ar and the accounts given in classical literature and satellite images indicating a probable identification with Quseir el - Quadim at the end of a fortified road from Koptos on the Nile . The Quseir el - Quadim site has further been associated with Myos Hormos following the excavations at el - Zerqa , halfway along the route , which have revealed ostraca leading to the conclusion that the port at the end of this road may have been Myos Hormos .
Olmec
The Long Count calendar used by many subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations , as well as the concept of zero , may have been devised by the Olmecs . Because the six artifacts with the earliest Long Count calendar dates were all discovered outside the immediate Maya homeland , it is likely that this calendar predated the Maya and was possibly the invention of the Olmecs . Indeed , three of these six artifacts were found within the Olmec heartland . But an argument against an Olmec origin is the fact that the Olmec civilization had ended by the 4th century BCE , several centuries before the earliest known Long Count date artifact .
Colonies in antiquity
From the time of the Gracchi the colonies lost their military character . Colonization came to be regarded as a means of providing for the poorest class of the Roman Plebs . After the time of Sulla it was adopted as a way of granting land to veteran soldiers . The right of founding colonies was taken away from the people by Julius Caesar , and passed into the hands of the Roman emperors , who used it mainly in the provinces for the exclusive purpose of establishing military settlements , partly with the old idea of securing conquered territory . It was only in exceptional cases that the provincial colonies enjoyed the immunity from taxation which was granted to those in Italy .
History of India
Trade and Travels to India Silk Road and Spice trade , ancient trade routes that linked India with the Old World ; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India . The land routes are red , and the water routes are blue . The Pompeii Lakshmi ivory statuette was found in the ruin of Pompeii . It is thought to have come from Bhokardan in the Satavahana realm in the first half of the 1st century CE . It testifies to Indo - Roman trade relations beginning around the 1st century BCE .
Culture
In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor ( 1832 -- 1917 ) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion . According to this theory , religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms . In the process , he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies . This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture .
Meroë
The ruins were examined in 1844 by C.R. Lepsius , who brought many plans , sketches and copies , besides actual antiquities , to Berlin . Further excavations were carried on by E.W. Budge in the years 1902 and 1905 , the results of which are recorded in his work , The Egyptian Sudan : its History and Monuments ... Troops were furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate , governor of the Sudan , who made paths to and between the pyramids , and sank shafts , &c . It was found that the pyramids were regularly built over sepulchral chambers , containing the remains of bodies either burned or buried without being mummified . The most interesting objects found were the reliefs on the chapel walls , already described by Lepsius , and containing the names with representations of queens ( in Meroitic , Kentakes , Latinised as Candaces ) and some kings , with some chapters of the Book of the Dead ; some steles with inscriptions in the Meroitic language , and some vessels of metal and earthenware . The best of the reliefs were taken down stone by stone in 1905 , and set up partly in the British Museum and partly in the museum at Khartoum . In 1910 , in consequence of a report by Professor ( Archibald ) Sayce , excavations were commenced in the mounds of the town and the necropolis by J ( ohn ) Garstang on behalf of the university of Liverpool , and the ruins of a palace and several temples were discovered , built by the Meroite kings .
Easter Island
In 2011 , a large moai statue was excavated from the ground . During the same excavation program , some larger moai were found to have complex dorsal petroglyphs , revealed by deep excavation of the torso .
Pre-Columbian era
Artifacts have been found in both North and South America which have been dated to 14,000 years ago , and accordingly humans have been proposed to have reached Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America by this time . In that case , the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a much later date , probably no more than 2,000 years ago , moving across the ice from Siberia into Alaska .
New Amsterdam
The territory of New Netherland was originally a private , profit - making commercial enterprise focused on cementing alliances and conducting trade with the diverse Indian tribes . Surveying and exploration of the region was conducted as a prelude to an anticipated official settlement by the Dutch Republic , which occurred in 1624 . Pilgrims
Pre-Columbian era
Numerous pre-Columbian societies were sedentary , such as the Pueblo peoples , Mandan , Hidatsa and others , and some established large settlements , even cities , such as Cahokia , in what is now Illinois . The Iroquois League of Nations or `` People of the Long House '' was a politically advanced , democratic society , which is thought by some historians to have influenced the United States Constitution , with the Senate passing a resolution to this effect in 1988 . Other historians have contested this interpretation and believe the impact was minimal , or did not exist , pointing to numerous differences between the two systems and the ample precedents for the constitution in European political thought .
Portuguese Mozambique
The establishment of a dual , racialized civil society was formally recognized in Estatuto do Indigenato ( The Statute of Indigenous Populations ) adopted in 1929 , and was based in the subjective concept of civilization versus tribalism . Portugal 's colonial authorities were totally committed to develop a fully multiethnic civilized society in its African colonies , but that goal or civilizing mission , would only be achieved after a period of Europeanization or enculturation of the native black tribes and ethnocultural groups . It was a policy which had already been stimulated in the former Portuguese colony of Brazil and in Portuguese Angola . The Estatuto established a distinction between the colonial citizens , subject to the Portuguese laws and entitled to all citizenship rights and duties effective in the metropole , and the indígenas ( natives ) , subjected to colonial legislation and , in their daily lives , to their customary , tribal native laws . Between the two groups there was a third small group , the assimilados , comprising native blacks , mulatos , Asians , and mixed - race people , who had at least some formal education , were not subjected to paid forced labor , were entitled to some citizenship rights , and held a special identification card that differed from the one imposed on the immense mass of the African population ( the indígenas ) , a card that the colonial authorities conceived of as a means of controlling the movements of forced labor ( CEA 1998 ) . The indígenas were subject to the traditional authorities , who were gradually integrated into the colonial administration and charged with solving disputes , managing the access to land , and guaranteeing the flows of workforce and the payment of taxes . As several authors have pointed out ( Mamdani 1996 ; Gentili 1999 ; O'Laughlin 2000 ) , the Indigenato regime was the political system that subordinated the immense majority of Mozambicans to local authorities entrusted with governing , in collaboration with the lowest echelon of the colonial administration , the native communities described as tribes and assumed to have a common ancestry , language , and culture . The colonial use of traditional law and structures of power was thus an integral part of the process of colonial domination ( Young 1994 ; Penvenne 1995 ; O'Laughlin 2000 ) obsessed with the maximization of economic development and growth through the use of idle or unproductive African workforce .
Quito
The oldest traces of human presence in Quito were excavated by the American archaeologist Robert E. Bell in 1960 on the slopes of the Ilaló volcano , located between the eastern valleys of Los Chillos and Tumbaco . Gatherers and hunters left tools made of obsidian glass dated back 8.000 years BC . The archaeological site herein designated by the name of EI Inga was brought to the attention of Robert E. Bell by Mr. A. Allen Graffham of Ardmore , Oklahoma . While employed as a geologist in Ecuador , Mr. Graffham followed his archaeological interest as an amateur , and he made surface collections at the site during the early months of 1956 . The discovery of projectile points , particularly specimens exhibiting basal fluting , stimulated his interest , and several visits were made to the site for collecting surface materials . Graffham 's previous interest in PaleoIndian remains and his experience with early man materials found in Kansas and Nebraska in the Central Plains led him to believe that the site was an important discovery .
Colony of Virginia
The relations with the Natives took a turn for the worse after the death of Pocahontas in England and the return of John Rolfe and other colonial leaders in May 1617 . Disease , poor harvests and the growing demand for tobacco lands caused hostilities to escalate .
Maya civilization
The territory of the Maya covered a third of Mesoamerica , and the Maya were engaged in a dynamic relationship with neighbouring cultures that included the Olmecs , Mixtecs , Teotihuacan , the Aztecs , and others . During the Early Classic period , the Maya cities of Tikal and Kaminaljuyu were key Maya foci in a network that extended beyond the Maya area into the highlands of central Mexico . At around the same time , there was a strong Maya presence at the Tetitla compound of Teotihuacan . Centuries later , during the 9th century AD , murals at Cacaxtla , another site in the central Mexican highlands , were painted in a Maya style . This may have been either an effort to align itself with the still - powerful Maya area after the collapse of Teotihuacan and ensuing political fragmentation in the Mexican Highlands , or an attempt to express a distant Maya origin of the inhabitants . The Maya city of Chichen Itza and the distant Toltec capital of Tula had an especially close relationship .
Adam and Eve
With scientific developments in paleontology , geology , biology and other disciplines , it was discovered that humans , and all other living things , share a common ancestor and evolved through natural processes , with earlier life forms going back to billions of years .
Pre-Columbian era
The Chavín , a South American preliterate civilization , established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE , according to some estimates and archeological finds . Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters . The Chavín civilization spanned from 900 to 300 BCE . Muisca
Indo-Roman trade relations
Prior to Roman expansion , the various peoples of the subcontinent had established strong maritime trade with other countries . The dramatic increase in the importance of Indian ports , however , did not occur until the opening of the Red Sea by the Greeks and the Romans ' attainment concerning the region 's seasonal monsoons . The first two centuries of the Common Era indicate a marked increase in trade between western India and the Roman east by sea . The expansion of trade was made possible by the stability brought to the region by the Roman Empire from the time of Augustus ( r . 27 BCE -- 14 CE ) which allowed for new explorations and the creation of a sound silver and gold coinage ...
Colonial history of the United States
The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization in the early 16th century until their incorporation into the United States of America . In the late 16th century , England , France , Spain , and the Netherlands launched major colonization programs in eastern North America . Small early attempts sometimes disappeared , such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke . Everywhere , the death rate was very high among the first arrivals . Nevertheless , successful colonies were established within several decades .
Conquistador
The 1492 discovery of the West Indies by Christopher Columbus rendered desirable a delimitation of the Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration . Thus dividing the world into two exploration and colonizing areas seemed appropriate . This was accomplished by the Treaty of Tordesillas ( 7 June 1494 ) which modified the delimitation authorized by Pope Alexander VI in two bulls issued on 4 May 1493 . The treaty gave to Portugal all lands which might be discovered east of a meridian drawn from the Arctic Pole to the Antarctic , at a distance of 370 leagues ( 1,800 km ) west of Cape Verde . Spain received the lands west of this line .
Roanoke Colony
As per Smith 's and Strachey 's reports , Dr. David Beers Quinn theorized that the colonists moved north to integrate with the Chesepians that Chief Powhatan claimed to have killed . To make the journey northward , Quinn believed that they used the pinnace and other small boats to transport themselves and their belongings . Naturally , if that were the mode of transportation , the colonists could have gone to live in other locations as well .
Relationship between religion and science
Historian and professor of religion Eugene M. Klaaren holds that `` a belief in divine creation '' was central to an emergence of science in seventeenth - century England . The philosopher Michael Foster has published analytical philosophy connecting Christian doctrines of creation with empiricism . Historian William B. Ashworth has argued against the historical notion of distinctive mind - sets and the idea of Catholic and Protestant sciences . Historians James R. Jacob and Margaret C. Jacob have argued for a linkage between seventeenth century Anglican intellectual transformations and influential English scientists ( e.g. , Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton ) . John Dillenberger and Christopher B. Kaiser have written theological surveys , which also cover additional interactions occurring in the 18th , 19th , and 20th centuries . Philosopher of Religion , Richard Jones , has written a philosophical critique of the `` dependency thesis '' which assumes that modern science emerged from Christian sources and doctrines . Though he acknowledges that modern science emerged in a religious framework , that Christianity greatly elevated the importance of science by sanctioning and religiously legitimizing it in the medieval period , and that Christianity created a favorable social context for it to grow ; he argues that direct Christian beliefs or doctrines were not primary sources of scientific pursuits by natural philosophers , nor was Christianity , in and of itself , exclusively or directly necessary in developing or practicing modern science .
Pre-Columbian era
The vastness of the North American continent , and the variety of its climates , ecology , vegetation , fauna , and landforms , led ancient peoples to coalesce into many distinct linguistic and cultural groups . This is reflected in the oral histories of the indigenous peoples , described by a wide range of traditional creation stories which often say that a given people have been living in a certain territory since the creation of the world .
History of Puerto Rico
The settlement of Puerto Rico began with the establishment of the Ortoiroid culture from the Orinoco region in South America . Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 4000 years . An archeological dig at the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Ortoiroid man ( named Puerto Ferro man ) which was dated to around 2000 BC . The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid , a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC .
Sociology
Sociocultural anthropology , which we understand to include linguistic anthropology , is concerned with the problem of difference and similarity within and between human populations . The discipline arose concomitantly with the expansion of European colonial empires , and its practices and theories have been questioned and reformulated along with processes of decolonization . Such issues have re-emerged as transnational processes have challenged the centrality of the nation - state to theorizations about culture and power . New challenges have emerged as public debates about multiculturalism , and the increasing use of the culture concept outside of the academy and among peoples studied by anthropology . These are not `` business - as - usual '' times in the academy , in anthropology , or in the world , if ever there were such times .
European colonization of the Americas
In 2007 , the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society ( VHS ) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires ( English , Spanish , French ) and the Native people living in North America . The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives . Artifacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artifacts , maps , documents , and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic . The exhibition opened in Richmond , Virginia on March 17 , 2007 , and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31 , 2009 .
Roanoke Colony
Harriot reports that relations between the Roanoke Indians and the English settlers were mutually calm and prosperous , contradicting other historical evidence that catalogs the bloody struggles between the Roanoke Indians and both of Raleigh 's commanders , Sir Richard Grenville and his successor , Ralph Lane . Harriot recounts little to none of these accounts in his report to England and does not mention the disorderly state of the colony under either Grenville 's or Lane 's tenure , correctly assuming these facts would prevent Roanoke from gaining more settlers . Harriot 's text did not reach England , or the English press , until 1588 , by which time the fate of the `` Lost Colony '' was sealed in all but name .
New Spain
Although the repartimiento has historically been seen as an imposition on the indigenous , forcing them into economic relations they would rather have avoided and maintained by force , recent work on eighteenth - century Oaxaca analyzes the nexus of crown officials ( the alcaldes mayores ) and Spanish merchants , and indigenous via the repartimiento . cash loaned by local crown officials ( the alcalde mayor and his teniente ) , usually to individual Indians but sometimes to communities , in exchange for a fixed amount of a good ( cochineal or cotton mantles ) at a later date . Indigenous elites were an integral part of the repartimiento , often being recipients of large extensions of credit . As authority figures in their community , they were in a good position to collect on the debt , the most risky part of the business from the Spanish point of view . Tehuantepec
History of Kenya
One of the most famous and complete hominid skeletons ever discovered was the 1.6 million year old Homo erectus known as the Turkana Boy which was found by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 on an excavation led by Richard Leakey .
Relationship between religion and science
Most historians today have moved away from a conflict model , which is based mainly on two historical episodes ( Galileo and Darwin ) for a `` complexity '' model , because religious figures were on both sides of each dispute and there was no overall aim by any party involved to discredit religion .