vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Fundamental rights in India
The fundamental rights have been revised for many reasons . Political groups have demanded that the right to work , the right to economic assistance in case of unemployment , old age , and similar rights be enshrined as constitutional guarantees to address issues of poverty and economic insecurity , though these provisions have been enshrined in the Directive Principles of state policy . The right to freedom and personal liberty has a number of limiting clauses , and thus have been criticised for failing to check the sanctioning of powers often deemed `` excessive '' . There is also the provision of preventive detention and suspension of fundamental rights in times of Emergency . The provisions of acts like the Maintenance of Internal Security Act ( MISA ) , Armed Forces ( Special Powers ) Act and the National Security Act ( NSA ) are a means of countering the fundamental rights , because they sanction excessive powers with the aim of fighting internal and cross-border terrorism and political violence , without safeguards for civil rights . The phrases `` security of State '' , `` public order '' and `` morality '' are of wide implication . People of alternate sexuality are criminalised in India with prison term up to 10 years . The meaning of phrases like `` reasonable restrictions '' and `` the interest of public order '' have not been explicitly stated in the constitution , and this ambiguity leads to unnecessary litigation . The freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms is exercised , but in some cases , these meetings are broken up by the police through the use of non-fatal methods .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
The Royal Prerogative is not unlimited ; this was established in the Case of Proclamations ( 1610 ) , which confirmed that no new prerogative can be created and that Parliament can abolish individual prerogatives . However , as part of Parliamentary Sovereignty , Parliament could create new prerogatives if it so wished regardless . Parliament has the power to remove powers from the Royal Prerogative : this was done in the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 which removed the Royal Prerogative to dissolve Parliament . However , the monarch 's consent is required before Parliament may pass legislation removing such powers : this was seen when the second reading of the Military Action Against Iraq ( Parliamentary Approval ) Bill , which would have removed the monarch 's ability to authorize military action without Parliamentary approval , had to be abandoned because the monarch ( on the advice of her government ) refused to grant such consent .
Overview of gun laws by nation
New Zealand 's gun laws comprise the Arms Act of 1983 , Arms Amendment Act 1992 , and Arms Regulations 1992 , and focus mainly on vetting firearm owners . A firearms licence may be issued by police to applicants who attend a safety lecture , pass a written test on safety and the Arms Code , and have secure storage for firearms and ammunition ; the police will also interview the applicant and two references to be certain the applicant is `` fit and proper '' to own a firearm . Having criminal associations , a history of domestic violence , mental instability , or alcohol or drug abuse almost always result in the application being denied . Misbehavior involving firearms commonly leads to a firearms licence being revoked by police . Even when licensed , a person may only be in possession of a firearm for a particular lawful , proper and sufficient purpose , which specifically excludes self - defence .
Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India
The 42nd Amendment added new Directive Principles , viz Article 39A , Article 43A and Article 48A . The 42nd Amendment gave primacy to the Directive Principles , by stating that `` no law implementing any of the Directive Principles could be declared unconstitutional on the grounds that it violated any of the Fundamental Rights '' . The Amendment simultaneously stated that laws prohibiting `` antinational activities '' or the formation of `` antinational associations '' could not be invalidated because they infringed on any of the Fundamental Rights . The 43rd and 44th Amendments repealed the 42nd Amendment 's provision that Directive Principles take precedence over Fundamental Rights , and also curbed Parliament 's power to legislate against `` antinational activities '' . The 42nd Amendment also added a new section to the Article on `` Fundamental Duties '' in the Constitution . The new section required citizens `` to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood among all the people of India , transcending religious , linguistic and regional or sectional diversities . ''
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Because the Premiership was not intentionally created , there is no exact date when its evolution began . A meaningful starting point , however , is 1688 -- 9 when James II fled England and the Parliament of England confirmed William and Mary as joint constitutional monarchs , enacting legislation that limited their authority and that of their successors : the Bill of Rights ( 1689 ) , the Mutiny Bill ( 1689 ) , the Triennial Bill ( 1694 ) , the Treason Act ( 1696 ) and the Act of Settlement ( 1701 ) . Known collectively as the Revolutionary Settlement , these acts transformed the constitution , shifting the balance of power from the Sovereign to Parliament . They also provided the basis for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister , which did not exist at that time .
Tax protester statutory arguments
( i ) who is not married ( determined by applying section 7703 ) , is not a surviving spouse ( as defined in section 2 ( a ) ) , is not a head of a household ( as defined in section 2 ( b ) ) , and for the taxable year has gross income of less than the sum of the exemption amount plus the basic standard deduction applicable to such an individual ( ... )
Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India
The Janata government then brought about the 43rd and 44th Amendments in 1977 and 1978 respectively , to restore the pre-1976 position to some extent . Among other changes , the amendments revoked the 42nd Amendment 's provision that Directive Principles take precedence over Fundamental Rights , and also curbed Parliament 's power to legislate against `` antinational activities '' . However , the Janata Party was not able to fully achieve its objective of restoring the Constitution to the condition it was in before the Emergency .
Law of Malaysia
The dual system of law is provided in Article 121 ( 1A ) of the Constitution of Malaysia . Article 3 also provides that Islamic law is a state law matter with the exception for the Federal Territories of Malaysia . Islamic law refers to sharia law , and in Malaysia it is known and spelled as syariah . The court is known as the Syariah Court . Looking at the Malaysian legal system as a whole , sharia law plays a relatively small role in defining the laws on the country . It only applies to Muslims . With regards to civil law , the Syariah courts has jurisdiction in personal law matters , for example marriage , inheritance , and apostasy . In some states there are sharia criminal laws , for example there is the Kelantan Syariah Criminal Code Enactment 1993 . Their jurisdiction is however limited to imposing fines for an amount not more than RM 5000 , and imprisonment to not more than 3 years . In August 2007 , the then Chief Justice of Malaysia proposed to replace the current common law application in Malaysia with sharia law .
United Kingdom
The UK does not have a codified constitution and constitutional matters are not among the powers devolved to Scotland , Wales or Northern Ireland . Under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty , the UK Parliament could , in theory , therefore , abolish the Scottish Parliament , Welsh Assembly or Northern Ireland Assembly . Indeed , in 1972 , the UK Parliament unilaterally prorogued the Parliament of Northern Ireland , setting a precedent relevant to contemporary devolved institutions . In practice , it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly , given the political entrenchment created by referendum decisions . The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament 's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are even greater than in relation to Scotland and Wales , given that devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the Government of Ireland .
Fundamental rights in India
Abolition of Titles : Article 18 of the constitution prohibits the State from conferring any titles . Citizens of India can not accept titles from a foreign State . The British government had created an aristocratic class known as Rai Bahadurs and Khan Bahadurs in India -- these titles were also abolished . However , Military and academic distinctions can be conferred on the citizens of India . The awards of Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan can not be used by the recipient as a title and do not , accordingly , come within the constitutional prohibition `` . The Supreme Court , on 15 December 1995 , upheld the validity of such awards .
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
The Fourteenth Amendment , particularly its first section , is one of the most litigated parts of the Constitution , forming the basis for landmark decisions such as Brown v. Board of Education ( 1954 ) regarding racial segregation , Roe v. Wade ( 1973 ) regarding abortion , Bush v. Gore ( 2000 ) regarding the 2000 presidential election , and Obergefell v. Hodges ( 2015 ) regarding same - sex marriage . The amendment limits the actions of all state and local officials , including those acting on behalf of such an official .
Fundamental rights in India
Freedom of speech and expression , on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India , the security of the State , friendly relations with foreign States , public order , decency or morality or in relation to contempt of court , defamation or incitement to an offence . Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order and the sovereignty and integrity of India . The Freedom to form associations or unions or co-operative societies on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order , morality and the sovereignty and integrity of India . Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India though reasonable restrictions can be imposed on this right in the interest of the general public , for example , restrictions may be imposed on movement and travelling , so as to control epidemics . Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India , subject to reasonable restrictions by the State in the interest of the general public or for the protection of the scheduled tribes because certain safeguards as are envisaged here seem to be justified to protect indigenous and tribal peoples from exploitation and coercion . Article 370 restricts citizens from other Indian states and Kashmiri women who marry men from other states from purchasing land or property in Jammu & Kashmir .
History of Catholic education in the United States
In 1922 , the voters of Oregon passed an initiative amending Oregon Law Section 5259 , the Compulsory Education Act . The law unofficially became known as the Oregon School Law . The citizens ' initiative was primarily aimed at eliminating parochial schools , including Catholic schools . The law caused outraged Catholics to organize locally and nationally for the right to send their children to Catholic schools . In Pierce v. Society of Sisters ( 1925 ) , the United States Supreme Court declared the Oregon 's Compulsory Education Act unconstitutional in a ruling that has been called `` the Magna Carta of the parochial school system . ''
Church of Ireland
Civil partnerships have been allowed since 2005 . The church has no official position on civil unions . In 2008 , `` the Church of Ireland Pensions Board ha ( d ) confirmed that it will treat civil partners the same as spouses . '' In 2011 , a cleric in the Church of Ireland entered into a same - sex civil partnership with his bishop 's permission . Assurances of sexual abstinence were not required from the cleric . In 2012 , the church 's Clergy Pension Fund continued to recognise that `` the pension entitlement of a member 's registered civil partner will be the same as that of a surviving spouse . '' Regarding cohabitation , the church said that `` any view of cohabitation has to be the intention of the couple to lifelong loyalty and faithfulness within their relationship . '' The church recognises four general viewpoints within the denomination ranging from opposition to acceptance toward same - gender relationships .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
The bill was approved by the cabinet on 2 July 2009 . Rajya Sabha passed the bill on 20 July 2009 and the Lok Sabha on 4 August 2009 . It received Presidential assent and was notified as law on 26 August 2009 as The Children 's Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act . The law came into effect in the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1 April 2010 , the first time in the history of India a law was brought into force by a speech by the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh . In his speech , Dr. Singh stated , `` We are committed to ensuring that all children , irrespective of gender and social category , have access to education . An education that enables them to acquire the skills , knowledge , values and attitudes necessary to become responsible and active citizens of India . ''
English Reformation
Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was `` blighted in the eyes of God '' . Catherine had been his late brother 's wife , and it was therefore against biblical teachings for Henry to have married her ( Leviticus 20 : 21 ) ; a special dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding in the first place . Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid . In 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage , but the Pope refused . According to Canon Law the Pope can not annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed . Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine 's nephew , Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner .
Parliamentary sovereignty
After 1689 English parliamentary supremacy became evident in the relation of the English parliament to those of Scotland and Ireland . The Act of Settlement 1701 made a presumption upon Scotland : the Scots retaliated with the Act of Security 1704 , which was countered by the Alien Act 1705 : the issue was settled by the Union of the parliaments of England and Scotland in 1707 which created a new British parliament , though `` in essence it was just an extension of the English parliament '' . It is arguable whether the concept of parliamentary supremacy arose from the Acts of Union 1707 or was a doctrine that evolved thereafter . The autonomy of the Parliament of Ireland also came under attack and the Declaratory Act 1720 made the Irish parliament a dependency . The so - called Constitution of 1782 removed British parliamentary supremacy over Ireland for a short period but then the Irish parliament was merged with Britain 's in the Acts of Union 1800 .
Freedom of speech by country
While the Thai constitution provides for freedom of expression , by law the government may restrict freedom of expression to preserve national security , maintain public order , preserve the rights of others , protect public morals , and prevent insults to Buddhism . The lese - majeste law makes it a crime , punishable by up to 15 years ' imprisonment for each offense , to criticize , insult , or threaten the king , queen , royal heir apparent , or regent . Defamation is a criminal offense and parties that criticize the government or related businesses may be sued , setting the stage for self - censorship .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
In September 2012 , the Supreme Court subsequently declined a review petition on the Act .
History of the Church of England
In May 1532 the Church of England agreed to surrender its legislative independence and canon law to the authority of the monarch . In 1533 the Statute in Restraint of Appeals removed the right of the English clergy and laity to appeal to Rome on matters of matrimony , tithes and oblations . It also gave authority over such matters to the Archbishops of Canterbury and York . This finally allowed Thomas Cranmer , the new Archbishop of Canterbury , to issue Henry 's annulment ; and upon procuring it , Henry married Anne Boleyn . Pope Clement VII excommunicated Henry VIII in 1533 .
Supreme Court of India
After Indira Gandhi lost elections in 1977 , the new government of Morarji Desai , and especially law minister Shanti Bhushan ( who had earlier argued for the detenues in the Habeas Corpus case ) , introduced a number of amendments making it more difficult to declare and sustain an emergency , and reinstated much of the power to the supreme court . It is said that the Basic Structure doctrine , created in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala , was strengthened in Indira Gandhi 's case and set in stone in Minerva Mills v. Union of India .
House of Lords
Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act 1958 , passed to address the declining number of active members , made possible the creation of peerages for life . Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed . However , hereditary peeresses continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963 . Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999 , hereditary peeresses remain eligible for election to the Upper House ; there is one ( Countess of Mar ) among the 90 hereditary peers who continue to sit . Cash
Fundamental rights in India
Fundamental Rights are the basic rights of the people and the charter of rights contained in Part III ( Article 12 to 35 ) of Constitution of India . It guarantees civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India . These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies , such as equality before law , freedom of speech and expression , religious and cultural freedom and peaceful assembly , freedom to practice religion , and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights by means of writs such as habeas corpus , Mandamus , Prohibition , Certiorari and Quo Warranto . Violation of these rights result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code or other special laws , subject to discretion of the judiciary . The Fundamental Rights are defined as basic human freedoms that every Indian citizen has the right to enjoy for a proper and harmonious development of personality . These rights universally apply to all citizens , irrespective of race , place of birth , religion , caste or gender . Though the rights conferred by the constitution other than fundamental rights are equally valid and their enforcement in case of violation shall be secured from the judiciary in a time consuming legal process . However , in case of fundamental rights violation , Supreme court of India can be approached directly for ultimate justice per Article 32 . The Rights have their origins in many sources , including England 's Bill of Rights , the United States Bill of Rights and France 's Declaration of the Rights of Man .
Factory Acts
Voting on this Bill was not on party lines , the issue revealing both parties to be split into various factions . On clause 8 , both ' ten ' and ' twelve ' hours were rejected ( with exactly the same members voting ) because five members voted against both ' ten ' and ' twelve ' . Faced with this impasse , and having considered and rejected the option of compromising on some intermediate time such as eleven hours , Graham withdrew the Bill , preferring to replace it by a new one which amended , rather than repealed , the 1833 Act . A Radical MP warned the government during the debate on clause 8 that Ashley 's first victory could never be undone by any subsequent vote : morally the Ten - Hour question had been settled ; Government might delay , but could not now prevent , a Ten - hour Act . However , the new bill left the 1833 definition of ' night ' unaltered ( and so gave no opportunity for redefinition ) and Lord Ashley 's amendment to limit the working day for women and young persons to ten hours was defeated heavily ( 295 against , 198 for ) , it having been made clear that the Ministers would resign if they lost the vote .
Practice Statement
A germane example is the case of Anderton v Ryan ( 1985 ) where the House of Lords interpreted the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 in such a way as to make the Act virtually ineffective . Only one year later in R v Shivpuri ( 1986 ) Lord Bridge ( a member of the erroneous majority in Anderton ) acknowledged the error and said `` the Practice Statement is an effective abandonment of our pretension to infallibility . If a serious error embodied in a decision of this House has been distorted by the law , the sooner it is corrected the better '' .
English Reformation
The violent aspect of these disputes , manifested in the English Civil Wars , ended when the last Roman Catholic monarch , James II , was deposed , and Parliament asked William III and Mary II to rule jointly in conjunction with the English Bill of Rights in 1688 ( in the `` Glorious Revolution '' ) , from which emerged a church polity with an established church and a number of non-conformist churches whose members at first suffered various civil disabilities that were removed over time . The legacy of the past Roman Catholic Establishment remained an issue for some time , and still exists today . A substantial minority remained Roman Catholic in England , and in an effort to disestablish it from British systems , their church organisation remained illegal until the 19th century .
Factory Acts
In 1844 Graham again introduced a Bill to bring in a new Factory Act and repeal the 1833 Factory Act . The Bill gave educational issues a wide berth , but otherwise largely repeated the ' labour clauses ' of Graham 's 1843 Bill , with the important difference that the existing protection of young persons ( a twelve - hour day and a ban on night working ) was now extended to women of all ages . In Committee , Lord Ashley moved an amendment to the bill 's clause 2 , which defined the terms used in subsequent ( substantive ) clauses ; his amendment changed the definition of ' night ' to 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. - after allowing 90 minutes for mealbreaks only ten - and - a-half hours could be worked ; this passed by nine votes . On clause 8 , limiting the hours of work for women and young persions , the motion setting a twelve - hour day was defeated ( by three votes : 183 - 186 ) but Lord Ashley 's motion setting the limit at ten hours was also defeated ( by seven votes : 181 - 188 ) .
History of Australia (1788–1850)
The absence of a Catholic mission in Australia before 1818 reflected the legal disabilities of Catholics in Britain and the difficult position of Ireland within the British Empire . The government therefore endorsed the English Benedictines to lead the early Church in the Colony . The Church of England lost its legal privileges in the Colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836 . Drafted by the reformist attorney - general John Plunkett , the Act established legal equality for Anglicans , Catholics and Presbyterians and was later extended to Methodists . Catholic missionary William Ullathorne criticised the convict system , publishing a pamphlet , The Horrors of Transportation Briefly Unfolded to the People , in Britain in 1837 . Laywoman Caroline Chisolm did ecumenical work to alleviate the suffering of female migrants . Watkin