vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Second Sino-Japanese War
During the Marco Polo Bridge Incident Japanese military demanded permission to enter the Chinese city of Wanping to search for a missing soldier . The Chinese refused . Later in the night , a unit of Japanese infantry attempted to breach Wanping 's walled defences and were repulsed . An ultimatum by the Japanese was issued before they would declare war . The Chinese still refused .
End of the Han dynasty
In the years after his reunification of northern China , Cao Cao did not conduct any major campaigns while awaiting an opportunity to act against the remaining three most prominent warlords : Sun Quan , who had succeeded his older brother Sun Ce after the latter was assassinated in 200 ; Liu Biao ; Liu Zhang . During that time , Sun Quan was also developing his territories in Jiangdong , which he inherited from Sun Ce , and strengthening his military forces . In 208 , Sun Quan defeated and killed Liu Biao 's vassal Huang Zu at the Battle of Xiakou , seizing most of Huang 's territory at Jiangxia ( 江夏 ; present - day Xinzhou District , Wuhan , Hubei ) .
Korean War
In China , the Nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People 's Liberation Army helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military , which had also occupied parts of China . The Nationalist - backed Koreans , led by Yi Pom - Sok , fought in the Burma Campaign ( December 1941 -- August 1945 ) . The communists , led by Kim Il - sung among others , fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria .
Second Sino-Japanese War
General Ma Hushan was expecting help from Nanking , as he exchanged messages with Chiang regarding the Soviet attack . But , both the Second Sino - Japanese War and the Xinjiang War erupted simultaneously leaving Chiang and Ma Hushan each on their own to confront the Japanese and Soviet forces .
The Man in the High Castle
By the 1960s , Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany are the world 's competing superpowers , with Japan establishing the `` Pacific States of America '' ( P.S.A. ) from the former Western United States , with the remaining Rocky Mountain States now a neutral buffer zone between the P.S.A. and the Nazi - occupied former Eastern United States . For unknown reasons , Canada remains independent .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Longstanding differences in national interest and political stance among China , the United States , and the United Kingdom remained in place . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was reluctant to devote British troops , many of whom had been routed by the Japanese in earlier campaigns , to the reopening of the Burma Road ; Stilwell , on the other hand , believed that reopening the road was vital , as all China 's mainland ports were under Japanese control . The Allies ' `` Europe First '' policy did not sit well with Chiang , while the later British insistence that China send more and more troops to Indochina for use in the Burma Campaign was seen by Chiang as an attempt to use Chinese manpower to defend British colonial holdings . Chiang also believed that China should divert its crack army divisions from Burma to eastern China to defend the airbases of the American bombers that he hoped would defeat Japan through bombing , a strategy that American general Claire Lee Chennault supported but which Stilwell strongly opposed . In addition , Chiang voiced his support of Indian independence in a 1942 meeting with Mahatma Gandhi , which further soured the relationship between China and the United Kingdom .
Axis powers
The Nanjing Government had no real power ; its main role was to act as a propaganda tool for the Japanese . The Nanjing Government concluded agreements with Japan and Manchukuo , authorising Japanese occupation of China and recognising the independence of Manchukuo under Japanese protection . The Nanjing Government signed the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1941 and declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom on 9 January 1943 .
Chinese Buddhism
As mentioned earlier , persecution came during the reign of Emperor Wuzong in the Tang Dynasty . Wuzong was said to hate the sight of Buddhist monks , who he thought were tax - evaders . In 845 , he ordered the destruction of 4,600 Buddhist monasteries and 40,000 temples . More than 400,000 Buddhist monks and nuns then became peasants liable to the Two Taxes ( grain and cloth ) . Wuzong cited that Buddhism was an alien religion , which is the reason he also persecuted the Christians in China . David Graeber argues that Buddhist institutions had accumulated so much precious metals which the government needed to secure the money supply . Ancient Chinese Buddhism never fully recovered from the persecution .
Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor
Japan 's 1937 attack on China was condemned by the U.S. and several members of the League of Nations including Britain , France , Australia and the Netherlands . Japanese atrocities during the conflict , such as the notorious Nanking Massacre that December , served to further complicate relations with the rest of the world . The U.S. , Britain , France and the Netherlands each possessed colonies in East and Southeast Asia . Japan 's new military power and willingness to use it threatened these Western economic and territorial interests in Asia .
Axis powers
The Inner Mongolians had several grievances against the central Chinese government in Nanking , including their policy of allowing unlimited migration of Han Chinese to the region . Several of the young princes of Inner Mongolia began to agitate for greater freedom from the central government , and it was through these men that Japanese saw their best chance of exploiting Pan-Mongol nationalism and eventually seizing control of Outer Mongolia from the Soviet Union .
Axis powers
The worsening situation for Japan from 1943 onwards meant that the Nanking Army was given a more substantial role in the defence of occupied China than the Japanese had initially envisaged . The army was almost continuously employed against the communist New Fourth Army .
Axis powers
Mengjiang vanished in 1945 following Japan 's defeat in World War II . As Soviet forces advanced into Inner Mongolia , they met limited resistance from small detachments of Mongolian cavalry , which , like the rest of the army , were quickly overwhelmed . Laos
Second Sino-Japanese War
Mukden September 1931 Invasion of Manchuria September 1931 Jiangqiao Campaign October 1931 Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge November 1931 Jinzhou December 1931 Defense of Harbin January 1932 Shanghai January 1932 Pacification of Manchukuo March 1932 Great Wall January 1933 Battle of Rehe February 1933 Actions in Inner Mongolia ( 1933 -- 1936 ) Suiyuan Campaign October 1936 Battle of Lugou Bridge ( Marco Polo Bridge Incident ) July 1937 Beiping -- Tianjin July 1937 Chahar August 1937 Battle of Shanghai August 1937 Defense of Sihang Warehouse October 26 , 1937 Beiping -- Hankou August 1937 Tianjin -- Pukou August 1937 Taiyuan September 1937 Battle of Pingxingguan September 1937 Battle of Xinkou September 1937 Battle of Nanking December 1937 Battle of Xuzhou December 1937 Battle of Taierzhuang March 1938 Northern and Eastern Honan 1938 January 1938 Battle of Lanfeng May 1938 Xiamen May 1938 Battle of Wuhan June 1938 Battle of Wanjialing Guangdong October 1938 Hainan Island February 1939 Battle of Nanchang March 1939 Battle of Xiushui River March 1939 Battle of Suixian - Zaoyang May 1939 Shantou June 1939 Battle of Changsha ( 1939 ) September 1939 Battle of South Guangxi November 1939 Battle of Kunlun Pass December 1939 1939 -- 1940 Winter Offensive November 1939 Battle of West Suiyuan January -- February 1940 Battle of Wuyuan March 1940 Battle of Zaoyang - Yichang May 1940 Hundred Regiments Offensive August 1940 Central Hupei November 1940 Battle of South Henan January 1941 Western Hopei March 1941 Battle of Shanggao March 1941 Battle of South Shanxi May 1941 Battle of Changsha ( 1941 ) September 1941 Battle of Changsha ( 1942 ) January 1942 Battle of Yunnan - Burma Road March 1942 Battle of Toungoo Battle of Yenangyaung Battle of Zhejiang - Jiangxi April 1942 Battle of West Hubei May 1943 Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan October 1943 Battle of Changde November 1943 Operation Ichi - Go Operation Kogo Battle of Central Henan April 1944 Operation Togo 1 Battle of Changsha ( 1944 ) Operation Togo 2 and Operation Togo 3 Battle of Guilin -- Liuzhou August 1944 Battle of West Henan -- North Hubei March -- May , 1945 Battle of West Hunan April -- June 1945 Second Guangxi Campaign April -- July 1945
Second Sino-Japanese War
The National Revolutionary Army ( NRA ) formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong , where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict . The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928 , during which time the Japanese military violently killed several Chinese officials and fired artillery shells into Jinan . Between 2,000 and 11,000 Chinese and Japanese civilians were believed to have been killed during these conflicts . The Jinan incident severely deteriorated the relations between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan .
Allies of World War II
The Communist Party 's position in China was boosted further upon the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945 against the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo and the Japanese Kwantung Army in China and Manchuria . Upon the intervention of the Soviet Union against Japan in World War II in 1945 , Mao Zedong in April and May 1945 had planned to mobilize 150,000 to 250,000 soldiers from across China to work with forces of the Soviet Union in capturing Manchuria .
Qing dynasty
Relocating his court from Jianzhou to Liaodong provided Nurhaci access to more resources ; it also brought him in close contact with the Khorchin Mongol domains on the plains of Mongolia . Although by this time the once - united Mongol nation had long since fragmented into individual and hostile tribes , these tribes still presented a serious security threat to the Ming borders . Nurhaci 's policy towards the Khorchins was to seek their friendship and cooperation against the Ming , securing his western border from a powerful potential enemy .
Siege
When enemies attempted to dig tunnels under walls for mining or entry into the city , the defenders used large bellows ( the type the Chinese commonly used in heating up a blast furnace for smelting cast iron ) to pump smoke into the tunnels in order to suffocate the intruders .
Spratly Islands dispute
Taiwan 's garrison from 1946 -- 1950 and 1956 - now on Itu Aba represents an `` effective occupation '' of the Spratlys . China established a coastal defence system against Japanese pirates or smugglers .
Berlin Wall
Before the Wall 's erection , 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions and defected from the GDR , many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin ; from there they could then travel to West Germany and to other Western European countries . Between 1961 and 1989 the Wall prevented almost all such emigration . During this period over 100,000 people attempted to escape and over 5,000 people succeeded in escaping over the Wall , with an estimated death toll ranging from 136 to more than 200 in and around Berlin .
Vietnam War
Massive aerial bombardment against the Pathet Lao and People 's Army of Vietnam forces were carried out by the US to prevent the collapse of the Royal central government , and to deny the use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail . Between 1964 and 1973 , the U.S. dropped two million tons of bombs on Laos , nearly equal to the 2.1 million tons of bombs the U.S. dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II , making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population .
Ship
At this time , ships were developing in Asia in much the same way as Europe . Japan used defensive naval techniques in the Mongol invasions of Japan in 1281 . It is likely that the Mongols of the time took advantage of both European and Asian shipbuilding techniques . During the 15th century , China 's Ming dynasty assembled one of the largest and most powerful naval fleets in the world for the diplomatic and power projection voyages of Zheng He . Elsewhere in Japan in the 15th century , one of the world 's first iron - clads , `` Tekkōsen '' ( 鉄 甲 船 ) , literally meaning `` iron ships '' , was also developed . In Japan , during the Sengoku era from the fifteenth to 17th century , the great struggle for feudal supremacy was fought , in part , by coastal fleets of several hundred boats , including the atakebune . In Korea , in the early 15th century during the Joseon era , `` Geobukseon '' ( 거북선 ) , was developed . The `` turtle ship '' , as it was called is recognized as the first armored ship in the world .
German declaration of war against the United States
In fact , Hitler 's declaration of war came as a great relief to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , who feared the possibility of two parallel but disconnected wars -- the UK and Soviet Union versus Germany in Europe , and the US and the British Empire versus Japan in the Far East and the Pacific . With Nazi Germany 's declaration against the United States in effect , American assistance for Britain in both theaters of war as a full ally was assured . It also simplified matters for the American government , as John Kenneth Galbraith recalled :
Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt
As World War II began , Roosevelt was among those concerned at the growing strength of the Axis Powers and he found ways to help Great Britain , the Chinese Nationalists and later the Soviet Union in their struggle against them . His program of Lend - Lease supplied military equipment to those powers despite the American government 's official neutrality . This prompted several isolationist leaders , including air hero Charles Lindbergh , to criticize him as a warmonger who was trying to push America into war with Nazi Germany , Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan . This criticism was largely silenced in the public arena after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , but some persisted in the belief that Roosevelt knew of the attack beforehand .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Chinese armies deployed `` dare to die corps '' ( traditional Chinese : 敢死隊 ; simplified Chinese : 敢死队 ; pinyin : gǎnsǐduì ) or `` suicide squads '' against the Japanese .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
The Azteca and Tlaxcalteca histories of the events leading up to the massacre vary ; the Tlaxcalteca claimed that their ambassador Patlahuatzin was sent to Cholula and had been tortured by the Cholula . Thus , Cortés was avenging him by attacking Cholula. ( Historia de Tlaxcala , por Diego Muñoz Camargo , lib. II cap . V. 1550 ) . The Azteca version put the blame on the Tlaxcalteca , claiming that they resented Cortés going to Cholula instead of Huexotzingo .
End of the Han dynasty
In 217 , Liu Bei started a campaign to seize Hanzhong from Cao Cao . After Xiahou Yuan was defeated and killed at the Battle of Mount Dingjun in 219 , Cao Cao became alarmed and quickly arrived with reinforcements to resist Liu Bei . Both sides became locked in a stalemate , except for a clash at the Battle of Han River , before Cao Cao eventually decided to withdraw his forces , giving up Hanzhong to Liu Bei . Liu Bei subsequently declared himself `` King of Hanzhong '' after his victory .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The origin of the Second Sino - Japanese War can be traced to the First Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895 , in which China , then under the Qing dynasty , was defeated by Japan and was forced to cede Formosa , and to recognize the full and complete independence of Korea in the Treaty of Shimonoseki ; Japan had also allegedly annexed the Diaoyudao / Senkaku islands in early 1895 as a result being the victors of this war ( Japan claims the islands to have been uninhabited in 1895 ) . The Qing dynasty was on the brink of collapse from internal revolts and foreign imperialism , while Japan had emerged as a great power through its effective measures of modernization .
Greco-Persian Wars
Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes ; Attica was then open to invasion . The remaining population of Athens was evacuated , with the aid of the Allied fleet , to Salamis . The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth , building a wall , and demolishing the road from Megara , abandoning Athens to the Persians . Athens thus fell to the Persians ; the small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated , and Xerxes then ordered Athens to be razed . Schematic
End of the Han dynasty
In 198 , Yuan Shao tried to persuade Cao Cao to move the capital to Juancheng ( 鄄 城 ; in present - day Heze , Shandong ) , which was nearer to his own territory , in an attempt to wrestle Emperor Xian away from Cao , but Cao refused . Later that year , Cao Cao joined forces with Liu Bei to attack Lü Bu , defeating him at the Battle of Xiapi . Lü Bu was captured and executed on Cao Cao 's order , and Xu Province came under Cao 's control .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The United States and the Soviet Union put an end to the Second World War by attacking the Japanese with a new weapon ( on the United States ' part ) and an incursion into Manchuria ( on the Soviet Union 's part ) . On August 6 , 1945 , an American B - 29 bomber , the Enola Gay , dropped the first atomic bomb used in combat on Hiroshima , killing tens of thousands and leveling the city . On August 9 , 1945 , the Soviet Union renounced its non-aggression pact with Japan and attacked the Japanese in Manchuria , fulfilling its Yalta Conference pledge to attack the Japanese within three months after the end of the war in Europe . The attack was made by three Soviet army groups . On that same day , a second equally destructive atomic bomb was dropped by the United States on Nagasaki .
Korean War
Although some South Korean and U.S. intelligence officers predicted an attack from the North , similar predictions were made before and nothing happened . The Central Intelligence Agency noted the southward movement by the Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) , but assessed this as a `` defensive measure '' and concluded an invasion was `` unlikely '' . On 23 June , UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent .
Axis powers
To isolate the US forces stationed in the Philippines and to reduce US naval power , the Imperial General Headquarters ordered an attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , on 7 December 1941 . They also invaded Malaya and Hong Kong . Initially achieving a series of victories , by 1943 the Japanese forces were driven back towards the home islands . The Pacific War lasted until the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 . The Soviets formally declared war in August 1945 and engaged Japanese forces in Manchuria and northeast China . Colonies
Second Sino-Japanese War
During this period , the main Chinese objective was to drag out the war for as long as possible in a war of attrition , thereby exhausting Japanese resources while building up Chinese military capacity . American general Joseph Stilwell called this strategy `` winning by outlasting '' . The NRA adopted the concept of `` magnetic warfare '' to attract advancing Japanese troops to definite points where they were subjected to ambush , flanking attacks , and encirclements in major engagements . The most prominent example of this tactic was the successful defense of Changsha in 1939 ( and again in 1941 ) , in which heavy casualties were inflicted on the IJA .
Tower of London
The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle records that in 1097 King William II ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London ; it was probably built from stone as a replacement for the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle , between the Roman wall and the Thames . The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class , but in the way the city was structured . Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans , who also brought over hundreds of Jews , for financial reasons . The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown , as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles . The Jews used the Tower as a retreat , when threatened by anti-Jewish violence .
The Man in the High Castle
After the war , Winston Churchill remains the British Prime Minister , and , because of its military - industrial might , the British Empire does not collapse . The Soviet Union , crippled by war losses , collapses . The U.S. establishes strong business relations with Chiang Kai - shek 's right - wing regime in China after vanquishing the Communist Mao Zedong in the Chinese Civil War . The British Empire becomes more racist and expansionist post-war , while the U.S. outlaws Jim Crow laws , resolving its racism by the 1950s . Both changes provoke racial - cultural tensions between the U.S. and the U.K. , leading them to a Cold War for global hegemony between their two vaguely liberal , democratic , capitalist societies . Although the end of the novel is never depicted in the text , one character claims the book ends with the British Empire eventually defeating the U.S. , becoming the sole world superpower .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Mao also began to execute his plan to establish a new China by rapidly moving his forces from Yan'an and elsewhere to Manchuria . This opportunity was available to the Communists because although Nationalist representatives were not invited to Yalta , they had been consulted and had agreed to the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in the belief that the Soviet Union would cooperate only with the Nationalist government after the war .
Causes of World War II
Usually , the US government and the American public in general had been supportive of China , condemning the colonialist policies of the European powers and Japan in that country , and promoting a so - called Open Door Policy . Also , many Americans viewed the Japanese as an aggressive or inferior race , or both . The Nationalist Government of Chiang Kai - shek held close relations with the United States , which opposed Japan 's invasion of China in 1937 that it considered an illegal violation of the sovereignty of the Republic of China , and offered the Nationalist Government diplomatic , economic , and military assistance during its war against Japan . Diplomatic friction between the US and Japan manifested itself in events like the Panay incident in 1937 and the Allison incident in 1938 . Japanese
Cradle of civilization
The Shang dynasty was succeeded by the Zhou dynasty ( 1046 to 256 BC ) . The succession of dynasties , known as the dynastic cycle , is an important political theory in Chinese history . This theory sees a continuity in Chinese history from early times to the present by looking at the succession of empires or dynasties . Emperors would legitimize their rule by invoking the Mandate of Heaven . During the Zhou dynasty , Chinese script evolved into its almost - modern form with the use of a clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period . In 221 BC , China became culturally and politically unified under a large centralized empire , the Qin Dynasty , founded by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di . Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control the large territory from the center .
Theatre of China
The Tang Dynasty is sometimes known as `` The Age of 1000 Entertainments '' . During this era , Ming Huang formed an acting school known as The Pear Garden to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical . That is why actors are commonly called `` Children of the Pear Garden . ''