vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
In 2013 , the World Health Organization ( WHO ) indicated that the residents of the area who were evacuated were exposed to low amounts of radiation and that radiation - induced health impacts are likely to be low . In particular , the 2013 WHO report predicts that for evacuated infant girls , their 0.75 % pre-accident lifetime risk of developing thyroid cancer is calculated to be increased to 1.25 % by being exposed to radioiodine , with the increase being slightly less for males . The risks from a number of additional radiation - induced cancers are also expected to be elevated due to exposure caused by the other low boiling point fission products that were released by the safety failures . The single greatest increase is for thyroid cancer , but in total , an overall 1 % higher lifetime risk of developing cancers of all types , is predicted for infant females , with the risk slightly lower for males , making both some of the most radiation - sensitive groups . Along with those within the womb , which the WHO predicted , depending on their gender , to have the same elevations in risk as the infant groups .
Interphase
In interphase , the cell gets itself ready for mitosis or meiosis . Somatic cells , or normal diploid cells of the body , go through mitosis in order to reproduce themselves through cell division , whereas diploid germ cells ( i.e. , primary spermatocytes and primary oocytes ) go through meiosis in order to create haploid gametes ( i.e. , sperm and ova ) for the purpose of sexual reproduction . Chromosomes are copied .
Cell cycle
Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism 's development . In sexual reproduction , when egg fertilization occurs , when the sperm binds to the egg , it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized . Among other things , this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant , G , state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division .
Adolescence
Romantic relationships tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence . By age 15 , 53 % of adolescents have had a romantic relationship that lasted at least one month over the course of the previous 18 months . In a 2008 study conducted by YouGov for Channel 4 , 20 % of 14 − 17 - year - olds surveyed revealed that they had their first sexual experience at 13 or under in the United Kingdom . A 2002 American study found that those aged 15 -- 44 reported that the average age of first sexual intercourse was 17.0 for males and 17.3 for females . The typical duration of relationships increases throughout the teenage years as well . This constant increase in the likelihood of a long - term relationship can be explained by sexual maturation and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond ( e.g. caregiving , appropriate attachment ) , although these skills are not strongly developed until late adolescence . Long - term relationships allow adolescents to gain the skills necessary for high - quality relationships later in life and develop feelings of self - worth . Overall , positive romantic relationships among adolescents can result in long - term benefits . High - quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment in early adulthood and are positively associated with self - esteem , self - confidence , and social competence . For example , an adolescent with positive self - confidence is likely to consider themselves a more successful partner , whereas negative experiences may lead to low confidence as a romantic partner . Adolescents often date within their demographic in regards to race , ethnicity , popularity , and physical attractiveness . However , there are traits in which certain individuals , particularly adolescent girls , seek diversity . While most adolescents date people approximately their own age , boys typically date partners the same age or younger ; girls typically date partners the same age or older .
Interphase
When G is completed , the cell enters a relatively brief period of nuclear and cellular division , composed of mitosis and cytokinesis , respectively . After the successful completion of mitosis and cytokinesis , both resulting daughter cells re-enter G of interphase .
Germ cell
The mouse oocyte in the dictyate ( prolonged diplotene ) stage of meiosis actively repairs DNA damage , whereas DNA repair was not detected in the pre-dictyate ( leptotene , zygotene and pachytene ) stages of meiosis . The long period of meiotic arrest at the four chromatid dictyate stage of meiosis may facilitate recombinational repair of DNA damages .
Adolescence
Biological changes in brain structure and connectivity within the brain interact with increased experience , knowledge , and changing social demands to produce rapid cognitive growth ( see Changes in the brain above ) . The age at which particular changes take place varies between individuals , but the changes discussed below begin at puberty or shortly after that and some skills continue to develop as the adolescent ages . The dual systems model proposes a maturational imbalance between development of the socioemotional system and cognitive control systems in the brain that contribute to impulsivity and other behaviors characteristic of adolescence .
Biafra
A 2017 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that Biafran `` women exposed to the war in their growing years exhibit reduced adult stature , increased likelihood of being overweight , earlier age at first birth , and lower educational attainment . Exposure to a primary education program mitigates impacts of war exposure on education . War exposed men marry later and have fewer children . War exposure of mothers ( but not fathers ) has adverse impacts on child growth , survival , and education . Impacts vary with age of exposure . For mother and child health , the largest impacts stem from adolescent exposure . ''
Luteinizing hormone
LH supports theca cells in the ovaries that provide androgens and hormonal precursors for estradiol production . At the time of menstruation , FSH initiates follicular growth , specifically affecting granulosa cells . With the rise in estrogens , LH receptors are also expressed on the maturing follicle , which causes it to produce more estradiol . Eventually , when the follicle has fully matured , a spike in 17α - hydroxyprogesterone production by the follicle inhibits the production of estrogens , leading to a decrease in estrogen - mediated negative feedback of GnRH in the hypothalamus , which then stimulates the release of LH from the anterior pituitary . However another theory of the LH peak is a positive feedback mechanism from estradiol . The levels keep rising through the follicular phase and when they reach an unknown threshold , this results in the peak of the LH . This effect is opposite from the usual negative feedback mechanism presented at lower levels . In other words , the mechanism ( s ) are not yet clear . The increase in LH production only lasts for 24 to 48 hours . This `` LH surge '' triggers ovulation , thereby not only releasing the egg from the follicle , but also initiating the conversion of the residual follicle into a corpus luteum that , in turn , produces progesterone to prepare the endometrium for a possible implantation . LH is necessary to maintain luteal function for the second two weeks of the menstrual cycle . If pregnancy occurs , LH levels will decrease , and luteal function will instead be maintained by the action of hCG ( human chorionic gonadotropin ) , a hormone very similar to LH but secreted from the new placenta .
Bone age
The bone age is often marginally advanced with premature adrenarche , when a child is overweight from a young age or when a child has lipodystrophy . Those with an advanced bone age typically hit a growth spurt early on but stop growing at an earlier age .
Health care in the United States
A report released in April 2008 by the Foundation for Child Development , which studied the period from 1994 through 2006 , found mixed results for the health of children in the U.S. Mortality rates for children ages 1 through 4 dropped by a third , and the percentage of children with elevated blood lead levels dropped by 84 % . The percentage of mothers who smoked during pregnancy also declined . On the other hand , both obesity and the percentage of low - birth weight babies increased . The authors note that the increase in babies born with low birth weights can be attributed to women delaying childbearing and the increased use of fertility drugs .
Cell cycle
The cell - division cycle is a vital process by which a single - celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism , as well as the process by which hair , skin , blood cells , and some internal organs are renewed . After cell division , each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle . Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable , each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell divisions .
Germ cell
Multicellular eukaryotes are made of two fundamental cell types . Germ cells produce gametes and are the only cells that can undergo meiosis as well as mitosis . These cells are sometimes said to be immortal because they are the link between generations . Somatic cells are all the other cells that form the building blocks of the body and they only divide by mitosis . The lineage of germ cells is called germ line . Germ cell specification begins during cleavage in many animals or in the epiblast during gastrulation in birds and mammals . After transport , involving passive movements and active migration , germ cells arrive at the developing gonads . In humans , sexual differentiation starts approximately 6 weeks after conception . The end - products of the germ cell cycle are the egg or sperm .
Testosterone
Common side effects from testosterone medication include acne , swelling , and breast enlargement in males . Serious side effects may include liver toxicity , heart disease , and behavioral changes . Women and children who are exposed may develop virilization . It is recommended that individuals with prostate cancer not use the medication . It can cause harm if used during pregnancy or breastfeeding .
Asexual reproduction
Many multicellular organisms form spores during their biological life cycle in a process called sporogenesis . Exceptions are animals and some protists , who undergo meiosis immediately followed by fertilization . Plants and many algae on the other hand undergo sporic meiosis where meiosis leads to the formation of haploid spores rather than gametes . These spores grow into multicellular individuals ( called gametophytes in the case of plants ) without a fertilization event . These haploid individuals give rise to gametes through mitosis . Meiosis and gamete formation therefore occur in separate generations or `` phases '' of the life cycle , referred to as alternation of generations . Since sexual reproduction is often more narrowly defined as the fusion of gametes ( fertilization ) , spore formation in plant sporophytes and algae might be considered a form of asexual reproduction ( agamogenesis ) despite being the result of meiosis and undergoing a reduction in ploidy . However , both events ( spore formation and fertilization ) are necessary to complete sexual reproduction in the plant life cycle .
Interphase
In the cell cycle , interphase is preceded by telophase and cytokinesis of the M phase . In alternative fashion , interphase is sometimes interrupted by G phase , which , in some circumstances , may then end and be followed by the remaining stages of interphase . After the successful completion of the G checkpoint , the final checkpoint in interphase , the cell proceeds to prophase , or in plants to preprophase , which is the first stage of mitosis .
BRCA1
In the nucleus of many types of normal cells , the BRCA1 protein interacts with RAD51 during repair of DNA double - strand breaks . These breaks can be caused by natural radiation or other exposures , but also occur when chromosomes exchange genetic material ( homologous recombination , e.g. , `` crossing over '' during meiosis ) . The BRCA2 protein , which has a function similar to that of BRCA1 , also interacts with the RAD51 protein . By influencing DNA damage repair , these three proteins play a role in maintaining the stability of the human genome .
Adolescence
Facial hair in males normally appears in a specific order during puberty : The first facial hair to appear tends to grow at the corners of the upper lip , typically between 14 and 17 years of age . It then spreads to form a moustache over the entire upper lip . This is followed by the appearance of hair on the upper part of the cheeks , and the area under the lower lip . The hair eventually spreads to the sides and lower border of the chin , and the rest of the lower face to form a full beard . As with most human biological processes , this specific order may vary among some individuals . Facial hair is often present in late adolescence , around ages 17 and 18 , but may not appear until significantly later . Some men do not develop full facial hair for 10 years after puberty . Facial hair continues to get coarser , darker and thicker for another 2 -- 4 years after puberty .
Adolescence
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Chromatin
During metazoan spermiogenesis , the spermatid 's chromatin is remodeled into a more spaced - packaged , widened , almost crystal - like structure . This process is associated with the cessation of transcription and involves nuclear protein exchange . The histones are mostly displaced , and replaced by protamines ( small , arginine - rich proteins ) . It is proposed that in yeast , regions devoid of histones become very fragile after transcription ; HMO1 an HMGB protein helps in stabilizing nucleosomes - free chromatin .
Yuvraj Singh
In March 2012 , Yuvraj was discharged from hospital after completing the third and final cycle of chemotherapy and returned to India in April . After his chemotherapy sessions treating seminoma in Indianapolis , Yuvraj 's cancer showing full signs of remission , he aimed at resuming cricket at the World Twenty20 . The selectors picked Yuvraj to be a part of the 15 - member Indian squad for the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 in Sri Lanka in September 2012 .
Hormonal contraception
Birth control pills are the most commonly prescribed hormonal treatment for hirsutism , as they prevent ovulation and decrease androgen production by the ovaries . Additionally , estrogen in the pills stimulates the liver to produce more of a protein that binds to androgens and reduces their activity .
Caenorhabditis elegans
Research into meiosis has been considerably simplified since every germ cell nucleus is at the same given position as it moves down the gonad , so is at the same stage in meiosis . In an early phase of meiosis , the oocytes become extremely resistant to radiation and this resistance depends on expression of genes rad51 and atm that have key roles in recombinational repair . Gene mre - 11 also plays a crucial role in recombinational repair of DNA damage during meiosis . A study of the frequency of outcrossing in natural populations showed that selfing is the predominant mode of reproduction in C. elegans , but that infrequent outcrossing events occur at a rate around 1 % . Meioses that result in selfing are unlikely to contribute significantly to beneficial genetic variability , but these meioses may provide the adaptive benefit of recombinational repair of DNA damages that arise , especially under stressful conditions .
BRCA1
In both serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma ( the precursor lesion to high grade serous ovarian carcinoma ( HG - SOC ) ) , and in HG - SOC itself , miR - 182 is overexpressed in about 70 % of cases . In cells with over-expressed miR - 182 , BRCA1 remained low , even after exposure to ionizing radiation ( which normally raises BRCA1 expression ) . Thus much of the reduced or absent BRCA1 in HG - SOC may be due to over-expressed miR - 182 .
Human skin color
The skin of children becomes darker as they go through puberty and experience the effects of sex hormones . This darkening is especially noticeable in the skin of the nipples , the areola of the nipples , the labia majora in females , and the scrotum in males . In some people , the armpits become slightly darker during puberty . The interaction of genetic , hormonal , and environmental factors on skin coloration with age is still not adequately understood , but it is known that men are at their darkest baseline skin color around the age of 30 , without considering the effects of tanning . Around the same age , women experience darkening of some areas of their skin .
Estrogen
Estrogen - induced growth attenuation was used as part of the controversial Ashley Treatment to keep a developmentally disabled girl from growing to adult size . Bulimia
Hormonal contraception
The estrogen and progestogen in combined hormonal contraceptives have other effects on the reproductive system , but these have not been shown to contribute to their contraceptive efficacy :
Testosterone
levels in males and females show Free testosterone Stage Age range Male Female Values SI units Values SI units Child 1 -- 6 years 0.1 -- 0.6 pg / mL 0.3 -- 2.1 pmol / L 0.1 -- 0.6 pg / mL 0.3 -- 2.1 pmol / L 7 -- 9 years 0.1 -- 0.8 pg / mL 0.3 -- 2.8 pmol / L 0.1 -- 1.6 pg / mL 0.3 -- 5.6 pmol / L Puberty 10 -- 11 years 0.1 -- 5.2 pg / mL 0.3 -- 18.0 pmol / L 0.1 -- 2.9 pg / mL 0.3 -- 10.1 pmol / L 12 -- 13 years 0.4 -- 79.6 pg / mL 1.4 -- 276.2 pmol / L 0.6 -- 5.6 pg / mL 2.1 -- 19.4 pmol / L 14 -- 15 years 2.7 -- 112.3 pg / mL 9.4 -- 389.7 pmol / L 1.0 -- 6.2 pg / mL 3.5 -- 21.5 pmol / L 16 -- 17 years 31.5 -- 159 pg / mL 109.3 -- 551.7 pmol / L 1.0 -- 8.3 pg / mL 3.5 -- 28.8 pmol / L Adult ≥ 18 years 44 -- 244 pg / mL 153 -- 847 pmol / L -- -- Premenopausal -- -- 0.8
Cnidaria
Cnidarian sexual reproduction often involves a complex life cycle with both polyp and medusa stages . For example , in Scyphozoa ( jellyfish ) and Cubozoa ( box jellies ) a larva swims until it finds a good site , and then becomes a polyp . This grows normally but then absorbs its tentacles and splits horizontally into a series of disks that become juvenile medusae , a process called strobilation . The juveniles swim off and slowly grow to maturity , while the polyp re-grows and may continue strobilating periodically . The adults have gonads in the gastroderm , and these release ova and sperm into the water in the breeding season .
Homologous chromosome
Meiosis is a round of two cell divisions that results in four haploid daughter cells that each contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell . It reduces the chromosome number in a germ cell by half by first separating the homologous chromosomes in meiosis I and then the sister chromatids in meiosis II . The process of meiosis I is generally longer than meiosis II because it takes more time for the chromatin to replicate and for the homologous chromosomes to be properly oriented and segregated by the processes of pairing and synapsis in meiosis I. During meiosis , genetic recombination ( by random segregation ) and crossing over produces daughter cells that each contain different combinations of maternally and paternally coded genes . This recombination of genes allows for the introduction of new allele pairings and genetic variation . Genetic variation among organisms helps make a population more stable by providing a wider range of genetic traits for natural selection to act on . Prophase
Cell cycle
While these are the three `` main '' checkpoints , not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate . Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether . Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively . Because these cells have lost their checkpoints , any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells . This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially accrue mutations . Aside from cancer cells , many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G until their death . Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints . An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed , known as the postreplication checkpoint .
Alex Karev
Later in their relationship , Izzie begins hallucinating about Denny , and uncovers the fact she has metastatic melanoma ( Stage IV ) with an estimated chance of 5 % survival . It is revealed that Izzie 's hallucinations of Denny are , in fact , caused by her tumor . Alex is shocked by the news , but finds the strength to stay by her side . Izzie plans a wedding for Meredith and Derek , but when Derek finds Izzie has another inoperable tumor in her brain , they give the wedding to Izzie and Alex , who marry in front of all their friends . Izzie debates whether or not she should undergo a risky surgery to remove her tumor and Alex supports her , but eventually insists that she should have the surgery . Alex performs CPR on Izzie after she flatlines .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
In 2013 , the World Health Organization reported that area residents who were evacuated were exposed to so little radiation that radiation - induced health effects were likely to be below detectable levels . The health risks were calculated by applying conservative assumptions , including the conservative linear no - threshold model of radiation exposure , a model that assumes even the smallest amount of radiation exposure will cause a negative health effect . The report indicated that for those infants in the most affected areas , lifetime cancer risk would increase by about 1 % . It predicted that populations in the most contaminated areas faced a 70 % higher relative risk of developing thyroid cancer for females exposed as infants , and a 7 % higher relative risk of leukemia in males exposed as infants and a 6 % higher relative risk of breast cancer in females exposed as infants . One - third of involved emergency workers would have increased cancer risks . Cancer risks for fetuses were similar to those in 1 year old infants . The estimated cancer risk to children and adults was lower than infants .
Asexual reproduction
Internal budding is a process of asexual reproduction , favoured by parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii . It involves an unusual process in which two ( endodyogeny ) or more ( endopolygeny ) daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell , which is then consumed by the offspring prior to their separation .
Thalidomide
Thalidomide also binds to and acts as an antagonist of the androgen receptor ( AR ) and hence is a nonsteroidal antiandrogen ( NSAA ) of some capacity . In accordance , it can produce gynecomastia and sexual dysfunction as side effects in men .
Estrogen
Hormone - receptor - positive breast cancers are treated with drugs which suppress production or interfere with the action of estrogen in the body . This technique , in the context of treatment of breast cancer , is known variously as hormonal therapy , hormone therapy , or anti-estrogen therapy ( not to be confused with hormone replacement therapy ) . Certain foods such as soy may also suppress the proliferative effects of estrogen and are used as an alternative to hormone therapy .