vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Sound barrier
Another critical addition was the use of a power - operated stabilator , also known as the all - moving tail or flying tail , a key to supersonic flight control which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes ( horizontal stabilizers ) connected mechanically to the pilots control column . Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives , due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure , which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot , hindering recovery from the dive . A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal , the phenomenon which caused flight inputs ( stick , rudder ) to switch direction at high speed ; it was the cause of many accidents and near - accidents . An all - flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely , without losing pilot control . The Miles M. 52 was the first instance of this solution , and has since been universally applied .
Night vision
The image is said to become `` intensified '' because the output visible light is brighter than the incoming light , and this effect directly relates to the difference in passive and active night vision goggles . Currently , the most popular image intensifier is the drop - in ANVIS module , though many other models and sizes are available at the market . Recently , the US Navy announced intentions to procure a dual - color variant of the ANVIS for use in the cockpit of airborne platforms. ( 2 ) Active
Thor (film)
Branagh , a fan of the comic book since childhood , commented on the challenge of bridging Asgard and the modern world : `` Inspired by the comic book world both pictorially and compositionally at once , we 've tried to find a way to make a virtue and a celebration of the distinction between the worlds that exist in the film but absolutely make them live in the same world . It 's about finding the framing style , the color palette , finding the texture and the amount of camera movement that helps celebrate and express the differences and the distinctions in those worlds . If it succeeds , it will mark this film as different ... The combination of the primitive and the sophisticated , the ancient and the modern , I think that potentially is the exciting fusion , the exciting tension in the film '' .
Sound barrier
In 1942 , Republic Aviation issued a press release stating that Lts . Harold E. Comstock and Roger Dyar had exceeded the speed of sound during test dives in the P - 47 Thunderbolt . It is widely agreed that this was due to inaccurate ASI readings . In similar tests , the North American P - 51 Mustang , a higher performance aircraft , demonstrated limits at Mach 0.85 , with every flight over M0. 84 causing the aircraft to be damaged by vibration . A
Assault rifle
The first confrontations between the AK - 47 and the M14 ( assault rifle vs battle rifle ) came in the early part of the Vietnam War . Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full - auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammunition to maintain fire superiority over the AK - 47 . And , while the M2 Carbine offered a high rate of fire , it was under - powered and ultimately outclassed by the AK - 47 . A replacement was needed : A medium between the traditional preference for high - powered rifles such as the M14 , and the lightweight firepower of the M2 Carbine .
Casualties of the Iraq War
Of course , in conditions of active rebellion , the safer areas accessible to Western reporters are likely to be those under US / Coalition control , where deaths are , in turn , likely to be due to insurgent attacks . Areas of insurgent control , which are likely to be subject to US and Iraqi government attack , for example most of Anbar province , are simply off - limits to these reporters . Thus , the realities of reporting imply that reporters will be witness to a larger fraction of deaths due to insurgents and a lesser proportion of deaths due to US and Iraqi government forces .
Night vision
Active illumination couples imaging intensification technology with an active source of illumination in the near infrared ( NIR ) or shortwave infrared ( SWIR ) band . Examples of such technologies include low light cameras .
Rainbow
It is difficult to photograph the complete semicircle of a rainbow in one frame , as this would require an angle of view of 84 ° . For a 35 mm camera , a wide - angle lens with a focal length of 19 mm or less would be required . Now that software for stitching several images into a panorama is available , images of the entire arc and even secondary arcs can be created fairly easily from a series of overlapping frames .
Positron emission tomography
3D techniques have better sensitivity ( because more coincidences are detected and used ) and therefore less noise , but are more sensitive to the effects of scatter and random coincidences , as well as requiring correspondingly greater computer resources . The advent of sub-nanosecond timing resolution detectors affords better random coincidence rejection , thus favoring 3D image reconstruction .
Air Jordan
A fusion between the Air Jordan VIII and the Midtop Air Force One model . Air
Long jump
The power sprint takeoff , or bounding takeoff , is one of the more common elite styles . Very similar to the sprint style , the body resembles a sprinter in full stride . However , there is one major difference . The arm that pushes back on takeoff ( the arm on the side of the takeoff leg ) fully extends backward , rather than remaining at a bent position . This additional extension increases the impulse at takeoff .
Factor of safety
In some cases it is impractical or impossible for a part to meet the `` standard '' design factor . The penalties ( mass or otherwise ) for meeting the requirement would prevent the system from being viable ( such as in the case of aircraft or spacecraft ) . In these cases , it is sometimes determined to allow a component to meet a lower than normal safety factor , often referred to as `` waiving '' the requirement . Doing this often brings with it extra detailed analysis or quality control verifications to assure the part will perform as desired , as it will be loaded closer to its limits .
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption
In a 1992 Purdue study , results showed that high intensity , anaerobic type exercise resulted in a significantly greater magnitude of EPOC than aerobic exercise of equal work output .
Kargil War
In many vital points , neither artillery nor air power could dislodge the outposts manned by the Pakistani soldiers , who were out of visible range . The Indian Army mounted some direct frontal ground assaults which were slow and took a heavy toll given the steep ascent that had to be made on peaks as high as 18,000 feet ( 5,500 m ) . Since any daylight attack would be suicidal , all the advances had to be made under the cover of darkness , escalating the risk of freezing . Accounting for the wind chill factor , the temperatures were often as low as − 15 ° C to − 11 ° C ( 12 ° F to 5 ° F ) near the mountain tops . Based on military tactics , much of the costly frontal assaults by the Indians could have been avoided if the Indian Military had chosen to blockade the supply route of the opposing force , creating a siege . Such a move would have involved the Indian troops crossing the LoC as well as initiating aerial attacks on Pakistani soil , a manoeuvre India was not willing to exercise fearing an expansion of the theatre of war and reduced international support for its cause .
Civil–military relations
Stabilisation approaches are likely to continue to present challenges to the aid community 's ability to act according to humanitarian principles in conflict - affected , fragile and postconflict environments . Experiences in Afghanistan highlight significant tension , if not conflict , between stabilisation and internationally recognised guidelines and principles governing civil -- military interaction . Civil -- military dialogue was markedly more effective when it was rooted in International Humanitarian Law ( IHL ) and strategic argumentation , as with advocacy focused on reducing harm to civilians . Aid agencies need to invest more in capacity and training for engaging in civil -- military dialogue and , together with donors , seek to generate more objective evidence on the impact of stabilisation approaches .
Mount Everest
Guide Anatoli Boukreev 's decision not to use bottled oxygen was sharply criticised by Jon Krakauer . Boukreev 's supporters ( who include G. Weston DeWalt , who co-wrote The Climb ) state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of security . Krakauer and his supporters point out that , without bottled oxygen , Boukreev could not directly help his clients descend . They state that Boukreev said that he was going down with client Martin Adams , but just below the south summit , Boukreev determined that Adams was doing fine on the descent and so descended at a faster pace , leaving Adams behind . Adams states in The Climb , `` For me , it was business as usual , Anatoli 's going by , and I had no problems with that . ''
Air Jordan
A fusion between the Air Jordan IX and the Air Force One model . Air
Communications satellite
As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster , they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite , but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and `` set '' when they go behind the Earth . Therefore , to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites , so one will always be in the sky for transmission of communication signals . However , due to their relatively small distance to the Earth their signals are stronger .
History of photography
Autochrome plates had an integral mosaic filter layer with roughly five million previously dyed potato grains per square inch added to the surface . Then through the use of a rolling press , five tons of pressure were used to flatten the grains , enabling every one of them to capture and absorb color and their microscopic size allowing the illusion that the colors are merged together . The final step was adding a coat of the light capturing substance silver bromide after which a color image could be imprinted and developed . In order to see it , reversal processing was used to develop each plate into a transparent positive that could be viewed directly or projected with an ordinary projector . One of the drawbacks of the technology is an exposure time of at least a second was required during the day in bright light and the worse the light is , the time required quickly goes up . An indoor portrait required a few minutes with the subject not being able to move or else the picture would come out blurry . This was because the grains absorbed the color fairly slowly and that a filter of a yellowish - orange color was added to the plate to keep the photograph from coming out excessively blue . Although necessary , the filter had the effect of reducing the amount of light that was absorbed . Another drawback was that the film could only be enlarged so much until the many dots that make up the image become apparent .
Communications satellite
In areas with a relatively high population density , it is easier and less expensive to reach the bulk of the population with terrestrial broadcasts . Thus in the UK and some other countries , the contemporary evolution of radio services is focused on Digital Audio Broadcasting ( DAB ) services or HD Radio , rather than satellite radio .
Communications satellite
Low - Earth - orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and , due to proximity to the ground , do not require as high signal strength ( Recall that signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source , so the effect is dramatic ) . Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost .
Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
Scan speed is dependent on performance of the gradient system . Stronger gradients allow for faster imaging , or for higher resolution ; similarly , gradient systems capable of faster switching can also permit faster scanning . However , gradient performance is limited by safety concerns over nerve stimulation .
Mount Everest
Reinhold Messner concurred in 2004 , `` You could die in each climb and that meant you were responsible for yourself . We were real mountaineers : careful , aware and even afraid . By climbing mountains we were not learning how big we were . We were finding out how breakable , how weak and how full of fear we are . You can only get this if you expose yourself to high danger . I have always said that a mountain without danger is not a mountain ... High altitude alpinism has become tourism and show . These commercial trips to Everest , they are still dangerous . But the guides and organisers tell clients , `` Do n't worry , it 's all organised . '' The route is prepared by hundreds of Sherpas . Extra oxygen is available in all camps , right up to the summit . People will cook for you and lay out your beds . Clients feel safe and do n't care about the risks .
Wetland
Methods to develop a classification system for specific biota of interest could assist with technological advances that will allow for identification at a very high accuracy rate . The issue of the cost and expertise involved in remote sensing technology is still a factor hindering further advancements in image acquisition and data processing . Future improvements in current wetland vegetation mapping could include the use of more recent and better geospatial data when it is available .
Night vision
Laser range gated imaging is another form of active night vision which utilizes a high powered pulsed light source for illumination and imaging . Range gating is a technique which controls the laser pulses in conjunction with the shutter speed of the camera 's detectors . Gated imaging technology can be divided into single shot , where the detector captures the image from a single light pulse , and multi-shot , where the detector integrates the light pulses from multiple shots to form an image . One of the key advantages of this technique is the ability to perform target recognition rather than mere detection , as is the case with thermal imaging .
Sound barrier
In 1999 , Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier . These tests do not rule out the possibility , but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations . Wagner stated `` I do n't want to exclude the possibility , but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting , but did not go above Mach - 1 . ''
Movable type
The logistical problems of handling the several thousand logographs ( required for full literacy in Chinese language ) posed a particular difficulty . It was faster to carve one woodblock per page than to composit a page from so many different types . However , if one used movable type to produce multiple copies of the same document , the speed of printing would increase relatively .
Adobe Photoshop
Adobe responded to feedback from the professional media industry by implementing non-destructive editing as well as the producing and modifying of 32 - Bit High Dynamic Range ( HDR ) images , which are optimal for 3D rendering and advanced compositing . FireWire Previews could also be viewed on a monitor via a direct export feature .
Air Jordan
A fusion between the Air Jordan XII model and the Midtop Air Force One model . Air
Kargil War
As the war progressed , media coverage of the conflict was more intense in India than in Pakistan . Many Indian channels showed images from the battle zone in a style reminiscent of CNN 's coverage of the Gulf War ( one of the shells fired by Pakistan troops even hit a Doordarshan transmission centre in Kargil while coverage continued ) . Reasons for India 's increased coverage included the greater number of privately owned electronic media in India compared to Pakistan and relatively greater transparency in the Indian media . At a seminar in Karachi , Pakistani journalists agreed that while the Indian government had taken the press and the people into its confidence , Pakistan had not .
The Strain (TV series)
Regarding the style of the show 's production , del Toro stated : `` Basically I 'm trying to do what I do in my movies which is to show it as a reality , but as a reality that is stylized . It 's not like CSI or The Wire , it 's real but it feels a little stylized . But the way the camera work will be is very realistic . We want to keep the camera very documentary even if the look of the show is not . The look of the show is very designed . The style of the camera and the storytelling will be very loose . It will evolve from that feel of reality , and little by little we want to evolve into more stylish , horror feel that requires smoother camera moves , more suspense and atmosphere - driven moments so it will be a mixture . I do n't think that mixture has been seen a lot on TV . ''
Respiratory system
There are oxygen sensors in the smaller bronchi and bronchioles . In response to low partial pressures of oxygen in the inhaled air these sensors reflexly cause the pulmonary arterioles to constrict . ( This is the exact opposite of the corresponding reflex in the tissues , where low arterial partial pressures of O cause arteriolar vasodilation . ) At altitude this causes the pulmonary arterial pressure to rise resulting in a much more even distribution of blood flow to the lungs than occurs at sea level . At sea level the pulmonary arterial pressure is very low , with the result that the tops of the lungs receive far less blood than the bases , which are relatively over-perfused with blood . It is only in middle of the lungs that the blood and air flow to the alveoli are ideally matched . At altitude this variation in the ventilation / perfusion ratio of alveoli from the tops of the lungs to the bottoms is eliminated , with all the alveoli perfused and ventilated in more or less the physiologically ideal manner . This is a further important contributor to the acclimatatization to high altitudes and low oxygen pressures .
Retina
The difference between vertebrate and cephalopod retinas presents an interesting puzzle of evolutionary path which is not yet fully settled . From an evolutionary perspective , a convoluted structure such as the inverted retina can generally come about as a consequence of two alternative processes ; ( a ) an advantageous `` good '' compromise between competing functional limitations , or ( b ) as a historical maladaptive relic of the convoluted path of organ evolution and transformation . Vision is an important adaptation in higher vertebrates . Therefore , if the retina is indeed `` wired wrongly '' or `` badly designed '' ( from an optical engineering point of view ) then it is sensible to look for it to possibly have some very significant physiological advantage . One such suggestion is based on the argument that the mammalian photoreceptor amplification process requires vast quantities of metabolic energy , and consequently , it requires massive and homogeneous supply of blood . Indeed , a unique network of blood vessels is well adapted to provide the photoreceptor layer with copious quantities of blood . This shows that the inverted retina is an adaptation to deliver abundant quantities of oxygen to the retina commensurate with its high energy demands and provide it with good maintenance by the retinal pigment epithelial ( RPE ) cells against photo - oxidative damage , which , while at first glance should be worsened by the oxygen - rich blood in the choroid , is nonetheless eliminated by the process of opsin disc recycling the RPE enables . This latter effect allows the photoreceptor cells to have a long ( i.e. decades ) useful life . The combination of this process and the chemical resetting of retinal after the phototransduction cascade may be the real reason that the vertebrate retina requires the `` vast quantities of metabolic energy '' referred to above . Light loss in the inverted retina , due to the overlying neural fibre layer , is often portrayed as a disadvantage . However , surface vertebrates live in a very well illuminated environment relative to their deep - water evolutionary ancestors , so losing some light can be seen as a mechanism for avoiding excessive exposure of the retina to damaging light .
Missile gap
Warnings and calls to address imbalances between the fighting capabilities of two forces were not new , as a `` bomber gap '' had exercised political concerns only a few years earlier . What was different about the missile gap was the fear that a distant country could strike without warning from far away with little damage to themselves . Concerns about missile gaps and similar fears , such as nuclear proliferation , continue .
Metrication in the United States
For both domestic and international routes , U.S. airlines set luggage size and weight restrictions in terms of customary units . Conversely , international airlines that fly to the U.S. often restrict baggage to metric sizes .
Sustainability
Reducing greenhouse emissions , is being tackled at all scales , ranging from tracking the passage of carbon through the carbon cycle to the commercialization of renewable energy , developing less carbon - hungry technology and transport systems and attempts by individuals to lead carbon neutral lifestyles by monitoring the fossil fuel use embodied in all the goods and services they use . Engineering of emerging technologies such as carbon - neutral fuel and energy storage systems such as power to gas , compressed air energy storage , and pumped - storage hydroelectricity are necessary to store power from transient renewable energy sources including emerging renewables such as airborne wind turbines . Water
Allostasis
McEwen and Wingfield propose two types of allostatic load which result in different responses : -
Western Front (World War I)
The Verdun lesson learnt , the Allies ' tactical aim became the achievement of air superiority and until September , German aircraft were swept from the skies over the Somme . The success of the Allied air offensive caused a reorganisation of the German air arm and both sides began using large formations of aircraft rather than relying on individual combat . After regrouping , the battle continued throughout July and August , with some success for the British despite the reinforcement of the German lines . By August , General Haig had concluded that a breakthrough was unlikely and instead , switched tactics to a series of small unit actions . The effect was to straighten out the front line , which was thought necessary in preparation for a massive artillery bombardment with a major push .
Mount Everest
The aftermath of the 1996 disaster further intensified the debate . Jon Krakauer 's Into Thin Air ( 1997 ) expressed the author 's personal criticisms of the use of bottled oxygen . Krakauer wrote that the use of bottled oxygen allowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to summit , leading to dangerous situations and more deaths . The disaster was partially caused by the sheer number of climbers ( 34 on that day ) attempting to ascend , causing bottlenecks at the Hillary Step and delaying many climbers , most of whom summitted after the usual 14 : 00 turnaround time . He proposed banning bottled oxygen except for emergency cases , arguing that this would both decrease the growing pollution on Everest -- many bottles have accumulated on its slopes -- and keep marginally qualified climbers off the mountain .
Air Jordan
A fusion between the Air Jordan X and the Midtop Air Force One model . Air