vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Germ cell
This hormone stimulates the production of FSH receptors on the follicular granulosa cells and has at the same time a negative feedback on FSH secretion . This results in a competition between the follicles and only the follicle with the most FSH receptors survives and is ovulated . Meiotic division I goes on in the ovulated oocyte stimulated by luteinizing hormones ( LHs ) produced by the pituitary gland . FSH and LH block the gap junctions between follicle cells and the oocyte therefore inhibiting communication between them . Most follicular granulosa cells stay around the oocyte and so form the cumulus layer . Large non-mammalian oocytes accumulate egg yolk , glycogen , lipids , ribosomes , and the mRNA needed for protein synthesis during early embryonic growth . These intensive RNA biosynthese are mirrored in the structure of the chromosomes , which decondense and form lateral loops giving them a lampbrush appearance ( see Lampbrush chromosome ) . Oocyte maturation is the following phase of oocyte development . It occurs at sexual maturity when hormones stimulate the oocyte to complete meiotic division I . The meiotic division I produces 2 cells differing in size : a small polar body and a large secondary oocyte . The secondary oocyte undergoes meiotic division II and that results in the formation of a second small polar body and a large mature egg , both being haploid cells . The polar bodies degenerate . Oocyte maturation stands by at metaphase II in most vertebrates . During ovulation , the arrested secondary oocyte leaves the ovary and matures rapidly into an egg ready for fertilization . Fertilization will cause the egg to complete meiosis II . In human females there is proliferation of the oogonia in the fetus , meiosis starts then before birth and stands by at meiotic division I up to 50 years , ovulation begins at puberty .
Germ cell
The mutation frequency of female germline cells is about 5-fold lower than that of somatic cells .
Semen
During the process of ejaculation , sperm passes through the ejaculatory ducts and mixes with fluids from the seminal vesicles , the prostate , and the bulbourethral glands to form the semen . The seminal vesicles produce a yellowish viscous fluid rich in fructose and other substances that makes up about 70 % of human semen . The prostatic secretion , influenced by dihydrotestosterone , is a whitish ( sometimes clear ) , thin fluid containing proteolytic enzymes , citric acid , acid phosphatase and lipids . The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear secretion into the lumen of the urethra to lubricate it .
Female reproductive system
The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in reproduction of new offspring . In the human the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes , and to carry a fetus to full term . The internal sex organs are the uterus , Fallopian tubes , and ovaries . The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the fetus . The uterus also produces vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of sperm to the Fallopian tubes . The ovaries produce the ova ( egg cells ) . The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia , clitoris , and vaginal opening . The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix .
Asexual reproduction
In the grass thrips genus Aptinothrips there have been several transitions to asexuality , likely due to different causes .
Women in Vietnam
In 1988 , Vietnam introduced its `` two - child policy . '' This policy was introduced because of the population size of Vietnam . However , because of the policy , if a woman gave birth to a son first , the chances of her having a second child dropped dramatically even if she desired to have more children . If a woman gave birth to a daughter first , she was more than likely to have a second child even if she did not wish to have additional children . This is because families in most cases would rather have at least one boy . To ensure the sex of children in recent years , Vietnamese families have increasingly been using ultrasound technology and enhancing and developing the produced images . This often leads to the abortion of female offspring . As of late 20th century , economist Amartya Sen has noted the recent advent of sex - selective abortions to further increase the phenomenon of `` missing women '' worldwide . This notion alludes to the worsening of the women - to - men ratio , with men continuing to outnumber women . Female
Germ cell
Mammalian spermatogenesis is representative for most animals . In human males , spermatogenesis begins at puberty in seminiferous tubules in the testicles and go on continuously . Spermatogonia are immature germ cells . They proliferate continuously by mitotic divisions around the outer edge of the seminiferous tubules , next to the basal lamina . Some of these cells stop proliferation and differentiate into primary spermatocytes . After they proceed through the first meiotic division , two secondary spermatocytes are produced . The two secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to form four haploid spermatids . These spermatids differentiate morphologically into sperm by nuclear condensation , ejection of the cytoplasm and formation of the acrosome and flagellum .
Eating disorder
Pressure from society is also seen within the homosexual community . Homosexual men are at greater risk of eating disorder symptoms than heterosexual men . Within the gay culture , muscularity gives the advantages of both social and sexual desirability and also power . These pressures and ideas that another homosexual male may desire a mate who is thinner or muscular can possibly lead to eating disorders . The higher eating disorder symptom score reported , the more concern about how others perceive them and the more frequent and excessive exercise sessions occur . High levels of body dissatisfaction are also linked to external motivation to working out and old age ; however , having a thin and muscular body occurs within younger homosexual males than older .
Testosterone
Testosterone effects can also be classified by the age of usual occurrence . For postnatal effects in both males and females , these are mostly dependent on the levels and duration of circulating free testosterone .
Hormonal contraception
There are two main classes of hormonal contraceptives : combined contraceptives contain both an estrogen ( usually ethinylestradiol ) and a progestin . Progestogen - only contraceptives contain only progesterone or a synthetic analogue ( progestin ) . Also marketed is ormeloxifene ; while not a hormone , ormeloxifene acts on the hormonal system to prevent pregnancy .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Other complications include endometritis , salpingitis , tubo - ovarian abscess , pelvic peritonitis , periappendicitis , and perihepatitis .
Female reproductive system
The vagina is a fibromuscular ( made up of fibrous and muscular tissue ) canal leading from the outside of the body to the cervix of the uterus or womb . It is also referred to as the birth canal in the context of pregnancy . The vagina accommodates the male penis during sexual intercourse . Semen containing spermatozoa is ejaculated from the male at orgasm , into the vagina potentially enabling fertilization of the egg cell ( ovum ) to take place .
Ejaculatory duct
Sperm is produced in the testes and enters the ejaculatory ducts via the vas deferens . As it passes by the seminal vesicles , a fluid rich in fructose combines with sperm . This addition nourishes the sperm in order to keep it active and motile . Seminal fluid continues down the ejaculatory duct into the prostate gland , where an alkaline prostatic fluid is added . This addition provides the texture and odor associated with semen . The alkalinity of the prostatic fluid serves to neutralize the acidity of the female vaginal tract in order to prolong the survival of sperm in this harsh environment . Semen is now a fructose - rich , alkaline fluid containing sperm as it enters the bulbourethral glands below the prostate . The bulbourethral glands secrete a small amount of clear fluid into the urethra before the ejaculate is expelled . The functions of this fluid are not entirely known but are suggested to aid in lubricating the male urethra in preparation for the semen during ejaculation . The amount of semen produced and expelled during ejaculation corresponds to the length of time that the male is sexually aroused before ejaculation occurs . Generally , the longer the period of arousal , the larger the amount of seminal fluid .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Pelvic inflammatory disease or pelvic inflammatory disorder ( PID ) is an infection of the upper part of the female reproductive system namely the uterus , fallopian tubes , and ovaries , and inside of the pelvis . Often there may be no symptoms . Signs and symptoms , when present may include lower abdominal pain , vaginal discharge , fever , burning with urination , pain with sex , or irregular menstruation . Untreated PID can result in long term complications including infertility , ectopic pregnancy , chronic pelvic pain , and cancer .
Endocrine system
TRH -- TSH -- T3 / T4 GnRH -- LH / FSH -- sex hormones CRH -- ACTH -- cortisol Renin -- angiotensin -- aldosterone leptin vs. insulin
Sperm motility
In the wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus , sperms aggregate in ' trains ' that are better able to fertilize eggs because they are more capable of navigating the viscous environment of the female reproductive tract . The trains move in a sinusoidal motion .
Estrogen
Synthetic substances such as bisphenol A as well as metalloestrogens ( e.g. , cadmium ) . Plant products with estrogenic activity are called phytoestrogens ( e.g. , coumestrol , daidzein , genistein , miroestrol ) . Those produced by fungi are known as mycoestrogens ( e.g. , zearalenone ) .
Lion
Most lionesses will have reproduced by the time they are four years of age . Lions do not mate at any specific time of year , and the females are polyestrous . As with other cats ' penises , the male lion 's penis has spines that point backward . During withdrawal of the penis , the spines rake the walls of the female 's vagina , which may cause ovulation . A lioness may mate with more than one male when she is in heat .
Loggerhead sea turtle
Loggerheads may display multiple paternity . Multiple paternity is possible due to sperm storage . The female can store sperm from multiple males in her oviducts until ovulation . A single clutch may have as many as seven fathers , each contributing sperm to a portion of the clutch . Multiple paternity and female size are positively correlated . Two hypotheses explain this correlation . One posits that males favor large females because of their perceived higher fecundity ( ability to reproduce ) . The other states , because larger females are able to swim more quickly to mating grounds , they have longer mating periods .
Evidence of common descent
Polyploidy is a mechanism that has caused many rapid speciation events in sympatry because offspring of , for example , tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny . Not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parental plants , and gene flow may still occur for example through triploid hybrid x diploid matings that produce tetraploids , or matings between meiotically unreduced gametes from diploids and gametes from tetraploids . It has been suggested that many of the existing plant and most animal species have undergone an event of polyploidization in their evolutionary history . Reproduction of successful polyploid species is sometimes asexual , by parthenogenesis or apomixis , as for unknown reasons many asexual organisms are polyploid . Rare instances of polyploid mammals are known , but most often result in prenatal death .
Testosterone
When testosterone and endorphins in ejaculated semen meet the cervical wall after sexual intercourse , females receive a spike in testosterone , endorphin , and oxytocin levels , and males after orgasm during copulation experience an increase in endorphins and a marked increase in oxytocin levels . This adds to the hospitable physiological environment in the female internal reproductive tract for conceiving , and later for nurturing the conceptus in the pre-embryonic stages , and stimulates feelings of love , desire , and paternal care in the male ( this is the only time male oxytocin levels rival a female 's ) .
Endocrine system
Diseases of the endocrine system are common , including conditions such as diabetes mellitus , thyroid disease , and obesity . Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release ( a productive pituitary adenoma ) , inappropriate response to signaling ( hypothyroidism ) , lack of a gland ( diabetes mellitus type 1 , diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure ) , or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid ( toxic multinodular goitre ) . Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve , hyposecretion , agenesis , atrophy , or active destruction . Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion , loss of suppression , hyperplastic or neoplastic change , or hyperstimulation .
Testosterone
The amount of testosterone synthesized is regulated by the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- testicular axis ( see figure to the right ) . When testosterone levels are low , gonadotropin - releasing hormone ( GnRH ) is released by the hypothalamus , which in turn stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH and LH . These latter two hormones stimulate the testis to synthesize testosterone . Finally , increasing levels of testosterone through a negative feedback loop act on the hypothalamus and pituitary to inhibit the release of GnRH and FSH / LH , respectively .
Luteinizing hormone
Luteinizing hormone ( LH , also known as lutropin and sometimes lutrophin ) is a hormone produced by gonadotropic cells in the anterior pituitary gland . In females , an acute rise of LH ( `` LH surge '' ) triggers ovulation and development of the corpus luteum . In males , where LH had also been called interstitial cell -- stimulating hormone ( ICSH ) , it stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone . It acts synergistically with FSH .
Female reproductive system
The Fallopian tubes are two tubes leading from the ovaries into the uterus . On maturity of an ovum , the follicle and the ovary 's wall rupture , allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube . There it travels toward the uterus , pushed along by movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes . This trip takes hours or days . If the ovum is fertilized while in the Fallopian tube , then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus , which signals the beginning of pregnancy .
Hormonal contraception
Ormeloxifene does not affect ovulation . It has been shown to increase the rate of blastocyst development and to increase the speed at which the blastocyst is moved from the fallopian tubes into the uterus . Ormeloxifene also suppresses proliferation and decidualization of the endometrium ( the transformation of the endometrium in preparation for possible implantation of an embryo ) . While they are believed to prevent implantation rather than fertilization , exactly how these effects operate to prevent pregnancy is not understood .
Testosterone
Estradiol is known to correlate with aggression in male mice . Moreover , the conversion of testosterone to estradiol regulates male aggression in sparrows during breeding season . Rats who were given anabolic steroids that increase testosterone were also more physically aggressive to provocation as a result of `` threat sensitivity '' .
Gynaecology
Despite the patients being predominantly female , like all specialist areas of health , historically gynaecology has been dominated by male doctors . However , in recent times as many of the barriers to access the education and training required to successfully practice gynaecology were removed , women have started to outnumber men in the field . There are a number of reasons for this , ranging from women being motivated to become gynaecologists after having bad experiences with male doctors to men choosing to specialize in different fields .
Estrogen
Estrogens , in females , are produced primarily by the ovaries , and during pregnancy , the placenta . Follicle - stimulating hormone ( FSH ) stimulates the ovarian production of estrogens by the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles and corpora lutea . Some estrogens are also produced in smaller amounts by other tissues such as the liver , adrenal glands , and the breasts . These secondary sources of estrogens are especially important in postmenopausal women . Fat cells produce estrogen as well .
Luteinizing hormone
As sperm can stay viable in the woman for several days , LH tests are not recommended for contraceptive practices , as the LH surge typically occurs after the beginning of the fertile window .
X chromosome
The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes but few , if any , of these have anything to do directly with sex determination . Early in embryonic development in females , one of the two X chromosomes is randomly and permanently inactivated in nearly all somatic cells ( cells other than egg and sperm cells ) . This phenomenon is called X-inactivation or Lyonization , and creates a Barr body . If X-inactivation in the somatic cell meant a complete de-functionalizing of one of the X-chromosomes , it would ensure that females , like males , had only one functional copy of the X chromosome in each somatic cell . This was previously assumed to be the case . However , recent research suggests that the Barr body may be more biologically active than was previously supposed .
Stepfamily
A stepparent adoption can still occur if the other birth parent refuses to give consent or can not be located . Most states ' laws allow parental rights to be terminated when a parent has willfully failed to pay child support or communicate with the child for a period of time , usually a year .
Egg donation
Most psychologists recommend being open and honest with children from an early age . Groups for donor conceived children make a strong case for the rights of children to have access to information about their genetic background . For donor conceived children who find out after a long period of secrecy , their main grief is usually not the fact that they are not the genetic child of the mother who raised ( and , usually , gave birth to ) them , but the fact that their parents lied to them , causing loss of trust . Furthermore , assuming that egg - donor conceived children have essentially the same reaction as sperm - donor conceived children , the overturning of one 's lifelong understanding of who one 's genetic parents were may cause a lasting sense of imbalance and loss of control .
United States
The total fertility rate ( TFR ) in 2016 was 1.82 births per 1000 woman . Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view ( compared to other Western countries ) . In 2001 , with over 127,000 adoptions , the U.S. accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide . Same - sex marriage is legal nationwide and it is legal for same - sex couples to adopt . Polygamy is illegal throughout the U.S.
Infertility
a woman under 35 has not conceived after 12 months of contraceptive - free intercourse . Twelve months is the lower reference limit for Time to Pregnancy ( TTP ) by the World Health Organization . a woman over 35 has not conceived after 6 months of contraceptive - free sexual intercourse .
Superfecundation
Superfecundation most commonly happens within hours or days of the first instance of fertilization with ova released during the same cycle . The time window when eggs are able to be fertilized is small . Sperm cells can live inside a female 's body for four to five days . Once ovulation occurs , the egg remains viable for 12 -- 48 hours before it begins to disintegrate . Thus , the fertile period can span five to seven days .
Egg donation
This work established the technical foundation and legal - ethical framework surrounding the clinical use of human oocyte and embryo donation , a mainstream clinical practice , which has evolved over the past 25 years . Building upon this groundbreaking research and since the initial birth announcement in 1984 , well over 47,000 live births resulting from donor oocyte embryo transfer have been and continue to be recorded by the Centers for Disease Control ( CDC ) in the United States to infertile women , who otherwise would not have had children by any other existing method .
Egg donation
Telling the children that they were donor conceived is recommended , based on decades of experience with adoption ( and more recent feedback from donor - conceived children ) showing that not telling children is harmful to the parent - child relationship and to the child psychologically . Even parents who would normally be extremely reluctant to tell the child should consider telling if any of the following scenarios applies :
One-child policy
A long - term experiment in a county in Shanxi Province , in which the family planning law was suspended , suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished . A 2003 review of the policy - making process behind the adoption of the one - child policy shows that less intrusive options , including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births , were known but not fully considered by China 's political leaders .
Eating disorder
Miscarriages : Pregnant women with a Binge Eating Disorder have shown to have a greater chance of having a miscarriage compared to pregnant women with any other eating disorders . According to a study done , out of a group of pregnant women being evaluated , 46.7 % of the pregnancies ended with a miscarriage in women that were diagnosed with BED , with 23.0 % in the control . In the same study , 21.4 % of women diagnosed with Bulimia Nervosa had their pregnancies end with miscarriages and only 17.7 % of the controls . Relapse : An individual who is in remission from BN and EDNOS ( Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified ) is at a high risk of falling back into the habit of self - harming themselves . Factors such as high stress regarding their job , pressures from society , as well as other occurrences that inflict stress on a person , can push a person back to what they feel will ease the pain . A study tracked a group of selected people that were either diagnosed with BN or EDNOS for 60 months . After the 60 months were complete , the researchers recorded whether or not the patients were suffering from a relapse . The results found that the probability of a person previously diagnosed with EDNOS had a 41 % chance of relapsing ; a person with BN had a 47 % chance . Attachment insecurity : People who are showing signs of attachment anxiety will most likely have trouble communicating their emotional status as well as having trouble seeking effective social support . Signs that a person has adopted this symptom include not showing recognition to their caregiver or when he / she is feeling pain . In a clinical sample , it is clear that at the pretreatment step of a patient 's recovery , more severe eating disorder symptoms directly corresponds to higher attachment anxiety . The more this symptom increases , the more difficult it is to achieve eating disorder reduction prior to treatment .
Egg donation
Conversely , when the child is being raised in a religion or a culture that strongly disapproves of donor conception ( e.g. , a Catholic country where egg donation is illegal ) , that may counsel against telling the child , at least until the child is much older and clearly capable of understanding why he or she was not told earlier and of keeping that information to him or herself .