vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Romance languages
ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamna Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern / Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco - Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies ( show ) Bronze Age Anatolian peoples ( Hittites ) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo - Iranians Iron Age Indo - Aryans Indo - Aryans Iranians Iranians Scythians Persians Medes Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo - Balkans / Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Balts Slavs Albanians Medieval Europe Indo - Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology ( show ) Reconstructed Proto - Indo - European religion Proto - Indo - Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indian Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo - Balkans Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo - Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Albanian Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice / Yule Indo - European studies ( show ) Scholars Marija Gimbutas J.P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo - European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo - European Culture The Horse , the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo - European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo - European Etymological Dictionary
Cradle of civilization
Ancient history Preceded by Prehistory Ancient Near East Sumer Egypt Assyria Elam Akkad Babylonia Canaan Israel and Judah Hittite Empire Arzawa Mitanni Minoan Crete Mycenaean Greece Syro - Hittite states Hayasa - Azzi Georgia Anatolia Armenia Neo-Assyrian Empire Urartu Neo-Babylonian Empire Medes Classical antiquity Greece Persia ( Achaemenid ) Hellenism Rome Africa Late Antiquity East Asia China Korea Japan South Asia Indus Valley Vedic period Maha Janapadas Maurya Empire Tamilakam Satavahana Gupta Empire Pre-Columbian Americas Mesoamerica Olmec Maya civilization Teotihuacan Aztec Andean civilizations Chavín culture Moche Inca empire See also History of the world Ancient maritime history Protohistory Axial Age Iron Age Historiography Ancient literature Ancient warfare Cradle of civilization Followed by the Postclassical Era
Maya civilization
The Classic period is largely defined as the period during which the lowland Maya raised dated monuments using the Long Count calendar . This period marked the peak of large - scale construction and urbanism , the recording of monumental inscriptions , and demonstrated significant intellectual and artistic development , particularly in the southern lowland regions . The Classic period Maya political landscape has been likened to that of Renaissance Italy or Classical Greece , with multiple city - states engaged in a complex network of alliances and enmities . The largest cities had populations numbering 50,000 to 120,000 and were linked to networks of subsidiary sites .
Dance
References to dance can be found in very early recorded history ; Greek dance ( horos ) is referred to by Plato , Aristotle , Plutarch and Lucian . The Bible and Talmud refer to many events related to dance , and contain over 30 different dance terms . In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period , groups of people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands , and the earliest Chinese word for `` dance '' is found written in the oracle bones . Dance is further described in the Lüshi Chunqiu . Primitive dance in ancient China was associated with sorcery and shamanic rituals .
Islamic architecture
The transition process between late Antiquity , or post-classical , and Islamic architecture is exemplified by archaeologic findings in North Syria and Palestine , the Bilad al - Sham of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties . In this region , late antique , or Christian , architectural traditions merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors . Recent research on the history of Islamic art and architecture has revised a number of colonialistic ideas . Specifically , the following questions are currently subject to renewed discussions in the light of recent findings and new concepts of cultural history :
North Africa
Due to the recent African origin of modern humans , the history of Prehistoric North Africa is important to the understanding of pre-hominid and early modern human history in Africa . The earliest inhabitants of central North Africa have left behind significant remains : early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa , for example , were found in Ain el Hanech , near Saïda ( c . 200,000 BCE ) ; in fact , more recent investigations have found signs of Oldowan technology there , and indicate a date of up to 1.8 million BC .
History of calendars
Archeologists have reconstructed methods of timekeeping that go back to prehistoric times at least as old as the Neolithic . The natural units for timekeeping used by most historical societies are the day , the solar year and the lunation . Calendars are explicit schemes used for timekeeping . The first historically attested and formulized calendars date to the Bronze Age , dependent on the development of writing in the Ancient Near East . The Sumerian calendar was the earliest , followed by the Egyptian , Assyrian and Elamite calendars .
History of agriculture
Records from the Warring States , Qin Dynasty , and Han Dynasty provide a picture of early Chinese agriculture from the 5th century BC to 2nd century AD which included a nationwide granary system and widespread use of sericulture . An important early Chinese book on agriculture is the Chimin Yaoshu of AD 535 , written by Jia Sixia . Jia 's writing style was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of the time . Jia 's book was also very long , with over one hundred thousand written Chinese characters , and it quoted many other Chinese books that were written previously , but no longer survive . The contents of Jia 's 6th century book include sections on land preparation , seeding , cultivation , orchard management , forestry , and animal husbandry . The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops . The work and the style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese agronomists , such as Wang Zhen and his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313 .
Precedent
The two approaches look at different sets of underlying facts that may or may not point in the same direction -- stare decisis gives most weight to the newest understanding of a legal text , while originalism gives most weight to the oldest . While they do n't necessarily reach different results in every case , the two approaches are in direct tension . Originalists such as Justice Antonin Scalia argue that `` Stare decisis is not usually a doctrine used in civil law systems , because it violates the principle that only the legislature may make law . '' Justice Scalia argues that America is a civil law nation , not a common law nation . By principle , originalists are generally unwilling to defer to precedent when precedent seems to come into conflict with the originalist 's own interpretation of the Constitutional text or inferences of original intent ( even in situations where there is no original source statement of that original intent ) . However , there is still room within an originalist paradigm for stare decisis ; whenever the plain meaning of the text has alternative constructions , past precedent is generally considered a valid guide , with the qualifier being that it can not change what the text actually says .
Third Rome
European Civilisation started in Crete as the Minoans created the first European high culture in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC . The Minoans remained the only high culture in Europe for over 1000 years , and spread their civilisation throughout the Aegean world , most notably to the Mycenaean Greeks , who had settled on the Greek mainland . By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC , the Mycenaeans had become heavily `` Minoanised '' and made large parts of Minoan culture their own , including art , writing system , architecture and religion . After the Mycenaean conquest of Crete and remaining Minoan territories , these two cultures merged into a single Graco - minoan culture . This culture was largely lost in the Bronze Age collapse , after which the Greek Dark Ages ensued . Greco
History of agriculture
The history of agriculture records the domestication of plants and animals and the development and dissemination of techniques for raising them productively . Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe , and included a diverse range of taxa . At least eleven separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin .
Chola dynasty
The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature . Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the second or first few centuries of the common era . The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled , and at present a connected account of the history of the period can not be derived . It records the names of the kings and the princes , and of the poets who extolled them .
Pottery of ancient Greece
The names we use for Greek vase shapes are often a matter of convention rather than historical fact , a few do illustrate their own use or are labeled with their original names , others are the result of early archaeologists attempt to reconcile the physical object with a known name from Greek literature -- not always successfully . To understand the relationship between form and function Greek pottery may be divided in four broad categories , given here with common types :
Mesolithic
The type of culture associated with the Mesolithic varies between areas , but it is associated with a decline in the group hunting of large animals in favour of a broader hunter - gatherer way of life , and the development of more sophisticated and typically smaller lithic tools and weapons than the heavy chipped equivalents typical of the Paleolithic . Depending on the region , some use of pottery and textiles may be found in sites allocated to the Mesolithic , but generally indications of agriculture are taken as marking transition into the Neolithic . The more permanent settlements tend to be close to the sea or inland waters offering a good supply of food . Mesolithic societies are not seen as very complex , and burials are fairly simple ; grandiose burial mounds are another mark of the Neolithic .
Analects
Before the late twentieth century the oldest existing copy of the Analects known to scholars was found in the `` Stone Classics of the Xinping Era '' , a copy of the Confucian classics written in stone in the old Eastern Han dynasty capital of Luoyang around 175 AD . Archaeologists have since discovered two handwritten copies of the Analects that were written around 50 BC , during the Western Han dynasty . They are known as the `` Dingzhou Analects '' , and the `` Pyongyang Analects '' , after the location of the tombs in which they were found . The Dingzhou Analects was discovered in 1973 , but no transcription of its contents was published until 1997 . The Pyongyang Analects was discovered in 1992 . Academic access to the Pyongyang Analects has been highly restricted , and no academic study on it was published until 2009 .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
The restoration of monuments was often made in colonial states to make natives feel as if in their current state , they were no longer capable of greatness . Furthermore , sometimes colonial rulers argued that the ancestors of the colonized people did not make the artifacts . Some scholars also argue that European colonialists used monumental archaeology and tourism to appear as the guardian of the colonized , reinforcing unconscious and undetectable ownership . Colonial rulers used peoples , religions , languages , artifacts , and monuments as source for reinforcing European nationalism , which was adopted and easily inherited from the colonial states .
Adam and Eve
Certain concepts , such as the serpent being identified as Satan , Eve being a sexual temptation , or Adam 's first wife being Lilith , come from literary works found in various Jewish apocrypha , but they are not found anywhere in the Book of Genesis or the Torah itself . Writings dealing with these subjects are extant literature in Greek , Latin , Slavonic , Syriac , Armenian , and Arabic , extending back to ancient Jewish thought . The concepts are not part of Rabbinic Judaism , but they did influence Christian theology , and this marks a radical split between the two religions . Some of the oldest Jewish portions of apocrypha are called Primary Adam Literature where some works became Christianized . Examples of Christianized works are Life of Adam and Eve , Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan and an original Syriac work entitled Cave of Treasures which has close affinities to the Conflict as noted by August Dillmann .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
Postan argued that demography was the principal driving force in the medieval English economy . In a distinctly Malthusian fashion , Postan proposed that the English agrarian economy saw little technical development during the period and by the early 14th century was unable to support the growing population , leading to inevitable famines and economic depression as the population came back into balance with land resources . Postan began the trend towards stressing continuities between the pre - and post-invasion economies , aided by fresh evidence emerging from the use of archaeological techniques to understand the medieval economy from the 1950s onwards . Rescue
Mycenaean Greece
The Neolithic agrarian village ( 6000 BC ) constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece . The vast majority of the preserved Linear B records deal with administrative issues and give the impression that Mycenaean palatial administration was highly uniform with the use of the same language , terminology , system of taxation and distribution . Considering this sense of uniformity , the Pylos archive , which is the best preserved one in the Mycenaean world , is generally taken as a representative one .
Evidence of common descent
Limitations exist within the fossil record when considering the concept of what constitutes a species . Paleontologists largely rely on a different framework : the morphological species concept . Due to the absence of information such as reproductive behavior or genetic material in fossils , paleontologists distinguish species by their phenotypic differences . Extensive investigation of the fossil record has led to numerous theories concerning speciation ( in the context of paleontology ) with many of the studies suggesting that stasis , punctuation , and lineage branching are common . In 1995 , D.H. Erwin , et al. published a major work -- New Approaches to Speciation in the Fossil Record -- which compiled 58 studies of fossil speciation ( between 1972 and 1995 ) finding most of the examples suggesting stasis ( involving anagenesis or punctuation ) and 16 studies suggesting speciation . Despite stasis appearing to be the predominate conclusion at first glance , this particular meta - study investigated deeper , concluding that , `` ... no single pattern appears dominate ... '' with `` ... the preponderance of studies illustrating both stasis and gradualism in the history of a single lineage '' . Many of the studies conducted utilize seafloor sediments that can provide a significant amount of data concerning planktonic microfossils . The succession of fossils in stratigraphy can be used to determine evolutionary trends among fossil organisms . In addition , incidences of speciation can be interpreted from the data and numerous studies have been conducted documenting both morphological evolution and speciation . Globorotalia
Cave painting
Nearly 340 caves have now been discovered in France and Spain that contain art from prehistoric times . Initially , the age of the paintings had been a contentious issue , since methods like radiocarbon dating can produce misleading results if contaminated by samples of older or newer material , and caves and rocky overhangs ( where parietal art is found ) are typically littered with debris from many time periods . But subsequent technology has made it possible to date the paintings by sampling the pigment itself and the torch marks on the walls . The choice of subject matter can also indicate chronology . For instance , the reindeer depicted in the Spanish cave of Cueva de las Monedas places the drawings in the last Ice Age .
Neolithic Revolution
The relationship of the above - mentioned Neolithic characteristics to the onset of agriculture , their sequence of emergence , and empirical relation to each other at various Neolithic sites remains the subject of academic debate , and varies from place to place , rather than being the outcome of universal laws of social evolution . The Levant saw the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC , followed by sites in the wider Fertile Crescent . The Neolithic Revolution `` inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel , the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script , mathematics , astronomy and agriculture . ''
History of Mexico
While relatively few pictorial manuscripts ( or codices ) of the Mixtec and Aztec cultures of the Post-Classic period survive , progress has been made in the area of Maya archaeology and epigraphy .
India
During the period 2000 -- 500 BCE , in terms of culture , many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age . The Vedas , the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism , were composed during this period , and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain . Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo - Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north - west . The caste system , which created a hierarchy of priests , warriors , and free peasants , but which excluded indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure , arose during this period . On the Deccan Plateau , archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation . In South India , a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period , as well as by nearby traces of agriculture , irrigation tanks , and craft traditions . Paintings
History of democracy
The work has gained little outright acceptance . Scholars criticize the use of the word `` democracy '' in this context since the same evidence also can be interpreted convincingly to demonstrate a power struggle between primitive monarchy and noble classes , a struggle in which the common people function more like pawns rather than any kind of sovereign authority . Jacobsen conceded that the vagueness of the evidence prohibits the separation between the Mesopotamian democracy from a primitive oligarchy . Indian
Brittany
Neolithic Brittany is characterised by important megalithic production , and it is sometimes designated as the `` core area '' of megalithic culture . The oldest monuments , cairns , were followed by princely tombs and stone rows . The Morbihan département , on the southern coast , comprises a large share of these structures , including the Carnac stones and the Broken Menhir of Er Grah in the Locmariaquer megaliths , the largest single stone erected by Neolithic people .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
If an article contains both footnoted citations and other ( explanatory ) footnotes , then it is possible ( but not necessary ) to divide them into two separate lists , using the grouping feature described in the Grouping footnotes section of the footnotes help page . The explanatory footnotes and the citations are then placed in separate sections , called ( for example ) `` Notes '' and `` References '' respectively . Avoiding
Mesoamerican ballgame
In general , the hip - ball version is most popularly thought of as the Mesoamerican ballgame , and researchers believe that this version was the primary -- or perhaps only -- version played within the masonry ballcourt . Ample archaeological evidence exists for games where the ball was struck by a wooden stick ( e.g. a mural at Teotihuacan shows a game which resembles field hockey ) , racquets , bats and batons , handstones , and the forearm , perhaps at times in combination . Each of the various types of games had its own size of ball , specialized gear and playing field , and rules .
Maya calendar
Many Classic period inscriptions include a series of glyphs known as the Supplementary Series . The operation of this series was largely worked out by John E. Teeple ( 1874 -- 1931 ) . The Supplementary Series most commonly consists of the following elements :
Mesolithic
Edouard Piette claimed to have filled the gap with his naming of the Azilian Culture . Knut Stjerna offered an alternative in the `` Epipaleolithic '' , suggesting a final phase of the Paleolithic rather than an intermediate age in its own right inserted between the Paleolithic and Neolithic .
Ancient Egyptian deities
Confronting these blurred distinctions between deities and other beings , scholars have proposed various definitions of a `` deity '' . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , says that a deity has a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to any being that was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , `` deities '' included the king , called such after coronation rites , and deceased souls , who entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great deities was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them throughout Egypt .
Pre-Columbian era
Human history ↑ Prehistory Recorded history Ancient Earliest records Africa Americas Oceania East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia West Asia Europe Postclassical Africa Americas Oceania East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia West Asia Europe Modern Early modern Late modern See also Contemporary Modernity Futurology ↓ Future
Historian
The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th - century German universities . Leopold von Ranke was a pivotal influence in this regard , and is considered as the founder of modern source - based history .
Maya civilization
Bone , both human and animal , was also sculpted ; human bones may have been trophies , or relics of ancestors . The Maya valued Spondylus shells , and worked them to remove the white exterior and spines , to reveal the fine orange interior . Around the 10th century AD , metallurgy arrived in Mesoamerica from South America , and the Maya began to make small objects in gold , silver and copper . The Maya generally hammered sheet metal into objects such as beads , bells , and discs . In the last centuries before the Spanish Conquest , the Maya began to use the lost - wax method to cast small metal pieces .