vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Eastern Orthodox Church
The term `` Eastern Church '' ( the geographic east in the East -- West Schism ) has been used to distinguish it from western Christendom ( the geographic West , which at first came to designate the Roman Catholic communion , later also the various Protestant and Anglican branches ) . `` Eastern '' is used to indicate that the highest concentrations of the Eastern Orthodox Church presence remain in the eastern part of the Christian world , although it is growing worldwide . Orthodox Christians throughout the world use various ethnic or national jurisdictional titles , or more inclusively , the title `` Eastern Orthodox '' , `` Orthodox Catholic '' , or simply `` Orthodox '' .
Byzantine Empire
Although polytheism had been suppressed by the state since at least the time of Constantine in the 4th century , traditional Greco - Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire in the 6th century . Philosophers such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in addition to Christian thought and empiricism . Nevertheless , Hellenistic philosophy began to be gradually supplanted by or amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy . The closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 was a notable turning point . Hymns written by Romanos the Melodist marked the development of the Divine Liturgy , while the architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wisdom , Hagia Sophia , which was designed to replace an older church destroyed during the Nika Revolt . Completed in 537 , the Hagia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments of Byzantine architectural history . During the 6th and 7th centuries , the Empire was struck by a series of epidemics , which greatly devastated the population and contributed to a significant economic decline and a weakening of the Empire . The
Pope
In 380 , the Edict of Thessalonica declared Nicene Christianity to be the state religion of the empire , with the name `` Catholic Christians '' reserved for those who accepted that faith . While the civil power in the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the church , and the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople , the capital , wielded much power , in the Western Roman Empire , the Bishops of Rome were able to consolidate the influence and power they already possessed . After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire , barbarian tribes were converted to Arian Christianity or Catholicism ; Clovis I , king of the Franks , was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to Catholicism rather than Arianism , allying himself with the papacy . Other tribes , such as the Visigoths , later abandoned Arianism in favour of Catholicism . Middle
History of the Roman Empire
Roman Empire Imperium Romanum ( Latin ) Senatus populusque Romanus ( SPQR ) Senate and People of Rome Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων ( Ancient Greek ) Basileía Rhōmaíōn 27 BC -- 395 AD 395 -- 480 ( Western ) 395 -- 1453 ( Eastern ) 1204 -- 1461 ( Trebizond ) Aureus of Augustus , the first Roman Emperor . The Roman Empire in 117 AD , at its greatest extent . Capital 27 BC -- 293 AD : Rome 293 -- 330 : Rome ( nominal ) Western Empire only ( in consort with Constantinople ) ( 402 -- 480 ) Ravenna Whole Empire ( 330 -- 1453 ) Constantinople Languages Latin ( official until 610 ) Greek ( official after 610 ) Regional / local languages Religion Before AD 380 : Imperial cult - driven polytheism From AD 380 : Christianity Government Mixed , functionally absolute monarchy Emperor 27 BC -- AD 14 Augustus ( first ) 98 -- 117 Trajan 284 -- 305 Diocletian 306 -- 337 Constantine I 379 -- 395 Theodosius I 474 -- 480 Julius Nepos 527 -- 565 Justinian I 975 -- 1025 Basil II 1449 -- 1453 Constantine XI Legislature Senate Historical era Classical antiquity to Late Middle Ages Final War of the Roman Republic 32 -- 30 BC Empire established 30 -- 2 BC Empire at its greatest extent AD 117 Constantinople becomes capital 330 Final East West divide 395 Fall of Western Empire 476 Fourth Crusade 1202 -- 1204 Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 Area 25 BC 2,750,000 km ( 1,060,000 sq mi ) 117 AD 5,000,000 km ( 1,900,000 sq mi ) 390 AD 4,400,000 km ( 1,700,000 sq mi ) Population 25 BC est .
Eastern Orthodox Church
In the 11th century what was recognised as the Great Schism took place between Rome and Constantinople , which led to separation between the Church of the West , the Roman Catholic Church , and the Eastern Byzantine Churches , now the Orthodox . There were doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Roman Pope involved in the split , but these were greatly exacerbated by political factors of both Church and state , and by cultural and linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks . Regarding Papal supremacy , the Eastern half grew disillusioned with the Pope 's centralization of power , as well as his blatant attempts of excluding the Eastern half in regard to Papacy approvals . It used to be that the Emperor would at least have say when a new Pope would be elected , but towards the high Middle Ages , the Christians in Rome were slowly consolidating power and removing Byzantine influence . However , even before this exclusionary tendency from the West , well before 1054 , the Eastern and Western halves of the Church were in perpetual conflict , particularly during the periods of Eastern iconoclasm and the Photian schism . Latin
Western Roman Empire
Prior to the establishment of the Empire , the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the Second Triumvirate : Mark Antony , Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus . Antony received the provinces in the East : Achaea , Macedonia and Epirus ( roughly modern Greece , Albania and the coast of Croatia ) , Bithynia , Pontus and Asia ( roughly modern Turkey ) , Syria , Cyprus , and Cyrenaica . These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great ; thus , much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin . The whole region , especially the major cities , had been largely assimilated into Greek culture , Greek often serving as the lingua franca . The
Byzantine Empire
The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800 . Needing Charlemagne 's support in his struggle against his enemies in Rome , Leo used the lack of a male occupant of the throne of the Roman Empire at the time to claim that it was vacant and that he could therefore crown a new Emperor himself .
Western Roman Empire
Although some eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West , none were as successful as Justinian . After 600 , events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople 's control , with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of war with Sasanian Persia and then the rise of Islam . For a while , the West remained important , with the Emperor Constans II ruling from Syracuse in Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s , but thereafter imperial attention declined rapidly , with Constantinople itself being besieged in the 670s , renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s , and then a period of chaos between 695 and 717 , during which time Africa was finally lost to the Romans once and for all , being conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate . Through reforms and military campaigns , Emperor Leo III attempted to restore order in the Empire , but his doctrinal reforms , known as the Iconoclastic Controversy , were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned by Pope Gregory III .
Name of Iran
The Greeks ( who tended earlier to use names related to `` Median '' ) began in the fifth century BC to use adjectives such as Pérsēs ( Πέρσης ) , Persikḗ ( Περσική ) or Persís ( Περσίς ) for Cyrus the Great 's empire ( a word meaning `` country '' being understood ) . Such words were taken from the Old Persian Pārsa -- the name of the people whom Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty first ruled ( before he inherited or conquered other Iranian Kingdoms ) and of whom he was one . Thus , the term Persian is an exonym and Iranians never historically referred to Iran by that exonym . The Pars tribe gave its name to the region where they lived ( the modern day province is called Fars / Pars ) but the province in ancient times was smaller than its current area . In Latin , the name for the whole empire was Persia , while the Iranians knew it as Iran or Iranshahr .
Third Rome
In the 8th century , the Franks , with the support of the Catholic Church , had established an Empire that compromised most of Western Europe . As Charlemagne ( German : Karl der Große ) inherited the Frankish realm , he expanded it to all of Central and Western Europe except the southern tip of Italy and Iberia , and proclaimed the Roman Empire ( calling it the Holy Roman Empire ) to have been reestablished , and was crowned as Roman Emperor by the Pope in Rome . During his reign , he launched an enormous project to resurrect Roman culture , copying the former Empire 's organisational , education and legal systems , art , and classical literature . This is today known as the Carolingian Renaissance , and its main instrument was the Catholic church , the only Roman institution that had survived the collapse , and preserved major elements of Greco - Roman thought , philosophy , science and administration . This , combined with the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire over eastern Europe and the spread of Orthodox Christendom , lead to the subsequent European renaissances ( i.e. the Ottoian , 12th century and in particular the Italian Renaissance from the 14th to 17th centuries ) , which transferred Roman culture to modern era Europe .
Byzantine Empire
After Justinian died in 565 , his successor , Justin II refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians . Meanwhile , the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy ; by the end of the century only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands . Justin 's successor , Tiberius II , choosing between his enemies , awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians . Though Tiberius ' general , Maurice , led an effective campaign on the eastern frontier , subsidies failed to restrain the Avars . They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582 , while the Slavs began to make inroads across the Danube .
Name of France
The rulers of Francia Orientalis , who soon claimed the imperial title and wanted to reunify the Frankish Empire , dropped the name Francia Orientalis and called their realm the Holy Roman Empire ( see History of Germany ) . The kings of Francia Occidentalis successfully opposed this claim and managed to preserve Francia Occidentalis as an independent kingdom , distinct from the Holy Roman Empire . The Battle of Bouvines in 1214 definitively marked the end of the efforts by the Holy Roman Empire to reunify the old Frankish Empire by conquering France .
Eastern Orthodox Church
By the 4th century Christianity had spread to numerous regions . A number of influential schools of thought had arisen , particularly the Alexandrian and Antiochian philosophical approaches . Other groups , such as the Arians , had also managed to gain influence . However , their positions caused theological conflicts within the Church , thus prompting the Emperor Constantine to call for a great ecumenical synod in order to define the Church 's position against the growing , often widely diverging , philosophical and theological interpretations of Christianity . He made it possible for this council to meet not only by providing a location , but by offering to pay for the transportation of all the existing bishops of the Church . Most modern Christian Churches regard this synod , commonly called the First Council of Nicaea or more generally the First Ecumenical Council , as of major importance .
Byzantine Empire
Taking advantage of the Empire 's weakness after the Revolt of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s , the Arabs re-emerged and captured Crete . They also successfully attacked Sicily , but in 863 general Petronas gained a decisive victory against Umar al - Aqta , the emir of Melitene ( Malatya ) . Under the leadership of emperor Krum , the Bulgarian threat also re-emerged , but in 815 -- 816 Krum 's son , Omurtag , signed a peace treaty with Leo V . Religious
Byzantine Empire
Leo the Wise died in 912 , and hostilities soon resumed as Simeon marched to Constantinople at the head of a large army . Though the walls of the city were impregnable , the Byzantine administration was in disarray and Simeon was invited into the city , where he was granted the crown of basileus ( emperor ) of Bulgaria and had the young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters . When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project , he again invaded Thrace and conquered Adrianople . The Empire now faced the problem of a powerful Christian state within a few days ' marching distance from Constantinople , as well as having to fight on two fronts .
Byzantine Empire
In the final century of the Empire , refugee Byzantine scholars were principally responsible for carrying , in person and in writing , ancient Greek grammatical , literary studies , mathematical , and astronomical knowledge to early Renaissance Italy . During this period , astronomy and other mathematical sciences were taught in Trebizond ; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars .
Byzantine Empire
After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders , two Byzantine successor states were established : the Empire of Nicaea , and the Despotate of Epirus . A third , the Empire of Trebizond , was created by Alexios I of Trebizond a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople . Of the three successor states , Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople . The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades , however , and by the mid-13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia . The weakening of the Sultanate of Rûm following the Mongol invasion in 1242 -- 43 allowed many beyliks and ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia , weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor . In time , one of the Beys , Osman I , created an empire that would eventually conquer Constantinople . However , the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks , allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north . Reconquest
Byzantine Empire
By the time of the fall of Constantinople , the only remaining territory of the Byzantine Empire was the Despotate of the Morea ( Peloponnese ) , which was ruled by brothers of the last Emperor , Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios Palaiologos . The Despotate continued on as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans . Incompetent rule , failure to pay the annual tribute and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II 's invasion of Morea in May 1460 . Demetrios asked the Ottomans to invade and drive Thomas out . Thomas fled . The Ottomans moved through the Morea and conquered virtually the entire Despotate by the summer . Demetrios thought the Morea would be restored to him to rule , but it was incorporated into the Ottoman fold .
Byzantine Empire
The greatest disaster took place in Asia Minor , however , where the Seljuq Turks made their first explorations across the Byzantine frontier into Armenia in 1065 and 1067 . The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia , who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own , Romanos Diogenes , as emperor . In the summer of 1071 , Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army . At the Battle of Manzikert , Romanos suffered a surprise defeat by Sultan Alp Arslan , and he was captured . Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines . In Constantinople , however , a coup put in power Michael Doukas , who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates . By 1081 , the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west , and they had founded their capital at Nicaea , just 90 kilometres ( 56 miles ) from Constantinople .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
By convention , the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476 , when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy , but this convention is subject to many qualifications . In Roman constitutional theory , the Empire was still simply united under one emperor , implying no abandonment of territorial claims . In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self - defence legitimate , rump states continued under some form of Roman rule after 476 . Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West and controlled Dalmatia until his murder in 480 . Syagrius son of Aegidius ruled the Domain of Soissons until his murder in 487 . The indigenous inhabitants of Mauretania developed kingdoms of their own , independent of the Vandals , with strong Roman traits . They again sought Imperial recognition with the reconquests of Justinian I , and they put up effective resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb . While the civitates of Britannia sank into a level of material development inferior even to their pre-Roman Iron Age ancestors , they maintained identifiably Roman traits for some time , and they continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized . The
Byzantine Empire
In the later part of his reign , John focused his activities on the East , personally leading numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor . His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East , forcing the Turks onto the defensive , while restoring many towns , fortresses , and cities across the peninsula to the Byzantines . He defeated the Danishmend Emirate of Melitene and reconquered all of Cilicia , while forcing Raymond of Poitiers , Prince of Antioch , to recognise Byzantine suzerainty . In an effort to demonstrate the Emperor 's role as the leader of the Christian world , John marched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined forces of the Empire and the Crusader states ; yet despite his great vigour pressing the campaign , his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies . In 1142 , John returned to press his claims to Antioch , but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident . Raymond was emboldened to invade Cilicia , but he was defeated and forced to go to Constantinople to beg mercy from the new Emperor . Byzantine
Western Roman Empire
Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395 , only referring specifically to its separate halves , he clearly identifies the term `` Roman '' as applying to the Empire as a whole . When using terms such as `` us '' , `` our generals '' and `` our emperor '' , Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns . This view is consistent with the knowledge that contemporary Romans of the fourth and fifth century continued to consider the Empire as a single unit , though more often than not with two rulers instead of one . Though it was the first time the position was divided geographically , the concept of there being more than one emperor at a time was not unprecedented even before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy with there having been several periods where there were more than one co-emperor , such as with Caracalla and Geta 210 - 211 AD .
Byzantine Empire
After the death of Theobald III , Count of Champagne , the leadership of the Crusade passed to Boniface of Montferrat , a friend of the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia . Both Boniface and Philip had married into the Byzantine Imperial family . In fact , Philip 's brother - in - law , Alexios Angelos , son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II Angelos , had appeared in Europe seeking aid and had made contacts with the crusaders . Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome , pay the crusaders 200,000 silver marks , join the crusade and provide all the supplies they needed to get to Egypt . Innocent was aware of a plan to divert the Crusade to Constantinople and forbade any attack on the city , but the papal letter arrived after the fleets had left Zara . Crusader
Byzantine Empire
In artistic terms , there was a revival in mosaic , and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences . During the 12th century , the Byzantines provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance of interest in classical authors . In Eustathius of Thessalonica , Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression . In philosophy , there was resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century , characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works . In addition , the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period .
Pope
With the East -- West Schism , the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church split definitively in 1054 . This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed . Popes had galled the Byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the Franks , crowning a rival Roman emperor , appropriating the Exarchate of Ravenna , and driving into Greek Italy .
Byzantine Empire
In 480 with the death of the Western Emperor Julius Nepos , Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole Emperor of the empire . Odoacer , now ruler of Italy , was nominally Zeno 's subordinate but acted with complete autonomy , eventually providing support to a rebellion against the Emperor .
Byzantine Empire
Justinian II attempted to break the power of the urban aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment of `` outsiders '' to administrative posts . He was driven from power in 695 , and took shelter first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgarians . In 705 , he returned to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgarian khan Tervel , retook the throne , and instituted a reign of terror against his enemies . With his final overthrow in 711 , supported once more by the urban aristocracy , the Heraclian dynasty came to an end . Isaurian
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was a theocracy , said to be ruled by God working through the Emperor . Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues , `` The Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire 's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals . '' Steven Runciman says in his book on The Byzantine Theocracy ( 2004 ) :
Western Roman Empire
After the collapse of Theoderic the Great 's control of the western Mediterranean through alliances , the Frankish Kingdom would rise to become the most powerful of the Barbarian Kingdoms , having taken control of most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance . Under Clovis I from the 480s to 511 , the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power , conquering the Domain of Soissons in 481 , defeating the Alemanni in 504 and conquering all Visigothic territory north of the Pyrenees other than Septimania in 507 . Unlike with the hostile Vandals , relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been rather positive , with Emperor Anastasius granting Clovis the title of consul following his victory against the Visigoths . At the time of its dissolution in the 800s , the Frankish Kingdom had lasted far longer than the other migration period barbarian kingdoms , and its divided successors would come to develop into the medieval states of France ( initially known as West Francia ) and Germany ( initially known as East Francia ) .