vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Fundamental rights in India
Protection with respect to conviction for offences is guaranteed in the right to life and personal liberty . According to Article 20 , no one can be awarded punishment which is more than what the law of the land prescribes at that time . This legal axiom is based on the principle that no criminal law can be made retrospective , that is , for an act to become an offence , the essential condition is that it should have been an offence legally at the time of committing it . Moreover , no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself . `` Compulsion '' in this article refers to what in law is called `` Duress '' ( injury , beating or unlawful imprisonment to make a person do something that he does not want to do ) . This article is known as a safeguard against self incrimination . The other principle enshrined in this article is known as the principle of double jeopardy , that is , no person can be convicted twice for the same offence , which has been derived from Anglo Saxon law . This principle was first established in the Magna Carta . Protection of life and personal liberty is also stated under right to life and personal liberty . Article 21 declares that no citizen can be denied his life and liberty except by law . This means that a person 's life and personal liberty can be disputed only if that person has committed a crime . However , the right to life does not include the right to die and hence , suicide or an attempt thereof , is an offence . ( Attempted suicide being interpreted as a crime has seen many debates . The Supreme Court of India gave a landmark ruling in 1994 . The court repealed section 309 of the Indian penal code , under which people attempting suicide could face prosecution and prison terms of up to one year . In 1996 however another Supreme Court ruling nullified the earlier one . ) `` Personal liberty '' includes all the freedoms which are not included in Article 19 ( that is , the six freedoms ) . The right to travel abroad is also covered under `` personal liberty '' in Article 21 . In 2002 , through the 86th Amendment Act , Article 21 ( A ) was incorporated .
Freedom of speech by country
Freedom of speech is restricted by the National Security Act of 1980 and in the past , by the Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance ( POTO ) of 2001 , the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities ( Prevention ) Act ( TADA ) from 1985 to 1995 , and similar measures . Freedom of speech is also restricted by Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code , 1860 which deals with sedition and makes any speech or expression which brings contempt towards government punishable by imprisonment extending from three years to life . In 1962 the Supreme Court of India held this section to be constitutionally valid in the case Kedar Nath Singh vs State of Bihar .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Acts of Parliament are bills which have received the approval of Parliament -- that is , the Monarch , the House of Lords and the House of Commons . On rare occasions , the House of Commons uses the `` Parliament Acts '' ( the Parliament Act 1911 and the Parliament Act 1949 ) to pass legislation without the approval of the House of Lords . It is unheard of in modern times for the Monarch to refuse to assent to a bill , though the possibility was contemplated by George V in relation to the fiercely controversial Government of Ireland Act 1914 . Acts of Parliament are among the most important sources of the constitution . According to the traditional view , Parliament has the power to legislate however it wishes on any subject it wishes . For example , most of the iconic medieval statute known as Magna Carta has been repealed since 1828 , despite previously being regarded as sacrosanct . It has traditionally been the case that the courts are barred from questioning any Act of Parliament , a principle that can be traced back to the medieval period . On the other hand , this principle has not been without its dissidents and critics over the centuries , and attitudes among the judiciary in this area may be changing . One consequence of the principle of parliamentary sovereignty is that there is no hierarchy among Acts of Parliament : all parliamentary legislation is , in principle , of equal validity and effectiveness . However , the judgment of Lord Justice Laws in the Thoburn case in 2002 indicated that there may be a special class of `` constitutional statutes '' such as Magna Carta , the Human Rights Act 1998 , the European Communities Act 1972 , the Acts of Union and Bill of Rights which have a higher status than other legislation . This part of his judgment was `` obiter '' ( i.e. not binding ) -- and , indeed , was controversial . It remains to be seen whether the doctrine will be accepted by other judges .
Defense of Marriage Act
On June 28 , 2013 , the USCIS notified U.S. citizen Julian Marsh that it had approved the green card petition for his Bulgarian husband Traian Popov . Both are residents of Florida . On July 3 , the USCIS office in Centennial , Colorado , granted Cathy Davis , a citizen of Ireland , a green card based on her marriage to U.S. citizen Catriona Dowling . Tribunals
Article Three of the United States Constitution
Section 3 also requires the testimony of two different witnesses on the same overt act , or a confession by the accused in open court , to convict for treason . This rule was derived from an older English statute , the Treason Act 1695 .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
The present Sovereign 's full style and title is `` Elizabeth the Second , by the Grace of God , of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen , Head of the Commonwealth , Defender of the Faith '' . The title `` Head of the Commonwealth '' is held by the Queen personally , and is not vested in the British Crown . Pope Leo X first granted the title `` Defender of the Faith '' to King Henry VIII in 1521 , rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation , particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments . After Henry broke from the Roman Church , Pope Paul III revoked the grant , but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use .
Declaration of nullity
Canon law presumes that all marriages are valid until proven otherwise . Annulment respondents who want to use canon law to defend their marriage against declarations of invalidity have the right to have a competent advocate assisting them . An advocate is like a lawyer . Respondents have the right to read the petition ( called libellus , meaning `` little book '' ) of the petitioner . The petition must describe , in a general way , the facts and proofs that the petitioner is using as the basis for alleging that parties ' marriage is invalid . It is necessary that tribunal judges study the jurisprudence of the Roman Rota , since the rota is responsible to promote the unity of jurisprudence and , through its own sentences , to be of assistance to lower tribunals ( Dignitas Connubii , art . 35 , citing Pastor bonus , art. 126 ) . Annulment respondents can use case law from the Roman Rota to support their defense of marriage . Roman Rota decisions are available at Msgr . Cormac Burke 's website .
Apartheid
The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949 prohibited marriage between persons of different races , and the Immorality Act of 1950 made sexual relations with a person of a different race a criminal offence .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
( T ) he supremacy within the European Community of Community law over the national law of member states ... was certainly well established in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice long before the United Kingdom joined the Community . Thus , whatever limitation of its sovereignty Parliament accepted when it enacted the European Communities Act 1972 was entirely voluntary . Under the terms of the Act of 1972 it has always been clear that it was the duty of a United Kingdom court , when delivering final judgment , to override any rule of national law found to be in conflict with any directly enforceable rule of Community law ... Thus there is nothing in any way novel in according supremacy to rules of Community law in those areas to which they apply and to insist that , in the protection of rights under Community law , national courts must not be inhibited by rules of national law from granting interim relief in appropriate cases is no more than a logical recognition of that supremacy .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
On one analysis , EU law is simply a subcategory of international law that depends for its effect on a series of international treaties ( notably the Treaty of Rome and the Maastricht Treaty ) . It therefore has effect in the UK only to the extent that Parliament permits it to have effect , by means of statutes such as the European Communities Act 1972 , and Parliament could , as a matter of British law , unilaterally bar the application of EU law in the UK simply by legislating to that effect . However , at least in the view of some British authorities , the doctrine of implied repeal , which applies to normal statutes , does not apply to `` constitutional statutes '' , meaning that any statute that was to have precedence over EU law ( thus disapplying the 1972 European Communities Act ) would have to provide for this expressly or in such a way as to make the inference `` irresistible '' . The actual legal effect of a statute enacted with the express intention of taking precedence over EU law is as yet unclear . However , it has been stated that if Parliament were to expressly repudiate its treaty obligations the courts would be obliged to give effect to a corresponding statute :
Chinese marriage
Amendments have also been made to Article 32 of the revised 2001 Marriage Law . Parties to a marriage can apply for Divorce under , and by showing , the following grounds :
Constitution of the United Kingdom
In 2015 , the Court of Appeal disapplied parts of the State Immunity Act 1978 on the grounds that it conflicted with article 47 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union . The case concerned two workers who wished to sue the Sudanese embassy in London for violations of employment law .
Education in India
Following initiatives by the Supreme Court of India during the 1990s the 93rd amendment bill suggested three separate amendments to the Indian constitution :
Freedom of speech by country
When originally enacted , the list of protected personal grounds in s . 318 did not include sexual orientation , gender identity or gender expression . Sexual orientation was added to the list in 2004 , when Parliament passed An Act to amend the Criminal Code ( hate propaganda ) . In 2017 , Parliament added gender identity and gender expression to the list of protected personal grounds in s . 318 by An Act to amend the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
The Labour government under prime minister Tony Blair instituted constitutional reforms in the late 1990s and early - to - mid 2000s . The effective incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law through the Human Rights Act 1998 has granted citizens specific positive rights and given the judiciary some power to enforce them . The courts can advise Parliament of primary legislation that conflicts with the Act by means of `` Declarations of Incompatibility '' -- however Parliament is not bound to amend the law nor can the judiciary void any statute -- and it can refuse to enforce , or `` strike down '' , any incompatible secondary legislation . Any actions of government authorities that violate Convention rights are illegal except if mandated by an Act of Parliament .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education Act ( RTE ) is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted on 4 August 2009 , which describes the modalities of the importance of free and compulsory education for children between the age of 6 to 14 years in India under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution . India became one of 135 countries to make education a fundamental right of every child when the act came into force on 1 April 2010 . The title of the RTE Act incorporates the words ' free and compulsory ' . ' Free education ' means that no child , other than a child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not supported by the appropriate Government , shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education . ' Compulsory education ' casts an obligation on the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure admission , attendance and completion of elementary education by all children in the 6 - 14 age group . With this , India has moved forward to a rights based framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and State Governments to implement this fundamental child right as enshrined in the Article 21A of the Constitution , in accordance with the provisions of the RTE Act. 17 .
Bill of Rights 1689
The Bill of Rights was invoked in New Zealand in the 1976 case of Fitzgerald v Muldoon and Others , which centred on the purporting of newly appointed Prime Minister Robert Muldoon that he would advise the Governor - General to abolish a superannuation scheme established by the New Zealand Superannuation Act , 1974 , without new legislation . Muldoon felt that the dissolution would be immediate and he would later introduce a bill in parliament to retroactively make the abolition legal . This claim was challenged in court and the Chief Justice declared that Muldoon 's actions were illegal as they had violated Article 1 of the Bill of Rights , which provides `` that the pretended power of dispensing with laws or the execution of laws by regal authority ... is illegal . ''
Overview of gun laws by nation
Irish firearms law is based on the Firearms Act 1925 , which was amended by several following acts in 1964 , 1968 , 1971 , 1990 , 1998 and 2000 . The cumulative effect of these modifications , along with modifications in other acts and confusion over which amendments applied , resulted in a 2006 Irish Law Reform Commission recommendation that all extant legislation be restated ( written in a single document with all prior Acts repealed ) . However , the Criminal Justice Act 2006 , contained a rewriting almost 80 % of the Firearms Act . It was quickly followed by amendments in 2007 and further major amendments in 2009 , exacerbating the legislative confusion . As of 2014 , the Law Reform Commission recommendation has not as yet been fully enacted ; the Firearms Act consists of the initial 1925 Act amended by approximately twenty separate Acts and is well understood by only a handful of those directly involved in its drafting , amendment or usage . Extensive complaints have arisen over the application of the legislation , with several hundred judicial review cases won in the High Court and Supreme Court by firearms owners , all relating to licensing decisions which had not adhered to the Firearms Act . Italy
Wales
Referendums held in Wales and Scotland in 1997 chose to establish a form of self - government in both countries . In Wales , the consequent process of devolution began with the Government of Wales Act 1998 , which created the National Assembly for Wales ( Welsh : Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru ) . Powers of the Secretary of State for Wales were transferred to the devolved government on 1 July 1999 , granting the Assembly the power to decide how the Westminster government 's budget for devolved areas is spent and administered . The 1998 Act was amended by the Government of Wales Act 2006 which enhanced the Assembly 's powers , giving it legislative powers akin to those of the Scottish Parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly . The Assembly has 60 members , known as Assembly Members ( Aelodau y Cynulliad ) . Members ( AMs ( ACau ) ) are elected for four - year terms under an additional member system . Forty of the AMs represent geographical constituencies , elected under the First Past the Post system . The remaining twenty AMs represent five electoral regions , each including between seven and nine constituencies , using the d'Hondt method of proportional representation . The Assembly must elect a First Minister , who selects ministers to form the Welsh Government .
Civil Rights Act of 1964
In very narrowly defined situations , an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification ( BFOQ ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise . To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense , an employer must prove three elements : a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job , the BFOQ relates to the `` essence '' or `` central mission of the employer 's business '' , and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative ( United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls , Inc. , 499 U.S. 187 ( 1991 ) 111 S. Ct. 1196 ) . The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits ( Dothard v. Rawlinson , 433 U.S. 321 ( 1977 ) 97 S. Ct. 2720 ) . An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification ( Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate , 990 F. 2d 458 ( 9th Cir. 1993 ) ) .
United Church of Christ
On April 28 , 2014 , the UCC filed a lawsuit against North Carolina for not permitting same - sex marriage , the first faith - based challenge to same - sex marriage bans in the US . In the lawsuit , the church argues that prohibiting same sex - marriages violates the freedom of religion , as the ban forced ministers for same - sex marriages to not act on their beliefs .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved legislatures and executives , while England does not . The authority of these devolved legislatures is dependent on Acts of Parliament and , although it is politically very unlikely , they can in principle be abolished at the will of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . However , the acts that created the devolved institutions are considered constitutional statutes that are not subject to implied repeal . Constitional law professors have described this as a transfer `` real power '' that alters the sovereignty of the UK Parliament to a `` supervisory '' role over the devolved legislatures in regard of devolved matters . Furthermore , the Scotland Act 2016 expresses the constitutional intent that the Scottish Parliament and Scottish Government are permanent and declares that they are not to be abolished except following a referendum in Scotland . A historical example of a legislature that was created by Act of Parliament and later abolished is the Parliament of Northern Ireland , which was set up by the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and abolished , in response to political violence in Northern Ireland , by the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973 ( Northern Ireland has since been given another legislative assembly under the Northern Ireland Act 1998 ) . The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985 and a similar institution , the Greater London Authority , was established in 2000 by the Greater London Authority Act 1999 .
Westminster system
Exceptions to this include New Zealand , which changed in 1993 to use mixed - member proportional representation ; Israel , which has always used country wide proportional representation ; and Australia , which uses preferential voting . A lower house of parliament with an ability to dismiss a government by `` withholding ( or blocking ) Supply '' ( rejecting a budget ) , passing a motion of no confidence , or defeating a confidence motion . The Westminster system enables a government to be defeated or forced into a general election independently . A parliament which can be dissolved and snap elections called at any time . Parliamentary privilege , which allows the legislature to discuss any issue it deems relevant , without fear of consequences stemming from defamatory statements or records thereof Minutes of meetings , often known as Hansard , including an ability for the legislature to strike discussion from these minutes The ability of courts to address silence or ambiguity in the parliament 's statutory law through the development of common law . Another parallel system of legal principles also exists known as equity . Exceptions to this include India , Quebec in Canada , and Scotland in the UK amongst others which mix common law with other legal systems .
Declaration of nullity
A matrimonial nullity trial , governed by the church 's canon law , is a judicial process whereby a canonical tribunal determines whether the marriage was void at its inception ( ab initio ) . A `` Declaration of Nullity '' is not the dissolution of an existing marriage ( as is a dispensation from a marriage ratum sed non consummatum and an `` annulment '' in civil law ) , but rather a determination that consent was never validly exchanged due to a failure to meet the requirements to enter validly into matrimony and thus a marriage never existed .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Parliament is bicameral , with two houses -- the House of Commons and the House of Lords ; the monarch formally forms a third element of Parliament ( see Queen - in - Parliament ) . The House of Commons , which unlike the House of Lords is democratically elected , has supremacy by virtue of the Parliament Act 1911 and Parliament Act 1949 . An Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom is primary legislation and Parliament can ( and does ) alter the British constitution by passing such Acts . Royal
History of the United Kingdom
In late October 2011 , the prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms voted to grant gender equality in the royal succession , ending the male - preference primogeniture that was mandated by the Act of Settlement 1701 . The amendment , once enacted , will also end the ban on the monarch marrying a Catholic .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
Present Act has its history in the drafting of the Indian constitution at the time of Independence but is more specifically to the Constitutional Amendment of 2002 that included the Article 21A in the Indian constitution making Education a fundamental Right . This amendment , however , specified the need for a legislation to describe the mode of implementation of the same which necessitated the drafting of a separate Education Bill . It is the 86th amendment in the Indian Constitution
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
It has been pointed out that the RTE act is not new . Universal adult franchise in the act was opposed since most of the population was illiterate . Article 45 in the Constitution of India was set up as an act :
Constitution of the United Kingdom
The Statute of Rhuddlan provided the constitutional basis for the government of the Principality of Wales from 1284 until its union with England after the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 .
Year and a day rule
The rule was abolished by the Law Reform ( Year and a Day Rule ) Act 1996 . English law is now substantially revised such that if a specific act can be proved to be the cause of death , it can now potentially constitute murder regardless of the intervening time . The abolition of the rule does not relieve the prosecution of its obligation to prove , in cases of murder , that the accused intended to cause either death or serious injury .