vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Coat of arms of Ireland
The arms of Ireland are without supporters . However , historically , some depictions of the arms have been accompanied by various supporters . For example , during the late Tudor period , depictions of the arms appeared accompanied by a dragon and a lion , representing Wales and England . The Tudors were monarchs of England but of Welsh descent . In later centuries , following the union of the crowns of England and Scotland , depictions appeared accompanied by a lion and a unicorn , representing England and Scotland . Other depictions included two stags , representing Ireland , or a stag and a lion . However , none of these were ever a part of the blazon and should be interpreted in terms of artistic licence .
Punic Wars
After Hasdrubal 's assassination by a Celtic assassin , Hamilcar 's young sons took over , with Hannibal becoming the strategus of Iberia , although this decision was not undisputed in Carthage . The output of the Iberian silver mines allowed for the financing of a standing army and the payment of the war indemnity to Rome . The mines also served as a tool for political influence , creating a faction in Carthage 's magistrate that was called the Barcino .
Celtic Britons
8th Century AD ; Novant which occupied Galloway and Carrick was soon subsumed by fellow Brittonic - Pictish polities by 700 AD . Aeron which encompassed modern Ayrshire was conquered into the Anglo - Saxon kingdom of Northumbria by 700 AD .
Griot
In Mande society , the jeli was an historian , advisor , arbitrator , praise singer ( patronage ) , and storyteller . Essentially , these musicians were walking history books , preserving their ancient stories and traditions through song . Their inherited tradition was passed down through generations . Their name , jeli , means `` blood '' in Manika language . They were said to have deep connections to spiritual , social , or political powers as music is associated as such . Speech is said to have power as it can recreate history and relationships .
History of New Mexico
After the Pueblo revolt , the Comanche posed the most serious threat to the Spanish settlers . Scholar Hämäläinen ( 2008 ) argues that from the 1750s to the 1850s , the Comanche were the dominant group in the Southwest , and they ruled a domain known as Comancheria . Hämäläinen calls it an empire . Confronted with Spanish , Mexican , French , and American outposts on their periphery in New Mexico , Texas , Louisiana , and Mexico , they worked to increase their own safety , prosperity and power . The Comanche used their military power to obtain supplies and labor from the Americans , Mexicans , and Indians through cunning , tribute , and kidnappings . The Comanche empire was primarily an economic construction , rooted in an extensive commercial network that facilitated long - distance trade . Dealing with subordinate Indians , the Comanche spread their language and culture across the region . In terms of governance , the Comanche created a decentralized political system , based on a raiding , hunting and pastoral economy . They created a hierarchical social organization in which young men could advance through success in war .
Middle Ages
The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe , although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others . In Gaul for instance , the invaders settled much more extensively in the north - east than in the south - west . Slavs settled in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula . The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages . Latin , the literary language of the Western Roman Empire , was gradually replaced by vernacular languages which evolved from Latin , but were distinct from it , collectively known as Romance languages . These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries . Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire , but the migrations of the Slavs added Slavic languages to Eastern Europe .
Industrial Revolution
Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important , along with the nature of the national economies involved . While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government , they were considered fellow Protestants , to a limited extent , by many in the middle class , such as traditional financiers or other businessmen . Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital , the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century .
Elf (Middle-earth)
In his The Book of Lost Tales , Tolkien develops a theme that the diminutive fairy - like race of Elves had once been a great and mighty people , and that as Men took over the world , these Elves had `` diminished '' themselves . This theme was influenced especially by the god - like and human - sized Ljósálfar of Norse mythology , and medieval works such as Sir Orfeo , the Welsh Mabinogion , Arthurian romances and the legends of the Tuatha Dé Danann . Some of the stories Tolkien wrote as elven history have been seen to be directly influenced by Celtic mythology . For example , `` Flight of The Noldoli '' is based on the Tuatha Dé Danann and Lebor Gabála Érenn , and their migratory nature comes from early Irish / Celtic history . John Garth also sees that with the underground enslavement of the Noldoli to Melkor , Tolkien was essentially rewriting Irish myth regarding the Tuatha Dé Danann into a Christian eschatology .
Horseshoe
Historians differ on the origin of the horseshoe . Because iron was a valuable commodity , and any worn out items were generally reforged and reused , it is difficult to locate clear archaeological evidence . Although some credit the Druids , there is no hard evidence to support this claim . In 1897 four bronze horseshoes with what are apparently nail holes were found in an Etruscan tomb dated around 400 B.C. The assertion by some historians that the Romans invented the `` mule shoes '' sometime after 100 BC is supported by a reference by Catullus who died in 54 BC . However , these references to use of horseshoes and muleshoes in Rome , may have been to the `` hipposandal '' -- leather boots , reinforced by an iron plate , rather than to nailed horseshoes .
Cradle of civilization
There is academic consensus that Classical Greece is the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture , democracy , art , theatre , philosophy and science . For this reason it is known as the cradle of Western Civilization . Along with Greece , Rome has sometimes been described as a birthplace or as the cradle of Western Civilization because of the role the city had in politics , republicanism , law , architecture , warfare and Western Christianity .
Hellenistic period
The Celts who settled in Galatia came through Thrace under the leadership of Leotarios and Leonnorios c. 270 BC . They were defeated by Seleucus I in the ' battle of the Elephants ' , but were still able to establish a Celtic territory in central Anatolia . The Galatians were well respected as warriors and were widely used as mercenaries in the armies of the successor states . They continued to attack neighboring kingdoms such as Bithynia and Pergamon , plundering and extracting tribute . This came to an end when they sided with the renegade Seleucid prince Antiochus Hierax who tried to defeat Attalus , the ruler of Pergamon ( 241 -- 197 BC ) . Attalus severely defeated the Gauls , forcing them to confine themselves to Galatia . The theme of the Dying Gaul ( a famous statue displayed in Pergamon ) remained a favorite in Hellenistic art for a generation signifying the victory of the Greeks over a noble enemy . In the early 2nd century BC , the Galatians became allies of Antiochus the Great , the last Seleucid king trying to regain suzerainty over Asia Minor . In 189 BC , Rome sent Gnaeus Manlius Vulso on an expedition against the Galatians . Galatia was henceforth dominated by Rome through regional rulers from 189 BC onward .
Hundred Years' War
The root causes of the conflict can be found in the demographic , economic and political crises of 14th century Europe . The outbreak of war was motivated by a gradual rise in tension between the kings of France and England about Gascony , Flanders and Scotland . The dynastic question , which arose due to an interruption of the direct male line of the Capetians , was the official pretext .
History of the Great Wall of China
Culturally , the wall 's symbolic role as a line between civilized society and barbarism was suppressed by the Qing , who were keen to weaken the Han culturalism that had been propagated by the Ming . As a result , no special attention was paid to the Great Wall until the mid-Qing dynasty , when Westerners started to show interest in the structure .
Republic of Ireland
Gothic cathedrals , such as St Patrick 's , were also introduced by the Normans . Franciscans were dominant in directing the abbeys by the Late Middle Ages , while elegant tower houses , such as Bunratty Castle , were built by the Gaelic and Norman aristocracy . Many religious buildings were ruined with the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Following the Restoration , palladianism and rococo , particularly country houses , swept through Ireland under the initiative of Edward Lovett Pearce , with the Houses of Parliament being the most significant .
Wales
Part of a series on the Culture of Wales History People Languages ( show ) Welsh ( Y Fro Gymraeg History Welsh placenames Welsh surnames Welsh medium education ) Welsh English Traditions ( show ) Traditional Welsh costume Welsh law Land division ( Commote Cantref Historic counties ) Mythology and folklore ( show ) Mythology Cuisine ( show ) Bara brith Bara Lafwr Cawl Cawl Cennin Crempog Gower cuisine Selsig Morgannwg Tatws Pum Munud Welsh breakfast Welsh cake Welsh rarebit List of Welsh dishes List of restaurants in Wales Festivals ( show ) Calennig Dydd Santes Dwynwen Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau Saint David 's Day Calan Mai Calan Awst Calan Gaeaf Gŵyl Mabsant Gŵyl San Steffan Eisteddfod Religion Art Literature ( show ) in Welsh in English Medieval Authors Poets Theatre Music and performing arts ( show ) Music Media ( show ) Radio Television Cinema Sport ( show ) Bando Boxing Cnapan Cricket Soccer Golf Horse racing Pêl - Law Rugby league Rugby union Monuments ( show ) World Heritage Sites Symbols ( show ) Flag Coat of arms Flag of Saint David Other flags Welsh Dragon Welsh heraldry Celtic cross Celtic knot Wales portal
Hellenistic period
Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul were mostly limited to the Mediterranean coast of Provence , France . The first Greek colony in the region was Massalia , which became one of the largest trading ports of Mediterranean by the 4th century BC with 6,000 inhabitants . Massalia was also the local hegemon , controlling various coastal Greek cities like Nice and Agde . The coins minted in Massalia have been found in all parts of Ligurian - Celtic Gaul . Celtic coinage was influenced by Greek designs , and Greek letters can be found on various Celtic coins , especially those of Southern France . Traders from Massalia ventured inland deep into France on the Rivers Durance and Rhône , and established overland trade routes deep into Gaul , and to Switzerland and Burgundy . The Hellenistic period saw the Greek alphabet spread into southern Gaul from Massalia ( 3rd and 2nd centuries BC ) and according to Strabo , Massalia was also a center of education , where Celts went to learn Greek . A staunch ally of Rome , Massalia retained its independence until it sided with Pompey in 49 BC and was then taken by Caesar 's forces .
Slash-and-burn
Many Italic peoples saw benefits in allying with Rome . When the Romans built the Via Amerina in 241 BC , the Falisci settled in cities on the plains and aided the Romans in road construction ; the Roman Senate gradually acquired representatives from Faliscan and Etruscan families , and the Italic tribes became settled farmers .
Republic of Ireland
Ireland ranks among the top twenty - five wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita , and as the tenth most prosperous country in the world according to The Legatum Prosperity Index 2015 . After joining the EEC , Ireland enacted a series of liberal economic policies that resulted in rapid economic growth . The country achieved considerable prosperity between the years of 1995 and 2007 , which became known as the Celtic Tiger period . This was halted by an unprecedented financial crisis that began in 2008 , in conjunction with the concurrent global economic crash . However , as the Irish economy was the fastest growing in the EU in 2015 , Ireland is again quickly ascending league tables comparing wealth and prosperity internationally . For example , in 2015 , Ireland was ranked as the joint sixth ( with Germany ) most developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index . It also performs well in several national performance metrics , including freedom of the press , economic freedom and civil liberties . Ireland is a member of the European Union and is a founding member of the Council of Europe and the OECD . The Irish government has followed a policy of military neutrality through non-alignment since immediately prior to World War II and the country is consequently not a member of NATO , although it is a member of Partnership for Peace .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
The percentage of England 's population living in towns continued to grow but in absolute terms English towns shrunk significantly as a consequence of the Black Death , especially in the formerly prosperous east . The importance of England 's Eastern ports declined over the period , as trade from London and the South - West increased in relative significance . Increasingly elaborate road networks were built across England , some involving the construction of up to thirty bridges to cross rivers and other obstacles . Nonetheless , it remained cheaper to move goods by water , and consequently timber was brought to London from as far away as the Baltic , and stone from Caen brought over the Channel to the South of England . Shipbuilding , particular in the South - West , became a major industry for the first time and investment in trading ships such as cogs was probably the single biggest form of late medieval investment in England . Rise
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
The campaign was considered a last throw of the dice for the Jacobites to have any realistic hope of reclaiming the British throne . After the campaign the French soon abandoned the Stuarts entirely , withdrawing their support , and forcing them to take up a new home in Rome . Many of the Highland communities that had strongly supported the Jacobites in 1715 and 1745 now had regiments serving in the British army , where they played a key role in Britain 's success that year .
Middle Ages
The ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the west mostly intact , but the papacy was little regarded , and few of the Western bishops looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership . Many of the popes prior to 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies . The register , or archived copies of the letters , of Pope Gregory the Great ( pope 590 -- 604 ) survived , and of those more than 850 letters , the vast majority were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople . The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain , where Gregory had sent the Gregorian mission in 597 to convert the Anglo - Saxons to Christianity . Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries , going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent . Under such monks as Columba ( d . 597 ) and Columbanus ( d . 615 ) , they founded monasteries , taught in Latin and Greek , and authored secular and religious works .
Middle Ages
The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions , migrations , and raids by external foes . The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings , who also raided the British Isles and settled there as well as in Iceland . In 911 , the Viking chieftain Rollo ( d.c. 931 ) received permission from the Frankish King Charles the Simple ( r . 898 -- 922 ) to settle in what became Normandy . The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms , especially Germany and Italy , were under continual Magyar assault until the invader 's defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 . The breakup of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states , some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily , as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms .
United Kingdom
Social reform and home rule for Ireland were important domestic issues after 1900 . The Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900 , and suffragettes campaigned for women 's right to vote before 1914 . Infantry
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New Testament
The books that eventually found a permanent place in the New Testament were not the only works of Christian literature produced in the earliest Christian centuries . The long process of canonization began early , sometimes with tacit reception of traditional texts , sometimes with explicit selection or rejection of particular texts as either acceptable or unacceptable for use in a given context ( e.g. , not all texts that were acceptable for private use were considered appropriate for use in the liturgy ) .
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Wikipedia:Citing sources
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Wikipedia:Citing sources
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Wikipedia:Citing sources
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Novel
In this period the market for popular fiction grew , and competed with works of literature . New institutions like the circulating library create a new market with a mass reading public .
Novel
Fantasy has become a major area of commercial fiction . A major example is J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings ( 1954 / 55 ) , a work that grew from a book written for young readers into a major cultural artefact . Tolkien revived European epic literature in the tradition of Beowulf and the North Germanic Edda and the Arthurian Cycles .
Hamlet
There have been various `` derivative works '' of Hamlet which recast the story from the point of view of other characters , or transpose the story into a new setting or act as sequels or prequels to Hamlet . This section is limited to those written for the stage .
It (novel)
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