vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Hellenistic period
The Kingdom of Pontus was a Hellenistic kingdom on the southern coast of the Black Sea . It was founded by Mithridates I in 291 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63 BC . Despite being ruled by a dynasty which was a descendant of the Persian Achaemenid Empire it became hellenized due to the influence of the Greek cities on the Black Sea and its neighboring kingdoms . Pontic culture was a mix of Greek and Iranian elements ; the most hellenized parts of the kingdom were on the coast , populated by Greek colonies such as Trapezus and Sinope , the latter of which became the capital of the kingdom . Epigraphic evidence also shows extensive Hellenistic influence in the interior . During the reign of Mithridates II , Pontus was allied with the Seleucids through dynastic marriages . By the time of Mithridates VI Eupator , Greek was the official language of the kingdom , though Anatolian languages continued to be spoken .
Ancient Greece
Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC ( around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer ) and ended in the 6th century AD .
History of Antarctica
The Heroic Age was inaugurated by an expedition launched by the Belgian Geographical Society in 1897 ; Borchgrevink followed a year later with a privately sponsored British expedition . ( Some histories consider the Discovery expedition , which departed in 1901 , as the first proper expedition of the Heroic Age . )
History of Australia (1788–1850)
The Swan River Settlement ( as Western Australia was originally known ) , centred on Perth , was founded in 1829 . The colony suffered from a long - term shortage of labour , and by 1850 local capitalists had succeeded in persuading London to send convicts . ( Transportation did not end until 1868 . ) New Zealand was part of New South Wales until 1840 when it became a separate colony .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Osman 's origins are extremely obscure , and almost nothing is known about his career before the beginning of the fourteenth century . The date of 1299 is frequently given as the beginning of his reign , however this date does not correspond with any historical event , and is purely symbolic . By 1300 he had become the leader of a group of Turkish pastoral tribes , through which he ruled over a small territory around the town of Söğüt in the north - western Anatolian region of Bithynia . He led frequent raids against the neighboring Byzantine Empire , the success of which allowed him to attract warriors to join his following , particularly after his victory over a Byzantine army in the Battle of Bapheus in 1301 or 1302 . Osman 's military activity was largely limited to raiding , as by his death in 1323 / 4 the Ottomans had not yet developed the military techniques necessary to conduct effective siege warfare . Although he is famous for his raids against the Byzantines , Osman also had many military confrontations with Tatar groups and the neighboring principality of Germiyan .
Gold standard
During the early and high Middle Ages , the Byzantine gold solidus , commonly known as the bezant , was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean . However , as the Byzantine Empire 's economic influence declined , so too did the use of the bezant . In its place , European territories chose silver as their currency over gold , leading to the development of silver standards .
Byzantine law
Slavic legal traditions , including countries ranging from Bulgaria to Russia , were substantially influenced by the Farmer 's Law . To a lesser extent the Ecloga and other Byzantine codices influenced these areas as well . During the 18th and 19th centuries , as Russia increased its contact with the West , Justinian 's Code began to be studied thus bringing in this influence .
Colosseum
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian in around 70 -- 72 AD ( 73 -- 75 AD according to some sources ) The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian 's death in 79 . The top level was finished by his son , Titus , in 80 , and the inaugural games were held in A.D. 80 or 81 . Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre . Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration . The building was remodelled further under Vespasian 's younger son , the newly designated Emperor Domitian , who constructed the hypogeum , a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves . He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity .
Golden Horde
In 1267 , Mengu - Timur issued a diploma -- jarliq -- to exempt Rus ' clergy from any taxation and gave to the Genoese and Venice exclusive rights to hold Caffa and Azov . Some of Mengu - Timur 's relatives converted to Christianity at the same time and settled among the Rus ' people . Even though Nogai invaded the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire in 1271 , the Khan sent his envoys to maintain friendly relationship with Michael VIII Palaiologos . He ordered the Grand prince of Rus to allow German merchants free travel through his lands . This gramota says :
Byzantine Empire
These bagpipes , also known as Dankiyo ( from ancient Greek : angion ( Τὸ ἀγγεῖον ) `` the container '' ) , had been played even in Roman times . Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign ( possibly Nero ) who could play a pipe ( tibia , Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos ) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit . The bagpipes continued to be played throughout the empire 's former realms through to the present . ( See Balkan Gaida , Greek Tsampouna , Pontic Tulum , Cretan Askomandoura , Armenian Parkapzuk , and Romanian Cimpoi . )
Olympic Games
The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC , but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece . While there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended , the most commonly held date is 393 AD , when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated . Another date commonly cited is 426 AD , when his successor , Theodosius II , ordered the destruction of all Greek temples .
Ancient Greece
From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion , settling colonies in all directions . To the east , the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first , followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace , the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea .
Ancient Roman architecture
Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century BC in Rome and the provinces around the Mediterranean Sea . Along with vaults , they gradually replaced the traditional post and lintel construction which makes use of the column and architrave . The construction of domes was greatly facilitated by the invention of concrete , a process which has been termed the Roman Architectural Revolution . Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of structural steel frames in the late 19th century ( see List of the world 's largest domes ) .
Islamic architecture
The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture . When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines , they converted the basilica to a mosque ( now a museum ) and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work ( e.g. domes ) . The Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque , the Suleiman Mosque , and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque . Domes are a major structural feature of Islamic architecture . The dome first appeared in Islamic architecture in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock , a near replica of the existing Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian domed basilicas situated nearby . Domes remain in use , being a significant feature of many mosques and of the Taj Mahal in the 17th century . The distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture , also originating with the Byzantines and Persians , have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century .
Monarchies in Africa
Morocco , located in the northwestern corner of Africa , has a long and established history dating back to antiquity . Originally Carthaginian , the territory was controlled by the Roman Empire , the Vandals , and the Byzantine Empire before falling under Arab control in the seventh century . During that time , the inhabitants of Morocco were known as Moors . After the Reconquista in 1492 , the Moroccan state underwent a long period of decline before falling under dual French and Spanish control in 1912 . Independence was achieved in 1956 , with Sultan Mohammed ben Youssef taking the title of King Mohammed V . The present King , Mohammed VI , ascended to the throne in 1999 .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
In April 1453 , Mehmed laid siege to Constantinople . Although the city 's defenders , led by Giovanni Giustiniani under Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos 's ( 1448 -- 53 ) authority , put up a heroic defense , without the benefit of outside aid their efforts were doomed . The formerly impregnable land walls were breached after two months of constant pounding by Mehmed 's heavy artillery . In the predawn hours of 29 May 1453 , Mehmed ordered an all - out assault on the battered ramparts . After a brief but vicious melee at the walls in which Giustiniani was severely injured coupled with Ottoman troops breaching the walls through a sally port door left open , the Ottoman troops were able to breach the walls and rout the defenders . According to Christian sources , Emperor Constantine died bravely rushing into the oncoming Ottoman troops not to be seen again . However , according to Ottoman sources such as Tursun Beg he threw off his mantle and attempted to flee before being cut down by an injured Ottoman soldier . The Ottoman Army broke through and swept over the city . Constantinople , for a millennium considered by many Europeans the divinely ordained capital of the Christian Roman Empire , fell to Mehmed and was transformed into what many Muslims considered the divinely ordained capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire . The fabled city 's imperial legacy lived on . After the conquest , the sultan had his grand vizier Çandarlı Halil Pasha killed . His following four granviziers were of devshirme origin . During the growth of the Empire Turks seldom were appointed to the high positions .
Mali Empire
The empire began as a small Mandinka kingdom at the upper reaches of the Niger River , centred around the town of Niani ( the empire 's namesake in Manding ) . During the 11th and 12th centuries it began to develop as an empire following the decline of the Ghana Empire to the north . During this period , trade routes shifted southward to the savanna , stimulating the growth of states . The early history of the Mali Empire ( before the 13th century ) is unclear , as there are conflicting and imprecise accounts by both Arab chroniclers and oral traditionalists . Sundiata Keita ( c. 1214 -- c. 1255 ) is the first ruler about whom there is accurate written information ( from Ibn Khaldun ) . Sundiata Keita was a warrior - prince of the Keita dynasty who was called upon to free the Mali people from the rule of the king of the Sosso Empire , Soumaoro Kanté . The conquest of Sosso in c. 1235 gave the Mali Empire access to the trans - Saharan trade routes . Following the death of Sundiata Keita in c. 1255 , the kings of Mali were referred to by the title mansa .
Greco-Persian Wars
The Greco - Persian Wars ( also often called the Persian Wars ) were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and Greek city - states that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC . The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began when Cyrus the Great conquered the Greek - inhabited region of Ionia in 547 BC . Struggling to rule the independent - minded cities of Ionia , the Persians appointed tyrants to rule each of them . This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike .
History of the Roman Empire
In 112 , Trajan was provoked by the decision of Osroes I of Parthia to put his own nephew Axidares on the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia . The Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia was a branch of the Parthian royal family , established in 54 . Since then , the two great empires had shared hegemony of Armenia . The encroachment on the traditional Roman sphere of influence by Osroes ended the peace which had lasted for some 50 years .
Crusades
Minor Crusading efforts lingered into the 14th century , and several Crusades were launched during the 14th and 15th centuries to counter the expansion of the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans . In 1309 as many as 30,000 peasants gathered from England , north - eastern France , and Germany proceeded as far as Avignon but disbanded there . Peter I of Cyprus captured and sacked Alexandria in 1365 in what became known as the Alexandrian Crusade ; his motivation was as much commercial as religious . Louis II led the 1390 Barbary Crusade against Muslim pirates in North Africa ; after a ten - week siege , the Crusaders signed a ten - year truce .
Alaşehir
Alaşehir began as perhaps one of the first ancient cities with the name Philadelphia . It was established in 189 BC by King Eumenes II of Pergamon ( 197 -- 160 BC ) . Eumenes II named the city for the love of his brother , who would be his successor , Attalus II ( 159 -- 138 BC ) , whose loyalty earned him the nickname , `` Philadelphos '' , literally meaning `` one who loves his brother '' . The city is perhaps best known as the site of one of the seven churches of Asia in the Book of Revelation .
Saudi Arabia
Arab dynasties , originating from modern - day Saudi Arabia , Hejaz in particular , founded the Rashidun ( 632 -- 661 ) , Umayyad ( 661 -- 750 ) , Abbasid ( 750 -- 1517 ) and the Fatimid ( 909 -- 1171 ) caliphates . The
History of the Roman Empire
Claudius ordered the suspension of further attacks across the Rhine , setting what was to become the permanent limit of the Empire 's expansion in that direction . In 43 , he resumed the Roman conquest of Britannia that Julius Caesar had begun in the 50s BC , and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire .
Military history of Italy during World War II
During the late 1920s , the Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini spoke with increasing urgency about imperial expansion , arguing that Italy needed an outlet for its `` surplus population '' and that it would therefore be in the best interests of other countries to aid in this expansion . The immediate aspiration of the regime was political `` hegemony in the Mediterranean -- Danubian -- Balkan region '' , more grandiosely Mussolini imagined the conquest `` of an empire stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Strait of Hormuz '' . Balkan and Mediterranean hegemony was predicated by ancient Roman dominance in the same regions . There were designs for a protectorate over Albania and for the annexation of Dalmatia , as well as economic and military control of Yugoslavia and Greece . The regime also sought to establish protective patron -- client relationships with Austria , Hungary , Romania and Bulgaria , which all lay on the outside edges of its European sphere of influence . Although it was not among his publicly proclaimed aims , Mussolini wished to challenge the supremacy of Britain and France in the Mediterranean Sea , which was considered strategically vital , since the Mediterranean was Italy 's only conduit to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans .
Balkans
From 1920 until World War II , Italy included Istria and some Dalmatian areas ( like Zara , today 's Zadar ) that are within the general definition of the Balkan peninsula . The current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula . However , the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers , due to their definition of the Balkans that limits its western border to the Kupa River .
Third Rome
After the unification , Mazzini spoke of the need of Italy as a Third Rome to have imperial aspirations . Mazzini said that Italy should `` invade and colonize Tunisian lands '' as it was the `` key to the Central Mediterranean '' , and he viewed Italy as having the right to dominate the Mediterranean Sea as ancient Rome had done .
Balkans
The abstract term `` the Balkans '' , unlike the geographical borders of the Peninsula , is defined by the political borders of the states composing it . The term is used to describe areas beyond the Balkan Peninsula , or inversely in the case of the part of Italy in the Peninsula , which is always excluded from the Balkans and as a totality is generally accepted as part of Western Europe and the Apennines .
Third Rome
In his speeches , Italian leader Benito Mussolini referred to his Fascist Italy as a `` Third Rome '' or as a New Roman Empire . Terza Roma ( Third Rome ; the Fascist Rome after the Imperial and the Papal ones ) was also a name for Mussolini 's plan to expand Rome towards Ostia and the sea . The EUR neighbourhood was the first step in that direction .
Geography of Asia
Ptolemy was a geographer of the middle Roman Empire , an Egyptian . The idea of the continents preceded the imperial Romans but through them reached to modern time to determine today 's geographic views , which are enhancements and refinements of the classical . Stating that `` continents are bounded more properly , when it is possible , by seas than by rivers , '' Ptolemy defines a three - continent system : Europe , Libya , Asia . His Libya is the North Africa of today , containing a province , Africa , whose name replaced Libya . Rejecting the Nile River as the Asian border so as not to split Egypt , Ptolemy designates the Red Sea as the border between Libya and Asia . In the north the border between Asia and Europe is a meridian through the mouth of the Don River northward `` to the unknown region . '' Asia Minor remains `` Asia properly so called . ''
Italian language
Italian became the language used in the courts of every state in the Italian peninsula . The rediscovery of Dante 's De vulgari eloquentia and a renewed interest in linguistics in the 16th century , sparked a debate that raged throughout Italy concerning the criteria that should govern the establishment of a modern Italian literary and spoken language . This discussion , known as `` questione della lingua '' ( i.e. , the problem of the language ) , ran through the italian culture untile the end of XIX century , often linked to the political debate on achieving a united italian state . Renaissance scholars divided into three main factions :
Italian Empire
The unification of Italy brought with it a belief that Italy deserved its own overseas empire , alongside those of the other powers of Europe , and a rekindling of the notion of mare nostrum . However , Italy had arrived late to the colonial race , and its relative weakness in international affairs meant that it was dependent on the acquiescence of Britain , France and Germany towards its empire - building .
Romance languages
Probably a more accurate description , however , would be to say that there was a focal point of innovation located in central France , from which a series of innovations spread out as areal changes . The La Spezia -- Rimini Line represents the farthest point to the southeast that these innovations reached , corresponding to the northern chain of the Apennine Mountains , which cuts straight across northern Italy and forms a major geographic barrier to further language spread .
History of the Roman Empire
Following Gratian 's death , Maximus had to deal with Valentinian II , at the time only twelve years old , as the senior Augustus . During the first few years , the Alps would serve as the borders between the respective territories of the two rival Western Roman Emperors . Maximus controlled Britain , Gaul , Hispania and Africa . He chose Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) as his capital .
Italian Empire
During the late 1920s , imperial expansion became an increasingly favoured theme in Mussolini 's speeches . Amongst Mussolini 's aims were that Italy had to become the dominant power in the Mediterranean that would be able to challenge France or Britain , as well as attain access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans . Mussolini alleged that Italy required uncontested access to the world 's oceans and shipping lanes to ensure its national sovereignty . This was elaborated on in a document he later drew up in 1939 called `` The March to the Oceans '' , and included in the official records of a meeting of the Grand Council of Fascism . This text asserted that maritime position determined a nation 's independence : countries with free access to the high seas were independent ; while those who lacked this , were not . Italy , which only had access to an inland sea without French and British acquiescence , was only a `` semi-independent nation '' , and alleged to be a `` prisoner in the Mediterranean '' :
History of the Roman Empire
The Senate re-classified the provinces at the frontiers ( where the vast majority of the legions were stationed ) as imperial provinces , and gave control of those to Augustus . The peaceful provinces were re-classified as senatorial provinces , governed as they had been during the Republic by members of the Senate sent out annually by the central government . Senators were prohibited from so much as visiting Roman Egypt , given its great wealth and history as a base of power for opposition to the new emperor . Taxes from the Imperial provinces went into the fiscus , the fund administrated by persons chosen by and answerable to Augustus . The revenue from senatorial provinces continued to be sent to the state treasury ( aerarium ) , under the supervision of the Senate . The
History of the Roman Empire
The crisis of 69 had wrought havoc on the army . One of the most marked problems had been the support lent by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best will of their province . This was mostly caused by the placement of native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in , a practice Vespasian stopped ; he mixed auxiliary units with men from other areas of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited . Also , to reduce further the chances of another military coup , he broke up the legions and , instead of placing them in singular concentrations , spread them along the border . Perhaps the most important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion recruitment from exclusively Italy to Gaul and Hispania , in line with the Romanisation of those areas .
Italian nationalism
When France started to annex Corsica in the XVIII century ( and then incorporated during the Napoleon 's empire the regions of Piemonte , Liguria , Toscana and Lazio ) , the first movements to defend Italy 's existence aroused with Paoli revolt and were later followed by the birth of the so - called `` irredentism '' . Monument
Renaissance
The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italy have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence . Italy did not exist as a political entity in the early modern period . Instead , it was divided into smaller city states and territories : the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south , the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the center , the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west respectively , and the Venetians to the east . Fifteenth - century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Europe . Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings ; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire 's heartland .