vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Industrial Revolution
The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries , such as those making nails , hinges , wire and other hardware items . The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron , causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries .
American Civil War
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton , while the 1860 -- 62 crop failures in Europe made the North 's grain exports of critical importance . It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy . It was said that `` King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton '' , as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half . When Britain did face a cotton shortage , it was temporary , being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India . Meanwhile , the war created employment for arms makers , ironworkers , and British ships to transport weapons .
Results of the War of 1812
Although during the War of 1812 the United States ' economy was severely damaged by the British blockade , the aftermath gave a dramatic boost to the manufacturing capabilities of the United States . The British blockade of the American coast created a shortage of cotton cloth in the United States , leading to the creation of a cotton - manufacturing industry , beginning at Waltham , Massachusetts by Francis Cabot Lowell . The war also spurred on construction of the Erie Canal project , which was built to promote commercial links yet was also perceived as having military uses should the need ever arise . As the charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811 , the federal government was ill - prepared to finance the war and resorted to such expediencies as the suspension of specie payment and the issuance of Treasury Notes . These actions set a precedent for future Federal responses to financial crises . Also , this exposure of the nation 's financial weaknesses explained in part the Congressional decision to charter the Second Bank of the United States in 1816 . The readiness of Southern leaders especially John C. Calhoun to support such a measure also indicates a high degree of national feeling . Perhaps the clearest sign of a new sense of national unity was the victorious Democratic - Republican Party , its long - time foes , the Federalists , vanishing from national politics . The result was an Era of Good Feelings with the lowest level of partisanship ever seen .
Industrial Revolution
There were two main values that really drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain . These values were self - interest and an entrepreneurial spirit . Because of these interests , many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution . These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole . Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions .
Industrial Revolution
By 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol . Raw material went in at one end , was smelted into brass and was turned into pans , pins , wire , and other goods . Housing was provided for workers on site . Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton ( whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766 ) were other prominent early industrialists , who employed the factory system . Child
Modern history
During the Gilded Age , there was substantial growth in population in the United States and extravagant displays of wealth and excess of America 's upper - class during the post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction era , in the late 19th century . The wealth polarization derived primarily from industrial and population expansion . The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories , and contributed to the creation of an ethnically diverse industrial working class which produced the wealth owned by rising super-rich industrialists and financiers called the `` robber barons '' . An example is the company of John D. Rockefeller , who was an important figure in shaping the new oil industry . Using highly effective tactics and aggressive practices , later widely criticized , Standard Oil absorbed or destroyed most of its competition .
Law of demand
Initially proposed by Sir Robert Giffen , economists disagree on the existence of Giffen goods in the market . A Giffen good describes an inferior good that as the price increases , demand for the product increases . As an example , during the Irish Potato Famine of the 19th century , potatoes were considered a Giffen good . Potatoes were the largest staple in the Irish diet , so as the price rose it had a large impact on income . People responded by cutting out on luxury goods such as meat and vegetables , and instead bought more potatoes . Therefore , as the price of potatoes increased , so did the quantity demanded .
Industrial Revolution
The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries . Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment . However , it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5 % of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution . Even though slavery accounted for so little , Caribbean - based demand accounted for 12 % of Britain 's industrial output . William
Industrial Revolution
The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by Karl Marx , however , he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology .
History of coal mining
As late as 1895 , India imported large quantities of coal from Britain , but as domestic production increased and was found to be suitable for locomotives and ships , demand for coal imports declined dramatically . India 's export of coal increased , especially to Burma , Ceylon , and the Malay states .
Industrial Revolution
By the 1890s , industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests , as companies like U.S. Steel , General Electric , Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world 's stock markets .
United States
Rapid economic development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of many prominent industrialists . Tycoons like Cornelius Vanderbilt , John D. Rockefeller , and Andrew Carnegie led the nation 's progress in railroad , petroleum , and steel industries . Banking became a major part of the economy , with J.P. Morgan playing a notable role . Edison and Tesla undertook the widespread distribution of electricity to industry , homes , and for street lighting . Henry Ford revolutionized the automotive industry . The American economy boomed , becoming the world 's largest , and the United States achieved great power status . These dramatic changes were accompanied by social unrest and the rise of populist , socialist , and anarchist movements . This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era , which saw significant reforms in many societal areas , including women 's suffrage , alcohol prohibition , regulation of consumer goods , greater antitrust measures to ensure competition and attention to worker conditions .
SS Great Britain
Antony Gibbs & Sons may have intended to employ Great Britain only to exploit a temporary demand for passenger service to the Australian gold fields following the discovery of gold in Victoria in 1851 , but she found long - term employment on this route . For her new role she was given a third refit . Her passenger accommodation was increased from 360 to 730 , and her sail - plan altered to a traditional three - masted , square - rigged pattern . She was fitted with a removable propeller , which could be hauled up on deck by chains to reduce drag when under sail power alone .
History of coal mining
Coal was so abundant in Britain that the supply could be stepped up to meet the rapidly rising demand . In 1700 the annual output of coal was just under 3 million tons . Between 1770 and 1780 the annual output of coal was some 61⁄4 million long tons ( or about the output of a week and a half in the 20th century ) . After 1790 output soared , reaching 16 million long tons by 1815 at the height of the Napoleonic War . By 1830 this had risen to over 30 million tons The miners , less affected by imported labour or machines than were the cotton mill workers , had begun to form trade unions and fight their grim battle for wages against the coal owners and royalty - lessees .
History of rail transport in the United States
By 1880 the nation had 17,800 freight locomotives carrying 23,600 tons of freight , and 22,200 passenger locomotives . The U.S. railroad industry was the nation 's largest employer outside of the agricultural sector . The effects of the American railways on rapid industrial growth were many , including the opening of hundreds of millions of acres of very good farm land ready for mechanization , lower costs for food and all goods , a huge national sales market , the creation of a culture of engineering excellence , and the creation of the modern system of management .
Age of Enlightenment
The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution : `` Economic expansion , increasing urbanization , rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century '' . Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers ( including the literature essential to the public sphere ) . Meanwhile , the colonial experience ( most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century ) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures , leading to the breaking down of `` barriers between cultural systems , religious divides , gender differences and geographical areas '' .
Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt
New Deal defenders argue that the failure of industry to create new jobs in the 1930s was caused primarily by the lack of new technologies and new industries as apart from radio there were few growth industries that emerged in the 1930s compared to the 1920s , when automobiles and electricity created the demand for new products that in turn created many new jobs . By contrast , in the 1930s companies did not hire more workers because they could not sell the increased output that would result .
Factory Acts
The Factory Acts were a series of UK labour law Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to regulate the conditions of industrial employment . The early Acts concentrated on regulating the hours of work and moral welfare of young children employed in cotton mills but were effectively unenforced until the Act of 1833 established a professional Factory Inspectorate . The regulation of working hours was then extended to women by an Act of 1844 . The 1847 Factories Act ( known as the Ten Hour Act ) , together with Acts in 1850 and 1853 remedying defects in the 1847 Act , met a long - standing ( and by 1847 well - organised ) demand by the millworkers for a ten - hour day . The Factory Acts also sought to ameliorate the conditions under which mill - children worked with requirements on ventilation , sanitation , and guarding of machinery . Introduction of the ten - hour day proved to have none of the dire consequences predicted by its opponents , and its apparent success effectively ended theoretical objections to the principle of factory legislation ; from the 1860s onwards more industries were brought within the Factory Act , until by 1910 , Sidney Webb reviewing the cumulative effect of century of factory legislation felt able to write :
Industrial Revolution
Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland . This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart .
Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)
During this period the flourishing of Dutch painters became emblematic of the Golden Age in Dutch culture . At the time , this was just an industry like many others , with offshoots like chemical pigment making . Its rise illustrates the general boom conditions in the country , like the horticultural developments that laid the basis for the sophisticated tulip farming sector ( which had its own speculative bubble , known as the tulip mania ) . By 1636 the tulip bulb became the fourth leading export product of the Netherlands -- after gin , herring and cheese . The price of tulips skyrocketed because of speculation in tulip futures among people who never saw the bulbs . Many men made and lost fortunes overnight , to the consternation of Calvinists who abhorred this artificial frenzy that denied the virtues of moderation , discretion and genuine work . Wars
Industrial Revolution
After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs , and Germany took world leadership , building a strong chemical industry . Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860 -- 1914 era to learn the latest techniques . British scientists by contrast , lacked research universities and did not train advanced students ; instead the practice was to hire German - trained chemists .
Ciompi Revolt
Considering how the Ciompi had seized power , their demands both politically and socially , were modest . Their main concerns included the formation of a guild for wool workers and they also wished to tackle unemployment by increasing wool production . The Ciompi in fact did not demand ownership of cloth production or the cloth factories and their ideals were still based around the traditional guild idea , wishing to protect their economic interests and the situation of their workers .
John C. Calhoun
Tyler and his allies had , since 1843 , devised and encouraged national propaganda promoting Texas annexation , which understated Southern slaveholder 's aspirations regarding the future of Texas . Instead , Tyler chose to portray the annexation of Texas as something that would prove economically beneficial to the nation as a whole . The further introduction of slavery into the vast expanses of Texas and beyond , they argued , would `` diffuse '' rather than concentrate slavery regionally , ultimately weakening white attachment and dependence on slave labor . This theory was yoked to the growing enthusiasm among Americans for Manifest Destiny , a desire to see the social , economic and moral precepts of republicanism spread across the continent . Moreover , Tyler declared that national security was at stake : If foreign powers -- Great Britain in particular -- were to gain influence in Texas , it would be reduced to a British cotton - producing reserve and a base to exert geostrategic influence over North America . Texas might be coerced into relinquishing slavery , inducing slave uprisings in adjoining slave states and deepening sectional conflicts between American free - soil and slave - soil interests . The appointment of Calhoun , with his southern states ' rights reputation -- which some believed was `` synonymous with slavery '' -- threatened to cast doubt on Tyler 's carefully crafted reputation as a nationalist. Tyler , though ambivalent , felt obliged to enlist Calhoun as Secretary of State , because Tyler 's closest confidantes had , in haste , offered the position to the South Carolinian statesmen in the immediate aftermath of the Princeton disaster . Calhoun would be confirmed by Congress by unanimous vote .
Economy of Scotland
During the 18th century , the trade in linen overtook that in wool , peaking at over 12 million yards produced in 1775 . Production remained in cottage industry units but the trading conditions were locked into the modern economy and gave rise to institutions such as the British Linen Bank . By 1770 , Glasgow was the largest linen manufacturer in Britain .
Tariff
The Tudor monarchs , particularly Henry VII ( 1485 - 1509 ) , transformed England from a raw wool exporter into the world 's largest wool manufacturing nation , through tariff ( A Plan of the English Commerce , Daniel Defoe ) .
Industrial Revolution
Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800 , the rolling mill for making rails , and the development of the high pressure steam engine also around 1800 .
Gilded Age
There were only a few scattered cities -- small courthouse towns serviced the farm population . Local politics revolved around the politicians and lawyers based at the courthouse . Mill towns , narrowly focused on textile production or cigarette manufacture , began opening in the Piedmont region especially in the Carolinas . Racial segregation and outward signs of inequality were everywhere , and rarely were challenged . Blacks who violated the color line were liable to expulsion or lynching . Cotton became even more important than before , as poor whites needed the cash that cotton would bring . Cotton prices were much lower than before the war , so everyone was poor . White southerners showed a reluctance to move north , or to move to cities , so the number of small farms proliferated , and they became smaller as the population grew .
Industrial Revolution
In other industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive . Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers . One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen , known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills , and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement .
Steam power during the Industrial Revolution
From mines to mills , steam engines found many uses in a variety of industries . The introduction of steam engines improved productivity and technology , and allowed the creation of smaller and better engines . After Richard Trevithick 's development of the high - pressure engine , transport - applications became possible , and steam engines found their way into boats , railways , farms and road vehicles . Steam engines are an example of how changes brought by industrialization led to even more changes in other areas .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
The 12th and 13th centuries saw a huge development of the English economy . This was partially driven by the growth in the population from around 1.5 million at the time of the creation of the Domesday Book in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300 . England remained a primarily agricultural economy , with the rights of major landowners and the duties of serfs increasingly enshrined in English law . More land , much of it at the expense of the royal forests , was brought into production to feed the growing population or to produce wool for export to Europe . Many hundreds of new towns , some of them planned , sprung up across England , supporting the creation of guilds , charter fairs and other important medieval institutions . The descendants of the Jewish financiers who had first come to England with William the Conqueror played a significant role in the growing economy , along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that came to become major players in the wool trade of the north . Mining increased in England , with the silver boom of the 12th century helping to fuel a fast - expanding currency .
Qing dynasty
The most significant fact of early and mid-Qing social history was population growth . The population doubled during the 18th century , and by 2000 , the population had already quickly exceeded 1.25 billion . One of the main reasons for this growth was the increase in New World crops like peanuts , sweet potatoes , and potatoes , which helped to sustain the people during shortages of harvest for crops such as rice or wheat . This was because these crops were often easier to grow and thus cheaper as well , which led to them becoming staples for poorer farmers . Another reason , aided by the farming of the new crops , was the decrease in the number of deaths previously caused from the dangers of malnutrition . Diseases such as smallpox , which had been quite widespread in the seventeenth century , that had formerly terrorized the population were brought under control due to a new increase in vaccines . In addition , infant deaths were also greatly decreased due to improvements in birthing techniques and childcare performed by doctors and midwives and through an increase in medical books available to the public . There was also a great decrease in the practice of infanticide , which had previously been more prevalent towards but not limited to girls . Such a harsh process had previously been the result of fights for opportunities and livelihood and its drop was likely the most significant reason for China 's rapid growth in population .
Secession in the United States
By the late 1830s tensions between north and south , already aggravated over tariff disputes , begin to rise ominously over slavery and related issues . Many northerners , especially New Englanders , saw themselves as political victims of conspiracies between slaveholders and western expansionists . They viewed the movements to annex Texas and to make war on Mexico as fomented by slaveholders bent on dominating western expansion -- and thereby the national destiny -- with ' slave ' states and a ' slave ' national economy .
History of coal mining
Under John L. Lewis , the United Mine Workers ( UMW ) became the dominant force in the coal fields in the 1930s and 1940s , producing high wages and benefits . In 1914 at the peak there were 180,000 anthracite miners ; by 1970 only 6,000 remained . At the same time steam engines were phased out in railways and factories , and bituminous coal was used primarily for the generation of electricity . Employment in bituminous peaked at 705,000 men in 1923 , falling to 140,000 by 1970 and 70,000 in 2003 . UMW membership among active miners fell from 160,000 in 1980 to only 16,000 in 2005 , as coal mining became more mechanized and non-union miners predominated in the new coal fields .
Technological and industrial history of the United States
Because iron occurs in nature commonly as an oxide , it must be smelted to drive off the oxygen to obtain the metallic form . Bloomery forges were prevalent in the colonies and could produce small batches of iron to be smithed for local needs ( horseshoes , axeblades , plowshares ) but were unable to scale production for exporting or larger - scale industry ( gunmaking , shipbuilding , wheelmaking ) . Blast furnaces creating cast iron and pig iron emerged on large self - sufficient plantations in the mid-17th century to meet these demands , but production was expensive and labor - intensive : forges , furnaces , and waterwheels had to be constructed , huge swaths of forest had to be cleared and the wood rendered into charcoal , and iron ore and limestone had to be mined and transported . By the end of the 18th century , the threat of deforestation forced the English to use coke , a fuel derived from coal , to fire their furnaces . This shift precipitated a drop in iron prices since the process no longer required charcoal , the production of which was labor - intensive . This was a practice that was later adopted in the US as well .