vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Cytosol
The cytosol is the site of most metabolism in prokaryotes , and a large proportion of the metabolism of eukaryotes . For instance , in mammals about half of the proteins in the cell are localized to the cytosol . The most complete data are available in yeast , where metabolic reconstructions indicate that the majority of both metabolic processes and metabolites occur in the cytosol . Major metabolic pathways that occur in the cytosol in animals are protein biosynthesis , the pentose phosphate pathway , glycolysis and gluconeogenesis . The localization of pathways can be different in other organisms , for instance fatty acid synthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plants and in apicoplasts in apicomplexa .
Thymus
The two lobes differ slightly in size and may be united or separated . Thymic tissue sometimes be found scattered on or around the gland .
Human brain
Mast cells are white blood cells that interact in the neuroimmune system in the brain . Brain mast cells are present in a number of structures , and in the meninges ; they mediate in inflammatory conditions and help to maintain the blood - brain - brarrier particularly in those areas where the barrier is absent . Across systems , mast cells serve as the main effector cell through which pathogens can affect the gut -- brain axis .
Thymus
Due to the large numbers of apoptotic lymphocytes , the thymus was originally dismissed as a `` lymphocyte graveyard '' , without functional importance . The importance of the thymus in the immune system was discovered in 1961 by Jacques Miller , by surgically removing the thymus from one day old mice , and observing the subsequent deficiency in a lymphocyte population , subsequently named T cells after the organ of their origin . Recently , advances in immunology have allowed the function of the thymus in T - cell maturation to be more fully understood .
Stem cell
Diabetes Rheumatoid arthritis Parkinson 's disease Alzheimer 's disease Osteoarthritis Stroke and traumatic brain injury repair Learning disability due to congenital disorder Spinal cord injury repair Heart infarction Anti-cancer treatments Baldness reversal Replace missing teeth Repair hearing Restore vision and repair damage to the cornea Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Crohn 's disease Wound healing Male infertility due to absence of spermatogonial stem cells
Apoptosis
In contrast to necrosis , which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury , apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process that confers advantages during an organism 's lifecycle . For example , the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo occurs because cells between the digits undergo apoptosis . Unlike necrosis , apoptosis produces cell fragments called apoptotic bodies that phagocytic cells are able to engulf and quickly remove before the contents of the cell can spill out onto surrounding cells and cause damage to the neighboring cells .
Thymus
As the thymus is the organ of T - cell development , any congenital defect in thymic genesis or a defect in thymocyte development can lead to a profound T cell deficiency in primary immunodeficiency disease . Defects that affect both the T cell and B cell lymphocyte lineages result in severe combined immunodeficiency ( SCID ) . Acquired T cell deficiencies can also affect thymocyte development in the thymus . DiGeorge
Human brain
At any one time , there is about 150mL of cerebrospinal fluid -- most within the subarachnoid space . It is constantly being regenerated and absorbed , and replaces about once every 5 -- 6 hours . In other parts of the body , circulation in the lymphatic vasculature clears extracellular waste products from the cell tissue . For the tissue of the brain , such a system has not yet been identified . However , the presence of a glymphatic pathway has been proposed .
Cytosol
The cytosol has no single function and is instead the site of multiple cell processes . Examples of these processes include signal transduction from the cell membrane to sites within the cell , such as the cell nucleus , or organelles . This compartment is also the site of many of the processes of cytokinesis , after the breakdown of the nuclear membrane in mitosis . Another major function of cytosol is to transport metabolites from their site of production to where they are used . This is relatively simple for water - soluble molecules , such as amino acids , which can diffuse rapidly through the cytosol . However , hydrophobic molecules , such as fatty acids or sterols , can be transported through the cytosol by specific binding proteins , which shuttle these molecules between cell membranes . Molecules taken into the cell by endocytosis or on their way to be secreted can also be transported through the cytosol inside vesicles , which are small spheres of lipids that are moved along the cytoskeleton by motor proteins .
Cytosol
In the eukaryotic cell , the cytosol is within the cell membrane and is part of the cytoplasm , which also comprises the mitochondria , plastids , and other organelles ( but not their internal fluids and structures ) ; the cell nucleus is separate . The cytosol is thus a liquid matrix around the organelles . In prokaryotes , most of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the cytosol , while a few take place in membranes or in the periplasmic space . In eukaryotes , while many metabolic pathways still occur in the cytosol , others are contained within organelles .
Adolescence
Puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production , which in turn causes a number of physical changes . It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of secondary sex characteristics ( for example , a deeper voice and larger adam 's apple in boys , and development of breasts and more curved and prominent hips in girls ) and a strong shift in hormonal balance towards an adult state . This is triggered by the pituitary gland , which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream , initiating a chain reaction to occur . The male and female gonads are subsequently activated , which puts them into a state of rapid growth and development ; the triggered gonads now commence the mass production of the necessary chemicals . The testes primarily release testosterone , and the ovaries predominantly dispense estrogen . The production of these hormones increases gradually until sexual maturation is met . Some boys may develop gynecomastia due to an imbalance of sex hormones , tissue responsiveness or obesity .
Peripheral chemoreceptors
This enzyme 's function positions type I cells to uniquely take advantage of their mitochondria . However , AMPK is an enzyme found in many more types of cells than chemoreceptors because it helps regulate metabolism . The difference may actually lie in the cell 's metabolism , rather than the AMPK enzyme ; peripheral chemoreceptors display very high background rates of oxygen consumption , supported by its dense network of capillaries . Since its base rate of cellular respiration is so high , its AMPK would be more sensitive to reductions in blood borne oxygen , thus allowing it to respond to small variations in oxygen content before other cells begin to feel the effects of its absence . In this way , transduction in peripheral chemoreceptor cells is relatively unique . Its does not require any specialized proteins that change shape in the presence of light or a specific receptor site for a particular tastant . Its necessary components include merely the mitochondria and an enzyme used to regulate its activity common to all aerobic cells , a suite of potassium and calcium channels and neurotransmitters common to many types of nerve cells , and a well - endowed version of the vasculature supporting all aerobic cells . Further research should identify why type I cells exhibit such a high metabolic rate compared to other cell types , as this may be the truly unique feature of the receptor . And thus , a receptor for an aerobic organism 's most basic energy source is composed of collection of cell structures common throughout the body .
Active transport
In pinocytosis , cells engulf liquid particles ( in humans this process occurs in the small intestine , where cells engulf fat droplets ) . In phagocytosis , cells engulf solid particles .
Apoptosis
Apoptosis ( from Ancient Greek ἀπόπτωσις `` falling off '' ) is a process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms . Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes ( morphology ) and death . These changes include blebbing , cell shrinkage , nuclear fragmentation , chromatin condensation , chromosomal DNA fragmentation , and global mRNA decay . Between 50 and 70 billion cells die each day due to apoptosis in the average human adult . For an average child between the ages of 8 and 14 , approximately 20 to 30 billion cells die a day .
Megaloblastic anemia
The gold standard for the diagnosis of Vitamin B deficiency is a low blood level of Vitamin B. A low level of blood Vitamin B is a finding that normally can and should be treated by injections , supplementation , or dietary or lifestyle advice , but it is not a diagnosis . Hypovitaminosis B can result from a number of mechanisms , including those listed above . For determination of cause , further patient history , testing , and empirical therapy may be clinically indicated .
Endocrine system
Secreted hormone From cells Effect Renin ( Primarily ) Juxtaglomerular cells Activates the renin - angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen Erythropoietin ( EPO ) Extraglomerular mesangial cells Stimulate erythrocyte production Calcitriol ( 1 , 25 - dihydroxyvitamin D ) Proximal tubule cells Active form of vitamin D Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH Thrombopoietin stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets
Heart
Small lymphatic networks called plexuses exist beneath each of the three layers of the heart . These networks collect into a main left and a main right trunk , which travel up the groove between the ventricles that exists on the heart 's surface , receiving smaller vessels as they travel up . These vessels then travel into the atrioventricular groove , and receive a third vessel which drains the section of the left ventricle sitting on the diaphragm . The left vessel joins with this third vessel , and travels along the pulmonary artery and left atrium , ending in the inferior tracheobronchial node . The right vessel travels along the right atrium and the part of the right ventricle sitting on the diaphragm . It usually then travels in front of the ascending aorta and then ends in a brachiocephalic node .
White blood cell
White blood cell A scanning electron microscope image of normal circulating human blood . In addition to the irregularly shaped leukocytes , both red blood cells and many small disc - shaped platelets are visible . Details System Immune system Identifiers Acronym ( s ) WBC MeSH D007962 TH H2. 00.04. 1.02001 FMA 62852 Anatomical terms of microanatomy ( edit on Wikidata )
Heart
Blood tests play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of many cardiovascular conditions .
T cell
A T cell , or T lymphocyte , is a type of lymphocyte ( a subtype of white blood cell ) that plays a central role in cell - mediated immunity . T cells can be distinguished from other lymphocytes , such as B cells and natural killer cells , by the presence of a T - cell receptor on the cell surface . They are called T cells because they mature in the thymus from thymocytes ( although some also mature in the tonsils ) . The several subsets of T cells each have a distinct function . The majority of human T cells rearrange their alpha and beta chains on the cell receptor and are termed alpha beta T cells ( αβ T cells ) and are part of the adaptive immune system . Specialized gamma delta T cells , ( a small minority of T cells in the human body , more frequent in ruminants ) , have invariant T - cell receptors with limited diversity , that can effectively present antigens to other T cells and are considered to be part of the innate immune system .
Small intestine
The small intestine supports the body 's immune system . The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host 's immune system . Peyer 's patches , located within the ileum of the small intestine , are an important part of the digestive tract 's local immune system . They are part of the lymphatic system , and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled , and subsequently presented to the immune system .
Ground tissue
Parenchyma ( / pəˈrɛŋkɪmə / ; from Greek παρέγχυμα parenkhyma , `` visceral flesh '' from παρεγχεῖν parenkhein , `` to pour in '' from παρα - para - , `` beside '' , ἐν en - , `` in '' and χεῖν khein , `` to pour '' ) is a versatile ground tissue that generally constitutes the `` filler '' tissue in soft parts of plants . It forms , among other things , the cortex and pith of stems , the cortex of roots , the mesophyll of leaves , the pulp of fruits , and the endosperm of seeds . Parenchyma cells are living cells and may remain meristematic at maturity -- meaning that they are capable of cell division if stimulated . They have thin but flexible cellulose cell walls , and are generally polyhedral when close - packed , but can be roughly spherical when isolated from their neighbours . They have large central vacuoles , which allow the cells to store and regulate ions , waste products , and water . Tissue specialised for food storage is commonly formed of parenchyma cells . Cross
Stem cell
It is possible to collect amniotic stem cells for donors or for autologuous use : the first US amniotic stem cells bank was opened in 2009 in Medford , MA , by Biocell Center Corporation and collaborates with various hospitals and universities all over the world .
Pleurisy
If tuberculosis or cancer is suspected , a small piece of the pleura may be examined under a microscope to make a definitive diagnosis . This is called a biopsy .
Kidney
In humans , the kidneys are located high in the abdominal cavity , one on each side of the spine , and lie in a retroperitoneal position at a slightly oblique angle . The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity , caused by the position of the liver , typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left , and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney . The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3 , and the right is slightly lower . The right kidney sits just below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver . The left sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen . On top of each kidney is an adrenal gland . The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th ribs . Each kidney , with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat : the perirenal fat present between renal fascia and renal capsule and pararenal fat superior to the renal fascia . 1
Anemia
The Mentzer index ( mean cell volume divided by the RBC count ) predicts whether microcytic anemia may be due to iron deficiency or thallasemia , although it requires confirmation . Macrocytic
Insulin
In 1869 , while studying the structure of the pancreas under a microscope , Paul Langerhans , a medical student in Berlin , identified some previously unnoticed tissue clumps scattered throughout the bulk of the pancreas . The function of the `` little heaps of cells '' , later known as the islets of Langerhans , initially remained unknown , but Edouard Laguesse later suggested they might produce secretions that play a regulatory role in digestion . Paul Langerhans ' son , Archibald , also helped to understand this regulatory role . The term `` insulin '' originates from insula , the Latin word for islet / island .
Tyrannosaurus
The presumed soft tissue was called into question by Thomas Kaye of the University of Washington and his co-authors in 2008 . They contend that what was really inside the tyrannosaur bone was slimy biofilm created by bacteria that coated the voids once occupied by blood vessels and cells . The researchers found that what previously had been identified as remnants of blood cells , because of the presence of iron , were actually framboids , microscopic mineral spheres bearing iron . They found similar spheres in a variety of other fossils from various periods , including an ammonite . In the ammonite they found the spheres in a place where the iron they contain could not have had any relationship to the presence of blood . Schweitzer has strongly criticized Kaye 's claims and argues that there is no reported evidence that biofilms can produce branching , hollow tubes like those noted in her study . San Antonio , Schweitzer and colleagues published an analysis in 2011 of what parts of the collagen had been recovered , finding that it was the inner parts of the collagen coil that had been preserved , as would have been expected from a long period of protein degradation . Other research challenges the identification of soft tissue as biofilm and confirms finding `` branching , vessel - like structures '' from within fossilized bone .
Sickle cell disease
In 2001 , it was reported that sickle cell disease had been successfully treated in mice using gene therapy . The researchers used a viral vector to make the mice -- which have essentially the same defect that causes human sickle cell disease -- express production of fetal haemoglobin ( HbF ) , which an individual normally ceases to produce shortly after birth . In humans , using hydroxyurea to stimulate the production of HbF has been known to temporarily alleviate sickle cell disease symptoms . The researchers demonstrated that this gene therapy method is a more permanent way to increase therapeutic HbF production .
German Shepherd
Appropriate calcium levels are vital in developing a strong skeletal system and aid in preventing orthopaedic diseases like Canine Hip Dysplasia . Furthermore , the ratio of calcium and phosphorous must be balanced and at a recommended ratio of 1.2 : 1 to ensure proper bone development and structure . Imbalances in calcium and phosphorous levels can result in various skeletal complications . Excess phosphorous can produce lesions in bones whereas excessive calcium can lead to hypocalcaemia and result in excess bone deposition , interfering with normal bone development . In extreme circumstances of insufficient calcium intake , bone resorption can occur due to the body withdrawing calcium deposits from the skeletal frame as a last resort to fulfill dietary needs .
Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
After a sample is placed into the scanner , the main magnetic field is distorted by susceptibility boundaries within that sample , causing signal dropout ( regions showing no signal ) and spatial distortions in acquired images . For humans or animals the effect is particularly pronounced at air - tissue boundaries such as the sinuses ( due to paramagnetic oxygen in air ) making , for example , the frontal lobes of the brain difficult to image . To restore field homogeneity a set of shim coils is included in the scanner . These are resistive coils , usually at room temperature , capable of producing field corrections distributed as several orders of spherical harmonics .
Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate . In the human skeleton , it consists of 80 bones and is composed of six parts ; the skull bones , the ossicles of the middle ear , the hyoid bone , the rib cage , sternum and the vertebral column . The axial skeleton together with the appendicular skeleton form the complete skeleton . Another definition of axial skeleton is the bones including the vertebrae , sacrum , coccyx , ribs , and sternum .
Heart
The Greek physician Galen ( 2nd century CE ) knew blood vessels carried blood and identified venous ( dark red ) and arterial ( brighter and thinner ) blood , each with distinct and separate functions . Galen , noting the heart as the hottest organ in the body , concluded that it provided heat to the body . The heart did not pump blood around , the heart 's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves . Galen believed the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right through ' pores ' between the ventricles . Air from the lungs passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart and created arterial blood .
Axial skeleton
The rib cage is composed of 12 pairs of ribs plus the sternum for a total of 25 separate bones . The rib cage functions as protection for the vital organs such as the heart and lungs . The ribs are shaped like crescents , with one end flattened and the other end rounded . The rounded ends are attached at joints to the thoracic vertebrae at the back and the flattened ends come together at the sternum , in the front .
Cremation
Not all that remains is bone . There may be melted metal lumps from missed jewellery ; casket furniture ; dental fillings ; and surgical implants , such as hip replacements . Breast implants do not have to be removed before cremation . Large items such as titanium hip replacements ( which tarnish but do not melt ) or casket hinges are usually removed before processing , as they may damage the processor . ( If they are missed at first , they must ultimately be removed before processing is complete , as items such as titanium joint replacements are far too durable to be ground ) . Implants may be returned to the family , but are more commonly sold as ferrous / non-ferrous scrap metal . After the remains are processed , smaller bits of metal such as tooth fillings , and rings ( commonly known as gleanings ) are sieved out and may be later interred in common , consecrated ground in a remote area of the cemetery . They may also be sold as precious metal scrap .
Somatic cell nuclear transfer
A potential use of stem cells genetically matched to a patient would be to create cell lines that have genes linked to a patient 's particular disease . By doing so , an in vitro model could be created , would be useful for studying that particular disease , potentially discovering its pathophysiology , and discovering therapies . For example , if a person with Parkinson 's disease donated his or her somatic cells , the stem cells resulting from SCNT would have genes that contribute to Parkinson 's disease . The disease specific stem cell lines could then be studied in order to better understand the condition .
Hippocampus
There are several navigational cells in the brain that are either in the hippocampus itself or are strongly connected to it , such as the speed cells present in the medial entorhinal cortex . Together these cells form a network that serves as spatial memory . The first of such cells discovered in the 1970s were the place cells , which led to the idea of the hippocampus acting to give a neural representation of the environment in a cognitive map . When the hippocampus is dysfunctional , orientation is affected ; people may have difficulty in remembering how they arrived at a location and how to proceed further . Getting lost is a common symptom of amnesia . Studies with animals have shown that an intact hippocampus is required for initial learning and long - term retention of some spatial memory tasks , in particular ones that require finding the way to a hidden goal . Other cells have been discovered since the finding of the place cells in the rodent brain that are either in the hippocampus or the entorhinal cortex . These have been assigned as head direction cells , grid cells and boundary cells . Speed cells are thought to provide input to the hippocampal grid cells .
Connective tissue
Mesenchyme is a type of connective tissue found in developing organs of embryos that is capable of differentiation into all types of mature connective tissue . Another type of relatively undifferentiated connective tissue is mucous connective tissue , found inside the umbilical cord .