vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever - changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians , who were considered by some such as Aristotle in his Politics as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek . Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek , ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians . Simon Hornblower argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians , taking into consideration their origin , language , cults and customs . Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148 BC soon after the Roman conquest of Macedonia and then the rest of Greece with the defeat of the Achaean League by the Roman Republic at the Battle of Corinth ( 146 BC ) .
Western Roman Empire
In the context of the Western Roman Empire , the term `` barbarian kingdoms '' most often refers to the Germanic kingdoms that sprung from the former Western Roman territory . Their beginnings , together with the end of the Western Roman Empire , marks the transition from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages . The barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman system , specifically in the praetorian prefectures of Gaul and Italy , during the sixth and seventh centuries . 6th
Italian Australians
Until the outbreak of World War II , there was a considerable degree of segregation between Italians and Australians . As an additional reaction , a large proportion of Italians in Australia tended to defer naturalisation ( which could be granted after a period of five years of residence ) until they had finally established their homes in Australia . Consequently , it is not surprising that , with the outbreak of World War II , the Australian opinion of Italian migrants naturally hardened .
Ancient Roman architecture
The Romans walled major cities and towns in areas they saw as vulnerable , and parts of many walls remain incorporated in later defences , as at Córdoba ( 2nd century BC ) , Chester ( earth and wood in the 70s AD , stone from c. 100 ) , and York ( from 70s AD ) . Strategic walls across open country were far rarer , and Hadrian 's Wall ( from 122 ) and the Antonine Wall ( from 142 , abandoned only 8 years after completion ) are the most significant examples , both on the Pictish frontier .
Franchising
Dispute settlement features are only incorporated in some European countries . By not being rigorous , franchising is encouraged . Italy
History of the Roman Empire
The Roman legions , which had reached an unprecedented 50 in number because of the civil wars , were reduced to 28 . Several legions , particularly those with members of doubtful loyalties , were simply demobilised . Other legions were united , a fact hinted by the title Gemina ( Twin ) . Augustus also created nine special cohorts to maintain peace in Italia , with three , the Praetorian Guard , kept in Rome . Control of the fiscus enabled Augustus to ensure the loyalty of the legions through their pay .
Indo-Roman trade relations
Classical geographers such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder were generally slow to incorporate new information into their works and , from their positions as esteemed scholars , were seemingly prejudiced against lowly merchants and their topographical accounts . Ptolemy 's Geography represents somewhat of a break from this since he demonstrated an openness to their accounts and would not have been able to chart the Bay of Bengal so accurately had it not been for the input of traders . It is perhaps no surprise then that Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexander for how to reach `` Cattigara '' ( most likely Oc Eo , Vietnam , where Antonine - period Roman artefacts have been discovered ) in the Magnus Sinus ( i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea ) located east of the Golden Chersonese ( i.e. Malay Peninsula ) . In the 1st - century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , its anonymous Greek - speaking author , a merchant of Roman Egypt , provides such vivid accounts of trade cities in Arabia and India , including travel times from rivers and towns , where to drop anchor , the locations of royal courts , lifestyles of the locals and goods found in their markets , and favorable times of year to sail from Egypt to these places in order to catch the monsoon winds , that it is clear he visited many of these locations .
Geography of Asia
A third definition emphasizes transformation in place from one continent to another . Fahey at first defines Turkey as transcontinental by virtue of being in both Anatolia and the Balkans , neglecting the historical circumstance that the Balkans as part of the Ottoman Empire were once Asian , as was much of North Africa . He then hypothesizes that Turkey , accepted into the European Union , is defined by that circumstance to be European . By this usage , the very region to which `` Asia '' was first applied is now Europe . If it is , Turkey can not be transcontinental by being split between two continents . This sort of paradox only underlines that Asia has no precise definition in the same way that nations do , to whom a mere 100 yards of border may be of great concern .
North Africa
Over a hundred years and more , all Carthaginian territory was eventually conquered by the Romans , resulting in the Carthaginian North African territories becoming the Roman province of Africa in 146 B.C. This led to tension and eventually conflict between Numidia and Rome . The Numidian wars are notable for launching the careers of both Gaius Marius , and Sulla , and stretching the constitutional burden of the Roman republic , as Marius required a professional army , something previously contrary to Roman values to overcome the talented military leader Jugurtha .
Appeasement
Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini had imperial ambitions in Abyssinia . Italy was already in possession of neighboring Eritrea and Somalia . In December 1934 there was a clash between Italian and Abyssinian troops at Walwal , near the border between British and Italian Somaliland , in which Italian troops took possession of the disputed territory and in which 150 Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed . When Italy demanded apologies and compensation from Abyssinia , Abyssinia appealed to the League , Emperor Haile Selassie famously appealing in person to the assembly in Geneva . The League persuaded both sides to seek a settlement under the Italo - Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 but Italy continued troop movements and Abyssinia appealed to the League again . In October 1935 Mussolini launched an attack on Abyssinia . The League declared Italy to be the aggressor and imposed sanctions , but coal and oil were not included ; blocking these , it was thought , would provoke war . Albania , Austria , and Hungary refused to apply sanctions ; Germany and the United States were not in the League . Nevertheless , the Italian economy suffered . The League considered closing off the Suez Canal also , which would have stopped arms to Abyssinia , but , thinking it would be too harsh a measure , they did not do so .
Axis powers
Hitler had advocated an alliance between Germany and Italy since the 1920s . Shortly after being appointed Chancellor , Hitler sent a personal message to Mussolini , declaring `` admiration and homage '' and declaring his anticipation of the prospects of German - Italian friendship and even alliance . Hitler was aware that Italy held concerns over potential German land claims on South Tyrol , and assured Mussolini that Germany was not interested in South Tyrol . Hitler in Mein Kampf had declared that South Tyrol was a non-issue considering the advantages that would be gained from a German -- Italian alliance . After Hitler 's rise to power , the Four Power Directorate proposal by Italy had been looked at with interest by Britain , but Hitler was not committed to it , resulting in Mussolini urging Hitler to consider the diplomatic advantages Germany would gain by breaking out of isolation by entering the Directorate and avoiding an immediate armed conflict . The Four Power Directorate proposal stipulated that Germany would no longer be required to have limited arms and would be granted the right to re-armament under foreign supervision in stages . Hitler completely rejected the idea of controlled rearmament under foreign supervision .
Hellenistic period
Widespread Roman interference in the Greek world was probably inevitable given the general manner of the ascendency of the Roman Republic . This Roman - Greek interaction began as a consequence of the Greek city - states located along the coast of southern Italy . Rome had come to dominate the Italian peninsula , and desired the submission of the Greek cities to its rule . Although they initially resisted , allying themselves with Pyrrhus of Epirus , and defeating the Romans at several battles , the Greek cities were unable to maintain this position and were absorbed by the Roman republic . Shortly afterwards , Rome became involved in Sicily , fighting against the Carthaginians in the First Punic War . The end result was the complete conquest of Sicily , including its previously powerful Greek cities , by the Romans .
Axis powers
In 1932 , Gyula Gömbös and the Party of National Unity rose to power in Hungary , and immediately sought an alliance with Italy . Gömbös sought to alter Hungary 's post -- Treaty of Trianon borders , but knew that Hungary alone was not capable of challenging the Little Entente powers by forming an alliance with Austria and Italy . Mussolini was elated by Gömbös ' offer of alliance with Italy , and they cooperated in seeking to persuade Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss to join a tripartite economic agreement with Italy and Hungary . At the meeting between Gömbös and Mussolini in Rome on 10 November 1932 , the question came up of the sovereignty of Austria in relation to the predicted rise to power in Germany of the Nazi Party . Mussolini was worried about Nazi ambitions towards Austria , and indicated that at least in the short term he was committed to maintaining Austria as a sovereign state . Italy had concerns over a Germany which included Austria laying land claims to German - populated territories of the South Tyrol ( also known as Alto - Adige ) within Italy , which bordered Austria on the Brenner Pass . Gömbös responded to Mussolini that as the Austrians primarily identified as Germans , the Anschluss of Austria to Germany was inevitable , and advised that it would be better for Italy to have a friendly Germany across the Brenner Pass than a hostile Germany bent on entering the Adriatic . Mussolini said he hoped the Anschluss could be postponed as long as possible until the breakout of a European war that he estimated would begin in 1938 . Adolf
Libya
After the Italo - Turkish War ( 1911 -- 1912 ) , Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies . From 1912 to 1927 , the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa . From 1927 to 1934 , the territory was split into two colonies , Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania , run by Italian governors . Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya , constituting roughly 20 % of the total population .
Age of Enlightenment
In the 1970s , study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy , Greece , the Balkans , Poland , Hungary and Russia .
Book of Revelation
The current view is that Revelation was composed in the context of a conflict within the Christian community of Asia Minor over whether to engage with , or withdraw from , the far larger non-Christian community : Revelation chastises those Christians who wanted to reach an accommodation with the Roman cult of empire . This is not to say that Christians in Roman Asia were not suffering , for withdrawal from , and defiance against , the wider Roman society , which imposed very real penalties ; Revelation offered a victory over this reality by offering an apocalyptic hope : in the words of professor Adela Yarbro Collins , `` What ought to be was experienced as a present reality . ''
Western Roman Empire
The weakened frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the empire . Numerous usurpers rose from Britain , including Marcus ( 406 -- 407 ) , Gratian ( 407 ) , and Constantine III who invaded Gaul in 407 . Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the crumbling resources and the need to look after more important frontiers . The weakened rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes , including the Vandals , Alans and Suebi , to cross the river and enter Roman territory in 406 .
Italian Empire
Dalmatia was a strategic region during World War I that both Italy and Serbia intended to seize from Austria - Hungary . The Treaty of London guaranteed Italy the right to annex a large portion of Dalmatia in exchange for Italy 's participation on the Allied side . From 5 -- 6 November 1918 , Italian forces were reported to have reached Lissa , Lagosta , Sebenico , and other localities on the Dalmatian coast . By the end of hostilities in November 1918 , the Italian military had seized control of the entire portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the Treaty of London and by 17 November had seized Fiume as well . In 1918 , Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy 's Governor of Dalmatia . Famous Italian nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio supported the seizure of Dalmatia , and proceeded to Zara ( today 's Zadar ) in an Italian warship in December 1918 .
Blond
Further south , the Iberian peninsula was originally inhabited by Celtiberians outside of Roman control . The gradual Roman conquest of Iberia was completed by the early 1st century AD . The Romans established provinces such as Hispania Terraconensis that were inhabited largely by Gallaeci , whose red and blond - haired descendants ( which also include those of Visigothic origins ) have continued to inhabit northern areas of Spain such as Galicia and Portugal into the modern era . During the medieval period Spanish ladies preferred to dye their hair black , yet by the time of the Renaissance in the 16th century the fashion ( imported from Italy ) was to dye their hair blond or red . Classical
Military history of Italy during World War II
At this time , the British had only 36,000 troops available ( out of about 100,000 under Middle Eastern command ) to defend Egypt , against 236,000 Italian troops . The Italians , however , were not concentrated in one location . They were divided between the 5th army in the west and the 10th army in the east and thus spread out from the Tunisian border in western Libya to Sidi Barrani in Egypt . At Sidi Barrani , Graziani , unaware of the British lack of numerical strength , planned to build fortifications and stock them with provisions , ammunition , and fuel , establish a water pipeline , and extend the via Balbia to that location , which was where the road to Alexandria began . This task was being obstructed by British Royal Navy attacks on Italian supply ships in the Mediterranean . At this stage Italian losses remained minimal , but the efficiency of the British Royal Navy would improve as the war went on . Mussolini was fiercely disappointed with Graziani 's sluggishness . However , according to Bauer he had only himself to blame , as he had withheld the trucks , armaments , and supplies that Graziani had deemed necessary for success . Wavell was hoping to see the Italians overextend themselves before his intended counter at Marsa Matruh . General
Italian nationalism
Vincenzo Gioberti in 1843 in his book On the Civil and Moral Primacy of the Italians , advocated a federal state of Italy led by the Pope .
Four continents
Before the discovery of the New World a commonplace of classical and medieval geography had been the `` three parts '' in which , from Mediterranean and European perspectives , the world was divided : Europe , Asia and Africa . As Laurent de Premierfait , the pre-eminent French translator of Latin literature in the early fifteenth century , informed his readers :
Romance languages
Italo - Western vs. Eastern vs. Southern . This is the scheme followed by Ethnologue , and is based primarily on the outcome of the ten monophthong vowels in Classical Latin . This is discussed more below . West vs. East . This scheme divides the various languages along the La Spezia -- Rimini Line , which runs across north - central Italy just to the north of the city of Florence ( whose speech forms the basis of standard Italian ) . In this scheme , `` East '' includes the languages of central and southern Italy , and the Balkan Romance ( or `` Eastern Romance '' ) languages in Romania , Greece , and elsewhere in the Balkans ; `` West '' includes the languages of Portugal , Spain , France , northern Italy and Switzerland . Sardinian does not easily fit in this scheme . `` Conservative '' vs. `` innovatory '' . This is a non-genetic division whose precise boundaries are subject to debate . Generally , the Gallo - Romance languages ( discussed further below ) form the core `` innovatory '' languages , with standard French generally considered the most innovatory of all , while the languages near the periphery ( which include Spanish , Portuguese , Italian and Romanian ) are `` conservative '' . Sardinian is generally acknowledged the most conservative Romance language , and was also the first language to split off genetically from the rest , possibly as early as the first century BC . Dante famously denigrated the Sardinians for the conservativeness of their speech , remarking that they imitate Latin `` like monkeys imitate men '' . Italo
World War II
On 3 September 1943 , the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy 's armistice with the Allies . Germany with the help of fascists responded by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders , seizing military control of Italian areas , and creating a series of defensive lines . German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German - occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November . The
Renaissance
Even cities and states beyond central Italy , such as the Republic of Florence at this time , were also notable for their merchant Republics , especially the Republic of Venice . Although in practice these were oligarchical , and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy , they did have democratic features and were responsive states , with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty . The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement . Likewise , the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads . Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe , particularly the Levant . Venice was Europe 's gateway to trade with the East , and a producer of fine glass , while Florence was a capital of textiles . The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study .
Italian nationalism
At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Italy initially maintained neutrality , despite its official alliance with Germany and Austria - Hungary since 1882 on the grounds that Germany and Austria - Hungary were waging an aggressive war that it refused to take part in . In 1915 , Italy eventually decided to enter the war on the British and French side against Austria - Hungary and Germany .
New World
In passed days I wrote very fully to you of my return from new countries , which have been found and explored with the ships , at the cost and by the command of this Most Serene King of Portugal ; and it is lawful to call it a new world , because none of these countries were known to our ancestors and all who hear about them they will be entirely new . For the opinion of the ancients was , that the greater part of the world beyond the equinoctial line to the south was not land , but only sea , which they have called the Atlantic ; and even if they have affirmed that any continent is there , they have given many reasons for denying it is inhabited . But this opinion is false , and entirely opposed to the truth . My last voyage has proved it , for I have found a continent in that southern part ; full of animals and more populous than our Europe , or Asia , or Africa , and even more temperate and pleasant than any other region known to us .
Military history of Italy during World War II
The participation of Italy in the Second World War was characterized by a complex framework of ideology , politics , and diplomacy , while its military actions were often heavily influenced by external factors .
Ancient Greece
In the south lay the Peloponnese , itself consisting of the regions of Laconia ( southeast ) , Messenia ( southwest ) , Elis ( west ) , Achaia ( north ) , Korinthia ( northeast ) , Argolis ( east ) , and Arcadia ( center ) . These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece , though with somewhat different boundaries . Mainland Greece to the north , nowadays known as Central Greece , consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west , Locris , Doris , and Phocis in the center , while in the east lay Boeotia , Attica , and Megaris . Northeast lay Thessaly , while Epirus lay to the northwest . Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north , and consisted of Chaonia ( north ) , Molossia ( center ) , and Thesprotia ( south ) . In the northeast corner was Macedonia , originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions , such as Elimeia , Pieria , and Orestis . Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon , the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia , lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West , beyond the Axius river , into Eordaia , Bottiaea , Mygdonia , and Almopia , regions settled by Thracian tribes . To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north , the Thracians to the northeast , and the Illyrians , with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict , to the northwest . Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world , while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean , in Anatolia .
Third Rome
During the second world war , Nazi Germany did subjugate France and the Netherlands , giving it political control over much of Charlemagne 's original empire , however , it saw itself as an entirely German entity with no pan-European identity . It considered itself as the Third German Reich , with the Holy Roman Empire being the first and Imperial Germany being the second , its symbolism was modeled on pre-Romanised pagan Germanic culture , using runes and other pagan symbols in its iconography , and its ultimate goal was to expand ethic Germany , exterminating other European peoples ( especially to the east ) , as opposed to uniting European civilisation .
Military history of Italy during World War II
The Italian entry into the war opened up new fronts in North Africa and the Mediterranean . After Italy entered the war , pressure from Nazi Germany led to the internment in the Campagna concentration camp of some of Italy 's Jewish refugees .