vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Primate
Although they have not been observed to use tools in the wild , lemurs in controlled settings have been shown to be capable of understanding the functional properties of the objects they had been trained to use as tools , performing as well as tool - using haplorhines . Tool
Positron emission tomography
Pharmacokinetics : In pre-clinical trials , it is possible to radiolabel a new drug and inject it into animals . Such scans are referred to as biodistribution studies . The uptake of the drug , the tissues in which it concentrates , and its eventual elimination , can be monitored far more quickly and cost effectively than the older technique of killing and dissecting the animals to discover the same information . Much more commonly , drug occupancy at a purported site of action can be inferred indirectly by competition studies between unlabeled drug and radiolabeled compounds known apriori to bind with specificity to the site . A single radioligand can be used this way to test many potential drug candidates for the same target . A related technique involves scanning with radioligands that compete with an endogenous ( naturally occurring ) substance at a given receptor to demonstrate that a drug causes the release of the natural substance .
Computer mouse
Some systems allow two or more mice to be used at once as input devices . 16 - bit era home computers such as the Amiga used this to allow computer games with two players interacting on the same computer ( Lemmings and The Settlers for example ) . The same idea is sometimes used in collaborative software , e.g. to simulate a whiteboard that multiple users can draw on without passing a single mouse around .
Positron emission tomography
Radionuclides used in PET scanning are typically isotopes with short half - lives such as carbon - 11 ( ~ 20 min ) , nitrogen - 13 ( ~ 10 min ) , oxygen - 15 ( ~ 2 min ) , fluorine - 18 ( ~ 110 min ) , gallium - 68 ( ~ 67 min ) , zirconium - 89 ( ~ 78.41 hours ) , or rubidium - 82 ( ~ 1.27 min ) . These radionuclides are incorporated either into compounds normally used by the body such as glucose ( or glucose analogues ) , water , or ammonia , or into molecules that bind to receptors or other sites of drug action . Such labelled compounds are known as radiotracers . PET technology can be used to trace the biologic pathway of any compound in living humans ( and many other species as well ) , provided it can be radiolabeled with a PET isotope . Thus , the specific processes that can be probed with PET are virtually limitless , and radiotracers for new target molecules and processes are continuing to be synthesized ; as of this writing there are already dozens in clinical use and hundreds applied in research . At present , by far the most commonly used radiotracer in clinical PET scanning is fluorodeoxyglucose ( also called FDG or fludeoxyglucose ) , an analogue of glucose that is labeled with fluorine - 18 . This radiotracer is used in essentially all scans for oncology and most scans in neurology , and thus makes up the large majority of all of the radiotracer ( > 95 % ) used in PET and PET - CT scanning .
Retina
A recent University of Pennsylvania study calculated the approximate bandwidth of human retinas is 8.75 megabits per second , whereas guinea pig retinas transfer at 875 kilobits .
Insulin
Within vertebrates , the amino acid sequence of insulin is strongly conserved . Bovine insulin differs from human in only three amino acid residues , and porcine insulin in one . Even insulin from some species of fish is similar enough to human to be clinically effective in humans . Insulin in some invertebrates is quite similar in sequence to human insulin , and has similar physiological effects . The strong homology seen in the insulin sequence of diverse species suggests that it has been conserved across much of animal evolutionary history . The C - peptide of proinsulin ( discussed later ) , however , differs much more among species ; it is also a hormone , but a secondary one . SS
Student's t-test
The independent samples t - test is used when two separate sets of independent and identically distributed samples are obtained , one from each of the two populations being compared . For example , suppose we are evaluating the effect of a medical treatment , and we enroll 100 subjects into our study , then randomly assign 50 subjects to the treatment group and 50 subjects to the control group . In this case , we have two independent samples and would use the unpaired form of the t - test . The randomization is not essential here -- if we contacted 100 people by phone and obtained each person 's age and gender , and then used a two - sample t - test to see whether the mean ages differ by gender , this would also be an independent samples t - test , even though the data are observational .
Human brain
Information about the structure and function of the human brain comes from a variety of experimental methods , including animals and humans . Information about brain trauma and stroke has provided information about the function of parts of the brain and the effects of brain damage . Neuroimaging is used to visualise the brain and record brain activity . Electrophysiology is used to measure , record and monitor the electrical activity of the cortex . Measurements may be of local field potentials of cortical areas , or of the activity of a single neuron . An electroencephalogram can record the electrical activity of the cortex using electrodes placed non-invasively on the scalp .
Vasopressin
A very similar substance , lysine vasopressin ( LVP ) or lypressin , has the same function in pigs and is used in human AVP deficiency . Kidney
Nickel
Nickel compounds are classified as human carcinogens based on increased respiratory cancer risks observed in epidemiological studies of sulfidic ore refinery workers . This is supported by the positive results of the NTP bioassays with Ni sub-sulfide and Ni oxide in rats and mice . The human and animal data consistently indicate a lack of carcinogenicity via the oral route of exposure and limit the carcinogenicity of nickel compounds to respiratory tumours after inhalation . Nickel metal is classified as a suspect carcinogen ; there is consistency between the absence of increased respiratory cancer risks in workers predominantly exposed to metallic nickel and the lack of respiratory tumours in a rat lifetime inhalation carcinogenicity study with nickel metal powder . In the rodent inhalation studies with various nickel compounds and nickel metal , increased lung inflammations with and without bronchial lymph node hyperplasia or fibrosis were observed . In rat studies , oral ingestion of water - soluble nickel salts can trigger perinatal mortality effects in pregnant animals . Whether these effects are relevant to humans is unclear as epidemiological studies of highly exposed female workers have not shown adverse developmental toxicity effects .
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine has been implicated in learning and memory in several ways . The anticholinergic drug , scopolamine , impairs acquisition of new information in humans and animals . In animals , disruption of the supply of acetylcholine to the neocortex impairs the learning of simple discrimination tasks , comparable to the acquisition of factual information and disruption of the supply of acetylcholine to the hippocampus and adjacent cortical areas produces forgetting comparable to anterograde amnesia in humans .
Correlation does not imply causation
However , sometimes people commit the opposite fallacy -- dismissing correlation entirely . This would dismiss a large swath of important scientific evidence . Since it may be difficult or ethically impossible to run controlled double - blind studies , correlational evidence from several different angles may be useful for prediction despite failing to provide evidence for causation . For example , social workers might be interested in knowing how child abuse relates to academic performance . Although it would be unethical to perform an experiment in which children are randomly assigned to receive or not receive abuse , researchers can look at existing groups using a non-experimental correlational design . If in fact a negative correlation exists between abuse and academic performance , researchers could potentially use this knowledge of a statistical correlation to make predictions about children outside the study who experience abuse , even though the study failed to provide causal evidence that abuse decreases academic performance . The combination of limited available methodologies with the dismissing correlation fallacy has on occasion been used to counter a scientific finding . For example , the tobacco industry has historically relied on a dismissal of correlational evidence to reject a link between tobacco and lung cancer , as did biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher .
Scientific method
This is an investigation of whether the real world behaves as predicted by the hypothesis . Scientists ( and other people ) test hypotheses by conducting experiments . The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations of the real world agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis . If they agree , confidence in the hypothesis increases ; otherwise , it decreases . Agreement does not assure that the hypothesis is true ; future experiments may reveal problems . Karl Popper advised scientists to try to falsify hypotheses , i.e. , to search for and test those experiments that seem most doubtful . Large numbers of successful confirmations are not convincing if they arise from experiments that avoid risk . Experiments should be designed to minimize possible errors , especially through the use of appropriate scientific controls . For example , tests of medical treatments are commonly run as double - blind tests . Test personnel , who might unwittingly reveal to test subjects which samples are the desired test drugs and which are placebos , are kept ignorant of which are which . Such hints can bias the responses of the test subjects . Furthermore , failure of an experiment does not necessarily mean the hypothesis is false . Experiments always depend on several hypotheses , e.g. , that the test equipment is working properly , and a failure may be a failure of one of the auxiliary hypotheses . ( See the Duhem -- Quine thesis . ) Experiments can be conducted in a college lab , on a kitchen table , at CERN 's Large Hadron Collider , at the bottom of an ocean , on Mars ( using one of the working rovers ) , and so on . Astronomers do experiments , searching for planets around distant stars . Finally , most individual experiments address highly specific topics for reasons of practicality . As a result , evidence about broader topics is usually accumulated gradually . Analysis
Carbon dioxide
There are few studies of the health effects of long - term continuous CO exposure on humans and animals at levels below 1 % . Occupational CO exposure limits have been set in the United States at 0.5 % ( 5000 ppm ) for an eight - hour period . At this CO concentration , International Space Station crew experienced headaches , lethargy , mental slowness , emotional irritation , and sleep disruption . Studies in animals at 0.5 % CO have demonstrated kidney calcification and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure . A study of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated significant effects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as low as 0.1 % ( 1000ppm ) CO likely due to CO induced increases in cerebral blood flow . Another study observed a decline in basic activity level and information usage at 1000 ppm , when compared to 500 ppm . Ventilation
Koko (gorilla)
As with other great ape language experiments , the extent to which Koko has mastered and demonstrates language through the use of these signs is disputed . But it is generally accepted that she does not use syntax or grammar , and that her use of language does not exceed that of a young human child .
Barn owl
A nest box can also be regarded as an animal surveillance device . Surveilling animals can lead to the discovery of new scientific and industrial fields . For example , biologists and engineers can work on barn owl surveillance techniques and devices , while social scientists document the practices that cause humans to observe an animal . While the diet of the barn owl has been studied , other areas like breeding success are not well known . Nest boxes provide direct physical access to the breeding location .
Peter and Rosemary Grant
In 1965 , Peter Grant accepted tenure at McGill University in Montreal . He created a method to test the Competition Hypothesis to see if it worked today as it did in the past . This research was done on grassland voles and woodland mice . The study looked at the competitiveness between populations of rodents and among rodent species . In his article `` Interspecific Competition Among Rodents '' , he concluded that competitive interaction for space is common among many rodent species , not just the species that have been studied in detail . Grant also states that there are many causes for increased competition : reproduction , resources , amount of space , and invasion of other species .
Sensory processing
In the future , research on sensory integration will be used to better understand how different sensory modalities are incorporated within the brain to help us perform even the simplest of tasks . For example , we do not currently have the understanding needed to comprehend how neural circuits transform sensory cues into changes in motor activities . More research done on the sensorimotor system can help understand how these movements are controlled . This understanding can potentially be used to learn more about how to make better prosthetics , and eventually help patients who have lost the use of a limb . Also , by learning more about how different sensory inputs can combine can have profound effects on new engineering approaches using robotics . The robot 's sensory devices may take in inputs of different modalities , but if we understand multisensory integration better , we might be able to program these robots to convey these data into a useful output to better serve our purposes .
Rabbit
The `` rabbit test '' is a term , first used in 1949 , for the Friedman test , an early diagnostic tool for detecting a pregnancy in humans . It is a common misconception ( or perhaps an urban legend ) that the test - rabbit would die if the woman was pregnant . This led to the phrase `` the rabbit died '' becoming a euphemism for a positive pregnancy test .
Mechanism of action of aspirin
After five years of collaboration , Collier arranged for Piper to work with pharmacologist John Vane at the Royal College of Surgeons of England , in order to learn Vane 's new bioassay methods , which seemed like a possible solution to the in vitro testing failures . Vane and Piper tested the biochemical cascade associated with anaphylactic shock ( in extracts from guinea pig lungs , applied to tissue from rabbit aortas ) . They found that aspirin inhibited the release of an unidentified chemical generated by guinea pig lungs , a chemical that caused rabbit tissue to contract . By 1971 , Vane identified the chemical ( which they called `` rabbit - aorta contracting substance , '' or RCS ) as a prostaglandin . In a June 23 , 1971 paper in the journal Nature , Vane and Piper suggested that aspirin and similar drugs ( the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs ) worked by blocking the production of prostaglandins . For this discovery , Vane was awarded both a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982 and a knighthood . Later research showed that NSAIDs such as aspirin worked by inhibiting cyclooxygenase , the enzyme responsible for converting arachidonic acid into a prostaglandin .
Rabbit
In addition to their meat , rabbits are used for their wool , fur , and pelts , as well as their nitrogen - rich manure and their high - protein milk . Production industries have developed domesticated rabbit breeds ( such as the well - known Angora rabbit ) to efficiently fill these needs .
Scientific method
Sometimes experimenters may make systematic errors during their experiments , veer from standard methods and practices ( Pathological science ) for various reasons , or , in rare cases , deliberately report false results . Occasionally because of this then , other scientists might attempt to repeat the experiments in order to duplicate the results . Archiving
Xenon
Gamma emission from the radioisotope Xe of xenon can be used to image the heart , lungs , and brain , for example , by means of single photon emission computed tomography . Xe has also been used to measure blood flow .
Neuron
In 1937 , John Zachary Young suggested that the squid giant axon could be used to study neuronal electrical properties . Being larger than but similar in nature to human neurons , squid cells were easier to study . By inserting electrodes into the giant squid axons , accurate measurements were made of the membrane potential .
Graphical user interface
The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements . Beyond computers , GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players , portable media players , gaming devices , smartphones and smaller household , office and industrial controls . The term GUI tends not to be applied to other lower - display resolution types of interfaces , such as video games ( where head - up display ( HUD ) is preferred ) , or not including flat screens , like volumetric displays because the term is restricted to the scope of two - dimensional display screens able to describe generic information , in the tradition of the computer science research at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center .
Caenorhabditis elegans
In 1963 , Sydney Brenner proposed using C. elegans as a model organism for the investigation primarily of neural development in animals . It is one of the simplest organisms with a nervous system . The neurons do not fire action potentials , and do not express any voltage - gated ion channels . In the hermaphrodite , this system comprises 302 neurons the pattern of which has been comprehensively mapped , in what is known as a connectome , and shown to be a small - world network . Research has explored the neural and molecular mechanisms that control several behaviors of C. elegans , including chemotaxis , thermotaxis , mechanotransduction , learning , memory , and mating behaviour . Brenner also chose it as it is easy to grow in bulk populations , and convenient for genetic analysis . It is a multicellular eukaryotic organism , yet is simple enough to be studied in great detail . The transparency of C. elegans facilitates the study of cellular differentiation and other developmental processes in the intact organism . The spicules in the male clearly distinguish males from females . Strains are cheap to breed and can be frozen . When subsequently thawed , they remain viable , allowing long - term storage . Maintenance is easy when compared to other multicellular model organisms , a few hundred nematodes can be kept on a single agar plate and suitable growth medium . Brenner described the use of a mutant of E. Coli -- OP50 . OP50 is a uracil - requiring organism and its deficiency in the plate prevents the overgrowth of bacteria which would obscure the worms .
Koko (gorilla)
Criticism from some scientists centers on the fact that while publications often appear in the popular press about Koko , scientific publications with substantial data are fewer in number . Other researchers argue that Koko does not understand the meaning behind what she is doing and learns to complete the signs simply because the researchers reward her for doing so ( indicating that her actions are the product of operant conditioning ) . Another concern that has been raised about Koko 's ability to express coherent thoughts through signs is that interpretation of the gorilla 's conversation is left to the handler , who may see improbable concatenations of signs as meaningful . For example , when Koko signs `` sad '' there is no way to tell whether she means it with the connotation of `` How sad . '' Following Patterson 's initial publications in 1978 , a series of critical evaluations of her reports of signing behavior in great apes argued that video evidence suggested that Koko was simply being prompted by their trainers ' unconscious cues to display specific signs , in what is commonly called the Clever Hans effect . Such debate requires careful consideration of what it means to `` learn '' or `` use '' a language ( see Animal language for further discussion ) .
Horses in warfare
Horses were not the only equids used to support human warfare . Donkeys have been used as pack animals from antiquity to the present . Mules were also commonly used , especially as pack animals and to pull wagons , but also occasionally for riding . Because mules are often both calmer and hardier than horses , they were particularly useful for strenuous support tasks , such as hauling supplies over difficult terrain . However , under gunfire , they were less cooperative than horses , so were generally not used to haul artillery on battlefields . The size of a mule and work to which it was put depended largely on the breeding of the mare that produced the mule . Mules could be lightweight , medium weight , or even , when produced from draught horse mares , of moderate heavy weight .
Positron emission tomography
Neuropsychology / Cognitive neuroscience : To examine links between specific psychological processes or disorders and brain activity . Psychiatry : Numerous compounds that bind selectively to neuroreceptors of interest in biological psychiatry have been radiolabeled with C - 11 or F - 18 . Radioligands that bind to dopamine receptors ( D1 , D2 receptor , reuptake transporter ) , serotonin receptors ( 5HT1A , 5HT2A , reuptake transporter ) opioid receptors ( mu ) and other sites have been used successfully in studies with human subjects . Studies have been performed examining the state of these receptors in patients compared to healthy controls in schizophrenia , substance abuse , mood disorders and other psychiatric conditions . Stereotactic surgery and radiosurgery : PET - image guided surgery facilitates treatment of intracranial tumors , arteriovenous malformations and other surgically treatable conditions .
Scientific method
If an experiment can not be repeated to produce the same results , this implies that the original results might have been in error . As a result , it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times , especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of experimental error . For significant or surprising results , other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves , especially if those results would be important to their own work . External
Correlation does not imply causation
Well - designed experimental studies replace equality of individuals as in the previous example by equality of groups . The objective is to construct two groups that are similar except for the treatment that the groups receive . This is achieved by selecting subjects from a single population and randomly assigning them to two or more groups . The likelihood of the groups behaving similarly to one another ( on average ) rises with the number of subjects in each group . If the groups are essentially equivalent except for the treatment they receive , and a difference in the outcome for the groups is observed , then this constitutes evidence that the treatment is responsible for the outcome , or in other words the treatment causes the observed effect . However , an observed effect could also be caused `` by chance '' , for example as a result of random perturbations in the population . Statistical tests exist to quantify the likelihood of erroneously concluding that an observed difference exists when in fact it does not ( for example see P - value ) .