vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Wales
Wales has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29,000 years . Continuous human habitation dates from the end of the last ice age , between 12,000 and 10,000 years before present ( BP ) , when Mesolithic hunter - gatherers from central Europe began to migrate to Great Britain . At that time sea levels were much lower than today , and the shallower parts of what is now the North Sea were dry land . The east coast of present day England and the coasts of present day Denmark , Germany and the Netherlands were connected by the former landmass known as Doggerland , forming the British Peninsula on the European mainland . Wales was free of glaciers by about 10,250 BP , the warmer climate allowing the area to become heavily wooded . The post-glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland , forming the Irish Sea . Doggerland was submerged by the North Sea and , by 8,000 BP , the British Peninsula had become an island . By the beginning of the Neolithic ( c . 6,000 BP ) sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33 feet ( 10 metres ) lower than today . John Davies has theorised that the story of Cantre'r Gwaelod 's drowning and tales in the Mabinogion , of the waters between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower , may be distant folk memories of this time .
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia , descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to British colonisation . The time of arrival of the first Indigenous Australians is a matter of debate among researchers . The earliest definitely human remains found in Australia are those of Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady , which have been dated to around 50,000 years BP . Recent archaeological evidence from the analysis of charcoal and artifacts revealing human use has pushed this date back further to around 65,000 B.P. Luminescence dating has suggested habitation in Arnhem Land as far back as 60,000 years BP . Genetic research has inferred a date of habitation as early as 80,000 years BP . Other estimates have ranged up to 100,000 years and 125,000 years ago .
Catalonia
The Neolithic era began in Catalonia around 5000 BC , although the population was slower to develop fixed settlements than in other places , thanks to the abundance of woods , which allowed the continuation of a fundamentally hunter - gatherer culture .
Celtic Britons
6th Century AD ; Rhegin ( essentially modern Sussex and eastern Hampshire ) was likely fully conquered by 510 AD , Ynys Weith ( Isle of Wight ) fell in 530 AD , Caer Colun ( essentially modern Essex ) by 540 AD , The Gaels arrived on the north west coast of Britain from Ireland , dispossessed the native Britons and founded Dal Riata which encompassed modern Argyll , Skye and Iona between 500 and 560 AD . Deifr ( Deira ) which encompassed modern day Teesside , Wearside , Tyneside and Humberside fell to the Anglo - Saxons in 559 AD and Deira became an Anglo - Saxon kingdom after this point . Caer Went had officially disappeared by 575 AD becoming the Anglo - Saxon kingdom of East Anglia . Gwent was only partly conquered ; its capital Caer Gloui ( Gloucester ) was taken by the Anglo - Saxons in 577 AD , handing Gloucestershire and Wiltshire to the invaders , while the westernmost part remained in Brittonic hands , and continued to exist in modern Wales .
Celts
According to Aristotle , most `` belligerent nations '' were strongly influenced by their women , but the Celts were unusual because their men openly preferred male lovers ( Politics II 1269b ) . H.D. Rankin in Celts and the Classical World notes that `` Athenaeus echoes this comment ( 603a ) and so does Ammianus ( 30.9 ) . It seems to be the general opinion of antiquity . '' In book XIII of his Deipnosophists , the Roman Greek rhetorician and grammarian Athenaeus , repeating assertions made by Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC ( Bibliotheca historica 5 : 32 ) , wrote that Celtic women were beautiful but that the men preferred to sleep together . Diodorus went further , stating that `` the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused '' . Rankin argues that the ultimate source of these assertions is likely to be Posidonius and speculates that these authors may be recording male `` bonding rituals '' .
Catalonia
The Chalcolithic ( Eneolithic ) period developed in Catalonia between 2500 and 1800 BC , with the beginning of the construction of copper objects . The Bronze Age occurred between 1800 and 700 BC . There are few remnants of this era , but there were some known settlements in the low Segre zone . The Bronze Age coincided with the arrival of the Indo - Europeans through the Urnfield Culture , whose successive waves of migration began around 1200 BC , and they were responsible for the creation of the first proto - urban settlements . Around the middle of the 7th century BC , the Iron Age arrived in Catalonia .
Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
As the period moved forward , especially around the 3rd millennium , new and complex realities would appear strongly linked to the metal , like the impressive fortified villages of Los Millares ( Spain ) , Vila Nova de Sao Pedro ( Portugal ) or the more modest cairn next to Copa Hill ( United Kingdom ) apparently destinated to control the centres of extraction , or the equally stunning and generalized cultural phenomenons of Megalithism , Rock Art , Bell Beakers Vessels ... that are known from Scandinavia to the South of Spain and from Scotland to Turkey .
France–United Kingdom relations
For the next five hundred years , there was much interaction between the two regions , as both Britain and France were under Roman rule . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , this was followed by another five hundred years with very little interaction between the two , as both were invaded by different Germanic tribes . Anglo - Saxonism rose from a mixture of Brythonism and Scandinavian immigration in Britain to conquer the Picts and Gaels . France saw intermixture with and partial conquest by Germanic tribes such as the Salian Franks to create the Frankish kingdoms . Christianity as a religion spread through all areas involved during this period , replacing the Germanic , Celtic and pre-Celtic forms of worship . The deeds of chieftains in this period would produce the legendaria around King Arthur and Camelot - now believed to be a legend based on the deeds of many early medieval British chieftains - and the more historically verifiable Charlemagne , the Frankish chieftain who founded the Holy Roman Empire throughout much of Western Europe . At the turn of the second millennium , the British Isles were primarily involved with the Scandinavian world , while France 's main foreign relationship was with the Holy Roman Empire .
Brittany
Brittany is home to many megalithic monuments ; the words menhir and dolmen come from the Breton language . The largest menhir alignments are the Carnac stones . Other major sites include the Barnenez cairn , the Locmariaquer megaliths , the Menhir de Champ - Dolent , the Mane Braz tumulus and the Gavrinis tomb . Monuments from the Roman period are rare , but include a large temple in Corseul and scarce ruins of villas and city walls in Rennes and Nantes .
History of the United Kingdom
Part of a series on the History of the British Isles Overview ( show ) United Kingdom England Isle of Wight Isles of Scilly Scotland Shetland Orkney Inner Hebrides Outer Hebrides Wales Anglesey Northern Ireland Ireland Isle of Man ( Mann ) Channel Islands Jersey Guernsey Prehistoric period ( show ) Prehistoric Britain Prehistoric England Prehistoric Scotland Prehistoric Shetland Prehistoric Orkney Prehistoric Wales Prehistoric Ireland Prehistoric Mann Classical period ( show ) Roman Britain Roman Scotland Roman Wales Protohistoric Ireland , Roman Ireland Sub-Roman Britain Medieval period ( show ) Medieval England Early medieval England High medieval England Late medieval England Medieval Scotland Early medieval Scotland High medieval Scotland Late medieval Scotland Medieval Wales Early medieval Wales High medieval Wales Late medieval Wales Medieval Ireland Early medieval Ireland High medieval Ireland Late medieval Ireland Medieval Mann Early modern period ( show ) Early modern Britain Early modern England Early modern Scotland Early modern Wales Early modern Ireland Early modern Mann Late modern period ( show ) United Kingdom ( since 1707 ) Victorian period Edwardian period First World War Interwar period Second World War Post-war period ( political history ) Post-war period ( social history ) Late modern Ireland Late modern Mann
Meroë
The site of Meroë was brought to the knowledge of Europeans in 1821 by the French mineralogist Frédéric Cailliaud ( 1787 -- 1869 ) , who published an illustrated in - folio describing the ruins . His work included the first publication of the southernmost known Latin inscription .
Catalonia
In pre-Roman times , the area that is now called Catalonia in the north - east of Iberian Peninsula -- like the rest of the Mediterranean side of the peninsula -- was populated by the Iberians . The Iberians of this area -- the Ilergetes , Indigetes and Lacetani ( Cerretains ) -- also maintained relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean . Some urban agglomerations became relevant , including Ilerda ( Lleida ) inland , Hibera ( perhaps Amposta or Tortosa ) or Indika ( Ullastret ) . Coastal trading colonies were established by the ancient Greeks , who settled around the Gulf of Roses , in Emporion ( Empúries ) and Roses in the 8th century BC . The Carthaginians briefly ruled the territory in the course of the Second Punic War and traded with the surrounding Iberian population .
Segovia
The first recorded mention of a settlement in what is today Segovia was a Celtic possession . Control later passed into the hands of the Romans . The city is a possible site of the battle in 75 BCE where Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius was victorious over Quintus Sertorius and Hirtuleius . Hirtuleius died in the fighting .
Celts
At the battle of Telamon in 225 BC , a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed .
Slash-and-burn
Tribes in pre-Roman Italy ( including the Etruscans , Umbrians , Ligurians , Sabines , Latins , Campanians , Apulians , Saliscans , and Sabellians ) apparently lived in temporary locations . They cultivated small patches of land , kept sheep and cattle , traded with foreign merchants , and occasionally fought . These Italic groups developed identities as settlers and warriors around 900 BC . They built forts in the mountains which are studied today , as are the ruins of a large Samnite temple and theater at Pietrabbondante .
Celtic Britons
At the same time , some Britons established themselves in what is now called Brittany . There they set up their own small kingdoms and the Breton language developed there from Brittonic Insular Celtic rather than Gaulish or Frankish . A further Brittonic colony , Britonia , was also set up at this time in Gallaecia in northwestern Spain .
Celts
In the main , the evidence is of tribes being led by kings , although some argue that there is also evidence of oligarchical republican forms of government eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome . Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups : a warrior aristocracy ; an intellectual class including professions such as druid , poet , and jurist ; and everyone else . In historical times , the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of tanistry , which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of primogeniture in which succession goes to the first - born son . Stone
European exploration of Africa
In 1651 , the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia ( a vassal of the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth ) gained a colony in Africa on St. Andrew 's Island at the Gambia River and established the Jacob Fort there . The Duchy also took other local land including St. Mary Island ( modern day Banjul ) and Fort Jillifree
Celts
The Celtiberian group in the Upper - Douro Upper - Tagus Upper - Jalón area . Archaeological data suggest a continuity at least from the 6th century BC . In this early period , the Celtiberians inhabited in hill - forts ( Castros ) . Around the end of the 3rd century BC , Celtiberians adopted more urban ways of life . From the 2nd century BC , they minted coins and wrote inscriptions using the Celtiberian script . These inscriptions make the Celtiberian Language the only Hispano - Celtic language classified as Celtic with unanimous agreement . In the late period , before the Roman Conquest , both archaeological evidence and Roman sources suggest that the Celtiberians were expanding into different areas in the Peninsula ( e.g. Celtic Baeturia ) . The Vetton group in the western Meseta , between the Tormes , Douro and Tagus Rivers . They were characterised by the production of Verracos , sculptures of bulls and pigs carved in granite . The Vaccean group in the central Douro valley . They were mentioned by Roman sources already in the 220 BC . Some of their funerary rituals suggest strong influences from their Celtiberian neighbours . Triskelion
First Nations
Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD , but prolonged contact came only after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries . European written accounts noted friendliness on the part of the First Nations , who profited in trade with Europeans . Such trade strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation . The Aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million in the late 15th century . The effect of European colonization was a forty to eighty percent Aboriginal population decrease post-contact . This is attributed to various factors , including repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza , measles and smallpox ( to which they had no natural immunity ) , inter-nation conflicts over the fur trade , conflicts with colonial authorities and settlers and loss of land and a subsequent loss of nation self - suffiency . For example , during the late 1630s , smallpox killed over half of the Huron , who controlled most of the early fur trade in what became Canada . Reduced to fewer than 10,000 people , the Huron were attacked by the Iroquois , their traditional enemies . In the Maritimes , the Beothuk disappeared entirely .
Celtic music
In Celtic Music : A Complete Guide , June Skinner Sawyers acknowledges six Celtic nationalities divided into two groups according to their linguistic heritage . The Q - Celtic nationalities are the Irish , Scottish and Manx peoples , while the P - Celtic groups are the Cornish , Bretons and Welsh peoples . Musician Alan Stivell uses a similar dichotomy , between the Gaelic ( Irish / Scottish / Manx ) and the Brythonic ( Breton / Welsh / Cornish ) branches , which differentiate `` mostly by the extended range ( sometimes more than two octaves ) of Irish and Scottish melodies and the closed range of Breton and Welsh melodies ( often reduced to a half - octave ) , and by the frequent use of the pure pentatonic scale in Gaelic music . ''
Lithuania
The first people settled in the territory of Lithuania after the last glacial period in the 10th millennium BC : Kunda , Neman and Narva cultures . They were traveling hunters and did not form stable settlements . In the 8th millennium BC , the climate became much warmer , and forests developed . The inhabitants of what is now Lithuania then traveled less and engaged in local hunting , gathering and fresh - water fishing . Agriculture did not emerge until the 3rd millennium BC due to a harsh climate and terrain and a lack of suitable tools to cultivate the land . Crafts and trade also started to form at this time . Over a millennium , the Indo - Europeans , who arrived in the 3rd -- 2nd millennium BC , mixed with the local population and formed various Baltic tribes . Baltic
European exploration of Africa
Naval charts of 1339 show that the Canary Islands were already known to Europeans . In 1341 , Portuguese and Italian explorers prepared a joint expedition . In 1342 the Catalans organized an expedition captained by Francesc Desvalers to the Canary Islands that set sail from Majorca . In 1344 , Pope Clement VI named French admiral Luis de la Cerda Prince of Fortune , and sent him to conquer the Canaries . In 1402 , Jean de Bethencourt and Gadifer de la Salle sailed to conquer the Canary Islands but found them already plundered by the Castilians . Although they did conquer the isles , Bethencourt 's nephew was forced to cede them to Castile in 1418 .
Indigenous Australians
This article is missing information about pre-European contact technology . Please expand the article to include this information . Further details may exist on the talk page . ( January 2016 )
Celts
During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long - sleeved shirts or tunics and long trousers ( called braccae by the Romans ) . Clothes were made of wool or linen , with some silk being used by the rich . Cloaks were worn in the winter . Brooches and armlets were used , but the most famous item of jewellery was the torc , a neck collar of metal , sometimes gold . The horned Waterloo Helmet in the British Museum , which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors , is in fact a unique survival , and may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear .
Celtic music
Celtic music means two things mainly . First , it is the music of the people that identify themselves as Celts . Secondly , it refers to whatever qualities may be unique to the music of the Celtic Nations . Many notable Celtic musicians such as Alan Stivell and Paddy Moloney claim that the different Celtic music genres have a lot in common .
Celtic Britons
10th Century AD ; The Kingdom of Ce which encompassed modern Marr , Banff , Buchan , Fife and much of Aberdeenshire disappeared in 900 AD . Fortriu the largest Pictish kingdom which covered Strathearn , Morayshire and Easter Ross had fallen by approximately 950 AD to the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba ( Scotland ) . Other Pictish kingdoms such as Circinn ( in modern Angus and The Mearns ) , Fib ( modern Fife ) , Fidach ( Inverness and Perthshire ) , Ath - Fotla ( Atholl ) had also fallen by the beginning of the 11th century AD .
Wales
The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete . Roman rule lasted over 300 years . The campaigns of conquest are the most widely known feature of Wales during the Roman era , because of the spirited , but ultimately unsuccessful , defence of their homelands by two native tribes : the Silures and the Ordovices . Roman rule in Wales was a military occupation , save for the southern coastal region of south Wales , east of the Gower Peninsula , where there is a legacy of Romanisation . The only town in Wales founded by the Romans , Caerwent , is in south east Wales . Both Caerwent and Carmarthen , also in southern Wales , became Roman civitates . Wales had a rich mineral wealth . The Romans used their engineering technology to extract large amounts of gold , copper and lead , as well as modest amounts of some other metals such as zinc and silver . Roman economic development was concentrated in south - eastern Britain , and no significant industries located in Wales . This was largely a matter of circumstance , as Wales had none of the necessary materials in suitable combination , and the forested , mountainous countryside was not amenable to industrialisation . Although Latin became the official language of Wales , the people tended to continue to speak in Brythonic . While Romanisation was far from complete , the upper classes of Wales began to consider themselves Roman , particularly after the ruling of 212 that granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Empire . Further Roman influence came through the spread of Christianity , which gained many followers when Christians were allowed to worship freely ; state persecution ceased in the 4th century , as a result of Constantine I issuing an edict of toleration in 313 .
Cherokee
Much of what is known about pre-18th - century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions . The earliest ones of the mid-16th - century encountered people of the Mississippian culture , the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Muscogee ( Creek ) and Catawba . Specifically in 1540 - 41 , a Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto passed through what was later characterized as Cherokee country by English colonists based on their historical encounter . De Soto 's expedition visited villages in present - day western Georgia and eastern Tennessee , recording them as ruled by the Coosa chiefdom . It is now considered to be a chiefdom ancestral to the Muscogee Creek people , who are from a different language and cultural group . The Spanish recorded a Chalaque nation as living around the Keowee River where North Carolina , South Carolina , and Georgia meet . As some of this work was not translated into English until the 20th century , alternative views had developed among English - speaking historians , related to the limited understanding by English colonists of historic Native American cultures in the Southeast . In addition , the dominance of English colonists in the Southeast led to a discounting of Spanish sources for some time in their construction of history of the area .
Mesolithic
Geographical range Periodization Culture Temporal range Notable sites Southeastern Europe ( Greece , Aegean ) Balkan Mesolithic 15 ! 15,000 -- 7,000 BP Franchthi , Theopetra Southeastern Europe ( Romania / Serbia ) Balkan Mesolithic Iron Gates culture 13 ! 13,000 -- 5,000 BP Lepenski Vir Western Europe Early Mesolithic Azilian 14 ! 14,000 -- 10,000 BP Northern Europe ( Norway ) Fosna - Hensbacka culture 12 ! 12,000 -- 10,500 BP Northern Europe ( Norway ) Early Mesolithic Komsa culture 12 ! 12,000 -- 10,000 BP Central Asia ( Middle Urals ) 12,000 -- 5,000 BP Shigir Idol , Vtoraya Beregovaya Northeastern Europe ( Baltics and Russia ) Middle Mesolithic Kunda culture 10.5 ! 10,500 -- 7,000 BP Lammasmägi , Pulli settlement Northern Europe Maglemosian culture 11 ! 11,000 -- 8,000 BP Western and Central Europe Sauveterrian culture 10.5 ! 10,500 -- 8,500 BP Western Europe ( Great Britain ) British Mesolithic 11 ! 11,000 -- 5,500 BP Star Carr , Howick house , Gough 's Cave , Cramond , Aveline 's Hole Western Europe ( Ireland ) Irish Mesolithic 11 ! 11,000 -- 5,500 BP Mount Sandel Western Europe ( Belgium and France ) Tardenoisian culture 10 ! 10,000 -- 5,000 BP Eastern Europe ( Belarus , Lithuania and Poland ) Late Mesolithic Neman culture 09 ! 9,000 -- 5,000 BP Northern Europe ( Scandinavia ) Nøstvet and Lihult cultures 08.2 ! 8,200 - 5,200 BP Northern Europe ( Scandinavia ) Kongemose culture 08 ! 8,000 -- 7,200 BP Northern Europe ( Scandinavia ) Late Mesolithic Ertebølle 07.3 ! 7,300 -- 5,900 BP Western Europe ( Netherlands ) Late Mesolithic Swifterbant 07.3 ! 7,300 -- 5,400 BP