vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Qing dynasty
Great Qing 大 清 ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ 1636 -- 1912 Top : Flag ( 1862 -- 1889 ) Bottom : Flag ( 1889 -- 1912 ) Imperial Seal Anthem 《 鞏 金甌 》 `` Gong Jin'ou '' ( `` Cup of Solid Gold '' ) Qing empire , 1765 Capital Shengjing ( Fengtian prefecture ) ( 1636 -- 1644 ) Peking ( Shuntian Prefecture ) ( 1644 -- 1912 ) Languages Mandarin , Manchu , Mongolian , Tibetan , Chagatai , numerous regional languages and varieties of Chinese Religion Heaven worship , Buddhism , Chinese folk religion , Confucianism , Taoism , Islam , Shamanism , Christianity , others Government Monarchy Emperor 1636 -- 1643 Hong Taiji ( founder ) 1644 -- 1661 Fulin ( first in Peking ) 1908 -- 1912 Puyi ( last ) Regent 1643 -- 1650 Dorgon 1908 -- 1912 Zaifeng Prime Minister 1911 Yikuang 1911 -- 1912 Yuan Shikai Historical era Imperial era Later Jin rule 1616 -- 1636 Dynasty established 1636 Qing conquest of Beijing 1644 First Opium War 1840 -- 1842 Second Opium War 1856 -- 1860 Sino - Japanese War 1 August 1894 -- 17 April 1895 Xinhai Revolution 10 October 1911 Abdication of Puyi 12 February 1912 Area 1790 13,100,000 km ( 5,100,000 sq mi ) 1880 11,500,000 km ( 4,400,000 sq mi ) Population 1740 est . 140,000,000 1790 est . 301,000,000 1898 est . 395,918,000 Currency Cash ( wén ) Tael ( liǎng ) Preceded by Succeeded by Later Jin Shun Southern Ming Dzungar Republic of China
Samurai
As aristocrats for centuries , samurai developed their own cultures that influenced Japanese culture as a whole . The culture associated with the samurai such as the tea ceremony , monochrome ink painting , rock gardens and poetry was adopted by warrior patrons throughout the centuries 1200 -- 1600 . These practices were adapted from the Chinese arts . Zen monks introduced them to Japan and they were allowed to flourish due to the interest of powerful warrior elites . Musō Soseki ( 1275 -- 1351 ) was a Zen monk who was advisor to both Emperor Go - Daigo and General Ashikaga Takauji ( 1304 -- 58 ) . Musō , as well as other monks , served as a political and cultural diplomat between Japan and China . Musō was particularly well known for his garden design . Another Ashikaga patron of the arts was Yoshimasa . His cultural advisor , the Zen monk Zeami , introduced the tea ceremony to him . Previously , tea had been used primarily for Buddhist monks to stay awake during meditation .
Phoenix (constellation)
The Chinese incorporated Phoenix 's brightest star , Ankaa ( Alpha Phoenicis ) , and stars from the adjacent constellation Sculptor to depict Bakui , a net for catching birds . Phoenix and the neighbouring constellation of Grus together were seen by Julius Schiller as portraying Aaron the High Priest . These two constellations , along with nearby Pavo and Tucana , are called the Southern Birds .
Law
The philosophy of law is commonly known as jurisprudence . Normative jurisprudence asks `` what should law be ? '' , while analytic jurisprudence asks `` what is law ? '' John Austin 's utilitarian answer was that law is `` commands , backed by threat of sanctions , from a sovereign , to whom people have a habit of obedience '' . Natural lawyers on the other side , such as Jean - Jacques Rousseau , argue that law reflects essentially moral and unchangeable laws of nature . The concept of `` natural law '' emerged in ancient Greek philosophy concurrently and in connection with the notion of justice , and re-entered the mainstream of Western culture through the writings of Thomas Aquinas , notably his Treatise on Law .
Qing dynasty
History of China ANCIENT Neolithic c. 8500 -- c. 2070 BCE Xia dynasty c. 2070 -- c. 1600 BCE Shang dynasty c. 1600 -- c. 1046 BCE Zhou dynasty c. 1046 -- 256 BCE Western Zhou Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn Warring States IMPERIAL Qin dynasty 221 -- 206 BCE Han dynasty 206 BCE -- 220 CE Western Han Xin dynasty Eastern Han Three Kingdoms 220 -- 280 Wei , Shu and Wu Jin dynasty 265 -- 420 Western Jin Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms Northern and Southern dynasties 420 -- 589 Sui dynasty 581 -- 618 Tang dynasty 618 -- 907 ( Second Zhou dynasty 690 -- 705 ) Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 907 -- 960 Liao dynasty 907 -- 1125 Song dynasty 960 -- 1279 Northern Song Western Xia Southern Song Jin dynasty Yuan dynasty 1271 -- 1368 Ming dynasty 1368 -- 1644 Qing dynasty 1644 -- 1912 MODERN Republic of China 1912 -- 1949 People 's Republic of China 1949 -- present Related articles Chinese historiography Timeline of Chinese history Dynasties in Chinese history Linguistic history Art history Economic history Education history Science and technology history Legal history Media history Military history Naval history view talk
1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
As mentioned above , John Snow is known for his influence on public health , which arose after his studies of the Cholera epidemic . In attempting to figure out who was receiving impure water in each neighborhood , what is now known as a double - blind experiment fell right into his lap . He describes the conditions of the situation in his essays :
Modern history
In China , the Qing Dynasty was overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution . The Xinhai Revolution began with the Wuchang Uprising on October 10 , 1911 and ended with the abdication of Emperor Puyi on February 12 , 1912 . The primary parties to the conflict were the Imperial forces of the Qing Dynasty ( 1644 -- 1911 ) , and the revolutionary forces of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance ( Tongmenghui ) . Edwardian
Qing dynasty
Some other important contributions by Nurhaci include ordering the creation of a written Manchu script , based on Mongolian script , after the earlier Jurchen script was forgotten ( it had been derived from Khitan and Chinese ) . Nurhaci also created the civil and military administrative system that eventually evolved into the Eight Banners , the defining element of Manchu identity and the foundation for transforming the loosely knitted Jurchen tribes into a nation . The
Japanese honorifics
Martial artists often address their teachers as sensei . Junior and senior students are organized via a senpai / kōhai system . Also in some systems of karate , O - Sensei is the title of the ( deceased ) head of the style . This is how the founder of Aikido , Morihei Ueshiba is often referred to by practitioners of that art . The ' O ' prefix itself , translating roughly as `` great ( er ) '' or `` major , '' is also an honorific .
Great Depression
Two economists of the 1920s , Waddill Catchings and William Trufant Foster , popularized a theory that influenced many policy makers , including Herbert Hoover , Henry A. Wallace , Paul Douglas , and Marriner Eccles . It held the economy produced more than it consumed , because the consumers did not have enough income . Thus the unequal distribution of wealth throughout the 1920s caused the Great Depression .
Geologic time scale
The 11th - century Persian geologist Avicenna ( Ibn Sina , died 1037 ) and the 13th - century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus ( died 1280 ) extended Aristotle 's explanation into a theory of a petrifying fluid . Avicenna also first proposed one of the principles underlying geologic time scales , the law of superposition of strata , while discussing the origins of mountains in The Book of Healing ( 1027 ) . The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo ( 1031 -- 1095 ) also recognized the concept of `` deep time '' .
Pendulum
One of the earliest known uses of a pendulum was a 1st - century seismometer device of Han Dynasty Chinese scientist Zhang Heng . Its function was to sway and activate one of a series of levers after being disturbed by the tremor of an earthquake far away . Released by a lever , a small ball would fall out of the urn - shaped device into one of eight metal toad 's mouths below , at the eight points of the compass , signifying the direction the earthquake was located .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Afterwards , the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader Mao Zedong outlined the preliminary plan for the CPC 's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai - shek . Mao began his final push for consolidation of CPC power under his authority , and his teachings became the central tenets of the CPC doctrine that came to be formalized as `` Mao Zedong Thought '' . The communists also began to focus most of their energy on building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented , mainly through rural mass organizations , administrative , land and tax reform measures favoring poor peasants ; while the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade of areas controlled by CPC and fighting the Japanese at the same time .
Islamic Golden Age
In about 964 AD , the Persian astronomer Abd al - Rahman al - Sufi , writing in his Book of Fixed Stars , described a `` nebulous spot '' in the Andromeda constellation , the first definitive reference to what we now know is the Andromeda Galaxy , the nearest spiral galaxy to our galaxy . Nasir al - Din al - Tusi invented a geometrical technique called a Tusi - couple , which generates linear motion from the sum of two circular motions to replace Ptolemy 's problematic equant . The Tusi couple was later employed in Ibn al - Shatir 's geocentric model and Nicolaus Copernicus ' heliocentric Copernican model although it is not known who the intermediary is or if Copernicus rediscovered the technique independently .
Tea culture
After 1391 , the Hongwu Emperor , the founder of the Ming Dynasty , decreed that tributes of tea to the court were to be changed from brick to loose - leaf form . The imperial decree quickly transformed the tea drinking habits of the people , changing from whisked teas to steeped teas . The arrival of the new method for preparing tea also required the creation or use of new vessels .
End of the Han dynasty
In 221 , Liu Bei declared himself emperor in Chengdu and established the state of Shu Han . Sun Quan continued to remain as a nominal subject of Cao Pi until 222 , when he declared himself king of a separate state , Wu ( better known as Eastern Wu in history ) . In 229 , Sun Quan formally became emperor of Wu .
Qing dynasty
The newly allied armies captured Beijing on June 6 . The Shunzhi Emperor was invested as the `` Son of Heaven '' on October 30 . The Manchus , who had positioned themselves as political heir to the Ming emperor by defeating the rebel Li Zicheng , completed the symbolic transition by holding a formal funeral for the Chongzhen Emperor . However the process of conquering the rest of China took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists , pretenders and rebels . The last Ming pretender , Prince Gui , sought refuge with the King of Burma , Pindale Min , but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary army commanded by Wu Sangui , who had him brought back to Yunnan province and executed in early 1662 .
PageRank
A small search engine called `` RankDex '' from IDD Information Services designed by Robin Li was , since 1996 , already exploring a similar strategy for site - scoring and page ranking . The technology in RankDex was patented by 1999 and used later when Li founded Baidu in China . Larry Page referenced Li 's work in some of his U.S. patents for PageRank .
Analects
To Confucius , the cultivation of ren involved depreciating oneself through modesty while avoiding artful speech and ingratiating manners that would create a false impression of one 's own character ( Analects 1.3 ) . Confucius said that those who had cultivated ren could be distinguished by their being `` simple in manner and slow of speech '' . He believed that people could cultivate their sense of ren through exercising the Golden Rule : `` Do not do to others what you would not like done to yourself '' ; `` a man with ren , desiring to establish himself , helps others establish themselves ; desiring to succeed himself , helps others to succeed '' ( Analects 12.2 ; 6.28 ) . He taught that the ability of people to imagine and project themselves into the places of others was a crucial quality for the pursuit of moral self - cultivation ( Analects 4.15 ; see also 5.12 ; 6.30 ; 15.24 ) . Confucius regarded the exercise of devotion to one 's parents and older siblings as the simplest , most basic way to cultivate ren . ( Analects 1.2 ) .
Analects
Ren and li have a special relationship in the Analects : li manages one 's relationship with one 's family and close community , while ren is practiced broadly and informs one 's interactions with all people . Confucius did not believe that ethical self - cultivation meant unquestioned loyalty to an evil ruler . He argued that the demands of ren and li meant that rulers could oppress their subjects only at their own peril : `` You may rob the Three Armies of their commander , but you can not deprive the humblest peasant of his opinion '' ( Analects 9.26 ) . Confucius said that a morally well - cultivated individual would regard his devotion to loving others as a mission for which he would be willing to die ( Analects 15.8 ) .
Ashoka
The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent , and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE . Originally , there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive . Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height , and weighing up to fifty tons each , all the pillars were quarried at Chunar , just south of Varanasi and dragged , sometimes hundreds of miles , to where they were erected . The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi . The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law , while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil . Lion
Analects
Within these incipits a large number of passages in the Analects begin with the formulaic ziyue , `` The Master said , '' but without punctuation marks in classical Chinese , this does not confirm whether what follows ziyue is direct quotation of actual sayings of Confucius , or simply to be understood as `` the Master said that ... '' and the paraphrase of Confucius by the compilers of the Analects .
Chinese Buddhism
Laypeople were also commonly devoted to the practice of mantras , and the Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī were very popular . Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities , the esoteric practices of Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the populace and the elite .
End of the Han dynasty
In 195 , turmoil ensued in Chang'an when Li Jue and Guo Si killed Fan Chou together , and later turned against each other . Li Jue held Emperor Xian hostage while Guo Si kidnapped the imperial officials , and both sides engaged in battle . Later that year , Li Jue and Guo Si made peace and agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to the old capital , Luoyang , but later regretted their decision and pursued him . While Li Jue and Guo Si were never able to capture Emperor Xian again , the imperial court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself . As Luoyang had been previously devastated by fire during Dong Zhuo 's time , the city lacked the basic essentials of life and many officials starved to death or resorted to cannibalism . Around this time , Ju Shou suggested to Yuan Shao to welcome Emperor Xian to his province so that he could take effective control of the government . However , Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong opposed Ju Shou 's view , claiming that if Yuan Shao brought Emperor Xian to his territory , he would need to yield to the emperor on key decisions and follow proper court protocol . Yuan Shao remained hesitant and did not come to a conclusion on whether to receive the emperor or not .
Qing dynasty
The Taiping Rebellion in the mid-19th century was the first major instance of anti-Manchu sentiment . Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine , the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat towards Qing rulers , it has also been called the `` bloodiest civil war of all time '' ; during its fourteen - year course from 1850 to 1864 between 20 and 30 million people died . Hong Xiuquan , a failed civil service candidate , in 1851 launched an uprising in Guizhou province , and established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with Hong himself as king . Hong announced that he had visions of God and that he was the brother of Jesus Christ . Slavery , concubinage , arranged marriage , opium smoking , footbinding , judicial torture , and the worship of idols were all banned . However , success led to internal feuds , defections and corruption . In addition , British and French troops , equipped with modern weapons , had come to the assistance of the Qing imperial army . It was not until 1864 that Qing armies under Zeng Guofan succeeded in crushing the revolt . After the outbreak of this rebellion , there were also revolts by the Muslims and Miao people of China against the Qing dynasty , most notably in the Miao Rebellion ( 1854 -- 73 ) in Guizhou , the Panthay Rebellion ( 1856 -- 1873 ) in Yunnan and the Dungan Revolt ( 1862 -- 77 ) in the northwest . A
Revenge
Revenge is a popular subject across many forms of art . Some examples include the painting Herodias ' Revenge by Juan de Flandes and the opera Don Giovanni by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart . In Japanese art , revenge is a theme in various woodblock prints depicting the forty - seven Ronin by many well - known and influential artists , including Utagawa Kuniyoshi . The Chinese playwright Ji Junxiang used revenge as the central theme in his theatrical work The Orphan of Zhao ; it depicts more specifically familial revenge , which is placed in the context of Confucian morality and social hierarchical structure .
Joseph McCarthy
McCarthy 's hearings are often incorrectly conflated with the hearings of the House Committee on Un-American Activities ( HUAC ) . HUAC is best known for the investigation of Alger Hiss and for its investigation of the Hollywood film industry , which led to the blacklisting of hundreds of actors , writers , and directors . HUAC was a House committee , and as such had no formal connection with McCarthy , who served in the Senate , although the existence of the House Un-American Activities Committee thrived in part as a result of McCarthy 's activities . HUAC was active for 37 years ( 1938 - 1975 ) .
Borneo
In earlier times , the island was known by other names . In 977 , Chinese records began to use the term Po - ni to refer to Borneo or Brunei . In 1225 , it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju - Kua ( 趙汝适 ) . The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama , written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365 , mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara , which means the island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom .
Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace
The Jedi practice Zen - like meditation and martial arts , as did the ancient Japanese Samurai warriors . The name `` Qui - Gon '' adapts the term qigong , which refers to a Chinese discipline involving meditation and cultivation of the flow of the vital energy called `` Chi '' or `` Qi '' for healing , health and combat . The words Ch'i ( Chinese ) , gi ( Korean ) , ki ( Japanese ) and the Indian term `` Prana '' all refer to the energy that is thought to flow through all living things , from the source of all chi ( or power ) which is `` The Way '' or `` The Tao '' in Chinese philosophy . In Taoist philosophy , from The Way , yin and yang -- the opposing but complementary aspects of reality or nature -- are born . Unlike Chinese philosophy , in which yin and yang are not moral qualities , the ancient Persian philosophy of Zurvanism taught that the dualism of dark and light forces are locked in an eternal battle while being two sides ( or evolutes ) of the same `` Force '' , the force of time itself ( Zurvan ) -- the prime mover . These elements derive primarily from Eastern and Iranian religions and myths .
Qing dynasty
Although his support had been essential to Shunzhi 's ascent , Dorgon had centralised so much power in his hands as to become a direct threat to the throne . So much so that upon his death he was bestowed the extraordinary posthumous title of Emperor Yi ( Chinese : 義 皇帝 ) , the only instance in Qing history in which a Manchu `` prince of the blood '' ( Chinese : 親王 ) was so honored . Two months into Shunzhi 's personal rule , however , Dorgon was not only stripped of his titles , but his corpse was disinterred and mutilated. to atone for multiple `` crimes '' , one of which was persecuting to death Shunzhi 's agnate eldest brother , Hooge . More importantly , Dorgon 's symbolic fall from grace also led to the purge of his family and associates at court , thus reverting power back to the person of the emperor . After a promising start , Shunzhi 's reign was cut short by his early death in 1661 at the age of twenty - four from smallpox . He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye , who reigned as the Kangxi Emperor .
History of Vietnam
A Vietnamese forged and manufactured a fake ancient mythical script claimed to have been used in ancient Vietnam . Modern Vietnamese historians inserted word changes and altered the meanings of texts written by ancient Vietnamese historians on how battles between rebels in Vietnam and the Chinese states such as the Chen dynasty and Southern Han were viewed . The Nguyễn Dynasty initiated government sponsored ceremonies to the Hùng kings . The French may have established the ceremony on the Hùng kings death and the Hùng Kings had an annual event established for them by Hồ Chí Minh . Due to psychological embarrassment over their rule by foreign imperialists , ancient historical texts were edited for nationalistic purposes by modern Vietnamese historians .
Kīlauea
Kīlauea 's high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology , where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide , producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert . Nonetheless , wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea 's ( and the island of Hawai ʻi 's ) isolation from the nearest landmass . Historically , the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea 's Halema ʻumaʻu Crater served as the body and home of Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . William Ellis , a missionary from England , gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano ; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , located on the rim of Kīlauea caldera , has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general . In 1916 , a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson ; since then , the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination , attracting roughly 2.6 million people annually .
Written Chinese
Written Chinese ( Chinese : 中文 ; pinyin : zhōngwén ) comprises Chinese characters used to represent the Chinese language . Chinese characters do not constitute an alphabet or a compact syllabary . Rather , the writing system is roughly logosyllabic ; that is , a character generally represents one syllable of spoken Chinese and may be a word on its own or a part of a polysyllabic word . The characters themselves are often composed of parts that may represent physical objects , abstract notions , or pronunciation . Literacy requires the memorization of a great many characters : educated Chinese know about 4,000 . The large number of Chinese characters has in part led to the adoption of Western alphabets as an auxiliary means of representing Chinese .