vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
The organization largely disappeared in the early 1970s , although chapters in some communities , such as San Antonio , Texas , continued for several more years . Mario Marcel Salas , field secretary of the SNCC chapter in San Antonio , operated until 1976 . The San Antonio SNCC chapter was part Black Panther Party and part SNCC . Dr. Charles Jones of Albany State University termed it a `` hybrid organization '' because it had Panther - style survival programs . Salas also worked closely with La Raza Unida Party , running for political office and organizing demonstrations to expose discrimination against Blacks and Latinos . Salas later helped the New Jewel Movement in the otherthrow of Eric Gairy in 1979 , the leader of the island of Grenada . He also became the chairman of the Free Nelson Mandela Movement in San Antonio , Texas .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee ( SNCC , often pronounced / snɪk / SNIK ) was one of the major Civil Rights Movement organizations of the 1960s . It emerged from the first wave of student sit - ins and formed at an April 1960 meeting organized by Ella Baker at Shaw University . After its involvement in the Voter Education Project , SNCC grew into a large organization with many supporters in the North who helped raise funds to support its work in the South , allowing full - time organizers to have a small salary . Many unpaid grassroots organizers and activists also worked with SNCC on projects in the Deep South , often becoming targets of racial violence and police brutality . SNCC played a seminal role in the freedom rides , the 1963 March on Washington , Mississippi Freedom Summer , the Selma campaigns , the March Against Fear and other historic events . SNCC 's major contribution was in its field work , organizing voter registration , freedom schools , and direct action all over the country , but especially in Georgia , Alabama , and Mississippi .
Vietnam War
Between 1954 and 1957 there was large - scale but disorganized dissidence in the countryside which the Diệm government succeeded in quelling . In early 1957 South Vietnam enjoyed its first peace in over a decade . Incidents of political violence began to occur in mid-1957 , but the government `` did not construe it as a campaign , considering the disorders too diffuse to warrant committing major GVN ( Government of Vietnam ) resources . '' By early 1959 , however , Diệm had come to regard the ( increasingly frequent ) disorders as an organized campaign and implemented Law 10 / 59 , which made political violence punishable by death and property confiscation . There had been some division among former Viet Minh whose main goal was to hold the elections promised in the Geneva Accords , leading to `` wildcat '' activities separate from the other communists and anti-GVN activists .
Zapatista Army of National Liberation
On May 3 -- 4 , 2006 , a series of demonstrations protested the forcible removal of irregular flower vendors from a lot in Texcoco for the construction of a Walmart branch . The protests turned violent when state police and the Federal Preventive Police bussed in some 5,000 agents to San Salvador Atenco and the surrounding communities . A local organization called the People 's Front in Defense of the Land ( FPDT ) , which adheres to the Sixth Declaration , called in support from other regional and national adherent organizations . `` Delegate Zero '' and his `` Other Campaign '' were at the time in nearby Mexico City , having just organized May Day events there , and quickly arrived at the scene . The following days were marked by violence , with some 216 arrests , over 30 rape and sexual abuse accusations against the police , five deportations , and one casualty , a 14 - year - old boy named Javier Cortes shot by a policeman . A 20 - year - old UNAM economics student , Alexis Benhumea , died on the morning of June 7 , 2006 , after being in a coma caused by a blow to the head from a tear - gas grenade launched by police . Most of the resistance organizing was done by the EZLN and Sixth Declaration adherents , and Delegate Zero stated that the `` Other Campaign '' tour would be temporarily halted until all prisoners were released .
Relative deprivation
Social scientists , particularly political scientists and sociologists , have cited ' relative deprivation ' ( especially temporal relative deprivation ) as a potential cause of social movements and deviance , leading in extreme situations to political violence such as rioting , terrorism , civil wars and other instances of social deviance such as crime . For example , some scholars of social movements explain their rise by citing grievances of people who feel deprived of what they perceive as values to which they are entitled . Similarly , individuals engage in deviant behaviors when their means do not match their goals .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
Those differences carried over into the voting rights struggle that centered on Selma , Alabama in 1965 . SNCC had begun organizing black citizens to register to vote in Selma in 1963 , but made little headway against the adamant resistance of Sheriff Jim Clark and the White Citizens ' Council . In early 1965 , local Selma activists asked the Southern Christian Leadership Conference for help , and the two organizations formed an uneasy alliance . They disagreed over tactical and strategic issues , including the SCLC 's decision not to attempt to cross the Edmund Pettus Bridge a second time after county sheriffs and state troopers attacked them on `` Bloody Sunday '' on March 7 , 1965 .
Nation state
Negative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state , to expulsion , persecution , violence , and extermination . The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state , but violence against minorities is not always state initiated : it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms . Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities not considered part of the nation .
Modern history
The European Revolutions of 1848 , known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution , were a series of political upheavals throughout the European continent . Described as a revolutionary wave , the period of unrest began in France and then , further propelled by the French Revolution of 1848 , soon spread to the rest of Europe . Although most of the revolutions were quickly put down , there was a significant amount of violence in many areas , with tens of thousands of people tortured and killed . While the immediate political effects of the revolutions were reversed , the long - term reverberations of the events were far - reaching . Industrial
United States
At home , the U.S. experienced sustained economic expansion and a rapid growth of its population and middle class . Construction of an Interstate Highway System transformed the nation 's infrastructure over the following decades . Millions moved from farms and inner cities to large suburban housing developments . In 1959 Hawaii became the 50th and last U.S. state added to the country . The growing Civil Rights Movement used nonviolence to confront segregation and discrimination , with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming a prominent leader and figurehead . A combination of court decisions and legislation , culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1968 , sought to end racial discrimination . Meanwhile , a counterculture movement grew which was fueled by opposition to the Vietnam war , black nationalism , and the sexual revolution .
Right of self-defense in Maryland
( 3 ) The accused claiming the right of self defense must not have been the aggressor or provoked the conflict ;
English Civil War
At this stage , from 7 to 9 August 1643 , there were some popular demonstrations in London -- both pro and against war . They were protesting at Westminster . A peace demonstration by London women , which turned violent , was suppressed by William Waller 's regiment of horse . Some women were beaten and even killed , and many arrested .
Non-cooperation movement
Other causes include economic hardships to the common man , which the nationalists attributed to the flow of Indian wealth to Britain , the ruin of Indian artisans due to British factory - made goods replacing handmade goods , and resentment with the British government over Indian soldiers dying in World War I while fighting as part of the British Army .
Swadeshi movement
The official phrase , `` mild lathi charge '' to describe the assault of the police , was a misnomer . It was certainly not mild as the gaping wounds on the bodies loudly proclaimed . The Government also issued instructions to the educational institutions to control their boys and prevent them from participating in the swadeshi movement . Rural markets were controlled bans were put on processions and meetings , leaders were put into confinement without any trial and loyal Muslims were made to go against the recalcitrant Hindus .
History of Native Americans in the United States
Through the mid-1970s , conflicts between governments and Native Americans occasionally erupted into violence . A notable late 20th - century event was the Wounded Knee incident on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation . Upset with tribal government and the failures of the federal government to enforce treaty rights , about 300 Oglala Lakota and American Indian Movement ( AIM ) activists took control of Wounded Knee on February 27 , 1973 .
Southern strategy
The notion of Black Power advocated by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee leaders captured some of the frustrations of African Americans at the slow process of change in gaining civil rights and social justice . African Americans pushed for faster change , raising racial tensions . Journalists reporting about the demonstrations against the Vietnam War often featured young people engaging in violence or burning draft cards and American flags . Conservatives were also dismayed about the many young adults engaged in the drug culture and `` free love '' ( sexual promiscuity ) , in what was called the `` hippie '' counter-culture . These actions scandalized many Americans and created a concern about law and order . Alabama
Apartheid
Between 1986 and 1988 , some petty apartheid laws were repealed , along with the pass laws . Botha told white South Africans to `` adapt or die '' and twice he wavered on the eve of what were billed as `` rubicon '' announcements of substantial reforms , although on both occasions he backed away from substantial changes . Ironically , these reforms served only to trigger intensified political violence through the remainder of the eighties as more communities and political groups across the country joined the resistance movement . Botha 's government stopped short of substantial reforms , such as lifting the ban on the ANC , PAC and SACP and other liberation organisations , releasing political prisoners , or repealing the foundation laws of grand apartheid . The government 's stance was that they would not contemplate negotiating until those organisations `` renounced violence '' .
Latin America
Both urban and rural populations had serious grievances as a result of the above economic and global trends and have voiced them in mass demonstrations . Some of the largest and most violent of these have been protests against cuts in urban services , such as the Caracazo in Venezuela and the Argentinazo in Argentina . Children
History of Colombia
The first negotiated cease - fire with the M - 19 ended when the guerrillas resumed fighting in 1985 , claiming that the cease - fire had not been fully respected by official security forces , saying that several of its members had suffered threats and assaults , and also questioning the government 's real willingness to implement any accords . The Betancur administration in turn questioned the M - 19 's actions and its commitment to the peace process , as it continued to advance high - profile negotiations with the FARC , which led to the creation of the Patriotic Union ( Colombia ) ( UP ) , a legal and non-clandestine political organization .
Military history of Australia during World War I
After the war , the continued operation of the War Precautions Act led to considerable social and political unrest in late 1918 and into 1919 and a number of violent incidents broke out . The most notable of these was the so - called Red Flag Riots in Brisbane , in 1919 .
Kent State shootings
In retrospect , the tragedy of May 4 , 1970 , should not have occurred . The students may have believed that they were right in continuing their mass protest in response to the Cambodian invasion , even though this protest followed the posting and reading by the university of an order to ban rallies and an order to disperse . These orders have since been determined by the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals to have been lawful .
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
College enrollment reached 9 million by the end of the 1960s . Colleges and universities in America had more students than ever before , and these institutions often tried to restrict student behavior to maintain order on the campuses . To combat this , many college students became active in causes that promoted free speech , student input in the curriculum , and an end to archaic social restrictions . Students joined the antiwar movement because they did not want to fight in a foreign civil war that they believed did not concern them or because they were morally opposed to all war . Others disliked the war because it diverted funds and attention away from problems in the U.S. Intellectual growth and gaining a liberal perspective at college caused many students to become active in the antiwar movement . Another attractive feature of the opposition movement was the fact that it was a popular social event . As one student said , antiwar demonstrations were the places to `` get laid , get high , and listen to some great rock . ''
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
In the years that followed , SNCC members were referred to as `` shock troops of the revolution . '' SNCC took on greater risks in 1961 , after a mob of Ku Klux Klan members and other whites attacked integrated groups of bus passengers who defied local segregation laws as part of the Freedom Rides organized by the Congress of Racial Equality ( CORE ) . Rather than allowing mob violence to stop them , New Orleans CORE and Nashville SNCC Freedom Riders , including Dave Dennis , Oretha Castle Haley , Jean C. Thompson , Rudy Lombard , Diane Nash , James Bevel , Marion Barry , Angeline Butler , and John Lewis , put themselves at great personal risk by traveling in racially integrated groups into Mississippi as they continued the Ride . Other bus riders followed , traveling through the deep South to test Southern compliance with Federal Law . At least 436 people took part in these Freedom Rides during the spring and summer of 1961 . Voter
Samoa
The second major incident arose out of an initially peaceful protest by the Mau ( which literally translates as `` strongly held opinion '' ) , a non-violent popular movement which had its beginnings in the early 1900s on Savai'i , led by Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe , an orator chief deposed by Solf . In 1909 , Lauaki was exiled to Saipan and died en route back to Samoa in 1915 .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
By 1965 , SNCC fielded the largest staff of any civil rights organization in the South . It had organized nonviolent direct action against segregated facilities , as well as voter - registration projects , in Alabama , Arkansas , Maryland , Missouri , Louisiana , Virginia , Kentucky , Tennessee , Illinois , North and South Carolina , Georgia , and Mississippi ; built two independent political parties and organized labor unions and agricultural cooperatives ; and given the movement for women 's liberation new energy . It inspired and trained the activists who began the `` New Left . '' It helped expand the limits of political debate within Black America , and broadened the focus of the civil rights movement . Unlike mainstream civil rights groups , which merely sought integration of Blacks into the existing order , SNCC sought structural changes in American society itself . --
United States free speech exceptions
In Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire ( 1942 ) , the Supreme Court held that speech is unprotected if it constitutes `` fighting words '' . Fighting words , as defined by the Court , is speech that `` tend ( s ) to incite an immediate breach of the peace '' by provoking a fight , so long as it is a `` personally abusive ( word ) which , when addressed to the ordinary citizen , is , as a matter of common knowledge , inherently likely to provoke a violent reaction '' . Additionally , such speech must be `` directed to the person of the hearer '' and is `` thus likely to be seen as a ' direct personal insult ' '' .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
SNCC played a significant role in the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom . While many speakers applauded the Kennedy Administration for the efforts it had made toward obtaining new , more effective civil rights legislation protecting the right to vote and outlawing segregation , John Lewis took the administration to task for how little it had done to protect Southern blacks and civil rights workers under attack in the Deep South . Although he was forced to tone down his speech under pressure from the representatives of other civil rights organizations on the march organization committee , his words still stung . The version of the speech leaked to the press went as follows :
Non-cooperation movement
The success of the revolt was a total shock to British authorities and a massive encouragement to millions of Indian nationalists . Unity in the country was strengthened and many Indian schools and colleges were made . Indian goods were encouraged .
Letter from Birmingham Jail
King addressed the accusation that the Civil Rights Movement was `` extreme '' , first disputing the label but then accepting it . Compared to other movements at the time , King finds himself as a moderate . However , in his devotion to his cause , King refers to himself as an extremist . Jesus and other great reformers were extremists : `` So the question is not whether we will be extremists , but what kind of extremists we will be . Will we be extremists for hate or for love ? '' King 's discussion of extremism implicitly responded to numerous `` moderate '' objections to the ongoing movement , such as President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's claim that he could not meet with civil rights leaders because doing so would require him to meet with the Ku Klux Klan .
Apartheid
Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition , resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century . It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations and brought about an extensive arms and trade embargo on South Africa . During the 1970s and 1980s , internal resistance to apartheid became increasingly militant , prompting brutal crackdowns by the National Party government and protracted sectarian violence that left thousands dead or in detention . Some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken , including allowing for Indian and Coloured political representation in parliament , but these measures failed to appease most activist groups .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
After the Freedom Rides , SNCC worked primarily on voter registration , and with local protests over segregated public facilities . Registering Black voters was extremely difficult and dangerous . People of Color who attempted to register often lost their jobs and their homes , and sometimes their lives . SNCC workers lived with local families : often the homes providing such hospitality were firebombed .
Operation Barbarossa
Rape was a widespread phenomenon in the East as German soldiers regularly committed violent sexual acts against Soviet women . Whole units were occasionally involved in the crime with upwards of one - third of the instances being gang - rape . Frequently in the case of Jewish women , they were immediately murdered following acts of sexual violence . Historian Birgit Beck emphasizes that military decrees , which served to authorize wholesale brutality on many levels , essentially destroyed the basis for any prosecution of sexual offenses committed by German soldiers in the East . She also contends that detection of such instances was limited by the fact that sexual violence was often inflicted in the context of billets in civilian housing .
South Africa
Despite opposition both within and outside the country , the government legislated for a continuation of apartheid . The security forces cracked down on internal dissent , and violence became widespread , with anti-apartheid organisations such as the African National Congress , the Azanian People 's Organisation , and the Pan-Africanist Congress carrying out guerrilla warfare and urban sabotage . The three rival resistance movements also engaged in occasional inter-factional clashes as they jockeyed for domestic influence . Apartheid became increasingly controversial , and several countries began to boycott business with the South African government because of its racial policies . These measures were later extended to international sanctions and the divestment of holdings by foreign investors . F.W.
History of Germany (1945–90)
Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke , coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims , led to growing militancy among students and their supporters . In May 1968 , three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt ; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the ' struggle against imperialism ' . The student movement began to split into different factions , ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form -- the anarchists . Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalizing the industrial workers and , taking an example from activities in Italy of the Brigade Rosse , many students went to work in the factories , but with little or no success . The most notorious of the underground groups was the ' Baader - Meinhof Group ' , later known as the Red Army Faction , which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen , several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans , whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas . The `` Baader - Meinhof gang '' was committed to the overthrow of the Federal Republic via terrorism in order to achieve the establishment of a Communist state . In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name `` RAF '' . The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998 . Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged , partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims , the State Counsel Buback .
United States home front during World War II
Even though the complaints from union members about the no - strike pledge became louder and more bitter , the CIO did not abandon it . The Mine Workers , by contrast , who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war , threatened numerous strikes including a successful twelve - day strike in 1943 . The strikes and threats made mine leader John L. Lewis a much hated man and led to legislation hostile to unions .