vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of Mexico
The history of Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest is known through the work of archaeologists , epigraphers , and ethnohistorians ( scholars who study indigenous history , usually from the indigenous point of view ) , who analyze Mesoamerican indigenous manuscripts , particularly Aztec codices , Mayan codices , and Mixtec codices .
Ancient Roman architecture
The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is relatively well - known , as there are relatively many written sources , and there has been much attention to the subject , since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture . It should not be forgotten , though , that the Etruscans had many considerable towns and there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe , primarily of Celtic origin .
Hellenistic period
Hellenistic culture produced seats of learning throughout the Mediterranean . Hellenistic science differed from Greek science in at least two ways : first , it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas with those that had developed in the larger Hellenistic world ; secondly , to some extent , it was supported by royal patrons in the kingdoms founded by Alexander 's successors . Especially important to Hellenistic science was the city of Alexandria in Egypt , which became a major center of scientific research in the 3rd century BC . Hellenistic scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought : the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research , in their scientific investigations .
Pre-Columbian era
The earliest known civilization is the Olmec . This civilization established the cultural blueprint by which all succeeding indigenous civilizations would follow in Mexico . Pre-Olmec civilization began with the production of pottery in abundance , around 2300 BCE in the Grijalva River delta . Between 1600 and 1500 BCE , the Olmec civilization had begun , with the consolidation of power at their capital , a site today known as San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán near the coast in southeast Veracruz . The Olmec influence extended across Mexico , into Central America , and along the Gulf of Mexico . They transformed many peoples ' thinking toward a new way of government , pyramid - temples , writing , astronomy , art , mathematics , economics , and religion . Their achievements paved the way for the Maya civilization and the civilizations in central Mexico . Teotihuacan
Mesolithic
The Mesolithic began with the Holocene warm period around 11,660 BP and ended with the introduction of farming , the date of which varied in each geographical region . Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last glacial period ended have a much more apparent Mesolithic era , lasting millennia . In northern Europe , for example , societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands created by the warmer climate . Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviors that are preserved in the material record , such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures . Such conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 5000 -- 4000 BCE in northern Europe . Animated
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
A precedent for art repatriation was set in Roman antiquity when Cicero prosecuted Verres , a senate member and illegal appropriator of art . Cicero 's speech influenced Enlightenment European thought and had an indirect impact on the modern debate about art repatriation . Cicero 's argument uses military episodes of plunder as `` case law '' and expresses certain standards when it comes to appropriating cultural property of another people . Cicero makes a distinction between public and private uses of art and what is appropriate for each and he also asserts that the primary purpose of art is religious expression and veneration . He also sets standards for the responsibilities of imperial administration abroad to the code of ethics surrounding the collection of art from defeated Greece and Rome in wartime . Later , both Napoleon and Lord Elgin would be likened to Verres in condemnations of their plundering of art . The
History of agriculture
Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture . Studies of the transition from hunter - gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an antecedent period of intensification and increasing sedentism ; examples are the Natufian culture in southwest Asia , and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China . Current models indicate that wild stands that had been harvested previously started to be planted , but were not immediately domesticated .
Mycenaean Greece
Nevertheless , palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in spatial terms and in terms of how different industries were managed . Thus , sectors like the production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly monitored from the palace , but the production of ceramics was only indirectly monitored . Regional transactions between the palaces are also recorded on a few occasions .
Israel
The early history of the territory is unclear . Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the narrative in the Torah concerning the patriarchs , The Exodus , and the conquest described in the Book of Joshua , and instead views the narrative as constituting the Israelites ' inspiring national myth . Ancestors of the Israelites may have included ancient Semitic - speaking peoples native to Canaan . The Israelites and their culture , according to the modern archaeological account , did not overtake the region by force , but instead branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatristic -- and later monotheistic -- religion centered on Yahweh . The archaeological evidence indicates a society of village - like centres , but with more limited resources and a small population . Villages had populations of up to 300 or 400 , which lived by farming and herding , and were largely self - sufficient ; economic interchange was prevalent . Writing was known and available for recording , even in small sites . Map
Comparative mythology
`` For , as a broad view of the field ( of mythology ) immediately shows , in every well - established culture realm to which a new system of thought and civilization comes , it is received creatively , not inertly . A sensitive , complex process of selection , adaptation , and development brings the new forms into contact with their approximate analogues or homologues in the native inheritance , and in certain instances - notably in Egypt , Crete , the Indus valley , and a little later , the Far East - prodigious forces of indigenous productivity are released in native style , but on the level of the new stage . In other words , although its culture stage at any given period may be shown to have been derived , as an effect of alien influences , the particular style of each of the great domains can no less surely be shown to be indigenous . And so it is that a scholar largely concerned with native forms will tend to argue for local , stylistic originality , whereas one attentive rather to the broadly flung evidence of diffused techniques , artifacts , and mythological motifs will be inclined to lime out a single culture history of mankind , characterized by well - defined general stages , though rendered by way of no less well - defined local styles . It is one thing to analyze the genesis and subsequent diffusion of the fundamental heritage of all high civilizations whatsoever ; another to mark the genesis , maturation , and demise of the several local mythological styles ; and a third to measure the force of each local style in the context of the unitary history of mankind . A total science of mythology must give attention , as far as possible , to all three . ''
History of agriculture
Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant . When major climate change took place after the last ice age ( c. 11,000 BC ) , much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons . These conditions favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season , leaving a dormant seed or tuber . An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter - gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time .
Ancient Egypt
Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle , royal decrees , and religious scenes . Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art , such as shabti statues and books of the dead , which they believed would protect them in the afterlife . During the Middle Kingdom , wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb . In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife , these models show laborers , houses , boats , and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife .
Ancient Egypt
Ancient history Preceded by Prehistory Ancient Near East Sumer Egypt Assyria Elam Akkad Babylonia Canaan Israel and Judah Hittite Empire Arzawa Mitanni Minoan Crete Mycenaean Greece Syro - Hittite states Hayasa - Azzi Georgia Anatolia Armenia Neo-Assyrian Empire Urartu Neo-Babylonian Empire Medes Classical antiquity Greece Persia ( Achaemenid ) Hellenism Rome Africa Late Antiquity East Asia China Korea Japan South Asia Indus Valley Vedic period Maha Janapadas Maurya Empire Tamilakam Satavahana Gupta Empire Pre-Columbian Americas Mesoamerica Olmec Maya civilization Teotihuacan Aztec Andean civilizations Chavín culture Moche Inca empire See also History of the world Ancient maritime history Protohistory Axial Age Iron Age Historiography Ancient literature Ancient warfare Cradle of civilization Followed by the Postclassical Era
Ancient Egypt
The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood , and have not survived . Peasants lived in simple homes , while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures . A few surviving New Kingdom palaces , such as those in Malkata and Amarna , show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people , birds , water pools , deities and geometric designs . Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mud bricks . The architectural elements used in the world 's first large - scale stone building , Djoser 's mortuary complex , include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif .
Celts
John T. Koch of Aberystwyth University suggested that Tartessian inscriptions of the 8th century BC might be classified as Celtic . This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by a margin of more than a century . Alps
Pre-Columbian era
After the migration or migrations , it was several thousand years before the first complex societies arose , the earliest emerging about seven to eight thousand years ago . As early as 6500 BCE , people in the Lower Mississippi Valley at the Monte Sano site were building complex earthwork mounds , probably for religious purposes . This is the earliest dated of numerous mound complexes found in present - day Louisiana , Mississippi and Florida . Since the late twentieth century , archeologists have explored and dated these sites . They have found that they were built by hunter - gatherer societies , whose people occupied the sites on a seasonal basis , and who had not yet developed ceramics . Watson Brake , a large complex of eleven platform mounds , was constructed beginning in 3400 BCE and added to over 500 years . This has changed earlier assumptions that complex construction arose only after societies had adopted agriculture , become sedentary , often developed stratified hierarchy , and generally also developed ceramics . These ancient people had organized to build complex mound projects from a different basis . Late
Pre-Columbian era
Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico ( especially in the state of Nuevo León ) demonstrate an early propensity for counting . Their number system was base 20 and included zero . These early count - markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mesoamerican people before the arrival of Europeans . Many of the later Mesoamerican civilizations carefully built their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events .
Virus
Viruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved . The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form fossils , so molecular techniques have been used to compare the DNA or RNA of viruses and are a useful means of investigating how they arose . In addition , viral genetic material may occasionally integrate into the germline of the host organisms , by which they can be passed on vertically to the offspring of the host for many generations . This provides an invaluable source of information for paleovirologists to trace back ancient viruses that have existed up to millions of years ago . There are three main hypotheses that aim to explain the origins of viruses :
Institution
In history , a distinction between eras or periods , implies a major and fundamental change in the system of institutions governing a society . Political and military events are judged to be of historical significance to the extent that they are associated with changes in institutions . In European history , particular significance is attached to the long transition from the feudal institutions of the Middle Ages to the modern institutions , which govern contemporary life .
Celts
Besides epigraphical evidence , an important source of information on early Celtic is toponymy .
Mesopotamia
The pre-history of the Ancient Near East begins in the Lower Paleolithic period , but writing began with a pictographic script in the Uruk IV period ( ca . 4th millennium BC ) , and the documented record of actual historical events -- and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia -- commence in the mid-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings , and ends with either the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th century BC , or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD , from which point the region came to be known as Iraq . During this period Mesopotamia housed some of the world 's most ancient highly developed and socially complex states .
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language , but it became more analytic later on . Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite articles , which replaced the older inflectional suffixes . There was a change from the older verb -- subject -- object word order to subject -- verb -- object . The Egyptian hieroglyphic , hieratic , and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet . Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church , and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic .
Meroë
Apart from the iron trade , pottery was a widespread and prominent industry in the Meroe kingdom . The production of fine and elaborated decorated wares was a strong tradition within the middle nile . Such productions carried considerable social significance and are believed to be involved in mortuary rites . The long history of goods imported into the Meroitic empire and their subsequent distribution provides insight into the social and political workings of the Meroitic state . The major determinant of production was attributed to the availability of labor rather than the political power associated with land . Power was associated with control of people rather than control of territory .
Arrowhead
In the Stone Age , people used sharpened bone , flintknapped stones , flakes , and chips of rock as weapons and tools . Such items remained in use throughout human civilization , with new materials used as time passed . As archaeological artifacts such objects are classed as projectile points , without specifying whether they were projected by a bow or by some other means such as throwing since the specific means of projection ( the bow , the arrow shaft , the spear shaft , etc . ) is found too seldom in direct association with any given point and the word `` arrow '' would imply a certainty about these points which simply does not exist .
Maya civilization
Although much reduced , a significant Maya presence remained into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities ; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources . Unlike during previous cycles of contraction in the Maya region , abandoned lands were not quickly resettled in the Postclassic . Activity shifted to the northern lowlands and the Maya Highlands ; this may have involved migration from the southern lowlands , because many Postclassic Maya groups had migration myths . Chichen Itza and its Puuc neighbours declined dramatically in the 11th century , and this may represent the final episode of Classic Period collapse . After the decline of Chichen Itza , the Maya region lacked a dominant power until the rise of the city of Mayapan in the 12th century . New cities arose near the Caribbean and Gulf coasts , and new trade networks were formed .
Greco-Persian Wars
The ancient sources that give details of the treaty are reasonably consistent in their description of the terms :
Aihole
The Aihole temples are built at different levels , likely because the river Malaprabha flooded and its path changed over its history . The more ancient temples have a lower level . This is evidenced by the limited excavations done by Rao near the foundation of a few select temples where red polished ware have been found . These ceramic ware pieces are dated to between 1st century BCE and 4th century CE , and likely deposited with silt around the older temples during river floods . Extensive excavation studies at the Aihole done have not been done , but the studies so far suggest that the site preserves archaeologically significant information .
Carthage
Regarding Phoenician writings , few remain and these seldom refer to Carthage . The more ancient and most informative are cuneiform tablets , ca . 1600 -- 1185 , from ancient Ugarit , located to the north of Phoenicia on the Syrian coast ; it was a Canaanite city politically affiliated with the Hittites . The clay tablets tell of myths , epics , rituals , medical and administrative matters , and also correspondence . The highly valued works of Sanchuniathon , an ancient priest of Beirut , who reportedly wrote on Phoenician religion and the origins of civilization , are themselves completely lost , but some little content endures twice removed . Sanchuniathon was said to have lived in the 11th century , which is considered doubtful . Much later a Phoenician History by Philo of Byblos ( 64 -- 141 ) reportedly existed , written in Greek , but only fragments of this work survive . An explanation proffered for why so few Phoenician works endured : early on ( 11th century ) archives and records began to be kept on papyrus , which does not long survive in a moist coastal climate . Also , both Phoenicians and Carthaginians were well known for their secrecy .
Cradle of civilization
A traditional theory of the spread of civilization is that it began in the Fertile Crescent and spread out from there by influence . Scholars more generally now believe that civilizations arose independently at several locations in both hemispheres . They have observed that sociocultural developments occurred along different timeframes . `` Sedentary '' and `` nomadic '' communities continued to interact considerably ; they were not strictly divided among widely different cultural groups . The concept of a cradle of civilization has a focus where the inhabitants came to build cities , to create writing systems , to experiment in techniques for making pottery and using metals , to domesticate animals , and to develop complex social structures involving class systems .
Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
The Copper Age , also called the Eneolithic or the Chalcolithic Age , has been traditionally understood as a transitional period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age , in which a gradual introduction of the metal ( native copper ) took place , while stone was still the main resource utilized . Recent archaeology has found that the metal was not introduced so gradually and that this entailed significant social changes , such as hierarchical leadership , developments in the type of habitation ( larger villages , launching of fortifications ) , long - distance trade , and copper metallurgy .
Hamlet
According to one theory , Shakespeare 's main source is an earlier play -- now lost -- known today as the Ur - Hamlet . Possibly written by Thomas Kyd or even William Shakespeare , the Ur - Hamlet would have existed by 1589 , and would have incorporated a ghost . Shakespeare 's company , the Chamberlain 's Men , may have purchased that play and performed a version for some time , which Shakespeare reworked . However , since no copy of the Ur - Hamlet has survived , it is impossible to compare its language and style with the known works of any of its putative authors . Consequently , there is no direct evidence that Kyd wrote it , nor any evidence that the play was not an early version of Hamlet by Shakespeare himself . This latter idea -- placing Hamlet far earlier than the generally accepted date , with a much longer period of development -- has attracted some support .
Ancient Greece
Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Greeks . Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations , such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians , has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization .
History of India
In addition to the Vedas , the principal texts of Hinduism , the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period . The Mahabharata remains , today , the longest single poem in the world . Historians formerly postulated an `` epic age '' as the milieu of these two epic poems , but now recognise that the texts ( which are both familiar with each other ) went through multiple stages of development over centuries . For instance , the Mahabharata may have been based on a small - scale conflict ( possibly about 1000 BCE ) which was eventually `` transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets '' . There is no conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharata have any historical basis . The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age , between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE . Some even attempted to date the events using methods of archaeo - astronomy which have produced , depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted , estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millennium BCE .
Celts
There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages . These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets . The Ogham script , an Early Medieval alphabet , was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland ( but also in Wales and England ) , and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones . The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition , such as that preserved by bards in Ireland , and eventually recorded by monasteries . Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork , examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites .