vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Pluto (mythology)
The Orphic theogonies are notoriously varied , and Orphic cosmology influenced the varying Gnostic theogonies of late antiquity . Clementine literature ( 4th century AD ) preserves a theogony with explicit Orphic influence that also draws on Hesiod , yielding a distinctive role for Pluto . When the primordial elements came together by orderly cyclonic force , they produced a generative sphere , the `` egg '' from which the primeval Orphic entity Phanes is born and the world is formed . The release of Phanes and his ascent to the heavenly top of the world - egg causes the matter left in the sphere to settle in relation to weight , creating the tripartite world of the traditional theogonies :
Magnetosphere of Jupiter
Jupiter 's internal magnetic field is generated by electrical currents in the planet 's outer core , which is composed of liquid metallic hydrogen . Volcanic eruptions on Jupiter 's moon Io eject large amounts of sulfur dioxide gas into space , forming a large torus around the planet . Jupiter 's magnetic field forces the torus to rotate with the same angular velocity and direction as the planet . The torus in turn loads the magnetic field with plasma , in the process stretching it into a pancake - like structure called a magnetodisk . In effect , Jupiter 's magnetosphere is shaped by Io 's plasma and its own rotation , rather than by the solar wind like Earth 's magnetosphere . Strong currents in the magnetosphere generate permanent auorae around the planet 's poles and intense variable radio emissions , which means that Jupiter can be thought of as a very weak radio pulsar . Jupiter 's aurorae have been observed in almost all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum , including infrared , visible , ultraviolet and soft X-rays .
History of Mexico
The Mesoamericans had the concept of god and religion , but their concept was very different from Abrahamic concepts . The Mesoamericans had a belief where everything , every element of the cosmos , the earth , the sun , the moon , the stars , which mankind inhabits , everything that forms part of nature such as animals , plants , water and mountains all represented a manifestation of the supernatural . In most cases gods and goddesses are often depicted in stone reliefs , pottery decoration , wall paintings and in the various Maya , and pictorial manuscripts such as Maya codices , Aztec codices , and Mixtec codices . Shield
Lunar eclipse
Similarly to the Mayans , the Incans believed that lunar eclipses occurred when a jaguar would eat the moon , which is why a blood moon looks red . The Incans also believed that once the jaguar finished eating the moon , it could come down and devour all the animals on Earth , so they would take spears and shout at the moon to keep it away .
Venus
Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface . On other cratered bodies , such as Earth and the Moon , craters show a range of states of degradation . On the Moon , degradation is caused by subsequent impacts , whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion . On Venus , about 85 % of the craters are in pristine condition . The number of craters , together with their well - preserved condition , indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event about 300 -- 600 million years ago , followed by a decay in volcanism . Whereas Earth 's crust is in continuous motion , Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process . Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle , Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust . Then , over a period of about 100 million years , subduction occurs on an enormous scale , completely recycling the crust .
Kuiper belt
Recent research has revealed that the size distributions of the hot classical and cold classical objects have differing slopes . The slope for the hot objects is q = 5.3 at large diameters and q = 2.0 at small diameters with the change in slope at 110 km . The slope for the cold objects is q = 8.2 at large diameters and q = 2.9 at small diameters with a change in slope at 140 km . The size distributions of the scattering objects , the plutinos , and the Neptune trojans have slopes similar to the other dynamically hot populations , but may instead have a divot , a sharp decrease in the number of objects below a specific size . This divot is hypothesized to be due to either the collisional evolution of the population , or to be due to the population having formed with no objects below this size , with the smaller objects being fragments of the original objects .
Lunar distance (astronomy)
An expedition by French astronomer A.C.D Crommelin observed lunar transits through the meridian ( the moment when the Moon crosses an imaginary great circle that passes directly overhead and through the celestial poles ) on the same night from two different locations . Careful measurements from 1905 through 1910 measured the angle of elevation at the moment when a specific lunar crater ( Mösting A ) crossed the meridian , from stations at Greenwich and at Cape of Good Hope , which share nearly the same longitude . A distance was calculated with an uncertainty of ± 30 km , and remained the definitive lunar distance value for the next half century . Occultations
Moon landing
Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter . The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid - fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship . The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres ( 1,080 ft ) above the surface and separate , allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface .
Magnetosphere of Jupiter
The shape of Jupiter 's magnetosphere described above is sustained by the neutral sheet current ( also known as the magnetotail current ) , which flows with Jupiter 's rotation through the tail plasma sheet , the tail currents , which flow against Jupiter 's rotation at the outer boundary of the magnetotail , and the magnetopause currents ( or Chapman -- Ferraro currents ) , which flow against rotation along the dayside magnetopause . These currents create the magnetic field that cancels the internal field outside the magnetosphere . They also interact substantially with the solar wind .
Reuleaux triangle
Any curve of constant width can form a rotor within a square , a shape that can perform a complete rotation while staying within the square and at all times touching all four sides of the square . However , the Reuleaux triangle is the rotor with the minimum possible area . As it rotates , its axis does not stay fixed at a single point , but instead follows a curve formed by the pieces of four ellipses . Because of its 120 ° angles , the rotating Reuleaux triangle can not reach some points near the sharper angles at the square 's vertices , but rather covers a shape with slightly rounded corners , also formed by elliptical arcs . One
Lunar distance (astronomy)
Lunar distance ( LD or Δ ⊕ L ( \ textstyle \ Delta _ ( \ oplus L ) ) ) , also called Earth -- Moon distance , Earth -- Moon characteristic distance , or distance to the Moon , is a unit of measure in astronomy . It is the average distance from the center of Earth to the center of the Moon . More technically , it is the mean semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit . It may also refer to the time - averaged distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon , or less commonly , the instantaneous Earth -- Moon distance . The lunar distance is approximately a quarter of a million miles .
H II region
They may be of any shape , because the distribution of the stars and gas inside them is irregular . The short - lived blue stars created in these regions emit copious amounts of ultraviolet light that ionize the surrounding gas . H II regions -- sometimes several hundred light - years across -- are often associated with giant molecular clouds . They often appear clumpy and filamentary , sometimes showing bizarre shapes such as the Horsehead Nebula . H II regions may give birth to thousands of stars over a period of several million years . In the end , supernova explosions and strong stellar winds from the most massive stars in the resulting star cluster will disperse the gases of the H II region , leaving behind a cluster of stars which have formed , such as the Pleiades .
Kuiper belt
Analysis indicates that Kuiper belt objects are composed of a mixture of rock and a variety of ices such as water , methane , and ammonia . The temperature of the belt is only about 50 K , so many compounds that would be gaseous closer to the Sun remain solid . The densities and rock -- ice fractions are known for only a small number of objects for which the diameters and the masses have been determined . The diameter can be determined by imaging with a high - resolution telescope such as the Hubble Space Telescope , by the timing of an occultation when an object passes in front of a star or , most commonly , by using the albedo of an object calculated from its infrared emissions . The masses are determined using the semi-major axes and periods of satellites , which are therefore known only for a few binary objects . The densities range from less than 0.4 to 2.6 g / cm . The least dense objects are thought to be largely composed of ice and have significant porosity . The densest objects are likely composed of rock with a thin crust of ice . There is a trend of low densities for small objects and high densities for the largest objects . One possible explanation for this trend is that ice was lost from the surface layers when differentiated objects collided to form the largest objects . Artist
Astronomical spectroscopy
There are three main types of nebula : absorption , reflection , and emission nebulae . Absorption ( or dark ) nebulae are made of dust and gas in such quantities that they obscure the starlight behind them , making photometry difficult . Reflection nebulae , as their name suggest , reflect the light of nearby stars . Their spectra are the same as the stars surrounding them , though the light is bluer ; shorter wavelengths scatter better than longer wavelengths . Emission nebulae emit light at specific wavelengths depending on their chemical composition .
Lunar eclipse
A selenelion or selenehelion occurs when both the Sun and the eclipsed Moon can be observed at the same time . This can happen only just before sunset or just after sunrise , and both bodies will appear just above the horizon at nearly opposite points in the sky . This arrangement has led to the phenomenon being referred to as a horizontal eclipse . There are typically a number of high ridges undergoing sunrise or sunset that can see it . Although the moon is in the Earth 's umbra , the Sun and the eclipsed Moon can both be seen at the same time because the refraction of light through the Earth 's atmosphere causes each of them to appear higher in the sky than their true geometric position .
Yosemite National Park
Almost all of the landforms in the Yosemite area are cut from the granitic rock of the Sierra Nevada Batholith ( a batholith is a large mass of intrusive igneous rock that formed deep below the surface ) . About 5 % of the park 's landforms ( mostly in its eastern margin near Mount Dana ) are metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks . These rocks are called roof pendants because they were once the roof of the underlying granitic rock .
Vredefort crater
The crater site is one of the few multiple - ringed impact craters on Earth , although they are more common elsewhere in the Solar System . Perhaps the best - known example is Valhalla Crater on Jupiter 's moon Callisto , although Earth 's Moon has a number , as well . Geological processes , such as erosion and plate tectonics , have destroyed most multiple - ring craters on Earth . A
Sundial
In general , sundials indicate the time by casting a shadow or throwing light onto a surface known as a dial face or dial plate . Although usually a flat plane , the dial face may also be the inner or outer surface of a sphere , cylinder , cone , helix , and various other shapes .
Mars
Large albedo features retain many of the older names , but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features . For example , Nix Olympica ( the snows of Olympus ) has become Olympus Mons ( Mount Olympus ) . The surface of Mars as seen from Earth is divided into two kinds of areas , with differing albedo . The paler plains covered with dust and sand rich in reddish iron oxides were once thought of as Martian `` continents '' and given names like Arabia Terra ( land of Arabia ) or Amazonis Planitia ( Amazonian plain ) . The dark features were thought to be seas , hence their names Mare Erythraeum , Mare Sirenum and Aurorae Sinus . The largest dark feature seen from Earth is Syrtis Major Planum . The permanent northern polar ice cap is named Planum Boreum , whereas the southern cap is called Planum Australe .
Pluto (mythology)
Authors tell the fable that Ceres was Proserpina 's mother , and that Proserpina while playing one day was raped by Pluto . Her mother searched for her with lighted torches ; and it was decreed by Jupiter that the mother should have her daughter for fifteen days in the month , but Pluto for the rest , the other fifteen . This is nothing but that the name Ceres is used to mean the earth , called Ceres on analogy with crees ( ' you may create ' ) , for all things are created from her . By Proserpina is meant the moon , and her name is on analogy with prope serpens ( ' creeping near ' ) , for she is moved nearer to the earth than the other planets . She is called earth 's daughter , because her substance has more of earth in it than of the other elements . By Pluto is meant the shadow that sometimes obstructs the moon . Plouton
Jupiter
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide . The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes , known as tropical regions . These are sub-divided into lighter - hued zones and darker belts . The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence . Wind speeds of 100 m / s ( 360 km / h ) are common in zonal jets . The zones have been observed to vary in width , color and intensity from year to year , but they have remained sufficiently stable for scientists to give them identifying designations . Jupiter
Lunar distance (astronomy)
It is predicted that the lunar distance will continue to increase until the Earth and Moon become tidally locked . This would occur when the duration of the lunar orbital period equals the rotational period of Earth . The two bodies will then be at equilibrium , and no further rotational energy will be exchanged . Models predict that 50 billion years would be required to achieve this configuration , which is significantly longer than the expected lifetime of the solar system .
Mars
The origin of the two moons is not well understood . Their low albedo and carbonaceous chondrite composition have been regarded as similar to asteroids , supporting the capture theory . The unstable orbit of Phobos would seem to point towards a relatively recent capture . But both have circular orbits , near the equator , which is unusual for captured objects and the required capture dynamics are complex . Accretion early in the history of Mars is plausible , but would not account for a composition resembling asteroids rather than Mars itself , if that is confirmed .
Moon landing
Advances in other areas were necessary before manned spacecraft could follow unmanned ones to the surface of the Moon . Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit . Ranger , Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all utilized flight paths from Earth that traveled directly to the lunar surface without first placing the spacecraft in a lunar orbit . Such direct ascents use a minimum amount of fuel for unmanned spacecraft on a one - way trip .
Lunar distance (astronomy)
The mean semi-major axis has a value of 384,402 km ( 238,856 mi ) . The time - averaged distance between Earth and Moon centers is 385,000.6 km ( 239,228.3 mi ) . The actual distance varies over the course of the orbit of the Moon , from 356,500 km ( 221,500 mi ) at the perigee to 406,700 km ( 252,700 mi ) at apogee , resulting in a differential range of 50,200 km ( 31,200 mi ) .
Cardinal direction
In either hemisphere , observations of the night sky show that the visible stars appear to be moving in circular paths , caused by the rotation of the Earth . This is best seen in a long exposure photograph , which is obtained by locking the shutter open for most of the intensely dark part of a moonless night . The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs ( portions of perfect circles ) from which the exact center can be readily derived , and which corresponds to the Celestial pole , which lies directly above the position of the true pole ( North or South ) on the horizon . A published photograph exposed for nearly 8 hours demonstrates this effect .
Lunar phase
Principal and intermediate phases of the Moon Phase Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Visibility Mid-phase standard time Average moonrise time Average moonset time Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Photograph New moon Disc completely in Sun 's shadow ( lit by earthshine only ) Invisible ( too close to Sun ) Midday 6 am 6 pm Not visible Waxing crescent Right side , 1 -- 49 % lit disc Left side , 1 -- 49 % lit disc Late morning to post-dusk 3 pm 9 am 9 pm First quarter Right side , 50 % lit disc Left side , 50 % lit disc Afternoon and early evening 6 pm Midday Midnight Waxing gibbous Right side , 51 -- 99 % lit disc Left side , 51 -- 99 % lit disc Late afternoon and most of night 9 pm 3 pm 3 am Full moon Completely illuminated disc Sunset to sunrise ( all night ) Midnight 6 pm 6 am Waning gibbous Left side , 99 -- 51 % lit disc Right side , 99 -- 51 % lit disc Most of night and early morning 3 am 9 pm 9 am Third quarter ( or last quarter ) Left side , 50 % lit disc Right side , 50 % lit disc Late night and morning 6 am Midnight Midday Waning crescent Left side , 49 -- 1 % lit disc Right side , 49 -- 1 % lit disc Pre-dawn to early afternoon 9 am 3 am 3 pm Phases
Lunar distance (astronomy)
The oldest method of determining the lunar distance involves measuring the angle between the Moon and a chosen reference point from multiple locations , simultaneously . The synchronization can be coordinated by making measurements at a pre-determined time , or during an event which is observable to all parties . Before accurate mechanical chronometers , the synchronization event was typically a lunar eclipse , or the moment when the moon crossed the meridian ( if the observers shared the same longitude ) . This measurement technique is known as lunar parallax .
History of the center of the Universe
The Flat Earth model gave way to an understanding of a Spherical Earth . Aristotle ( 384 -- 322 BCE ) provided observational arguments supporting the idea of a spherical Earth , namely that different stars are visible in different locations , travelers going south see southern constellations rise higher above the horizon , and the shadow of Earth on the Moon during a lunar eclipse is round , and spheres cast circular shadows while discs generally do not .
Lunar eclipse
Due to its reddish color , a totally eclipsed moon is sometimes referred to as a `` blood moon '' . In addition , in the 2010s the media started to associate the term with the four full moons of a lunar tetrad , especially the 2014 -- 15 tetrad coinciding with the feasts of Passover and Tabernacles . A lunar tetrad is a series of four consecutive total lunar eclipses , spaced six months apart .
Moth
Moths frequently appear to circle artificial lights , although the reason for this behavior remains unknown . One hypothesis to explain this behavior is that moths use a technique of celestial navigation called transverse orientation . By maintaining a constant angular relationship to a bright celestial light , such as the moon , they can fly in a straight line . Celestial objects are so far away that , even after travelling great distances , the change in angle between the moth and the light source is negligible ; further , the moon will always be in the upper part of the visual field , or on the horizon . When a moth encounters a much closer artificial light and uses it for navigation , the angle changes noticeably after only a short distance , in addition to being often below the horizon . The moth instinctively attempts to correct by turning toward the light , thereby causing airborne moths to come plummeting downward , and resulting in a spiral flight path that gets closer and closer to the light source .
History of calendars
In 1267 , the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours , minutes , seconds , thirds , and fourths ( horae , minuta , secunda , tertia , and quarta ) after noon on specified calendar dates . Although a third for ​ ⁄ of a second remains in some languages , for example Arabic ثالثة , the modern second is further divided decimally .
Maya civilization
Solar and lunar eclipses were considered to be especially dangerous events that could bring catastrophe upon the world . In the Dresden Codex , a solar eclipse is represented by a serpent devouring the k'in ( `` day '' ) hieroglyph . Eclipses were interpreted as the sun or moon being bitten , and lunar tables were recorded in order that the Maya might be able to predict them , and perform the appropriate ceremonies to ward off disaster .
Lunar eclipse
A total lunar eclipse has the direct sunlight completely blocked by the earth 's shadow . The only light seen is refracted through the earth 's shadow . This light looks red for the same reason that the sunset looks red , due to rayleigh scattering of the more blue light . Because of its reddish color , a total lunar eclipse is sometimes called a blood moon .
Earth
Due to their tidal interaction , the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm / a ( 1.5 in / year ) . Over millions of years , these tiny modifications -- and the lengthening of Earth 's day by about 23 μs / yr -- add up to significant changes . During the Devonian period , for example , ( approximately 7002410000000000000 ♠ 410 Mya ) there were 400 days in a year , with each day lasting 21.8 hours .
Polygon
Polygons appear in rock formations , most commonly as the flat facets of crystals , where the angles between the sides depend on the type of mineral from which the crystal is made .
Earth
Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to its orbital plane , producing seasons on Earth . The gravitational interaction between Earth and the Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets .
Magnetosphere of Jupiter
Spots were found to correspond to three Galilean moons : Io , Europa and Ganymede . They develop because the co-rotation of the plasma is slowed in the vicinity of moons . The brightest spot belongs to Io , which is the main source of the plasma in the magnetosphere ( see above ) . The Ionian auroral spot is thought to be related to Alfvén currents flowing from the Jovian to Ionian ionosphere . Europa 's and Ganymede 's spots are much dimmer , because these moons are weak plasma sources , because of sublimation of the water ice from their surfaces .