vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Nominative determinism
As for Casler 's third possible explanation for nominative determinism , genetics , researchers Voracek , Rieder , Stieger , and Swami found some evidence for it in 2015 . They reported that today 's Smiths still tend to have the physical capabilities of their ancestors who were smiths . People called Smith reported above - average aptitude for strength - related activities . A similar aptitude for dexterity - related activities among people with the surname Tailor , or equivalent spellings thereof , was found , but it was not statistically significant . In the researchers ' view a genetic - social hypothesis appears more viable than the hypothesis of implicit egotism effects .
Natural selection
Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern biology . The concept , published by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in a joint presentation of papers in 1858 , was elaborated in Darwin 's influential 1859 book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life . He described natural selection as analogous to artificial selection , a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction . The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity ; at the time of Darwin 's writing , science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics . The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the modern synthesis of the mid-20th century . The addition of molecular genetics has led to evolutionary developmental biology , which explains evolution at the molecular level . While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift , natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution .
Infertility
Mutations to NR5A1 gene encoding Steroidogenic Factor - 1 ( SF - 1 ) have been found in a small subset of men with non-obstructive male factor infertility where the cause is unknown . Results of one study investigating a cohort of 315 men revealed changes within the hinge region of SF - 1 and no rare allelic variants in fertile control men . Affected individuals displayed more severe forms of infertility such as azoospermia and severe oligozoospermia .
X chromosome
X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy is an extremely rare disease of cornea associated with Xq25 region . Lisch epithelial corneal dystrophy is associated with Xp22. 3 .
Helena Bonham Carter
Her maternal grandmother , Baroness Hélène Fould - Springer , was from an upper class Jewish family ; she was the daughter of Baron Eugène Fould - Springer ( a French banker descended from the Ephrussi family and the Fould dynasty ) and Marie Cecile von Springer ( whose father was Austrian - born industrialist Baron Gustav von Springer , and whose mother was from the de Koenigswarter family ) . Hélène Fould - Springer converted to Catholicism after the Second World War . Hélène 's sister was the French philanthropist Liliane de Rothschild ( 1916 -- 2003 ) , the wife of Baron Élie de Rothschild , of the prominent Rothschild family ( who had also married within the von Springer family in the 19th century ) ; Liliane 's other sister , Therese Fould - Springer , was the mother of British writer David Pryce - Jones .
Natural selection
A prerequisite for natural selection to result in adaptive evolution , novel traits and speciation is the presence of heritable genetic variation that results in fitness differences . Genetic variation is the result of mutations , genetic recombinations and alterations in the karyotype ( the number , shape , size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes ) . Any of these changes might have an effect that is highly advantageous or highly disadvantageous , but large effects are rare . In the past , most changes in the genetic material were considered neutral or close to neutral because they occurred in noncoding DNA or resulted in a synonymous substitution . However , many mutations in non-coding DNA have deleterious effects . Although both mutation rates and average fitness effects of mutations are dependent on the organism , a majority of mutations in humans are slightly deleterious .
History of childhood
Historians had assumed traditional families in the preindustrial era involved the extended family , with grandparent , parents , children and perhaps some other relatives all living together and ruled by an elderly patriarch . There were examples of this in the Balkans -- and in aristocratic families . However , the typical pattern in Western Europe was the much simpler nuclear family of husband , wife and their children ( and perhaps a servant , who might well be a relative ) . Children were often temporarily sent off as servants to relatives in need of help .
Border Collie
Elbow dysplasia may also occur in the breed . Dogs homozygous for the merle gene , sometimes referred to as `` double merles '' , are likely to have ocular and / or auditory defects .
Natural selection
Alternatively , selection can be divided according to its effect on genetic diversity . Purifying or negative selection acts to remove genetic variation from the population ( and is opposed by de novo mutation , which introduces new variation . In contrast , balancing selection acts to maintain genetic variation in a population , even in the absence of de novo mutation , by negative frequency - dependent selection . One mechanism for this is heterozygote advantage , where individuals with two different alleles have a selective advantage over individuals with just one allele . The polymorphism at the human ABO blood group locus has been explained in this way . Different
Gene
Most mutations within genes are neutral , having no effect on the organism 's phenotype ( silent mutations ) . Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid ( synonymous mutations ) . Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes , but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid ( e.g. conservative mutations ) . Many mutations , however , are deleterious or even lethal , and are removed from populations by natural selection . Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual , or can be inherited . Finally , a small fraction of mutations are beneficial , improving the organism 's fitness and are extremely important for evolution , since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution .
Sociology
Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining Twin pregnancies . The main argument is , if there are social behaviors that are inherited and developed before birth , then one should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born . Thus , ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques . Using kinematic analysis , the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on . Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins were not accidental but specifically aimed .
History of United States prison systems
Persistent beliefs in inherited criminality and social inferiority also stoked a growing eugenics movement during the Reconstruction Era , which sought to `` improve '' the human race through controlled breeding and eliminate `` poor '' or `` inferior '' tendencies . By the late 1890s , eugenics programs were enjoying a `` full - blown renaissance '' in American prisons and institutions for the mentally ill , with leading physicians , psychologists , and wardens as proponents . Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso published a highly influential tract in 1878 entitled L'uomo delinquente ( or , The Criminal Man ) , which theorized that a primitive criminal type existed who was identifiable by physical symptoms or `` stigmata . ''
Cousin marriage
All Arab countries in the Persian Gulf currently require advance genetic screening for all prospective married couples . Qatar was the last Persian Gulf nation to institute mandatory screening in 2009 , mainly to warn related couples who are planning marriage about any genetic risks they may face . The current rate of cousin marriage there is 54 % , an increase of 12 -- 18 % over the previous generation . A report by the Dubai - based Centre for Arab Genomic Studies ( CAGS ) in September 2009 found that Arabs have one of the world 's highest rates of genetic disorders , nearly two - thirds of which are linked to consanguinity . Research from Ahmad Teebi suggests consanguinity is declining in Lebanon , Jordan , Morocco and among Palestinians in Israel , but is increasing in the United Arab Emirates .
Eduard Khil
The couple had one son , Dmitri , born 2 June 1963 , and a grandson named Eduard ( born in 1997 ) after his grandfather . The family name Khil is not derived from Hill , as it is reported on various websites . The singer stated in an interview that the name is likely to have come from a Spanish ancestor with the surname Gil , which is pronounced similarly to hill .
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
In 1985 , Johns Hopkins University human geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel 's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation ( RERF ) were still looking for possible birth defects or other causes among the survivors decades later , but found no evidence that they were more common among the survivors . Despite the insignificance of birth defects found in Neel 's study and the detailed medical literature , up to 1987 , historians such as Ronald E. Powaski frequently wrote that Hiroshima experienced `` an increase in stillbirths , birth defects , and infant mortality '' following the atomic bomb .
Cousin marriage
Anthropologist Francis Hsu described mother 's brother 's daughter ( MBD ) as being the most preferred type of Chinese cousin marriage , mother 's sister 's daughter ( MSD ) as being tolerated , and father 's brother 's daughter ( FBD ) as being disfavored . Some writers report this last form as being nearly incestuous . One proposed explanation is that in FBD marriage , the daughter does not change her surname throughout her life , so the marriage does not result in an extension of the father 's kinship ties . In Chinese culture , these patrilineal ties are most important in determining the closeness of a relation . In the case of the MSD marriage , no such ties exist , so consequently this may not even be viewed as cousin marriage . Finally , one reason that MBD marriage is often most common may be the typically greater emotional warmth between a man and his mother 's side of the family . Later analyses have found regional variation in these patterns ; in some rural areas where cousin marriage is still common , MBD is not preferred but merely acceptable , similar to MSD . By the early to mid-20th century , anthropologists described cross-cousin marriage in China as `` still permissible ... but ... generally obsolete '' or as `` permitted but not encouraged '' . Middle
Clan Munro
The succession of a Highland Chief has traditionally followed the principle of agnatic primogeniture or patrilineal seniority , whereby succession passes to the former Chief 's closest male relative . Sir Hugh Munro , 8th Baronet of Foulis - Obsdale died in 1848 , followed 8 months later by the death of his daughter Mary Seymour Munro and although he had a natural son named George , he was succeeded in the Foulis estates and also the Baronetcy of Foulis - Obsdale by the male representative of the Munro of Culrain cadet branch , Sir Charles Munro , 9th Baronet . The 11th Baronet Foulis - Obsdale was succeeded by his eldest daughter Eva Marion Munro as chief of the clan , two sons having predeceased him . Eva Marion Munro married Col C.H. Gascoigne , their son Patrick took the surname ' Munro ' of his maternal grandfather to become clan chief . However , the Nova Scotian Baronetcy of Foulis - Obsdale ( 1634 ) could only pass to a direct male descendant of the Baronets and was succeeded to by a cousin of the 11th Bart . Sir George Hamilton Munro , 12th Baronet ( 1864 -- 1945 ) . The current Baronet Munro of Foulis is listed as Dormant : Exant under research by the Standing Council of Baronets at www.barotonage.org . See Main Article : Munro Baronets .
History of evolutionary thought
When Thomas Hunt Morgan began experimenting with breeding the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster , he was a saltationist who hoped to demonstrate that a new species could be created in the lab by mutation alone . Instead , the work at his lab between 1910 and 1915 reconfirmed Mendelian genetics and provided solid experimental evidence linking it to chromosomal inheritance . His work also demonstrated that most mutations had relatively small effects , such as a change in eye color , and that rather than creating a new species in a single step , mutations served to increase variation within the existing population .
Cousin marriage
Cousin marriage has genetic aspects that do not arise in the case of other marriage - related political and social issues like interracial marriage . This is because married couples that possess higher than normal consanguinity , shared identical DNA and genetic material , have an increased chance of sharing genes for recessive traits . The percentage of consanguinity between any two individuals decreases fourfold as the most recent common ancestor recedes one generation . First cousins have four times the consanguinity of second cousins , while first cousins once removed have half that of first cousins . Double first cousins have twice that of first cousins and are as related as half - siblings .
Thymus
Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy - candidiasis - ectodermal dystrophy ( APECED ) is an extremely rare genetic autoimmune syndrome . However , this disease highlights the importance of the thymus in prevention of autoimmunity . This disease is caused by mutations in the Autoimmune Regulator ( AIRE ) gene . AIRE allows for the ectopic expression of tissue - specific proteins in the thymus medulla , such as proteins that would normally only be expressed in the eye or pancreas . This expression in the thymus , allows for the deletion of autoreactive thymocytes by exposing them to self - antigens during their development , a mechanism of central tolerance . Patients with APECED develop an autoimmune disease that affects multiple endocrine tissues . Thymoma
Native Son
Henry Dalton : Father of Mary , he owns a controlling amount of stock in a real estate firm which maintains the black ghetto . Blacks in the ghetto pay too much for rat - infested flats . As Max points out at the inquest , Mr. Dalton refuses to rent flats to black people outside of the designated ghetto area . He does this while donating money to the NAACP , buying ping - pong tables for the local black youth outreach program , and giving people like Bigger a chance at employment . Mr. Dalton 's philanthropy , however , only shows off his wealth while backing up the business practices which contain an already oppressed people . An example of this is when the reader learns that Mr. Dalton owns the real estate company that controls a lot of the South Side ( where most of the black community lives ) , but instead of using his power to improve their situation , he does things such as donate ping pong tables to them , or hire individual blacks to work in his house . Mr. Dalton is blind to the real plight of blacks in the ghetto , a plight that he maintains .
Spinal cord
Damage to upper motor neuron axons in the spinal cord results in a characteristic pattern of ipsilateral deficits . These include hyperreflexia , hypertonia and muscle weakness . Lower motor neuronal damage results in its own characteristic pattern of deficits . Rather than an entire side of deficits , there is a pattern relating to the myotome affected by the damage . Additionally , lower motor neurons are characterized by muscle weakness , hypotonia , hyporeflexia and muscle atrophy .
Evidence of common descent
Endogenous retroviruses ( or ERVs ) are remnant sequences in the genome left from ancient viral infections in an organism . The retroviruses ( or virogenes ) are always passed on to the next generation of that organism that received the infection . This leaves the virogene left in the genome . Because this event is rare and random , finding identical chromosomal positions of a virogene in two different species suggests common ancestry . Cats ( Felidae ) present a notable instance of virogene sequences demonstrating common descent . The standard phylogenetic tree for Felidae have smaller cats ( Felis chaus , Felis silvestris , Felis nigripes , and Felis catus ) diverging from larger cats such as the subfamily Pantherinae and other carnivores . The fact that small cats have an ERV where the larger cats do not suggests that the gene was inserted into the ancestor of the small cats after the larger cats had diverged . Another example of this is with humans and chimps . Humans contain numerous ERVs that comprise a considerable percentage of the genome . Sources vary , however , 1 % to 8 % has been proposed . Humans and chimps share seven different occurrences of virogenes , while all primates share similar retroviruses congruent with phylogeny . Recent
Framingham Heart Study
In recent years , scientists have been carrying out genetic research within the Framingham Heart Study .
Gene
During the process of meiotic cell division , an event called genetic recombination or crossing - over can sometimes occur , in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding homologous non-sister chromatid . This can result in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles . The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent 's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes ; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait . This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome , or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome . The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome , the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together ( known as genetic linkage ) . Genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them .
BRCA1
Certain variations of the BRCA1 gene lead to an increased risk for breast cancer as part of a hereditary breast - ovarian cancer syndrome . Researchers have identified hundreds of mutations in the BRCA1 gene , many of which are associated with an increased risk of cancer . Women with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene have up to an 80 % risk of developing breast cancer by age 90 ; increased risk of developing ovarian cancer is about 55 % for women with BRCA1 mutations and about 25 % for women with BRCA2 mutations .
Gene
Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent .
Tabula rasa
Important evidence against the tabula rasa model of the mind comes from behavioural genetics , especially twin and adoption studies ( see below ) . These indicate strong genetic influences on personal characteristics such as IQ , alcoholism , gender identity , and other traits . Critically , multivariate studies show that the distinct faculties of the mind , such as memory and reason , fractionate along genetic boundaries . Cultural universals such as emotion and the relative resilience of psychological adaptation to accidental biological changes ( for instance the David Reimer case of gender reassignment following an accident ) also support basic biological mechanisms in the mind . Social
Human skin color
Oculocutaneous albinism II ( OCA2 ) assists in the regulation of pH in melanocytes . The OCA2 gene 's derived His615Arg ( rs1800414 ) allele has been shown to account for about 8 % of the skin tone difference between African and East Asian populations in studies of an East Asian population living in Toronto and a Chinese Han population . This variant is essentially restricted to East Asia , with highest frequencies in Eastern East Asia ( 49 -- 63 % ) , midrange frequencies in Southeast Asia , and the lowest frequencies in Western China and some Eastern European populations .
Vietnam War
In 2006 , Anh Duc Ngo and colleagues of the University of Texas Health Science Center published a meta - analysis that exposed a large amount of heterogeneity ( different findings ) between studies , a finding consistent with a lack of consensus on the issue on the effect of Agent Orange in Vietnam . Despite this , statistical analysis of the studies they examined resulted in data that the increase in birth defects / relative risk ( RR ) from exposure to agent orange / dioxin `` appears '' to be on the order of 3 in Vietnamese - funded studies , but 1.29 in the rest of the world . There is data near the threshold of statistical significance suggesting Agent Orange contributes to still - births , cleft palate , and neural tube defects , with spina bifida being the most statistically significant defect . The large discrepancy in RR between Vietnamese studies and those in the rest of the world has been ascribed to bias in the Vietnamese studies .
Race and ethnicity in the United States
Over the centuries when Whites wielded power over both Blacks and Amerindians and believed in their inherent superiority over people of color , they created a social order of hypodescent , in which they assigned mixed - race children to the lower - status groups . They were often ignorant of the systems among Native American tribes of social classification , including kinship and hypodescent . The Omaha people , for instance , who had a patrilineal kinship system , classified all children with white fathers as `` white '' , and excluded them as members of the clans and tribe , unless one was formally adopted by a male member . Tribal members might care for mixed - race children of white fathers , but considered them outside the hereditary clan and kinship fundamental to tribal society .
History of evolutionary thought
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence . By the first decade of the 21st century it had become accepted that epigenetic mechanisms were a necessary part of the evolutionary origin of cellular differentiation . Although epigenetics in multicellular organisms is generally thought to be a mechanism involved in differentiation , with epigenetic patterns `` reset '' when organisms reproduce , there have been some observations of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance . This shows that in some cases nongenetic changes to an organism can be inherited and it has been suggested that such inheritance can help with adaptation to local conditions and affect evolution . Some have suggested that in certain cases a form of Lamarckian evolution may occur .