vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Berlin Wall
The East German government claimed that the Wall was an `` anti-fascist protective rampart '' ( German : `` antifaschistischer Schutzwall '' ) intended to dissuade aggression from the West . Another official justification was the activities of Western agents in Eastern Europe . The Eastern German government also claimed that West Berliners were buying out state - subsidized goods in East Berlin . East Germans and others greeted such statements with skepticism , as most of the time , the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany traveling to the West , but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East . The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it . Most people believed that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering or fleeing to West Berlin .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Despite Japan 's steady territorial gains in northern China , the coastal regions , and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China , the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled . The uneasy alliance began to break down by late 1938 , partially due to the Communists ' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines . Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were often labelled `` collaborators '' and attacked by CPC forces . For example , the Red Army led by He Long attacked and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin - wu in Hebei in June 1939 . Starting in 1940 , open conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese control , culminating in the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941 .
End of the Han dynasty
Around the time when Liu Bei was attacking Hanzhong , Guan Yu also advanced north from Jing Province to attack Cao Cao 's city of Fancheng ( 樊城 ; present - day Fancheng District , Xiangyang , Hubei ) , which was defended by Cao Ren . While Cao Ren managed to hold on to his position firmly , Guan Yu besieged the city , and the situation was serious enough that Cao Cao even considered moving the capital away from Xu .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Xining was subjected to aerial bombardment by Japanese warplanes in 1941 , causing all ethnicities in Qinghai to unite against the Japanese . General Han Youwen directed the defense of the city of Xining during air raids by Japanese planes . Han survived an aerial bombardment by Japanese planes in Xining while he was being directed via telephone by Ma Bufang , who hid in an air raid shelter in a military barrack . The bombing resulted Han being buried in rubble , though he was later rescued .
Samurai
In 1274 , the Mongol - founded Yuan dynasty in China sent a force of some 40,000 men and 900 ships to invade Japan in northern Kyūshū . Japan mustered a mere 10,000 samurai to meet this threat . The invading army was harassed by major thunderstorms throughout the invasion , which aided the defenders by inflicting heavy casualties . The Yuan army was eventually recalled and the invasion was called off . The Mongol invaders used small bombs , which was likely the first appearance of bombs and gunpowder in Japan . Samurai
Second Sino-Japanese War
Most of China 's industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan , and the Soviet Union refused to allow the United States to supply China through Kazakhstan into Xinjiang as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had turned anti-Soviet in 1942 with Chiang 's approval . For these reasons , the Chinese government never had the supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives . Despite the severe shortage of matériel , in 1943 , the Chinese were successful in repelling major Japanese offensives in Hubei and Changde .
Japanese invasion of Manchuria
Despite his failure to hold the bridge , General Ma Zhanshan became a national hero in China for his resistance at Nenjiang Bridge , which was widely reported in the Chinese and international press . The publicity inspired more volunteers to enlist in the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies .
Korean War
After the formation of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , the Chinese government named the Western nations , led by the United States , as the biggest threat to its national security . Basing this judgment on China 's century of humiliation beginning in the early 19th century , U.S. support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War , and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries , the Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the United States ' crusade against Communism . As a countermeasure and to elevate China 's standing among the worldwide Communist movements , the Chinese leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China 's periphery .
Allies of World War II
The Soviet Union intervened against Japan and its client state in Manchuria in 1945 , cooperating with the Nationalist Government of China and Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai - shek ; though also cooperating , preferring , and encouraging the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong to take effective control of Manchuria after expelling Japanese forces . History
Second Sino-Japanese War
In 1930 , the Central Plains War broke out across China , involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition , and the Nanking government under Chiang . The Communist Party of China ( CPC ) previously fought openly against the Nanking government after the Shanghai massacre of 1927 , and they continued to expand during this civil war . The Kuomintang government in Nanking decided to focus their efforts on suppressing the Chinese Communists through the Encirclement Campaigns , following the policy of `` first internal pacification , then external resistance '' ( Chinese : 攘 外 必 先 安 內 ) .
Second Sino-Japanese War
In the Chinese People 's War of Resistance Against Japan Memorial near the Marco Polo Bridge and in mainland Chinese textbooks , the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) claims that the Nationalists mostly avoided fighting the Japanese to preserve their strength for a final showdown with the Communist Party of China ( CPC or CCP ) , while the Communists were the main military force in the Chinese resistance efforts . Recently , however , with a change in the political climate , the CPC has admitted that certain Nationalist generals made important contributions in resisting the Japanese . The official history in mainland China now states that the KMT fought a bloody , yet indecisive , frontal war against Japan , while the CPC engaged the Japanese forces in far greater numbers behind enemy lines . For the sake of Chinese reunification and appeasing the Republic of China ( ROC ) on Taiwan , the PRC has begun to `` acknowledge '' the Nationalists and the Communists as `` equal '' contributors , because the victory over Japan belonged to the Chinese people , rather than to any political party .
Cold War
In 1949 , Mao Zedong 's People 's Liberation Army defeated Chiang Kai - shek 's United States - backed Kuomintang ( KMT ) Nationalist Government in China , and the Soviet Union promptly created an alliance with the newly formed People 's Republic of China . According to Norwegian historian Odd Arne Westad , the communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai - Shek made , and because in his search for a powerful centralized government , Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China . Moreover , his party was weakened during the war against Japan . Meanwhile , the communists told different groups , such as the peasants , exactly what they wanted to hear , and they cloaked themselves under the cover of Chinese nationalism .
Modern history
In early 1927 , the Kuomintang - CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks . The CCP and the left wing of the Kuomintang had decided to move the seat of the Nationalist government from Guangzhou to Wuhan . But Chiang Kai - shek , whose Northern Expedition was proving successful , set his forces to destroying the Shanghai CCP apparatus and established an anti-Communist government at Nanjing in April 1927 . The
World War II
Too weak to resist Japan , China appealed to the League of Nations for help . Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria . The two nations then fought several battles , in Shanghai , Rehe and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933 . Thereafter , Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan .
Allies of World War II
In 1936 Chiang was forced to cease his anti-communist military campaigns after his kidnap and release by Zhang Xueliang , and reluctantly formed a nominal alliance with the Communists , while the Communists agreed to fight under the nominal command of the Nationalists against the Japanese . Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 7 July 1937 , China and Japan became embroiled in a full - scale war . The Soviet Union , wishing to keep China in the fight against Japan , supplied China with military assistance until 1941 , when it signed a non-aggression pact with Japan . Continuous clashes between the Communists and Nationalists behind enemy lines cumulated in a major military conflict between these two former allies that effectively ended their cooperation against the Japanese , and China had been divided between the internationally recognized Nationalist China under the leadership of Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek and the Communist China under the leadership of Mao Zedong until the Japanese surrendered in 1945 . Factions
Qing dynasty
Widespread drought in North China , combined with the imperialist designs of European powers and the instability of the Qing government , created conditions that led to the emergence of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists , or `` Boxers . '' In 1900 , local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians , then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter . A coalition of European , Japanese , and Russian armies ( the Eight - Nation Alliance ) then entered China without diplomatic notice , much less permission . Cixi declared war on all of these nations , only to lose control of Beijing after a short , but hard - fought campaign . She fled to Xi'an . The victorious allies drew up scores of demands on the Qing government , including compensation for their expenses in invading China and execution of complicit officials .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Second Sino - Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7 , 1937 , to September 2 , 1945 . It began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937 in which a dispute between Japanese and Chinese troops escalated into a battle .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Unlike Japan , China was unprepared for total war and had little military - industrial strength , no mechanized divisions , and few armoured forces . Up until the mid-1930s , China had hoped that the League of Nations would provide countermeasures to Japan 's aggression . In addition , the Kuomintang ( KMT ) government was mired in a civil war against the Communist Party of China ( CPC ) , as Chiang Kai - shek was quoted : `` the Japanese are a disease of the skin , the Communists are a disease of the heart '' . The Second United Front between the KMT and CPC was never truly unified , as each side was preparing for a showdown with the other once the Japanese were driven out .
Conquistador
As a result of the Iberian Union , Phillip II 's enemies became Portugal 's enemies , such as the Dutch in the Dutch -- Portuguese War , England or France . War with the Dutch led to invasions of many countries in Asia , including Ceylon and commercial interests in Japan , Africa ( Mina ) , and South America . Even though the Portuguese were unable to capture the entire island of Ceylon , they were able to control its coastal regions for a considerable time .
Second Sino-Japanese War
In 1915 , Japan issued the Twenty - One Demands to extort further political and commercial privilege from China , which was accepted by Yuan Shikai . Following World War I , Japan acquired the German Empire 's sphere of influence in Shandong province , leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests and mass demonstrations in China . Under the Beiyang government , China remained fragmented and was unable to resist foreign incursions . For the purpose of unifying China and defeating the regional warlords , the Kuomintang ( KMT , alternatively known as the Chinese Nationalist Party ) in Guangzhou launched the Northern Expedition from 1926 to 1928 with limited assistance from the Soviet Union .
End of the Han dynasty
Sun Quan put Zhou Yu in command of his 30,000 troops , largely stationed on naval vessels . Zhou Yu set up a defensive position in conjunction with Liu Bei , whose army garrisoned on land . Around this time , a spreading plague significantly weakened Cao Cao 's forces . Zhou Yu 's subordinate Huang Gai pretended to defect to Cao Cao 's side and was accepted by the latter . Huang Gai brought with him a small group of men and they sailed towards Cao Cao 's base on boats . As the boats approached Cao Cao 's fleet , Huang Gai ordered his men to set the boats on fire , and the burning boats crashed into Cao Cao 's larger ships . The fire spread out of control and completely destroyed Cao Cao 's entire naval fleet . Cao Cao 's land forces at Wulin ( 烏 林 ; in present - day Honghu , Hubei ) were also attacked and driven back by Sun Quan and Liu Bei 's armies . Cao Cao suffered a drastic defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs and was forced to retreat north back to Jiangling ( 江陵 , located in present - day Jingjiang 荆江 , not to be confused with present - day Jiangling County , Hubei ) .
World War II
The Kuomintang ( KMT ) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s , but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party allies and new regional warlords . In 1931 , an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country 's right to rule Asia , used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Japan invaded and occupied the northern part of French Indochina ( present - day Vietnam , Laos , Cambodia ) in September 1940 to prevent China from receiving the 10,000 tons of materials delivered monthly by the Allies via the Haiphong -- Yunnan Fou Railway line .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The internecine warfare in China provided excellent opportunities for Japan , which saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials , a market for its manufactured goods ( now excluded from the influence of many Western countries in Depression - era tariffs ) , and as a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia . Japan invaded Manchuria outright after the Mukden Incident in September 1931 . Japan charged that their rights in Manchuria , established by the Russo - Japanese War , had been systematically violated and that there were `` more than 120 cases of infringement of rights and interests , interference with business , boycott of Japanese goods , unreasonable taxation , detention of individuals , confiscation of properties , eviction , demand for cessation of business , assault and battery , and the oppression of Korean residents '' .
Second Sino-Japanese War
On December 12 , 1936 , a deeply disgruntled Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai - shek in Xi'an , hoping to force an end to the conflict between KMT and CPC . To secure the release of Chiang , the KMT agreed to a temporary end to the Chinese Civil War and , on December 24 , the creation of a United Front between the CPC and KMT against Japan . The alliance having salutary effects for the beleaguered CPC , they agreed to form the New Fourth Army and the 8th Route Army and place them under the nominal control of the NRA . The CPC 's Red Army fought alongside KMT forces during the Battle of Taiyuan , and the high point of their cooperation came in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan .
Qing dynasty
The Manchus sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga 's Ming loyalists in Fujian . They removed the population from coastal areas in order to deprive Koxinga 's Ming loyalists of resources . This led to a misunderstanding that Manchus were `` afraid of water '' . Han Bannermen carried out the fighting and killing , casting doubt on the claim that fear of the water led to the coastal evacuation and ban on maritime activities . Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as `` barbarians '' , both Han Green Standard Army and Han Bannermen were involved and carried out the worst slaughter . 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories in addition to the 200,000 Bannermen .
Allies of World War II
In Asia , when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 , the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China . Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933 . After four quiet years , the Sino - Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China . The League of Nations condemned Japan 's actions and initiated sanctions on Japan . The United States , in particular , was angered at Japan and sought to support China . Poland
Containment
After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II , the U.S. and the Soviet Union found themselves allied against Germany and used rollback to defeat the Axis Powers : Germany , Italy , and Japan .
Causes of World War II
In 1939 , the Japanese attacked west from Manchuria into the Mongolian People 's Republic , following the earlier Battle of Lake Khasan in 1938 . They were decisively beaten by Soviet units under General Georgy Zhukov . Following this battle , the Soviet Union and Japan were at peace until 1945 . Japan looked south to expand its empire , leading to conflict with the United States over the Philippines and control of shipping lanes to the Dutch East Indies . The Soviet Union focused on her western border , but leaving 1 million to 1.5 million troops to guard the frontier with Japan .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The United States saw the Chinese theater as a means to tie up a large number of Japanese troops , as well as being a location for American airbases from which to strike the Japanese home islands . In 1944 , with the Japanese position in the Pacific deteriorating rapidly , the IJA mobilized over 500,000 men and launched Operation Ichi - Go , their largest offensive of World War II , to attack the American airbases in China and link up the railway between Manchuria and Vietnam . This brought major cities in Hunan , Henan and Guangxi under Japanese occupation . The failure of Chinese forces to defend these areas encouraged Stilwell to attempt to gain overall command of the Chinese army , and his subsequent showdown with Chiang led to his replacement by Major General Albert Coady Wedemeyer .
Second Sino-Japanese War
China fought Japan , with aid from the Soviet Union and the United States . After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 , the war merged with other conflicts of World War II as a major sector known as the China Burma India Theater . Some scholars consider the start of the full - scale Second Sino - Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II . The Second Sino - Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century . It accounted for the majority of civilian and military casualties in the Pacific War , with between 10 and 25 million Chinese civilians and over 4 million Chinese and Japanese military personnel dying from war - related violence , famine , and other causes .
Second Sino-Japanese War
General Ma Buqing was in virtual control of the Gansu corridor at that time . Ma Buqing had earlier fought against the Japanese , but because the Soviet threat was great , Chiang changed Ma 's position , in July 1942 , by instructing Ma to move 30,000 of his troops to the Tsaidam marsh in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai . Chiang named Ma as Reclamation Commissioner , to threaten Sheng Shicai 's southern flank in Xinjiang , which bordered Tsaidam .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Soviet Union defeated Japan in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in May -- September 1939 , leaving the Japanese reluctant to fight the Soviets again . After Germany and Japan signed the anti-communist Anti-Comintern Pact , the Soviet Union hoped to keep China fighting , in order to deter a Japanese invasion of Siberia and save itself from a two - front war . In September 1937 , they signed the Sino - Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and approved Operation Zet , the formation of a secret Soviet volunteer air force , in which Soviet technicians upgraded and ran some of China 's transportation systems . Bombers , fighters , supplies and advisors arrived , including Soviet general Vasily Chuikov , future victor in the Battle of Stalingrad . Prior to the Western Allies , the Soviets provided the most foreign aid to China : some $250 million in credits for munitions and other supplies . In April 1941 , Soviet aid ended with the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact and the beginning of the Great Patriotic War . This pact enabled the Soviet Union to avoid fighting against Germany and Japan at the same time . In August 1945 , the Soviet Union annulled the neutrality pact with Japan and invaded Manchuria , Inner Mongolia , the Kuril Islands , and northern Korea . The Soviets also continued to support the Chinese Communist Party . In total , 3,665 Soviet advisors and pilots served in China , and 227 of them died fighting there .
Aftermath of the Korean War
By entering and fighting in the Korean War , China achieved its original goal to keep North Korea from falling . The fact that Chinese forces held their own against United Nations forces in this war heralded that China was once again becoming a major world power . The war is generally seen by many Chinese as an honorable part of China 's history , as it was the first time in a century that a Chinese army was able to stand up to a Western army in a major conflict .
Axis powers
The United States opposed the Japanese war in China , and recognized Chiang Kai - Shek 's Nationalist Government as the legitimate government of China . As a result , the United States sought to bring the Japanese war effort to a halt by imposing an embargo on all trade between the United States and Japan . Japan was dependent on the United States for 80 percent of its petroleum , and as a consequence the embargo resulted in an economic and military crisis for Japan , as Japan could not continue its war effort against China without access to petroleum .
Korean War
On 20 August 1950 , Premier Zhou Enlai informed the UN that `` Korea is China 's neighbor ... The Chinese people can not but be concerned about a solution of the Korean question '' . Thus , through neutral - country diplomats , China warned that in safeguarding Chinese national security , they would intervene against the UN Command in Korea . President Truman interpreted the communication as `` a bald attempt to blackmail the UN '' , and dismissed it .
Colossus of Rhodes
In the late 4th century BC , Rhodes , allied with Ptolemy I of Egypt , prevented a mass invasion staged by their common enemy , Antigonus I Monophthalmus .