vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of the Roman Empire
For the moment , however , there was another concern . The death of Valens left Gratian and Valentinian II as the sole Augusti . Gratian was now effectively responsible for the whole of the Empire . He sought a replacement Augustus for the Eastern Roman Empire . His choice was Theodosius I , son of formerly distinguished general Count Theodosius . The elder Theodosius had been executed in early 375 for unclear reasons . The younger was named Augustus of the Eastern Roman Empire on January 19 , 379 . His appointment would prove a deciding moment in the division of the Empire .
Byzantine Empire
For most of its history , the Byzantine Empire did not know or use heraldry in the West European sense . Various emblems ( Greek : σημεία , sēmeia ; sing . σημείον , sēmeion ) were used in official occasions and for military purposes , such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the cross or the labarum . The use of the cross , and of images of Christ , the Virgin Mary and various saints is also attested on seals of officials , but these were personal rather than family emblems .
Byzantine Empire
In the east , the Roman -- Persian Wars continued until 561 when the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau agreed on a 50 - year peace . By the mid-550s , Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation , with the notable exception of the Balkans , which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs and the Gepids . Tribes of Serbs and Croats were later resettled in the northwestern Balkans , during the reign of Heraclius . Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat . The strengthening of the Danube fleet caused the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty that allowed safe passage back across the Danube .
Western Roman Empire
Charlemagne , and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors were not , and did not claim to be , rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire . Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware of that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be `` one and indivisible '' . The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne 's coronation was Irene , the mother of emperor Constantine VI who she had deposed . Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant . Thus , Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus , but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor . Irene was deposed and replaced by Emperor Nikephoros soon after , and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne . Emperor Michael I Rangabe eventually recognized Charlemagne as an `` Emperor '' following several wars in the 810s , but as the slightly humiliating `` Emperor of the Franks '' rather than `` Roman Emperor '' , a title he reserved for himself . For centuries to come , the `` revived '' Western court and the Eastern court , in direct succession to the Roman Emperors of old , would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole and as being the sole legitimate Roman Empire . With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an `` Empire of the Franks '' , the term `` Empire of the Greeks '' was popularized in the frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople .
Byzantine law
There is no definitively established date for when the so - called Byzantine period of Roman history begins . During the 4th , 5th , and 6th centuries the Empire was split and united administratively more than once . But it was during this period that Constantinople was first established and the East gained its own identity administratively ; thus , it is often considered the early Byzantine period . Despite this , though , the legal developments during this period are typically considered part of Roman Law , as opposed to Byzantine Law , in part because legal documents during this period were still written in Latin . These developments , nevertheless , were key steps in the formation of Byzantine Law .
Middle Ages
As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms , the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century . There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire ; most occurred in the Balkans . Peace with the Sasanian Empire , the traditional enemy of Rome , lasted throughout most of the 5th century . The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church , with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe . Legal developments included the codification of Roman law ; the first effort -- the Codex Theodosianus -- was completed in 438 . Under Emperor Justinian ( r . 527 -- 565 ) , another compilation took place -- the Corpus Juris Civilis . Justinian also oversaw the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths , under Belisarius ( d . 565 ) . The conquest of Italy was not complete , as a deadly outbreak of plague in 542 led to the rest of Justinian 's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests .
Byzantine Empire
Under the Macedonian emperors , the city of Constantinople flourished , becoming the largest and wealthiest city in Europe , with a population of approximately 400,000 in the 9th and 10th centuries . During this period , the Byzantine Empire employed a strong civil service staffed by competent aristocrats that oversaw the collection of taxes , domestic administration , and foreign policy . The Macedonian emperors also increased the Empire 's wealth by fostering trade with Western Europe , particularly through the sale of silk and metalwork . Split
History of the Roman Empire
Theodosius was the last Emperor who ruled over the whole Empire . After his death in 395 , he gave the two halves of the Empire to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius ; Arcadius became ruler in the East , with his capital in Constantinople , and Honorius became ruler in the West , with his capital in Milan and later Ravenna . The Roman state would continue to have two different emperors with different seats of power throughout the 5th century , though the Eastern Romans considered themselves to be the only ones who were fully Roman . Latin was used in official writings as much as , if not more than , Greek and the two halves were nominally , culturally and historically , if not politically , the same state .
Eastern Orthodox Church
In 1453 , the Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottoman Empire . By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries , but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an autocephalous status ; and thus Moscow called itself the Third Rome , as the cultural heir of Constantinople .
Middle Ages
By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units , ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century . The deposition of the last emperor of the west , Romulus Augustulus , in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire . By 493 the Italian peninsula was conquered by the Ostrogoths . The Eastern Roman Empire , often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart , had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories . The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory , but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west , Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained ; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the Italian Peninsula ( Gothic War ) in the reign of Justinian ( r . 527 -- 565 ) was the sole , and temporary , exception .
Byzantine Empire
In 293 , emperor Diocletian created a new administrative system ( the tetrarchy ) , to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his Empire . He associated himself with a co-emperor ( Augustus ) , and each co-emperor then adopted a young colleague given the title of Caesar , to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner . The tetrarchy collapsed , however , in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus .
Byzantine Empire
Byzantines availed themselves of a number of diplomatic practices . For example , embassies to the capital would often stay on for years . A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople , not only as a potential hostage , but also as a useful pawn in case political conditions where he came from changed . Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays . According to Dimitri Obolensky , the preservation of the ancient civilisation in Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy , which remains one of Byzantium 's lasting contributions to the history of Europe .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Odoacer began to negotiate with the East Roman ( Byzantine ) Emperor Zeno , who was busy dealing with unrest in the East . Zeno eventually granted Odoacer the status of patrician and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy . Zeno , however , insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire . Odoacer never returned any territory or real power , but he did issue coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy . The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 ( Glycerius may have been among the conspirators ) prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia , annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy . In 488 the Eastern emperor authorized a troublesome Goth , Theoderic ( later known as `` the Great '' ) to take Italy . After several indecisive campaigns , in 493 Theoderic and Odoacer agreed to rule jointly . They celebrated their agreement with a banquet of reconciliation , at which Theoderic 's men murdered Odoacer 's , and Theoderic personally cut Odoacer in half .
Middle Ages
Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests , but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas . Increasingly the Byzantine Church differed in language , practices , and liturgy from the Western Church . The Eastern Church used Greek instead of the Western Latin . Theological and political differences emerged , and by the early and middle 8th century issues such as iconoclasm , clerical marriage , and state control of the Church had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were greater than the similarities . The formal break , known as the East -- West Schism , came in 1054 , when the papacy and the patriarchy of Constantinople clashed over papal supremacy and excommunicated each other , which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches -- the Western branch became the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern branch the Eastern Orthodox Church .
Byzantine Empire
To maintain control and improve administration , various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried between 285 and 324 , from 337 to 350 , from 364 to 392 , and again between 395 and 480 . Although the administrative subdivisions varied , they generally involved a division of labour between East and West . Each division was a form of power - sharing ( or even job - sharing ) , for the ultimate imperium was not divisible and therefore the empire remained legally one state -- although the co-emperors often saw each other as rivals or enemies .
Third Rome
The Megali Idea implied the goal of reviving the Eastern Roman ( Byzantine ) Empire , by establishing a Greek state , which would be , as ancient geographer Strabo wrote , a Greek world encompassing mostly the former Byzantine lands from the Ionian Sea to the west , to Asia Minor and the Black Sea to the east and from Thrace , Macedonia and Epirus to the north , to Crete and Cyprus to the south . This new state would have Constantinople as its capital : it would be the `` Greece of Two Continents and Five Seas '' ( Europe and Asia , the Ionian , Aegean , Marmara , Black and Libyan seas , respectively ) .
Byzantine Empire
A great imperial expedition under Leo Phocas and Romanos I Lekapenos ended with another crushing Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Achelous in 917 , and the following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece . Adrianople was plundered again in 923 , and a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople in 924 . Simeon died suddenly in 927 , however , and Bulgarian power collapsed with him . Bulgaria and Byzantium entered a long period of peaceful relations , and the Empire was now free to concentrate on the eastern front against the Muslims . In 968 , Bulgaria was overrun by the Rus ' under Sviatoslav I of Kiev , but three years later , John I Tzimiskes defeated the Rus ' and re-incorporated Eastern Bulgaria into the Byzantine Empire . The
Byzantine Empire
In terms of prosperity and cultural life , the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history , and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size , wealth , and culture . There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy , as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek . Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in Europe , and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the west during this period was enormous and of long lasting significance . Alexios
Western Roman Empire
Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century , the influence that the Empire had over Western Europe had diminished significantly with the papal coronation of the Frankish king Charlemagne as `` Roman Emperor '' in AD 800 . His imperial line would come to evolve into the Holy Roman Empire , which presented a revival of the Imperial title in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions . The Great Schism of 1054 between the churches of Rome and Constantinople further diminished the authority the Emperor in Constantinople could hope to bring forth in the west .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Older and a good deal wiser , he made capturing Constantinople his first priority , believing that it would solidify his power over the high military and administrative officials who had caused him such problems during his earlier reign . Good reasons underlay his decision . So long as Constantinople remained in Christian hands , his enemies could use it as either a potential base for splitting the empire at its center or as an excuse for the Christian West 's continued military efforts . Constantinople 's location also made it the natural `` middleman '' center for both land and sea trade between the eastern Mediterranean and central Asia , possession of which would ensure immense wealth . Just as important , Constantinople was a fabled imperial city , and its capture and possession would bestow untold prestige on its conqueror , who would be seen by Muslims as a hero and by Muslims and Christians alike as a great and powerful emperor .
Western Roman Empire
This led to the final breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself , and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independent Papal States , lead by the Pope . In an attempt at gaining support against the Lombards , the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire , eventually crowning the Frankish king Charlemagne as `` Roman Emperor '' in 800 AD . Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire , there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased . After a series of several smaller wars in the 810s , Emperor Michael I recognized Charlemagne as an `` Emperor '' with authority in Western Europe , but refused to recognize him as a `` Roman Emperor '' ( a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors ) , instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious `` Emperor of the Franks '' .
Byzantine Empire
In addition to a reassertion of Byzantine military power and political authority , the period under the Macedonian dynasty is characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts . There was a conscious effort to restore the brilliance of the period before the Slavic and subsequent Arab invasions , and the Macedonian era has been dubbed the `` Golden Age '' of Byzantium . Though the Empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian , it had regained significant strength , as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically , economically , and culturally integrated . Wars
Byzantine Empire
Another division among Christians occurred , when Leo III ordered the destruction of icons throughout the Empire . This led to a significant religious crisis , which ended in mid-9th century with the restoration of icons . During the same period , a new wave of pagans emerged in the Balkans , originating mainly from Slavic people . These were gradually Christianised , and by Byzantium 's late stages , Eastern Orthodoxy represented most Christians and , in general , most people in what remained of the Empire .
Western Roman Empire
The rise of Odoacer and his germanic foederati to rule over Italy in 476 was popularized by the eighteenth - century historian Edward Gibbon as a demarcating event for the end of the Western Empire and is sometimes used to mark the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages . Odoacer 's Italy , and other Barbarian kingdoms , would maintain a pretence of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern Roman court . Direct Imperial rule would be reimposed in large parts of the West , including the prosperous regions of North Africa and the ancient Roman heartland of Italy as well as parts of Hispania , in the sixth century by the armies of the Eastern Empire under Emperor Justinian I. Political upheaval in the Eastern heartlands , combined with foreign invasions and religious issues , made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost , this time for good .
Byzantine Empire
The Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration , such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city . However , it was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade , when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the Empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms . Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261 , the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence . Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century . The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire .
Western Roman Empire
At the end of emperor Tiberius II 's reign in 582 , the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian . Tiberius chose two Caesares , the general Maurice and the governor Germanus , and married his two daughters to them . Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces , and Maurice to the eastern provinces . It is possible that Tiberius had planned to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more , but if those plans existed they were never realized . At the death of Tiberius , Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne . Maurice would come to establish a new type of administrative unit , the Exarchates , and organized the remaining western territories under his control into two such exarchates ; the Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa .
History of the Roman Empire
The Empire was parted again among his three surviving sons . The Western Roman Empire was divided among the eldest son Constantine II and the youngest son Constans . The Eastern Roman Empire along with Constantinople were the share of middle son Constantius II .
Byzantine Empire
The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music , composed to Greek texts as ceremonial , festival , or church music , are , today , the most well - known forms . Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre . Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the ancient Greek system . It remains the oldest genre of extant music , of which the manner of performance and ( with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards ) the names of the composers , and sometimes the particulars of each musical work 's circumstances , are known . Earliest
Crusades
The Fourth Crusade established a Latin Empire in the east and allowed participating crusaders to partition the Byzantine European territory . The Latin emperor controlled one - fourth of the Byzantine territory , Venice three - eighths ( including three - eighths of the city of Constantinople ) , and the remainder was divided among the other leaders of the Crusade . This began the period of Greek history known as Frankokratia or Latinokratia ( `` Frankish ( or Latin ) rule '' ) , when Catholic Western European nobles -- primarily from France and Italy -- established states on former Byzantine territory and ruled over the Orthodox Byzantine Greeks . In the long run , the sole beneficiary was Venice .
Byzantine Empire
Theodosius I ( 379 -- 395 ) was the last Emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire . In 391 and 392 he issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion . Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned , as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship . The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393 . In 395 , Theodosius I bequeathed the imperial office jointly to his sons : Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West , once again dividing Imperial administration . In the 5th century the Eastern part of the empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West -- due in part to a more established urban culture and greater financial resources , which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries . This success allowed Theodosius II to focus on the codification of Roman law and further fortification of the walls of Constantinople , which left the city impervious to most attacks until 1204 . Large portions of the Theodosian Walls are preserved to the present day .
Western Roman Empire
Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379 , after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube . He became sole emperor in August 394 , after defeating the usurper Eugenius . Theodosius died of edema in January 395 .
Byzantine Empire
Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms `` Byzantine '' and `` Byzantinism '' , the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability for reconstituting itself in accordance with the Empire 's situation . The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence . Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor , and depended upon the imperial will for their ranks . There were also actual administrative jobs , but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices .