vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Welsh language
The Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the Welsh and English languages be treated equally in the public sector , as far as is reasonable and practicable . Each public body is required to prepare for approval a Welsh Language Scheme , which indicates its commitment to the equality of treatment principle . This is sent out in draft form for public consultation for a three - month period , whereupon comments on it may be incorporated into a final version . It requires the final approval of the now defunct Welsh Language Board ( Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg ) . Thereafter , the public body is charged with implementing and fulfilling its obligations under the Welsh Language Scheme . The list of other public bodies which have to prepare Schemes could be added to by initially the Secretary of State for Wales , from 1993 -- 1997 , by way of Statutory Instrument . Subsequent to the forming of the National Assembly for Wales in 1997 , the Government Minister responsible for the Welsh language can and has passed Statutory Instruments naming public bodies who have to prepare Schemes . Neither 1993 Act nor secondary legislation made under it cover the private sector , although some organisations , notably banks and some railway companies , provide some of their information in Welsh .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
The RTE Act is the first legislation in the world that puts the responsibility of ensuring enrolment , attendance and completion on the Government . It is the parents ' responsibility to send the children to schools in the US and other countries .
Massiah v. United States
Massiah v. United States , 377 U.S. 201 ( 1964 ) , was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the government from eliciting statements from the defendant about themselves after the point that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel attaches .
Bill of Rights 1689
The ninth article , regarding parliamentary freedom of speech , is actively used in Australia .
First Amendment to the United States Constitution
A landmark decision for press freedom came in Near v. Minnesota ( 1931 ) , in which the Supreme Court rejected prior restraint ( pre-publication censorship ) . In this case , the Minnesota legislature passed a statute allowing courts to shut down `` malicious , scandalous and defamatory newspapers '' , allowing a defense of truth only in cases where the truth had been told `` with good motives and for justifiable ends '' . In a 5 -- 4 decision , the Court applied the Free Press Clause to the states , rejecting the statute as unconstitutional . Hughes quoted Madison in the majority decision , writing , `` The impairment of the fundamental security of life and property by criminal alliances and official neglect emphasizes the primary need of a vigilant and courageous press '' . The
Vermont
A controversy dating from 1999 has been over the adoption of civil unions , an institution which grants same - sex couples nearly all the rights and privileges of marriage at the state , but not federal , level . In Baker v. Vermont ( 1999 ) , the Vermont Supreme Court ruled that , under the Constitution of Vermont , the state must either allow same - sex marriage or provide a separate but equal status for them . The state legislature chose the second option by creating the institution of civil union ; the bill was passed by the legislature and signed into law by Governor Howard Dean . In April 2009 the state legislature overrode governor Jim Douglas 's veto to allow same - sex marriage , becoming the first state in the nation to legalize same - sex marriage through legislation . In September 2009 Vermont became the fourth state in which same - sex couples could marry .
Cousin marriage
Attitudes in India on cousin marriage vary sharply by region and culture . The family law in India takes into account the religious and cultural practices and they are all equally recognized . For Muslims , governed by uncodified personal law , it is acceptable and legal to marry a first cousin , but for Hindus , it may be illegal under the 1955 Hindu Marriage Act , though the specific situation is more complex . The Hindu Marriage Act makes cousin marriage illegal for Hindus with the exception of marriages permitted by regional custom . Practices of the small Christian minority are also location - dependent : their cousin marriage rates are higher in southern states such as Karnataka with high overall rates .
Bill (law)
In the United Kingdom , for example , the Coroners and Justice Act in 2009 started as Bill 9 in the House of Commons . Then it became Bill 72 on consideration by the Committee , after that it became House of Lords Bill 33 . Then it became House of Lords Bill 77 , returned to the House of Commons as Bill 160 before finally being passed as Act no . 29 . Parliament recommences numbering from one at the beginning of each session . This means that two different bills may have the same number . Sessions of parliament usually last a year . They begin with the State Opening of Parliament , and end with Prorogation .
Arizona
A November 2011 Public Policy Polling survey found that 44 % of Arizona voters supported the legalization of same - sex marriage , while 45 % opposed it and 12 % were not sure . A separate question on the same survey found that 72 % of respondents supported legal recognition of same - sex couples , with 40 % supporting same - sex marriage , 32 % supporting civil unions , 27 % opposing all legal recognition and 1 % not sure . Arizona Proposition 102 , known by its supporters as the Marriage Protection Amendment , appeared as a legislatively referred constitutional amendment on the November 4 , 2008 ballot in Arizona , where it was approved : 56.2 % -- 43 % . It amended the Arizona Constitution to define marriage as between one man and one woman .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Relating to monarchy The Monarch shall grant the Royal Assent to all Bills passed by Parliament ( the Royal Assent was last refused by Queen Anne in 1708 , for the Scottish Militia Bill 1708 , on the advice of her ministers ) . The monarch will ask the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons to form a government , and if there is no majority party , the person who appears most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons to serve as Prime Minister and form a government . The monarch will ask a member of the House of Commons ( rather than the House of Lords or someone outside Parliament ) to form a government . It remains possible , however , for a caretaker Prime Minister to be drawn from the House of Lords . All ministers are to be drawn from the House of Commons or the House of Lords . The House of Lords will accept any legislation that was in the Government 's manifesto ( the Salisbury Convention ) -- in recent years this convention has been broken by the Lords , though the composition of the Lords ( which was the justification for the convention ) has radically changed since the convention was introduced . Individual Ministerial Responsibility Cabinet collective responsibility
Constitution of India
Appendix I -- The Constitution ( Application to Jammu and Kashmir ) Order , 1954 . Appendix II -- Re-statement , with reference to the present text of the Constitution , of the exceptions and modifications subject to which the Constitution applies to the State of Jammu and Kashmir . Appendix III -- Extracts from the Constitution ( Forty - fourth Amendment ) Act , 1978 . Appendix IV -- The Constitution ( Eighty - sixth Amendment ) Act , 2002 . Appendix V -- The Constitution ( Eighty - eighth Amendment ) Act , 2003 .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms . Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689 , the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707 . The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament ; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession . The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover ( 1630 -- 1714 ) , a granddaughter of James I .
English contract law
The essential principles of English contract law , however , remained stable and familiar , as an offer for certain terms , mirrored by an acceptance , supported by consideration , and free from duress , undue influence or misrepresentation , would generally be enforceable . The rules were codified and exported across the British Empire , as for example in the Indian Contract Act 1872 . Further requirements of fairness in exchanges between unequal parties , or general obligations of good faith and disclosure were said to be unwarranted because it was urged by the courts that liabilities `` are not to be forced upon people behind their backs '' . Parliamentary legislation , outside general codifications of commercial law like the Sale of Goods Act 1893 , similarly left people to the harsh realities of the market and `` freedom of contract '' . This only changed when the property qualifications to vote for members of parliament were reduced and eliminated , as the United Kingdom slowly became more democratic . Unidroit
Law of Malaysia
Complications have arisen with regard to the dual justice system , for example with regard to freedom of religion . Article 11 of the Constitution provides that `` Every person has the right to profess and practice his religion '' . However , in the case of Lina Joy -- a Malay who converted to Christianity -- the Federal Court of Malaysia refused to allow her to change her religion indicated in her identity card ( MyKad ) . The judges held that they had no jurisdiction on the matter -- that it was a matter of the Shariah Court , as indicated in Article 121 ( 1A ) of the Constitution .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Administrative law is often called `` public law '' . Administrative law restricts the exercise of the government 's power over public administration ; it covers areas such as policing , prisons , urban planning , education , the environment and immigration . It ensures the exercise of the government 's power takes place within a legislative framework . This means the legal responsibilities of governmental bodies are properly defined and , at the same time , the rights and interests of the country 's citizens are protected from the misuse or abuse of government power over public administration .
Constitution of India
Due to the adoption of the thirty - eighth amendment , the Indian Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency that infringes upon fundamental rights under article 32 i.e. Right to Constitutional Remedies . Later with the Forty - second Amendment of the Constitution of India , article 31 C was widened and article 368 ( 4 ) and 368 ( 5 ) were added , which stated that any law passed by the parliament ca n't be challenged in the court on any ground . The Supreme court in the Minerva Mills v. Union of India case said that Judicial Review is one of the basic character of the constitution and therefore ca n't be taken away quashing Article 368 ( 4 ) & ( 5 ) as well as 31 C .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
Succession was largely governed by male - preference cognatic primogeniture , under which sons inherit before daughters , and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender . The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , David Cameron , announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms , including the United Kingdom , had agreed to abolish the gender - preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting , 28 October 2011 . They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic -- a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701 . However , since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England , the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains . The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms .
Freedom of speech by country
The Indian Constitution ostensibly guarantees freedom of speech to every citizen , but itself allows significant restrictions . In India , citizens are free to criticize government , politics , politicians , bureaucracy and policies . However , speech can be restricted on grounds of security , morality , and incitement . There have been landmark cases in the Indian Supreme Court that have affirmed the nation 's policy of allowing free press and freedom of expression to every citizen , with other cases in which the Court has upheld restrictions on freedom of speech and of the press . Article 19 of the Indian constitution states that :
First Amendment to the United States Constitution
Personal possession of obscene material in the home may not be prohibited by law . In Stanley v. Georgia ( 1969 ) , the Court ruled that `` ( i ) f the First Amendment means anything , it means that a State has no business telling a man , sitting in his own house , what books he may read or what films he may watch . '' However , it is constitutionally permissible for the government to prevent the mailing or sale of obscene items , though they may be viewed only in private . Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition ( 2002 ) further upheld these rights by invalidating the Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996 , holding that , because the act `` ( p ) rohibit ( ed ) child pornography that does not depict an actual child '' it was overly broad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment and that :
Rule of law
In the United Kingdom the rule of law is a long - standing principle of the way the country is governed , dating from Magna Carta in 1215 and the Bill of Rights 1689 . In the 19th century , A.V. Dicey , a constitutional scholar and lawyer , wrote of the twin pillars of the British constitution in his classic work Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution ( 1885 ) ; these two pillars are the rule of law and parliamentary sovereignty .
False Claims Act
In 2009 , the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) , Government Accountability Project ( GAP ) and OMB Watch filed suit against the Department of Justice challenging the constitutionality of the `` seal provisions '' of the FCA that require the whistleblower and the court to keep lawsuits confidential for at least 60 days . The plaintiffs argued that the requirements infringe the First Amendment rights of the public and the whistleblower , and that they violate the division of powers , since courts are not free to release the documents until the executive branch acts . The government moved for dismissal , and the district court granted that motion in 2009 . The plaintiffs appealed , and in 2011 their appeal was denied .
Economy of Scotland
Since the Devolution Referendum of 1997 , in which the Scottish electorate voted for devolution , a Scottish Parliament was reconvened under the Scotland Act 1998 and is considered to be a devolved national , unicameral legislature of Scotland . The Act delineates the legislative competence of the Parliament -- the areas in which it can make laws -- by explicitly specifying powers that are `` reserved '' to the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Scottish Parliament has the power to legislate in all areas that are not explicitly reserved to Westminster . There is a clear separation of responsibility of the powers of both the UK government and the devolved Scottish Government in relation to the formulation and execution of national economic policy as it affects Scotland -- this is set out under Section 5 of the Scotland Act 1998 .
Freedom of speech by country
The scope of the protection afforded by this Article has been interpreted restrictively by the judiciary , largely as a result of the wording of the Article , which qualifies the right before articulating it . Indeed , until an authoritative pronouncement on the issue by the Supreme Court , many believed that the protection was restricted to `` convictions and opinions '' and , as a result , a separate right to communicate was , by necessity , implied into Article 40.3. 2 . This judicial conservatism is at variance with the concept of speech as a democratic imperative . This , albeit trite , justification for free speech has underpinned the liberal , progressive interpretation of the First Amendment by the United States Supreme Court .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
The House of Commons alone possesses the power to pass a motion of no confidence in the Government , which requires the Government either to resign or to seek fresh elections ( this principle was codified in the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 -- see below for more details ) . Such a motion does not require passage by the Lords or Royal Assent . The House of Lords has been described as a `` revising chamber '' .
Habeas corpus
The state inherited habeas corpus as part of the common law when it seceded from the United Kingdom in 1922 , but the remedy was also guaranteed by Article 6 of the Constitution of the Irish Free State in force from 1922 to 1937 . A similar provision was included when the current constitution was adopted in 1937 . Since that date , habeas corpus has been restricted by two constitutional amendments , the Second Amendment in 1941 and the Sixteenth Amendment in 1996 .
Declaration of nullity
In order to obtain a declaration of nullity , the parties must approach a Catholic diocesan tribunal . Most applications for nullity that are heard by the tribunal are granted because one or both of the parties are judged to have given invalid consent . In order to give valid consent , the parties must give it freely . They must have a basic understanding of what they are doing and have given some thought and evaluation to their decision to enter marriage ( 1983 CIC , Canon 1095 ) . They must be capable of fulfilling the promises they make on the wedding day ; that is , not suffer from any psychological infirmity ( Canon 1095 ) that will prevent them from giving themselves in a partnership of the whole of life that has as its ends the good of the spouses and the procreation and education of children ( canon 1055 ) . They must intend the words that they speak on the wedding day ; that is , intend to form a permanent and faithful partnership , open to sexual acts that are procreative ( canon 1101 ) . Serious failures in these areas can allow a possible successful application for marriage nullity . There are other reasons that might justify an allegation of invalid consent , such as a serious error concerning the person to whom marriage promises are made ( Canon 1097 ) , one party being seriously deceived by the other at the time of the wedding ( Canon 1098 ) or one of the parties being subjected to force or grave fear without which the marriage would not be occurring ( Canon 1103 ) .
Parliamentary sovereignty
The supremacy clause ( section 109 of the constitution ) gives Commonwealth laws precedent over state laws . The state law - making power is therefore constrained where the Commonwealth has concurrent law - making power . Furthermore , regarding the subject matters which Commonwealth has concurrent legislative power , Commonwealth parliament can ' cover the field ' , which means the Commonwealth can by express words or implication exclude the operations of state laws . The Commonwealth parliament has exclusive legislative power over the subject matters listed in sections 52 and 92 of the constitution , which means that the states can not make laws in these areas . Also under section 96 of the Constitution , the Commonwealth can use financial assistance to entice states to refrain from exercising their legislative powers , such as refraining from collecting income tax .
English contract law
Over the 20th century , legislation and changes in court attitudes effected a wide - ranging reform of 19th century contract law . First , specific types of non-commercial contract were given special protection where `` freedom of contract '' appeared far more on the side of large businesses . Consumer contracts came to be regarded as `` contracts of adhesion '' where there was no real negotiation and most people were given `` take it or leave it '' terms . The courts began by requiring entirely clear information before onerous clauses could be enforced , the Misrepresentation Act 1967 switched the burden of proof onto business to show misleading statements were not negligent , and the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 created the jurisdiction to scrap contract terms that were `` unreasonable '' , considering the bargaining power of the parties . Collective bargaining by trade unions and a growing number of employment rights carried the employment contract into an autonomous field of labour law where workers had rights , like a minimum wage , fairness in dismissal , the right to join a union and take collective action , and these could not be given up in a contract with an employer . Private housing was subject to basic terms , such as the right to repairs , and restrictions on unfair rent increases , though many protections were abolished during the 1980s . Nevertheless , the scope of the general law of contract had been reduced . It meant that most contracts made by people on an ordinary day were shielded from the power of corporations to impose whatever terms they chose in selling goods and services , at work , and in people 's home . Nevertheless , classical contract law remained at the foundation of those specific contracts , unless particular rights were given by the courts or Parliament . Internationally , the UK had joined the European Union , which aimed to harmonise significant parts of consumer and employment law across member states . Moreover , with increasing openness of markets commercial contract law was receiving principles from abroad . Both the Principles of European Contract Law , the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts , and the practice of international commercial arbitration was reshaping thinking about English contract principles in an increasingly globalised economy .
Constitution of India
Preamble with the words `` socialist '' and `` secular '' added to it in 1976 by the 42nd constitutional amendment . Part I -- Union and its Territory Part II -- Citizenship . Part III -- Fundamental Rights Part IV -- Directive Principles of State Policy Part IVA -- Fundamental Duties Part V -- The Union Part VI -- The States Part VII -- States in the B part of the First schedule ( repealed ) Part VIII -- The Union Territories Part IX -- The Panchayats Part IXA -- The Municipalities Part IXB -- The Co-operative Societies . Part X -- The scheduled and Tribal Areas Part XI -- Relations between the Union and the States Part XII -- Finance , Property , Contracts and Suits Part XIII -- Trade and Commerce within the territory of India Part XIV -- Services Under the Union , the States Part XIVA -- Tribunals Part XV -- Elections Part XVI -- Special Provisions Relating to certain Classes Part XVII -- Languages Part XVIII -- Emergency Provisions Part XIX -- Miscellaneous Part XX -- Amendment of the Constitution Part XXI -- Temporary , Transitional and Special Provisions Part XXII -- Short title , date of commencement , Authoritative text in Hindi and Repeals .
Freedom of speech by country
The Press Law of 1881 , as amended , guarantees freedom of the press , subject to several exceptions . The Pleven Act of 1972 ( after Justice Minister René Pleven ) prohibits incitement to hatred , discrimination , slander and racial insults . The Gayssot Act of 1990 prohibits any racist , anti-Semite , or xenophobic activities , including Holocaust denial . The Law of 30 December 2004 prohibits hatred against people because of their gender , sexual orientation , or disability .