vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Civilian Conservation Corps
During 1933 , about half the male heads of households on the Sioux reservations in South Dakota were employed by the CCC - ID . With grants from the Public Works Administration ( PWA ) , the Indian Division built schools and conducted an extensive road - building program in and around many reservations to improve infrastructure . The mission was to reduce erosion and improve the value of Indian lands . Crews built dams of many types on creeks , then sowed grass on the eroded areas from which the damming materials had been taken . They built roads and planted shelter - belts on federal lands . The steady income helped participants regain self - respect and many used the funds to improve their lives . John Collier the federal Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Daniel Murphy , the director of the CCC - ID , both based the program on Indian self - rule and the restoration of tribal lands , governments , and cultures . The next year , Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 , which ended allotments and helped preserve tribal lands , and encouraged tribes to re-establish self - government .
Sustainability
A major hurdle to achieve sustainability is the alleviation of poverty . It has been widely acknowledged that poverty is one source of environmental degradation . Such acknowledgment has been made by the Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future and the Millennium Development Goals . There is a growing realization in national governments and multilateral institutions that it is impossible to separate economic development issues from environment issues : according to the Brundtland report , `` poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems . It is therefore futile to attempt to deal with environmental problems without a broader perspective that encompasses the factors underlying world poverty and international inequality . '' Individuals living in poverty tend to rely heavily on their local ecosystem as a source for basic needs ( such as nutrition and medicine ) and general well - being . As population growth continues to increase , increasing pressure is being placed on the local ecosystem to provide these basic essentials . According to the UN Population Fund , high fertility and poverty have been strongly correlated , and the world 's poorest countries also have the highest fertility and population growth rates . The word sustainability is also used widely by western country development agencies and international charities to focus their poverty alleviation efforts in ways that can be sustained by the local populace and its environment . For example , teaching water treatment to the poor by boiling their water with charcoal , would not generally be considered a sustainable strategy , whereas using PET solar water disinfection would be . Also , sustainable best practices can involve the recycling of materials , such as the use of recycled plastics for lumber where deforestation has devastated a country 's timber base . Another example of sustainable practices in poverty alleviation is the use of exported recycled materials from developed to developing countries , such as Bridges to Prosperity 's use of wire rope from shipping container gantry cranes to act as the structural wire rope for footbridges that cross rivers in poor rural areas in Asia and Africa .
Water in California
There have been several documents known as the `` California Water Plan '' , with the most recent being published in 2013 . Before the state of California started drafting comprehensive plans for the management of water in the state , the earliest plan for water distribution in California was an 1873 report . This was followed by a 1919 report called `` Irrigation of Twelve Million Acres in the Valley of California '' . The 1919 report is this first comprehensive plan , and is often called the `` Marshall Plan '' , after its author Col. Robert Bradford Marshall . There have been many subsequent water plans and water plan updates , which were often issued as California Department of Water Resources bulletins . California Water Code provides guidance or the plan updates . Beginning in 1957 , early Water Plan Updates were largely technical and focused on water supply development . Plans gradually became more comprehensive to address the state 's growing conflicts over limited resources . Updates now present the status and trends of California 's water - dependent natural resources ; water supplies ; and agricultural , urban , and environmental water demands for a range of plausible future scenarios . They also evaluate different combinations of regional and statewide resource management strategies to reduce water demand , increase water supply , reduce flood risk , improve water quality , and enhance environmental and resource stewardship . The evaluations and assessments performed for the updates help identify effective actions and policies for meeting California 's resource management objectives in the near term and for several decades to come .
Trade winds
In meteorology , the trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical storms that form over the Atlantic , Pacific , and southern Indian Oceans and make landfall in North America , Southeast Asia , and Madagascar and eastern Africa , respectively . Trade winds also transport African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea , as well as portions of southeastern North America . Shallow cumulus clouds are seen within trade wind regimes , and are capped from becoming taller by a trade wind inversion , which is caused by descending air aloft from within the subtropical ridge . The weaker the trade winds become , the more rainfall can be expected in the neighboring landmasses .
High-voltage direct current
The controllability of a current - flow through HVDC rectifiers and inverters , their application in connecting unsynchronized networks , and their applications in efficient submarine cables mean that HVDC interconnections are often used at national or regional boundaries for the exchange of power ( in North America , HVDC connections divide much of Canada and the United States into several electrical regions that cross national borders , although the purpose of these connections is still to connect unsynchronized AC grids to each other ) . Offshore windfarms also require undersea cables , and their turbines are unsynchronized . In very long - distance connections between two locations , such as power transmission from a large hydroelectric power plant at a remote site to an urban area , HVDC transmission systems may appropriately be used ; several schemes of these kind have been built . For interconnections to Siberia , Canada , India , and the Scandinavian North , the decreased line - costs of HVDC also make it applicable , see List of HVDC projects . Other applications are noted throughout this article .
Tropical cyclone
Climatologically , tropical cyclones are steered primarily westward by the east - to - west trade winds on the equatorial side of the subtropical ridge -- a persistent high - pressure area over the world 's subtropical oceans . In the tropical North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific oceans , the trade winds steer tropical easterly waves westward from the African coast toward the Caribbean Sea , North America , and ultimately into the central Pacific Ocean before the waves dampen out . These waves are the precursors to many tropical cyclones within this region . In contrast , in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific in both hemispheres , tropical cyclogenesis is influenced less by tropical easterly waves and more by the seasonal movement of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone and the monsoon trough . Additionally , tropical cyclone motion can be influenced by transient weather systems , such as extratropical cyclones .
Trade winds
The surface air that flows from these subtropical high - pressure belts toward the Equator is deflected toward the west in both hemispheres by the Coriolis effect . These winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere . Because winds are named for the direction from which the wind is blowing , these winds are called the northeasterly trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeasterly trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere . The trade winds of both hemispheres meet at the doldrums .
Tropical cyclone
Most tropical cyclones form in a worldwide band of thunderstorm activity near the equator , referred to as the Intertropical Front ( ITF ) , the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , or the monsoon trough . Another important source of atmospheric instability is found in tropical waves , which contribute to the development of about 85 % of intense tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and become most of the tropical cyclones in the Eastern Pacific . The majority forms between 10 and 30 degrees of latitude away of the equator , and 87 % forms no farther away than 20 degrees north or south . Because the Coriolis effect initiates and maintains their rotation , tropical cyclones rarely form or move within 5 degrees of the equator , where the effect is weakest . However , it is still possible for tropical systems to form within this boundary as Tropical Storm Vamei and Cyclone Agni did in 2001 and 2004 , respectively .
Tropical cyclone
A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly below 26.5 ° C ( 79.7 ° F ) . This will cause the storm to lose its tropical characteristics , such as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center , and become a remnant low - pressure area . These remnant systems may persist for up to several days before losing their identity . This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific . Weakening or dissipation can occur if it experiences vertical wind shear , causing the convection and heat engine to move away from the center ; this normally ceases development of a tropical cyclone . In addition , its interaction with the main belt of the Westerlies , by means of merging with a nearby frontal zone , can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into extratropical cyclones . This transition can take 1 -- 3 days . Even after a tropical cyclone is said to be extratropical or dissipated , it can still have tropical storm force ( or occasionally hurricane / typhoon force ) winds and drop several inches of rainfall . In the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean , such tropical - derived cyclones of higher latitudes can be violent and may occasionally remain at hurricane or typhoon - force wind speeds when they reach the west coast of North America . These phenomena can also affect Europe , where they are known as European windstorms ; Hurricane Iris 's extratropical remnants are an example of such a windstorm from 1995 . A cyclone can also merge with another area of low pressure , becoming a larger area of low pressure . This can strengthen the resultant system , although it may no longer be a tropical cyclone . Studies in the 2000s have given rise to the hypothesis that large amounts of dust reduce the strength of tropical cyclones .
Tropical cyclone
The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth 's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation . As a result , they rarely form within 5 ° of the equator . Tropical cyclones are also almost completely absent from Earth 's southwestern quartersphere , mainly because the shapes of the African and South American continents permit the Benguela and Humboldt Currents to cover ocean basins as far north as 5  ̊ N with excessively cool water . These powerful cold currents also produce much stronger vertical wind shear in the South Atlantic and Southeast Pacific , which typically prevent tropical depressions and minor storms there from developing into cyclones and prevent even the waters of the Brazil Current from being so hot as analogous western boundary currents or ocean gyres . Also , the African easterly jet and areas of atmospheric instability which gives rise to cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , along with the Asian monsoon and Western Pacific Warm Pool , are feature of the Northern Hemisphere and Australia .
Tropical cyclone
`` Tropical '' refers to the geographical origin of these systems , which form almost exclusively over tropical seas . `` Cyclone '' refers to their winds moving in a circle , whirling round their central clear eye , with their winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and blowing clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect . Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water . They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface , which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation . This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms , such as nor'easters and European windstorms , which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts . Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km ( 62 and 1,243 mi ) in diameter .
Israel
At the other extreme , mountainous regions can be windy and cold , and areas at elevation of 750 meters or more ( same elevation as Jerusalem ) will usually receive at least one snowfall each year . From May to September , rain in Israel is rare . With scarce water resources , Israel has developed various water - saving technologies , including drip irrigation . Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available for solar energy , making Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita ( practically every house uses solar panels for water heating ) .
Tropical cyclone
Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property , they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact , as they may bring much - needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions . Tropical cyclones also help maintain the global heat balance by moving warm , moist tropical air to the middle latitudes and polar regions , and by regulating the thermohaline circulation through upwelling . The storm surge and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human - made structures , but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries , which are typically important fish breeding locales . Tropical cyclone destruction spurs redevelopment , greatly increasing local property values .
Wetland
In Southeast Asia , peatswamp forests and soils are being drained , burnt , mined , and overgrazed , contributing severely to climate change . As a result of peat drainage , the organic carbon that was built up over thousands of years and is normally under water is suddenly exposed to the air . It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide ( CO ) , which is released into the atmosphere . Peat fires cause the same process to occur and in addition create enormous clouds of smoke that cross international borders , such as happens every year in Southeast Asia . While peatlands constitute only 3 % of the world 's land area , their degradation produces 7 % of all fossil fuel CO emissions .
Horn of Africa
In the mountains of Ethiopia , many areas receive over 2,000 mm ( 80 in ) per year , and even Asmara receives an average of 570 mm ( 23 in ) . This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia , including Egypt . In the winter , the northeasterly trade winds do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia , where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm ( 20 in ) . On the eastern coast , a strong upwelling and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm ( 2 in ) .
Tropical cyclone
Tropical cyclones out at sea cause large waves , heavy rain , flood and high winds , disrupting international shipping and , at times , causing shipwrecks . Tropical cyclones stir up water , leaving a cool wake behind them , which causes the region to be less favorable for subsequent tropical cyclones . On land , strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles , buildings , bridges , and other outside objects , turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles . The storm surge , or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone , is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones , historically resulting in 90 % of tropical cyclone deaths . The broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone , and vertical wind shear at its periphery , spawns tornadoes . Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices , which persist until landfall .
Tropical cyclone
Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator , then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño , so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks . Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience much fewer September -- November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years . During El Niño years , the break in the subtropical ridge tends to lie near 130 ° E which would favor the Japanese archipelago . During El Niño years , Guam 's chance of a tropical cyclone impact is one - third more likely than of the long - term average . The tropical Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical wind shear across the region during El Niño years . During La Niña years , the formation of tropical cyclones , along with the subtropical ridge position , shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean , which increases the landfall threat to China and much greater intensity in the Philippines .
Trade winds
The trade winds are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics , within the lower portion of the Earth 's atmosphere , in the lower section of the troposphere near the Earth 's equator . The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere , strengthening during the winter and when the Arctic oscillation is in its warm phase . Trade winds have been used by captains of sailing ships to cross the world 's oceans for centuries , and enabled colonial expansion into the Americas and trade routes to become established across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans .
Tropical cyclone
As indicated in the table below , each basin uses a separate system of terminology , which can make comparisons between different basins difficult . In the Pacific Ocean , hurricanes from the Central North Pacific sometimes cross the 180th meridian into the Northwest Pacific , becoming typhoons ( such as Hurricane / Typhoon Ioke in 2006 ) ; on rare occasions , the reverse will occur . It should also be noted that typhoons with 1 - minute sustained winds greater than 67 metres per second ( m / s ) , over 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) , are called Super Typhoons by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Tropical
Climate of Africa
Globally , heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of upward motion and convection along the monsoon trough or Intertropical Convergence Zone . The divergence over the near - equatorial trough leads to air rising and moving away from the equator aloft . As it moves towards the Mid-Latitudes , the air cools and sinks , which leads to subsidence near the 30th parallel of both hemispheres . This circulation is known as the Hadley cell and leads to the formation of the subtropical ridge . Many of the world 's deserts are caused by these climatological high - pressure areas , including the Sahara Desert .
Soil erosion
Globally one of the largest contributors to erosive soil loss in the year 2006 is the slash and burn treatment of tropical forests . In a number of regions of the earth , entire sectors of a country have been rendered unproductive . For example , on the Madagascar high central plateau , comprising approximately ten percent of that country 's land area , virtually the entire landscape is sterile of vegetation , with gully erosive furrows typically in excess of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) deep and 1 kilometre ( 0.6 miles ) wide . Shifting cultivation is a farming system which sometimes incorporates the slash and burn method in some regions of the world . This degrades the soil and causes the soil to become less and less fertile .
Environmental impact of irrigation
In India 2.19 million ha have been reported to suffer from waterlogging in irrigation canal commands . Also 3.47 million ha were reported to be seriously salt affected , In the Indus Plains in Pakistan , more than 2 million hectares of land is waterlogged . The soil of 13.6 million hectares within the Gross Command Area was surveyed , which revealed that 3.1 million hectares ( 23 % ) was saline. 23 % of this was in Sindh and 13 % in the Punjab . More than 3 million ha of water - logged lands have been provided with tube - wells and drains at the cost of billions of rupees , but the reclamation objectives were only partially achieved . The Asian Development Bank ( ADB ) states that 38 % of the irrigated area is now waterlogged and 14 % of the surface is too saline for use In the Nile delta of Egypt , drainage is being installed in millions of hectares to combat the water - logging resulting from the introduction of massive perennial irrigation after completion of the High Dam at Assuan In Mexico , 15 % of the 3 million ha of irrigable land is salinized and 10 % is waterlogged In Peru some 0.3 million ha of the 1.05 million ha of irrigable land suffers from degradation ( see Irrigation in Peru ) . Estimates indicate that roughly one - third of the irrigated land in the major irrigation countries is already badly affected by salinity or is expected to become so in the near future . Present estimates for Israel are 13 % of the irrigated land , Australia 20 % , China 15 % , Iraq 50 % , Egypt 30 % . Irrigation - induced salinity occurs in large and small irrigation systems alike FAO has estimated that by 1990 about 52 million ha of irrigated land will need to have improved drainage systems installed , much of it subsurface drainage to control salinity
Geography of China
Flowing from its source in the Qingzang highlands , the Yellow River courses toward the sea through the North China Plain , the historic center of Chinese expansion and influence . Han Chinese people have farmed the rich alluvial soils since ancient times , constructing the Grand Canal for north - south transport during the Imperial Era . The plain is a continuation of the Dongbei ( Manchurian ) Plain to the northeast but is separated from it by the Bohai Gulf , an extension of the Yellow Sea .
Climate of the United States
During the summer , the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening thunderstorms to the southern tier of the country as well as the Great Plains . Equatorward of the subtropical ridge , tropical cyclones enhance precipitation ( mostly from August to October ) across southern and eastern sections of the country , as well as Puerto Rico , the United States Virgin Islands , the Northern Mariana Islands , Guam , and American Samoa . Over the top of the ridge , the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes . Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains , Midwest , and Great Lakes during the warm season , contributing up to 10 % of the annual precipitation to the region .