vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Manhattan Project
The Chalk River , Ontario , site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the Montreal Laboratory away from an urban area . A new community was built at Deep River , Ontario , to provide residences and facilities for the team members . The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec , and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base , Camp Petawawa . Located on the Ottawa River , it had access to abundant water . The first director of the new laboratory was Hans von Halban . He was replaced by John Cockcroft in May 1944 , who in turn was succeeded by Bennett Lewis in September 1946 . A pilot reactor known as ZEEP ( zero - energy experimental pile ) became the first Canadian reactor , and the first to be completed outside the United States , when it went critical in September 1945 , ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970 . A larger 10 MW NRX reactor , which was designed during the war , was completed and went critical in July 1947 . Northwest
History of United States prison systems
Imprisonment as a form of criminal punishment only became widespread in the United States just before the American Revolution , though penal incarceration efforts had been ongoing in England since as early as the 1500s , and prisons in the form of dungeons and various detention facilities had existed since long before then . Prison building efforts in the United States came in three major waves . The first began during the Jacksonian Era and led to widespread use of imprisonment and rehabilitative labor as the primary penalty for most crimes in nearly all states by the time of the American Civil War . The second began after the Civil War and gained momentum during the Progressive Era , bringing a number of new mechanisms -- such as parole , probation , and indeterminate sentencing -- into the mainstream of American penal practice . Finally , since the early 1970s , the United States has engaged in a historically unprecedented expansion of its imprisonment systems at both the federal and state level . Since 1973 , the number of incarcerated persons in the United States has increased five-fold , and in a given year 7,000,000 people were under the supervision or control of correctional services in the United States . These periods of prison construction and reform produced major changes in the structure of prison systems and their missions , the responsibilities of federal and state agencies for administering and supervising them , as well as the legal and political status of prisoners themselves .
Red Sea
In 1798 , France ordered General Napoleon to invade Egypt and take control of the Red Sea . Although he failed in his mission , the engineer Jean - Baptiste Lepère , who took part in it , revitalised the plan for a canal which had been envisaged during the reign of the Pharaohs . Several canals were built in ancient times from the Nile to the Red Sea along or near the line of the present Sweet Water Canal , but none lasted for long . The Suez Canal was opened in November 1869 . At the time , the British , French , and Italians shared the trading posts . The posts were gradually dismantled following the First World War . After the Second World War , the Americans and Soviets exerted their influence whilst the volume of oil tanker traffic intensified . However , the Six - Day War culminated in the closure of the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975 . Today , in spite of patrols by the major maritime fleets in the waters of the Red Sea , the Suez Canal has never recovered its supremacy over the Cape route , which is believed to be less vulnerable .
Channel Tunnel
Ideas for a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802 , but British political and press pressure over the compromising of national security stalled attempts to construct a tunnel . An early attempt at building a Channel Tunnel was made in the late 19th century , on the English side `` in the hope of forcing the hand of the English Government '' . The eventual successful project , organised by Eurotunnel , began construction in 1988 and opened in 1994 . At £ 5.5 billion ( 1985 prices ) , it was at the time the most expensive construction project ever proposed . The cost finally amounted to £ 9 billion ( $21 billion ) , well over its predicted budget .
New Amsterdam
In 1664 , Jan van Bonnel built a saw mill on East 74th Street and the East River , where a 13,710 - meter long stream that began in the north of today 's Central Park , which became known as the Saw Kill or Saw Kill Creek , emptied into the river . Later owners of the property George Elphinstone and Abraham Shotwell replaced the saw mill with a leather mill in 1677 . The Saw Kill was later redirected into a culvert , arched over , and its trickling little stream was called Arch Brook .
Great Salt Lake
In the early 1930s there was a project to dam off a third of the lake with dikes on the east side north of Salt Lake City to make a fresh water reservoir for drinking and irrigation . The project was abandoned before it got beyond the planning stage .
Helsinki
When a town was founded in Forsby village in 1548 , it was named Helsinge fors , `` Helsinge rapids '' . The name refers to the Vanhankaupunginkoski rapids at the mouth of the river . The town was commonly known as Helsinge or Helsing , from which the contemporary Finnish name arose .
Wind turbine
The first electricity - generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk , Scotland . Some months later American inventor Charles F. Brush was able to build the first automatically operated wind turbine after consulting local University professors and colleagues Jacob S. Gibbs and Brinsley Coleberd and successfully getting the blueprints peer - reviewed for electricity production in Cleveland , Ohio . Although Blyth 's turbine was considered uneconomical in the United Kingdom , electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries with widely scattered populations . The
Illinois
In 1847 , after lobbying by Dorothea L. Dix , Illinois became one of the first states to establish a system of state - supported treatment of mental illness and disabilities , replacing local almshouses . Dix came into this effort after having met J.O. King , a Jacksonville , Illinois businessman , who invited her to Illinois , where he had been working to build an asylum for the insane . With the lobbying expertise of Dix , plans for the Jacksonville State Hospital ( now known as the Jacksonville Developmental Center ) were signed into law on March 1 , 1847 . Civil
River Thames
The world 's first underwater tunnel was Marc Brunel 's Thames Tunnel built in 1843 and now used to carry the East London Line . The Tower Subway was the first railway under the Thames , which was followed by all the deep - level tube lines . Road tunnels were built in East London at the end of the 19th century , being the Blackwall Tunnel and the Rotherhithe Tunnel . The latest tunnels are the Dartford Crossings .
History of United States prison systems
Virginia was the first state after Pennsylvania , in 1796 , to dramatically reduce the number of crimes punishable by death , and its legislators simultaneously called for the construction of a `` gaol and penitentiary house '' as the cornerstone of a new criminal justice regime . Designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe , the state 's first prison at Richmond resembled Jeremy Bentham 's Panopticon design ( as well as the not - yet - built Eastern State Penitentiary 's ) . All inmates served a mandatory period of solitary confinement after initial entry .
History of coal mining
The first important mines appeared in the 1750s , in the valleys of the rivers Ruhr , Inde and Wurm where coal seams outcropped and horizontal adit mining was possible . In 1782 the Krupp family began operations near Essen . After 1815 entrepreneurs in the Ruhr Area , which then became part of Prussia took advantage of the tariff zone ( Zollverein ) to open new mines and associated iron smelters . New railways were built by British engineers around 1850 . Numerous small industrial centres sprang up , focused on ironworks , using local coal . The iron and steel works typically bought mines , and erected coking ovens to supply their own requirements in coke and gas . These integrated coal - iron firms ( `` Huettenzechen '' ) became numerous after 1854 ; after 1900 they became mixed firms called `` Konzern . ''
Hyde Park, London
The first coherent landscaping in Hyde Park began in 1726 . It was undertaken by Charles Bridgeman for King George I , but following the king 's death the following year , it continued with approval of his daughter - in - law , Queen Caroline . Work was undertaken under the supervision of Charles Withers , the Surveyor - General of Woods and Forests . The principal effect of the work was to sub-divide Hyde Park and create Kensington Gardens . The Serpentine was formed by damming the River Westbourne , which runs through the park from Kilburn towards the Thames . It is divided from the Long Water by a bridge designed by George Rennie in 1826 .
Colony of Virginia
The first settlement in the colony , Jamestown , served as the capital and main port of entry from its founding until 1699 . During this time , a series of statehouses ( capitols ) were used and subsequently consumed by fires ( both accidental , and in the case of Bacon 's Rebellion , intentional ) . Following such a fire , in 1699 the capital was relocated inland , away from the swampy clime of Jamestown to Middle Plantation , soon to be renamed Williamsburg .
Early skyscrapers
Skyscrapers continued to spread both across the U.S. and internationally . New York and Chicago remained the center of skyscraper development , but most major cities in the U.S. had built skyscrapers by 1929 , frequently as a result of competition between rival cities for status and investment . Cincinnati built the Cincinnati Towers in 1914 , followed by the Carew Tower Complex in 1930 . In Detroit , the General Motors Building opened in 1920 and the Fisher Building in 1928 . Cleveland acquired the Union Trust Building in 1923 and the Terminal Tower in 1929 ; the latter , built by the Van Sweringen brothers , was , for a short period , the second tallest building in the world . Seattle had built Smith Tower in 1914 , and the Los Angeles local government granted itself an exemption from city planning restrictions in order to build the Los Angeles City Hall in 1928 . In 1928 , the Industrial Trust Tower was built in Providence .
Chennai
The city 's water supply and sewage treatment are managed by the Chennai MetroWater Supply and Sewage Board . Water is drawn from Red Hills Lake and Chembarambakkam Lake , the primary water reservoirs of the city , and treated at water treatment plants located at Kilpauk , Puzhal , Chembarambakkam and supplied to the city through 27 water distribution stations . The city receives 530 mld of water from Krishna River through Telugu Ganga project , 180 mld of water from the Veeranam lake project and 100 mld of water from the Minjur desalination plant , the country 's largest sea water desalination plant . However , Chennai is predicted to face a huge deficit of 713 million litres per day ( MLD ) in 2026 as the demand is projected at 2,248 MLD and supply estimated at only 1,535 MLD . The city 's sewer system was designed in 1910 , with some modifications in 1958 . There are 714 public toilets in the city managed by the city corporation , and 2,000 more have been planned by the corporation . The corporation also owns 52 community halls across the city .
Austin, Texas
During the 1880s , Austin gained new prominence as the state capitol building was completed in 1888 and claimed as the seventh largest building in the world . In the late 19th century , Austin expanded its city limits to more than three times its former area , and the first granite dam was built on the Colorado River to power a new street car line and the new `` moon towers '' . Unfortunately , the first dam washed away in a flood on April 7 , 1900 .
Hyde Park, London
Flowers were first planted in Hyde Park in 1860 by William Andrews Nesfield . The next year , the Italian Water Garden was constructed at Victoria Gate , including fountains and a summer house . Queen Anne 's Alcove was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and was moved to the park from its original location in Kensington Gardens .
Pantheon, Rome
In the aftermath of the Battle of Actium ( 31 BC ) , Marcus Agrippa started an impressive building program : the Pantheon was a part of the complex created by him on his own property in the Campus Martius in 29 -- 19 BC , which included three buildings aligned from south to north : the Baths of Agrippa , the Basilica of Neptune , and the Pantheon . It seems likely that the Pantheon and the Basilica of Neptune were Agrippa 's sacra privata , not aedes publicae ( public temples ) . This less solemn designation would help explain how the building could have so easily lost its original name and purpose ( Ziolkowski contends that it was originally the Temple of Mars in Campo ) in such a relatively short period of time .
San Jose, California
San Jose was officially founded as California 's first civilian settlement on November 29 , 1777 , as the Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe by José Joaquín Moraga , under orders of Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa , Viceroy of New Spain . San Jose served as a strategic settlement along El Camino Real , connecting the military fortifications at the Monterey Presidio and the San Francisco Presidio , as well as the California mission network . In 1791 , due to the severe flooding which characterized the pueblo , San Jose 's settlement was moved approximately a mile south , centered on the Pueblo Plaza ( modern - day Plaza de César Chávez ) .
Cremation
In 1885 , the first official cremation in the UK took place in Woking . The deceased was Mrs Jeannette C. Pickersgill , a well - known figure in literary and scientific circles . By the end of the year , the Cremation Society of Great Britain had overseen two more cremations , a total of 3 out of 597,357 deaths in the UK that year . In 1886 ten bodies were cremated at Woking Crematorium . During 1888 , in which 28 cremations took place , the Cremation Society planned to provide a chapel , waiting rooms and other amenities there . In 1892 a crematorium opened in Manchester , followed by one in Glasgow in 1895 , Liverpool in 1896 and Birmingham Crematorium in 1903 .
Early skyscrapers
The early skyscrapers were a range of tall , commercial buildings built between 1884 and 1939 , predominantly in the American cities of New York City and Chicago . Cities in the United States were traditionally made up of low - rise buildings , but significant economic growth after the Civil War and increasingly intensive use of urban land encouraged the development of taller buildings beginning in the 1870s . Technological improvements enabled the construction of fireproofed iron - framed structures with deep foundations , equipped with new inventions such as the elevator and electric lighting . These made it both technically and commercially viable to build a new class of taller buildings , the first of which , Chicago 's 138 - foot ( 42 m ) tall Home Insurance Building , opened in 1885 . Their numbers grew rapidly , and by 1888 they were being labelled skyscrapers .
Atlanta
Gentrification of the city 's neighborhoods is one of the more controversial and transformative forces shaping contemporary Atlanta . The gentrification of Atlanta has its origins in the 1970s , after many of Atlanta 's neighborhoods had undergone the urban decay that affected other major American cities in the mid-20th century . When neighborhood opposition successfully prevented two freeways from being built through city 's the east side in 1975 , the area became the starting point for Atlanta 's gentrification . After Atlanta was awarded the Olympic games in 1990 , gentrification expanded into other parts of the city , stimulated by infrastructure improvements undertaken in preparation for the games . Gentrification was aided by the Atlanta Housing Authority 's eradication of the city 's public housing .
History of Puerto Rico
Spain , determined to defend its possession , began the fortification of the inlet of San Juan in the early 16th century . In 1532 , construction of the first fortifications began with La Fortaleza ( the Fortress ) near the entrance to San Juan Bay . Seven years later the construction of massive defenses around San Juan began , including Fort San Felipe del Morro astride the entrance to San Juan Bay . Later , Fort San Cristóbal and Fort San Jerónimo -- built with a financial subsidy from the Mexican mines -- garrisoned troops and defended against land attacks . In 1587 , engineers Juan de Tejada and Juan Bautista Antonelli redesigned Fort San Felipe del Morro ; these changes endure . Politically , Puerto Rico was reorganized in 1580 into a captaincy general to provide for more autonomy and quick administrative responses to military threats .
Andrew Carnegie
Carnegie constructed commodious swimming - baths for the people of his hometown in Dunfermline in 1879 . In the following year , Carnegie gave £ 8,000 for the establishment of a Dunfermline Carnegie Library in Scotland . In 1884 , he gave $50,000 to Bellevue Hospital Medical College ( now part of New York University Medical Center ) to found a histological laboratory , now called the Carnegie Laboratory .
Souris River
During the period from 1930 to 1941 severe drought conditions prevailed and PFRA constructed four stock watering dams . In 1937 the Snyder and Ross Dams were built near Melita . In 1938 the Napinka Dam was built and the Hartney Dam was built in 1941 . These were all stop log dams with a total capacity of 2,400 acre feet ( 3,000,000 m ) . The Souris Dam was originally built in 1911 and was rebuilt in 1935 . The Wawanesa Dam was completed in 1951 storing about 320 acre feet ( 390,000 m ) of water .
Manhattan Project
Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944 . Watched by Compton , Matthias , DuPont 's Crawford Greenewalt , Leona Woods and Fermi , who inserted the first slug , the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944 . Over the next few days , 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical . Shortly after midnight on 27 September , the operators began to withdraw the control rods to initiate production . At first all appeared well but around 03 : 00 the power level started to drop and by 06 : 30 the reactor had shut down completely . The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination . The next day the reactor started up again , only to shut down once more .
Islamic Golden Age
For less serious cases , physicians staffed outpatient clinics . Cities also had first aid centers staffed by physicians for emergencies that were often located in busy public places , such as big gatherings for Friday prayers . The region also had mobile units staffed by doctors and pharmacists who were supposed to meet the need of remote communities . Baghdad was also known to have a separate hospital for convicts since the early 10th century after the vizier ' Ali ibn Isa ibn Jarah ibn Thabit wrote to Baghdad 's chief medical officer that `` prisons must have their own doctors who should examine them every day '' . The first hospital built in Egypt , in Cairo 's Southwestern quarter , was the first documented facility to care for mental illnesses . In Aleppo 's Arghun Hospital , care for mental illness included abundant light , fresh air , running water and music .
San Jose, California
On March 27 , 1850 , San Jose was incorporated . It was incorporated on the same day as San Diego and Benicia ; together , these three cities followed Sacramento as California 's earliest incorporated cities . Josiah Belden , who had settled in California in 1842 after traversing the California Trail as part of the Bartleson Party and later acquired a fortune , was the city 's first mayor . San Jose was briefly California 's first state capital ; legislators met in the city from 1849 to 1851 . ( Monterey was the capital during the period of Spanish California and Mexican California ) . The first capitol no longer exists ; the Plaza de César Chávez now lies on the site , which has two historical markers indicating where California 's state legislature first met .
Florida City, Florida
Development schemes in the East Glade led to the construction of canals in the early 1900s . This led to a lowering of water tables . Although development the East Glade was not extensive prior to the 1980s , agricultural development did occur . Potatoes were the primary crop grown in the East Glade prior to the construction of extensive housing developments within the areas annexed by the City of Homestead in the late 1970s . Potatoes were mostly harvested from February to March .
New Spain
The town of Albuquerque ( present day Albuquerque , New Mexico ) was founded in 1706 . Other Mexican towns in the region included Paso del Norte ( present day Ciudad Juárez ) , founded in 1667 ; Santiago de la Monclova in 1689 ; Panzacola , Tejas in 1681 ; and San Francisco de Cuéllar ( present day city of Chihuahua ) in 1709 . From 1687 , Father Eusebio Francisco Kino , with funding from the Marqués de Villapuente , founded over twenty missions in the Sonoran Desert ( in present - day Sonora and Arizona ) . From 1697 , Jesuits established eighteen missions throughout the Baja California Peninsula . Between 1687 and 1700 several missions were founded in Trinidad , but only four survived as Amerindian villages throughout the 18th century . In 1691 , explorers and missionaries visited the interior of Texas and came upon a river and Amerindian settlement on June 13 , the feast day of St. Anthony , and named the location and river San Antonio in his honor . New
Age of Enlightenment
Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought . Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought . Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide ( fixed air ) by the chemist Joseph Black , the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt . The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot - air balloon on 21 November 1783 from the Château de la Muette , near the Bois de Boulogne .
Arthur Phillip
Admiral Arthur Phillip ( 11 October 1738 -- 31 August 1814 ) was a Royal Navy officer and the first Governor of New South Wales who founded the British penal colony that later became the city of Sydney , Australia .
Parthenon
The first endeavour to build a sanctuary for Athena Parthenos on the site of the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the Battle of Marathon ( c. 490 -- 488 BC ) upon a solid limestone foundation that extended and levelled the southern part of the Acropolis summit . This building replaced a hekatompedon ( meaning `` hundred - footer '' ) and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias ( `` of the city '' ) . The Older or Pre-Parthenon , as it is frequently referred to , was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC and razed the Acropolis .
Colony of Virginia
The fort at Jamestown , founded in 1607 , remained the primary settlement of the colonists for several years . A few strategic outposts were constructed , including Fort Algernon ( 1609 ) at the entrance to the James River .