vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Ancient Egypt
Bronze Age ↑ Chalcolithic Near East ( c. 3300 -- 1200 BC ) Anatolia , Caucasus , Elam , Egypt , Levant , Mesopotamia , Sistan , Canaan Late Bronze Age collapse South Asia ( c. 3000 -- 1200 BC ) Bronze Age South Asia Ochre Coloured Pottery Cemetery H Europe ( c. 3200 -- 600 BC ) Aegean , Caucasus , Catacomb culture , Minoan , Srubna culture , Beaker culture , Unetice culture , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture , Hallstatt culture , Apennine culture , Canegrate culture , Golasecca culture , Atlantic Bronze Age , Bronze Age Britain , Nordic Bronze Age East Asia ( c. 2000 -- 300 BC ) Erlitou , Erligang , Gojoseon , Jomon , Majiayao , Mumun , Qijia , Siwa , Wucheng , Xindian , Yueshi arsenical bronze writing literature sword chariot ↓ Iron Age
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Maya civilization
Different factions may have existed in the royal court . The k'uhul ahaw and his household would have formed the central power - base , but other important groups were the priesthood , the warrior aristocracy , and other aristocratic courtiers . Where ruling councils existed , as at Chichen Itza and Copán , these may have formed an additional faction . Rivalry between different factions would have led to dynamic political institutions as compromises and disagreements were played out . In such a setting , public performance was vital . Such performances included ritual dances , presentation of war captives , offerings of tribute , human sacrifice , and religious ritual .
Cradle of civilization
Early evidence for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BC , with the earliest evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River , dated to 6500 BC . Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first walled city in China . This Neolithic Revolution gave rise to the Jiahu culture ( 7000 to 5800 BC ) . Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols ( 6600 BC ) are the earliest form of proto - writing in China . However , it is likely that they should not be understood as writing itself , but as features of a lengthy period of sign - use which led eventually to a fully - fledged system of writing . Excavation of a Peiligang culture site in Xinzheng county , Henan , found a community that flourished in 5500 to 4900 BC , with evidence of agriculture , constructed buildings , pottery , and burial of the dead . With agriculture came increased population , the ability to store and redistribute crops , and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators . In late Neolithic times , the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a center of Yangshao culture ( 5000 to 3000 BC ) , and the first villages were founded . Later , Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture , which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 to 2000 BC . The earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao culture site ( 3100 to 2700 BC ) .
Civil–military relations
Few argued that there was no difference between the two worlds , but some were convinced that the difference itself was the primary danger . Charles Maynes worried that a military force consisting primarily of enlisted personnel from the lower socio - economic classes would ultimately refuse to fight for the goals of the upper classes . Tarr and Roman , on the other hand , were concerned that the similarities between military elites and civilian elites enabled a dangerous politicizing trend among the military . Chivers represented a small number who believed that the differences between the cultures were so small as essentially to be irrelevant .
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Maya civilization
Wood was used for beams , and for lintels , even in masonry structures . Throughout Maya history , common huts and some temples continued to be built from wooden poles and thatch . Adobe was also applied ; this consisted of mud strengthened with straw and was applied as a coating over the woven - stick walls of huts . Like wood and thatch , adobe was used throughout Maya history , even after the development of masonry structures . In the southern Maya area , adobe was employed in monumental architecture when no suitable stone was locally available .
Celts
ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamna Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubna Northern / Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco - Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Peoples and societies ( show ) Bronze Age Anatolian peoples ( Hittites ) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo - Iranians Iron Age Indo - Aryans Indo - Aryans Iranians Iranians Scythians Persians Medes Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo - Balkans / Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Phrygians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Balts Slavs Albanians Medieval Europe Indo - Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Persia Religion and mythology ( show ) Reconstructed Proto - Indo - European religion Proto - Indo - Iranian religion Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indian Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian Europe Paleo - Balkans Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo - Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Albanian Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice / Yule Indo - European studies ( show ) Scholars Marija Gimbutas J.P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo - European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo - European Culture The Horse , the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo - European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo - European Etymological Dictionary
Pre-Columbian era
While the phrase `` pre-Columbian era '' literally refers only to the time preceding Christopher Columbus 's voyages of 1492 , in practice the phrase is usually used to denote the entire history of indigenous Americas cultures until those cultures were exterminated , diminished , or extensively altered by Europeans , even if this happened decades or centuries after Columbus 's first landing . For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas , Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use . In areas of Latin America the term usually used is Pre-Hispanic .
Maya civilization
Maya cities were not formally planned , and were subject to irregular expansion , with the haphazard addition of palaces , temples and other buildings . Most Maya cities tended to grow outwards from the core , and upwards as new structures were superimposed upon preceding architecture . Maya cities usually had a ceremonial and administrative centre surrounded by a vast irregular sprawl of residential complexes . The centres of all Maya cities featured sacred precincts , sometimes separated from nearby residential areas by walls . These precincts contained pyramid temples and other monumental architecture dedicated to elite activities , such as basal platforms that supported administrative or elite residential complexes . Sculpted monuments were raised to record the deeds of the ruling dynasty . City centres also featured plazas , sacred ballcourts and buildings used for marketplaces and schools . Frequently causeways linked the centre to outlying areas of the city . Some of these classes of architecture formed lesser groups in the outlying areas of the city , which served as sacred centres for non-royal lineages . The areas adjacent to these sacred compounds included residential complexes housing wealthy lineages . The largest and richest of these elite compounds sometimes possessed sculpture and art of craftsmanship equal to that of royal art .
Solomon's Temple
Its authenticity was called into question by a report by the Israel Antiquities Authority , which said that the surface patina contained microfossils of foraminifera . As these fossils do not dissolve in water , they can not occur in a calcium carbonate patina , leading initial investigators to conclude that the patina must be an artificial chemical mix applied to the stone by forgers . As of late 2012 , the academic community is split on whether the tablet is authentic or not . Commenting on a 2012 report by geologists arguing for the authenticity of the inscription , in October 2012 , Hershel Shanks ( who believes the inscription is genuine ) wrote the current situation was that most Hebrew language scholars believe that the inscription is a forgery and geologists that it is genuine , and thus `` Because we rely on experts , and because there is an apparently irresolvable conflict of experts in this case , BAR has taken no position with respect to the authenticity of the Jehoash Inscription . '' By 2006 , the Temple Mount Sifting Project had recovered numerous artifacts dating from the 8th to 7th centuries BCE from soil removed in 1999 by the Islamic Religious Trust ( Waqf ) from the Solomon 's Stables area of the Temple Mount . These include stone weights for weighing silver and a First Temple period bulla , or seal impression , containing ancient Hebrew writing which includes the name Netanyahu ben Yaush . Netanyahu is a name mentioned several times in the Book of Jeremiah while the name Yaush appears in the Lachish letters . However , the combination of names was unknown to scholars . In 2007 , artifacts dating to the 8th to 6th centuries BCE were described as being possibly the first physical evidence of human activity at the Temple Mount during the First Temple period . The findings included animal bones ; ceramic bowl rims , bases , and body sherds ; the base of a juglet used to pour oil ; the handle of a small juglet ; and the rim of a storage jar .
Clay
Clay tablets were the first known writing medium . Scribes wrote by inscribing them with cuneiform script using a blunt reed called a stylus . Purpose - made clay balls were also used as sling ammunition .
History of calendars
A number of prehistoric structures have been proposed as having had the purpose of timekeeping ( typically keeping track of the course of the solar year ) . This includes many megalithic structures , and reconstructed arrangements going back far into the Neolithic period .
Enoch (ancestor of Noah)
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New Testament
While many Eastern Orthodox writers distinguish between Scripture and Tradition , Bishop Kallistos Ware says that for the Orthodox there is only one source of the Christian faith , Holy Tradition , within which Scripture exists .
Pre-Columbian era
This period is considered a developmental stage without any massive changes in a short period , but instead having a continuous development in stone and bone tools , leather working , textile manufacture , tool production , cultivation , and shelter construction . Some Woodland peoples continued to use spears and atlatls until the end of the period , when they were replaced by bows and arrows . Mississippian
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Çatalhöyük
Mellaart was banned from Turkey for his involvement in the Dorak affair in which he published drawings of supposedly important Bronze Age artifacts that later went missing . After this scandal , the site lay idle until 1993 , when investigations began under the leadership of Ian Hodder , then at the University of Cambridge . These investigations are among the most ambitious excavation projects currently in progress according to , among others , archaeologist Colin Renfrew . In addition to extensive use of archaeological science , psychological and artistic interpretations of the symbolism of the wall paintings have been employed . Hodder , a former student of Mellaart , chose the site as the first `` real world '' test of his then - controversial theory of post-processual archaeology . The site has always had a strong research emphasis upon engagement with digital methodologies , driven by the project 's experimental and reflexive methodological framework .
Çatalhöyük
Artifacts Excavations at the southern area of the site Excavations at the southern area of the site The earliest known textile fragments . They may be fabrics used to wrap the dead . They are carbonized in a fire and radiocarbon dated to c. 6000 BC . Images of deities Aurochs ' heads Aurochs ' heads Mother Goddess from Çatalhöyük ( Turkey ) , neolithic age ( about 5500 - 6000 BC ) , today in Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara Twin goddess . Marble statuette , height 17.2 cm , from Çatalhöyük , 6000 - 5500 BC . Museum of Anatolian Civilizations , Ankara . Stamp seal , small terracotta . Çatalhöyük , 6000 - 5500 BC . Museum of Anatolian Civilizations , Ankara . Obsidian mirrors . Çatalhöyük , 6000 - 5500 BC . Museum of Anatolian Civilizations , Ankara .
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Carthage
Thus , of their ancient writings we have little of major interest left to us by Carthage , or by Phoenicia the country of origin of the city founders . `` Of the various Phoenician and Punic compositions alluded to by the ancient classical authors , not a single work or even fragment has survived in its original idiom . '' `` Indeed , not a single Phoenician manuscript has survived in the original ( language ) or in translation . '' We can not therefore access directly the line of thought or the contour of their worldview as expressed in their own words , in their own voice . Ironically , it was the Phoenicians who `` invented or at least perfected and transmitted a form of writing ( the alphabet ) that has influenced dozens of cultures including our own . ''
Euphrates
The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches ; that is , the area that is popularly known as the Fertile Crescent . Acheulean stone artifacts have been found in the Sajur basin and in the El Kowm oasis in the central Syrian steppe ; the latter together with remains of Homo erectus that were dated to 450,000 years old . In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley , early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra -- at first occupied by hunter - gatherers but later by some of the earliest farmers , Jerf el - Ahmar , Mureybet and Nevalı Çori became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward . In the absence of irrigation , these early farming communities were limited to areas where rainfed agriculture was possible , that is , the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey . Late Neolithic villages , characterized by the introduction of pottery in the early 7th millennium BCE , are known throughout this area . Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation , as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture . Evidence for irrigation has been found at several sites dating to this period , including Tell es - Sawwan . During the 5th millennium BCE , or late Ubaid period , northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages , although some of them grew to a size of over 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) . In Iraq , sites like Eridu and Ur were already occupied during the Ubaid period . Clay boat models found at Tell Mashnaqa along the Khabur indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period . The Uruk period , roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE , saw the emergence of truly urban settlements across Mesopotamia . Cities like Tell Brak and Uruk grew to over 100 hectares ( 250 acres ) in size and displayed monumental architecture . The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery , architecture and sealings far into Turkey and Iran has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials . Habuba Kabira on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony .
Mesolithic
In Old World archaeology , Mesolithic ( Greek : μέσος , mesos `` middle '' ; λίθος , lithos `` stone '' ) is the period between the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic . The term Epipaleolithic is often used synonymously , especially for outside northern Europe , and for the corresponding period in the Levant and Caucasus . The Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia . It refers to the final period of hunter - gatherer cultures in Europe and West Asia , between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the Neolithic Revolution . In Europe it spans roughly 15,000 to 5,000 BP , in Southwest Asia ( the Epipalaeolithic Near East ) roughly 20,000 to 8,000 BP . The term is less used of areas further east , and not all beyond Eurasia and North Africa .
Ashoka
Until the Ashokan inscriptions were discovered and deciphered , stories about Ashoka were based on the legendary accounts of his life and not strictly on historical facts . These legends were found in Buddhist textual sources such as the text of Ashokavadana . The Ashokavadana is a subset of a larger set of legends in the Divyavadana , though it could have existed independently as well . Following are some of the legends narrated in the Ashokavadana about Ashoka :
Maldives
The first Maldivians did not leave any archaeological artifacts . Their buildings were probably built of wood , palm fronds and other perishable materials , which would have quickly decayed in the salt and wind of the tropical climate . Moreover , chiefs or headmen did not reside in elaborate stone palaces , nor did their religion require the construction of large temples or compounds .
Caste system in India
The first school has focused on religious ethnology and disregarded empirical evidence in history . The second school has focused on empirical evidence and sought to understand the historical circumstances . The latter has criticised the former for its caste origin theory , claiming that it has dehistoricised and decontextualised Indian society .
Sociology
Many sociologists are divided into camps of support for particular research techniques . These disputes relate to the epistemological debates at the historical core of social theory . While very different in many aspects , both qualitative and quantitative approaches involve a systematic interaction between theory and data . Quantitative methodologies hold the dominant position in sociology , especially in the United States . In the discipline 's two most cited journals , quantitative articles have historically outnumbered qualitative ones by a factor of two . ( Most articles published in the largest British journal , on the other hand , are qualitative . ) Most textbooks on the methodology of social research are written from the quantitative perspective , and the very term `` methodology '' is often used synonymously with `` statistics . '' Practically all sociology PhD programmes in the United States require training in statistical methods . The work produced by quantitative researchers is also deemed more ' trustworthy ' and ' unbiased ' by the greater public , though this judgment continues to be challenged by antipositivists .
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Pottery of ancient Greece
Inscriptions on Greek pottery are of two kinds ; the incised ( the earliest of which are contemporary with the beginnings of the Greek alphabet in the 8th century BC ) , and the painted , which only begin to appear a century later . Both forms are relatively common on painted vases until the Hellenistic period when the practice of inscribing pots seems to die out . They are by far most frequently found on Attic pottery . Signature
Carthage
`` ( F ) rom the Greek author Plutarch ( ( c. 46 -- c. 120 ) ) we learn of the ' sacred books ' in Punic safeguarded by the city 's temples . Few Punic texts survive , however . '' Once `` the City Archives , the Annals , and the scribal lists of suffets '' existed , but evidently these were destroyed in the horrific fires during the Roman capture of the city in 146 BC .
Edward Augustus Freeman
Freeman advanced the study of history in England in two directions : by insistence on the unity of history , and by teaching the importance and right use of primary sources . Politics was at the core , for he often said , `` History is past politics and politics present history . ''
Carthage
In the end , however , most Punic writings that survived the destruction of Carthage `` did not escape the immense wreckage in which so many of Antiquity 's literary works perished . '' Accordingly , the long and continuous interactions between Punic citizens of Carthage and the Berber communities that surrounded the city have no local historian . Their political arrangements and periodic crises , their economic and work life , the cultural ties and social relations established and nourished ( infrequently as kin ) , are not known to us directly from ancient Punic authors in written accounts . Neither side has left us their stories about life in Punic - era Carthage .