vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Student's t-test
Each of the two populations being compared should follow a normal distribution . This can be tested using a normality test , such as the Shapiro -- Wilk or Kolmogorov -- Smirnov test , or it can be assessed graphically using a normal quantile plot . If using Student 's original definition of the t - test , the two populations being compared should have the same variance ( testable using F - test , Levene 's test , Bartlett 's test , or the Brown -- Forsythe test ; or assessable graphically using a Q -- Q plot ) . If the sample sizes in the two groups being compared are equal , Student 's original t - test is highly robust to the presence of unequal variances . Welch 's t - test is insensitive to equality of the variances regardless of whether the sample sizes are similar . The data used to carry out the test should be sampled independently from the two populations being compared . This is in general not testable from the data , but if the data are known to be dependently sampled ( that is , if they were sampled in clusters ) , then the classical t - tests discussed here may give misleading results .
Positron emission tomography
A few other isotopes and radiotracers are slowly being introduced into oncology for specific purposes . For example , C - labelled metomidate ( 11C - metomidate ) , has been used to detect tumors of adrenocortical origin . Also , FDOPA PET - CT , in centers which offer it , has proven to be a more sensitive alternative to finding , and also localizing , pheochromocytoma than the MIBG scan .
Dry bite
Given that the typical Palystes bite is less traumatic than a bee sting , it is altogether plausible that many are dry bites , but as in this case , when there were two bites , possibly less dry than usual , the putative effects make it altogether reasonable to suspect that the venom as such is non-negligible . It is not possible to carry out controlled studies on humans , and the effects on non-human subjects can not be trusted because there are major unpredictable differences between species in such matters .
Social exchange theory
Humans seek rewards and avoid punishments . Humans are rational beings . The standards that humans use to evaluate costs and rewards vary over time and from person to person .
Philosophical skepticism
Critics claiming Sebond 's arguments are weak show how egoistic humans believe that their logic is superior to others . Many animals can be observed to be superior to humans in certain respects . To argue this point , Montaigne even writes about dogs who are logical and creates their own syllogisms to understand the world around them . This was an example used in Sextus Empiricus . Since animals also have rationality , the over-glorification of man 's mental capabilities is a trap -- man 's folly . One man 's reason can not be assuredly better than another 's as a result . Ignorance is even recommend by religion so that an individual can reach faith through obediently following divine instructions to learn , not by one 's logic . Marin
Consciousness
Experimental research on consciousness presents special difficulties , due to the lack of a universally accepted operational definition . In the majority of experiments that are specifically about consciousness , the subjects are human , and the criterion used is verbal report : in other words , subjects are asked to describe their experiences , and their descriptions are treated as observations of the contents of consciousness . For example , subjects who stare continuously at a Necker cube usually report that they experience it `` flipping '' between two 3D configurations , even though the stimulus itself remains the same . The objective is to understand the relationship between the conscious awareness of stimuli ( as indicated by verbal report ) and the effects the stimuli have on brain activity and behavior . In several paradigms , such as the technique of response priming , the behavior of subjects is clearly influenced by stimuli for which they report no awareness , and suitable experimental manipulations can lead to increasing priming effects despite decreasing prime identification ( double dissociation ) .
Lead poisoning
In the late 1950s through the 1970s Herbert Needleman and Clair Cameron Patterson did research trying to prove lead 's toxicity to humans . In the 1980s Needleman was falsely accused of scientific misconduct by the lead industry associates .
Ear
Some large primates such as gorillas and orang - utans ( and also humans ) have undeveloped ear muscles that are non-functional vestigial structures , yet are still large enough to be easily identified . An ear muscle that can not move the ear , for whatever reason , has lost that biological function . This serves as evidence of homology between related species . In humans , there is variability in these muscles , such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions , and it has been said that it may be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials . In such primates , the inability to move the ear is compensated for mainly by the ability to easily turn the head on a horizontal plane , an ability which is not common to most monkeys -- a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another .
History of chemistry
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta constructed a device for accumulating a large charge by a series of inductions and groundings . He investigated the 1780s discovery `` animal electricity '' by Luigi Galvani , and found that the electric current was generated from the contact of dissimilar metals , and that the frog leg was only acting as a detector . Volta demonstrated in 1794 that when two metals and brine - soaked cloth or cardboard are arranged in a circuit they produce an electric current .
Hearing range
Mice have large ears in comparison to their bodies . They hear higher frequencies than humans ; their frequency range is 1 kHz to 70 kHz . They do not hear the lower frequencies that humans can ; they communicate using high frequency noises some of which are inaudible by humans . The distress call of a young mouse can be produced at 40 kHz . The mice use their ability to produce sounds out of predators ' frequency ranges to alert other mice of danger without exposing themselves , though notably , cats ' hearing range encompasses the mouse 's entire vocal range . The squeaks that humans can hear are lower in frequency and are used by the mouse to make longer distance calls , as low frequency sounds can travel farther than high frequency sounds .
Hippocampus
In humans , cells with location - specific firing patterns have been reported during a study of patients with drug - resistant epilepsy . They were undergoing an invasive procedure to localize the source of their seizures , with a view to surgical resection . The patients had diagnostic electrodes implanted in their hippocampus and then used a computer to move around in a virtual reality town . Similar brain imaging studies in navigation have shown the hippocampus to be active . A study was carried out on taxi drivers . London 's black cab drivers need to learn the locations of a large number of places and the fastest routes between them in order to pass a strict test known as The Knowledge in order to gain a license to operate . A study showed that the posterior part of the hippocampus is larger in these drivers than in the general public , and that a positive correlation exists between the length of time served as a driver and the increase in the volume of this part . It was also found the total volume of the hippocampus was unchanged , as the increase seen in the posterior part was made at the expense of the anterior part , which showed a relative decrease in size . There have been no reported adverse effects from this disparity in hippocampal proportions . Another study showed opposite findings in blind individuals . The anterior part of the right hippocampus was larger and the posterior part was smaller , comparing with sighted individuals .
Human brain
In the late 19th century , Emil du Bois - Reymond and Hermann von Helmholtz , following the work of their teacher Johannes Peter Müller showed the electrical inpulses which pass along nerves ; but unlike Müller 's views , that such impulses were able to be observed . Richard Caton in 1875 demonstrated electrical in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys . In the 1820s , Jean Pierre Flourens pioneered the experimental method of damaging specific parts of animal brains describing the effects on movement and behavior .
Caenorhabditis elegans
Many scientists who research C. elegans closely connect to Sydney Brenner , with whom almost all research in this field began in the 1970s ; they have worked as either a postdoctoral or a postgraduate researcher in Brenner 's lab or in the lab of someone who previously worked with Brenner . Most who worked in his lab later established their own worm research labs , thereby creating a fairly well - documented `` lineage '' of C. elegans scientists , which was recorded into the WormBase database in some detail at the 2003 International Worm Meeting .
Xenon
Xenon has been used as a general anesthetic . Although it is expensive , anesthesia machines that can deliver xenon are expected to appear on the European market because advances in recovery and recycling of xenon have made it economically viable .
Cellular respiration
Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen ( aerobic respiration ) nor pyruvate derivatives ( fermentation ) is the final electron acceptor . Rather , an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used . Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean .
Caenorhabditis elegans
Environmental RNAi uptake is much worse in other species of worms in the genus Caenorhabditis . Although injecting RNA into the body cavity of the animal induces gene silencing in most species , only C. elegans and a few other distantly related nematodes can take up RNA from the bacteria they eat for RNAi . This ability has been mapped down to a single gene , sid - 2 , which , when inserted as a transgene in other species , allows them to take up RNA for RNAi as C. elegans does .
Computer mouse
Games using mice for input are so popular that many manufacturers make mice specifically for gaming . Such mice may feature adjustable weights , high - resolution optical or laser components , additional buttons , ergonomic shape , and other features such as adjustable CPI . Mouse Bungees are typically used with gaming mice because it eliminates the annoyance of the cable .
BrainPop
Bob is a rat with a broken tail and a patched chest . He is featured in , and often conducts , experiments called `` Experiments with Bob the Ex-Lab Rat '' , which relate to mostly science movies .
Insulin
Over the next two decades researchers made several attempts to isolate the islets ' secretions . In 1906 George Ludwig Zuelzer achieved partial success in treating dogs with pancreatic extract , but he was unable to continue his work . Between 1911 and 1912 , E.L. Scott at the University of Chicago tried aqueous pancreatic extracts and noted `` a slight diminution of glycosuria '' , but was unable to convince his director of his work 's value ; it was shut down . Israel Kleiner demonstrated similar effects at Rockefeller University in 1915 , but World War I interrupted his work and he did not return to it .
Barn owl
In some projects , use of rodenticides for biological pest control was replaced by the installation of nest boxes . It has been shown that the use of nest boxes is less costly than traditional control with rodenticides .
Pendulum
During the Renaissance , large hand - pumped pendulums were used as sources of power for manual reciprocating machines such as saws , bellows , and pumps . Leonardo da Vinci made many drawings of the motion of pendulums , though without realizing its value for timekeeping .
Electric chair
Southwick , local physician George E. Fell , and the head of the Buffalo ASPCA performed a series of experiments electrocuting hundreds of stray dogs , experimenting with animals in water , out of water , electrode types and placement , and conductive material until they came up with a repeatable method to euthanize animals using electricity . Southwick went on in the early 1880s to advocate that this method be used as a more humane replacement for hanging in capital cases , coming to national attention when he published his ideas in scientific journals in 1882 and 1883 . He worked out calculations based on the dog experiments , trying to develop a scaled - up method that would work on humans . Early on in his designs he adopted a modified version of the dental chair as a way to restrain the condemned , a device that from then on would be referred called the electric chair .
Nickel
The average daily exposure does not pose a threat to human health . Most of the nickel absorbed every day by humans is removed by the kidneys and passed out of the body through urine or is eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract without being absorbed . Nickel is not a cumulative poison , but larger doses or chronic inhalation exposure may be toxic , even carcinogenic , and constitute an occupational hazard .
Primate
Primates have a longer juvenile period between weaning and sexual maturity than other mammals of similar size . Some primates such as galagos and new world monkeys use tree - holes for nesting , and park juveniles in leafy patches while foraging . Other primates follow a strategy of `` riding '' , i.e. carrying individuals on the body while feeding . Adults may construct or use nesting sites , sometimes accompanied by juveniles , for the purpose of resting , a behavior which has developed secondarily in the great apes . During the juvenile period , primates are more susceptible than adults to predation and starvation ; they gain experience in feeding and avoiding predators during this time . They learn social and fighting skills , often through playing . Primates , especially females , have longer lifespans than other similarly sized mammals , this may be partially due to their slower metabolisms . Late in life , female catarrhine primates appear to undergo a cessation of reproductive function known as menopause ; other groups are less studied .
Positron emission tomography
Work by Gordon Brownell , Charles Burnham and their associates at the Massachusetts General Hospital beginning in the 1950s contributed significantly to the development of PET technology and included the first demonstration of annihilation radiation for medical imaging . Their innovations , including the use of light pipes and volumetric analysis , have been important in the deployment of PET imaging . In 1961 , James Robertson and his associates at Brookhaven National Laboratory built the first single - plane PET scan , nicknamed the `` head - shrinker . ''
Polar bear
Polar bears have long provided important raw materials for Arctic peoples , including the Inuit , Yupik , Chukchi , Nenets , Russian Pomors and others . Hunters commonly used teams of dogs to distract the bear , allowing the hunter to spear the bear or shoot it with arrows at closer range . Almost all parts of captured animals had a use . The fur was used in particular to make trousers and , by the Nenets , to make galoshes - like outer footwear called tobok ; the meat is edible , despite some risk of trichinosis ; the fat was used in food and as a fuel for lighting homes , alongside seal and whale blubber ; sinews were used as thread for sewing clothes ; the gallbladder and sometimes heart were dried and powdered for medicinal purposes ; the large canine teeth were highly valued as talismans . Only the liver was not used , as its high concentration of vitamin A is poisonous . Hunters make sure to either toss the liver into the sea or bury it in order to spare their dogs from potential poisoning . Traditional subsistence hunting was on a small enough scale to not significantly affect polar bear populations , mostly because of the sparseness of the human population in polar bear habitat .
Magic bullet (medicine)
Ehrlich joined the Institute of Experimental Therapy ( Institut für experimentelle Therapie ) at Frankfurt am Main , Germany , in 1899 , becoming the director of its research institute the Georg -- Speyer Haus in 1906 . Here his research focused on testing arsenical dyes for killing microbes . Arsenic was an infamous poison , and his attempt was criticised . He was publicly lampooned as an imaginary `` Dr Phantasus '' . But Ehrlich 's rationale was that the chemical structure called side chain forms antibodies that bind to toxins ( such as pathogens and their products ) ; similarly , chemical dyes such as arsenic compounds could also produce such side chains to kill the same microbes . This led him to propose a new concept called `` side - chain theory '' . ( He later , in 1900 , revised his concept as `` receptor theory '' . ) Based on his new theory , he postulated that in order to kill microbes , `` wir müssen chemisch zielen lernen '' ( `` we have to learn how to aim chemically '' ) . His institute was convenient as it was adjacent to a dye factory . He began testing a number of compounds against different microbes . It was during his research that he coined the terms `` chemotherapy '' and `` magic bullet '' . Although he used the German word zauberkugel in his earlier writings , the first time he introduced the English term `` magic bullet '' was at a Harben Lecture in London in 1908 . By 1901 , with the help of Japanese microbiologist Kiyoshi Shiga , Ehrlich experimented with hundreds of dyes on mice infected with trypanosome , a protozoan parasite that causes sleeping sickness . In 1904 they successfully prepared a red arsenic dye they called Trypan Red for the treatment of sleeping sickness .
Exploration of Mars
Many people have long advocated a human mission to Mars , perhaps eventually leading to the permanent colonization of Mars , as the next logical step for a human space program after lunar exploration . Aside from the prestige such a mission would bring , advocates argue that humans would easily be able to outperform robotic explorers , justifying the expense . Aerospace engineer Bob Zubrin is one of the proponents of such missions . Some critics contend unmanned robots can perform better than humans at a fraction of the expense . If life exists on Mars , a human mission could contaminate it by introducing earthly microbes , so robotic exploration would be preferable .
Stem cell
Furthermore , induced pluripotent stem cells provide several therapeutic advantages . Like ESCs , they are pluripotent . They thus have great differentiation potential ; theoretically , they could produce any cell within the human body ( if reprogramming to pluripotency was `` complete '' ) . Moreover , unlike ESCs , they potentially could allow doctors to create a pluripotent stem cell line for each individual patient . In fact , frozen blood samples can be used as a source of induced pluripotent stem cells , opening a new avenue for obtaining the valued cells . Patient specific stem cells allow for the screening for side effects before drug treatment , as well as the reduced risk of transplantation rejection . Despite their current limited use therapeutically , iPSCs hold create potential for future use in medical treatment and research .
Police dog
Police dogs are in widespread use across the United States . K - 9 units are operated on the federal , state , county , and local level and are utilized for a wide variety of duties , similar to those of other nations . Their duties generally include drug , bomb , and weapon detection and cadaver searches . The most common police dogs used for everyday duties are German Shepherds , though other breeds may be used to perform specific tasks .
Iodine-131
The use of a particular `` iodine tablet '' used in portable water purification has also been determined as somewhat effective at reducing radioiodine uptake . In a small study on human subjects who , for each of their 90 - day trial , ingested four 20 milligram tetraglycine hydroperiodide ( TGHP ) water tablets , with each tablet releasing 8 milligrams ( ppm ) of free titratable iodine ; it was found that the biological uptake of radioactive iodine in these human subjects dropped to and remained at a value of less than 2 % the radioiodine uptake rate of that observed in control subjects who were fully exposed to radioiodine without treatment .
Positron emission tomography
One of the factors most responsible for the acceptance of positron imaging was the development of radiopharmaceuticals . In particular , the development of labeled 2 - fluorodeoxy - D - glucose ( 2FDG ) by the Brookhaven group under the direction of Al Wolf and Joanna Fowler was a major factor in expanding the scope of PET imaging . The compound was first administered to two normal human volunteers by Abass Alavi in August 1976 at the University of Pennsylvania . Brain images obtained with an ordinary ( non-PET ) nuclear scanner demonstrated the concentration of FDG in that organ . Later , the substance was used in dedicated positron tomographic scanners , to yield the modern procedure .
Agent Orange
In 2006 , Anh Duc Ngo and colleagues of the University of Texas Health Science Center published a meta - analysis that exposed a large amount of heterogeneity ( different findings ) between studies , a finding consistent with a lack of consensus on the issue . Despite this , statistical analysis of the studies they examined resulted in data that the increase in birth defects / relative risk ( RR ) from exposure to agent orange / dioxin `` appears '' to be on the order of 3 in Vietnamese - funded studies , but 1.29 in the rest of the world . There is data near the threshold of statistical significance suggesting Agent Orange contributes to still - births , cleft palate , and neural tube defects , with spina bifida being the most statistically significant defect . The large discrepancy in RR between Vietnamese studies and those in the rest of the world has been ascribed to bias in the Vietnamese studies .
Chinese food therapy
An abundant literature developed in China around the medicinal uses of food . A mid-ninth - century work called Candid Views of a Nutritionist - Physician ( Shi Yi Xin Jian 食 医 心 鉴 / 食 醫 心 鑑 ; now lost ) discussed how food could treat various disorders , whereas several works from the Song dynasty ( 960 -- 1279 ) explained how to feed the elderly to extend their life .
Nutrition and cognition
B vitamins , also known as the B - complex , are an interrelated group of nutrients which often co-occur in food . The complex consists of : thiamine ( B ) , riboflavin ( B ) , niacin ( B ) , pantothenic acid ( B ) , pyridoxin ( B ) , folic acid ( B ) , cobalamin ( B ) , and biotin . B vitamins are not synthesized in the body , and thus need to be obtained from food . B - complex vitamins are water - soluble vitamins , which means that they are not stored within the body . In consequence , the B vitamins need ongoing replenishment . It is possible to identify broad cognitive effects of certain B vitamins , as they are involved in many significant metabolic processes within the brain .
Vitamin A deficiency
The richest animal sources of Vitamin A ( retinol ) are livers like beef liver ( one ounce provides around 8,000 IUs ) and cod liver oil ( one teaspoon provides around 4,500 IUs ) .