vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Wetland
The biota of a wetland system includes its vegetation zones and structure as well as animal populations . The most important factor affecting the biota is the duration of flooding . Other important factors include fertility and salinity . In fens , species are highly dependent on water chemistry . The chemistry of water flowing into wetlands depends on the source of water and the geological material in which it flows through as well as the nutrients discharged from organic matter in the soils and plants at higher elevations in slope wetlands . Biota may vary within a wetland due to season or recent flood regimes . Flora
Amazon River
Five types of archaeological mound have been noted in the Amazon region : shell refuse and artificial mounds , artificial earth platforms for entire villages , earth mounds and ridges for cultivation , causeways and canals , and figurative mounds , both geometric and biomorphic .
Indus River
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains -- it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan . The river is especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley . Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation , and later by the engineers of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire . Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 -- the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals . The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world . The Guddu Barrage is 1,350 m ( 4,430 ft ) long -- irrigating Sukkur , Jacobabad , Larkana and Kalat . The Sukkur Barrage serves over 20,000 km ( 7,700 sq mi ) .
Water in California
California has ten major drainage basins defined for convenience of water management . These basins are divided from one another by the crests of mountains . From north to south the basins are : North Coast , Sacramento River , North Lahontan , San Francisco Bay , San Joaquin River , Central Coast , Tulare Lake , South Lahontan , South Coast , and Colorado River regions . Each region incorporates watersheds from many rivers of similar clime .
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
The increased frequency and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change will result in additional water pollution from wastewater treatment , storage , and conveyance systems . '' For the most part , wastewater treatment plants and combined sewer overflow control programs have been designed on the basis of the historic hydrologic record , taking no account of prospective changes in flow conditions due to climate change . Main
Euphrates
Throughout history , the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along its course . With the construction of large hydropower stations , irrigation schemes , and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances , many more people now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water than in the past . Syria 's Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water for the city of Aleppo , 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) to the west of the river valley . The lake also supports a modest state - operated fishing industry . Through a newly restored power line , the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad .
Water in California
California 's interconnected water system serves over 30 million people and irrigates over 5,680,000 acres ( 2,300,000 ha ) of farmland . As the world 's largest , most productive , and most controversial water system , it manages over 40,000,000 acre feet ( 49 km ) of water per year .
Oklahoma
More than 500 named creeks and rivers make up Oklahoma 's waterways , and with 200 lakes created by dams , it holds the nation 's highest number of artificial reservoirs . Most of the state lies in two primary drainage basins belonging to the Red and Arkansas rivers , though the Lee and Little rivers also contain significant drainage basins .
Democratic Republic of the Congo
The Democratic Republic of Congo has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways . Traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around in approximately two - thirds of the country . Air
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
Most of the first sewer systems in the United States were built as combined sewers ( carrying both storm water and sewerage ) . They discharged into rivers , lakes and the sea without any treatment . The main reason for choosing combined sewers over separate systems ( separating sanitary sewers from storm water drains ) was a belief that combined sewer systems were cheaper to build than separate systems . Also , there was no European precedent for successful separate sewer systems at the time . The first large - scale sewer systems in the United States were constructed in Chicago and Brooklyn in the late 1850s , followed by other major U.S. cities .
River delta
The formation of a delta is complicated , multiple , and cross-cutting over time , but in a simple delta three main types of bedding may be distinguished : the bottomset beds , foreset / frontset beds , and topset beds . This three part structure may be seen in small scale by crossbedding .
Amazon River
While debate as to whether the Amazon or the Nile is the world 's longest river has gone on for many years , the historic consensus of geographic authorities has been to regard the Amazon as the second longest river in the world , with the Nile being the longest . However , the Amazon has been measured by different geographers as being anywhere between 6,259 and 6,992 kilometres ( 3,889 and 4,345 mi ) long . It is often said to be `` at least '' 6,400 kilometres ( 4,000 mi ) long . The Nile is reported to be anywhere from 5,499 to 6,690 kilometres ( 3,417 to 4,157 mi ) . Often it is said to be `` about '' 6,650 kilometres ( 4,130 mi ) long . There are many factors that can affect these measurements .
Sundarbans
The mangrove - dominated Ganges Delta -- the Sundarbans -- is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world . Larger part is situated in Bangladesh , a smaller portion of it lies in India . The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 40 percent , while the Bangladeshi part is 60 percent . To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal ; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land . The natural drainage in the upstream areas , other than the main river channels , is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders . The Sundarbans was originally measured ( about 200 years ago ) to be of about 16,700 square kilometres ( 6,400 sq mi ) . Now it has dwindled into about 1 / 3 of the original size . The total land area today is 4,143 square kilometres ( 1,600 sq mi ) , including exposed sandbars with a total area of 42 square kilometres ( 16 sq mi ) ; the remaining water area of 1,874 square kilometres ( 724 sq mi ) encompasses rivers , small streams and canals . Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater . Thus , it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal .
Midwestern United States
Inland canals in Ohio and Indiana constituted another important waterway , which connected with Great Lakes and Ohio River traffic . The commodities that the Midwest funneled into the Erie Canal down the Ohio River contributed to the wealth of New York City , which overtook Boston and Philadelphia . Railroads
Río de la Plata
The river is a salt wedge estuary in which saltwater , being more dense than freshwater , penetrates into the estuary in a layer below the freshwater , which floats on the surface . Salinity fronts , or haloclines , form at the bottom and on the surface , where fresh and brackish waters meet . The salinity fronts are also pycnoclines due to the water density discontinuities . They play an important role in the reproductive processes of fish species .
Wetland
Water management engineering developments in the past century have degraded these wetlands through the construction on artificial embankments . These constructions may be classified as dykes , bunds , levees , weirs , barrages and dams but serve the single purpose of concentrating water into a select source or area . Wetland water sources that were once spread slowly over a large , shallow area are pooled into deep , concentrated locations . Loss of wetland floodplains results in more severe and damaging flooding . Catastrophic human impact in the Mississippi River floodplains was seen in death of several hundred individuals during a levee breach in New Orleans caused by Hurricane Katrina . Ecological catastrophic events from human - made embankments have been noticed along the Yangtze River floodplains since the middle of the river has become prone to more frequent and damaging flooding . Some of these events include the loss of riparian vegetation , a 30 % loss of the vegetation cover throughout the river 's basin , a doubling of the percentage of the land affected by soil erosion , and a reduction in reservoir capacity through siltation build - up in floodplain lakes .
Ancient Roman architecture
Roman canals were typically multi-purpose structures , intended for irrigation , drainage , land reclamation , flood control and navigation where feasible . Some navigational canals were recorded by ancient geographers and are still traceable by modern archaeology . Channels which served the needs of urban water supply are covered at the List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire .
Mississippi River
The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the `` mother fauna '' of North American fresh water .
Euphrates
In Syria , three rivers add their water to the Euphrates ; the Sajur , the Balikh and the Khabur . These rivers rise in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains along the Syro -- Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates . The Sajur is the smallest of these tributaries ; emerging from two streams near Gaziantep and draining the plain around Manbij before emptying into the reservoir of the Tishrin Dam . The Balikh receives most of its water from a karstic spring near ' Ayn al - ' Arus and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of Raqqa . In terms of length , drainage basin and discharge , the Khabur is the largest of these three . Its main karstic springs are located around Ra 's al - ' Ayn , from where the Khabur flows southeast past Al - Hasakah , where the river turns south and drains into the Euphrates near Busayrah . Once the Euphrates enters Iraq , there are no more natural tributaries to the Euphrates , although canals connecting the Euphrates basin with the Tigris basin exist .
Catalonia
The hydrographic network can be divided in two sectors , an occidental slope or Ebro river slope and one oriental slope constituted by minor rivers that flow to the Mediterranean along the Catalan coast . The first slope provides an average of 18,700 cubic hectometres ( 4.5 cubic miles ) per year , while the second only provides an average of 2,020 hm ( 0.48 cu mi ) / year . The difference is due to the big contribution of the Ebro river , from which the Segre is an important tributary . Moreover , in Catalonia there is a relative wealth of groundwaters , although there is inequality between comarques , given the complex geological structure of the territory . In the Pyrenees there are many small lakes , remnants of the ice age . The biggest are the lake of Banyoles and the recently recovered lake of Ivars .
River Thames
At this time the river system headwaters lay in the English West Midlands and may , at times , have received drainage from the Berwyn Mountains in North Wales . Brooks and rivers like the River Brent , Colne Brook and Bollo Brook either flowed into the then River Thames or went out to sea on the course of the present - day River Thames .
Wetland
Wetlands occur naturally on every continent . The main wetland types are swamp , marsh , bog , fen , and peatland ; sub-types include mangrove forest , carr , and pocosin , and floodplain . The water in wetlands is either freshwater , brackish , or saltwater . The largest wetlands include the Amazon River basin , the West Siberian Plain , the Pantanal in South America , and the Sundarbans in the Ganges - Brahmaputra delta .
River delta
Erosion is also an important control in tide dominated deltas , such as the Ganges Delta , which may be mainly submarine , with prominent sand bars and ridges . This tends to produce a `` dendritic '' structure . Tidal deltas behave differently from river - and wave - dominated deltas , which tend to have a few main distributaries . Once a wave - or river - dominated distributary silts up , it is abandoned , and a new channel forms elsewhere . In a tidal delta , new distributaries are formed during times when there is a lot of water around -- such as floods or storm surges . These distributaries slowly silt up at a more or less constant rate until they fizzle out .
Albuquerque, New Mexico
The Rio Grande is classified , like the Nile , as an `` exotic '' river because it flows through a desert . The New Mexico portion of the Rio Grande lies within the Rio Grande Rift Valley , bordered by a system of faults , including those that lifted up the adjacent Sandia and Manzano Mountains , while lowering the area where the life - sustaining Rio Grande now flows .
River delta
The generic term mega delta can be used to describe very large Asian river deltas , such as the Changjiang ( Yangtze ) , Pearl , Red , Mekong , Irrawaddy , Ganges - Brahmaputra , and Indus .
Snake River
On the Snake River in southeastern Washington there are several ancient sites . One of the oldest and most well - known is called the Marmes Rockshelter , which was used from over 11,000 years ago to relatively recent times . The Marmes Rockshelter was flooded in 1968 by Lake Herbert G. West , the Lower Monumental Dam 's reservoir .
River Thames
The Thames itself provides two - thirds of London 's drinking water while groundwater supplies about 40 per cent of public water supplies in the total catchment area . Groundwater is an important water source , especially in the drier months , so maintaining its quality and quantity is extremely important . Groundwater is vulnerable to surface pollution , especially in highly urbanised areas . The
Environmental impact of mining
The five principal technologies used to monitor and control water flow at mine sites are diversion systems , containment ponds , groundwater pumping systems , subsurface drainage systems , and subsurface barriers . In the case of AMD , contaminated water is generally pumped to a treatment facility that neutralizes the contaminants .
Mississippi River
Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River , with 30 % of the Mississippi flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route , rather than continuing down the Mississippi 's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf . Although the Red River is commonly thought to be a tributary , it is actually not , because its water flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River .
River delta
Deltas are typically classified according to the main control on deposition , which is a combination of river , wave , and tidal processes , depending on the strength of each . The other two factors that play a major role are landscape position and the grain size distribution of the source sediment entering the delta from the river .
Ghaggar-Hakra River
Geophysicist Rajesh Kocchar , after a thorough analysis of the Vedic texts and geological environments of the rivers , concludes that there are two Sarasvati rivers mentioned in the Rigveda . The older one described in the family books of the Rigveda , which he calls Naditama Sarasvati , drains into a samudra . The newer one described in the tenth book of Rigveda as well as later Vedic texts , which he calls Vinasana Sarasvati , disappears in the sands . The Vinasana Sarasvati has been `` accepted by all '' to be the same as the Ghaggar - Hakra river . On the other hand , the description of the Naditama Sarasvati in the Rigveda matches the physical features of the Helmand River in Afghanistan , more precisely its tributary the Harut River , whose older name was Harax atī in Avestan . Ganga and Yamuna , he takes to be small streams in its vicinity . When the Vedic people moved east into Punjab , they named the new rivers they encountered after the old rivers they knew from Helmand .
River Thames
The tidal river is navigable to large ocean - going ships as far upstream as the Pool of London and London Bridge . Although London 's upstream enclosed docks have closed and central London sees only the occasional visiting cruise ship or warship , the tidal river remains one of Britain 's main ports . Around 60 active terminals cater for shipping of all types including ro - ro ferries , cruise liners and vessels carrying containers , vehicles , timber , grain , paper , crude oil , petroleum products , liquified petroleum gas etc . There is a regular traffic of aggregate or refuse vessels , operating from wharves in the west of London . The tidal Thames links to the canal network at the River Lea Navigation , the Regent 's Canal at Limehouse Basin and the Grand Union Canal at Brentford .
Wetland
Sediment traps : Rainfall run - off is responsible for moving sediment through waterways . These sediments move towards larger and more sizable waterways through a natural process that moves water towards oceans . All types of sediments which may be composed of clay , sand , silt , and rock can be carried into wetland systems through this process . Reedbeds or forests located in wetlands act as physical barriers to slow waterflow and trap sediment .
Wetland
Genetic diversity : Many species in wetland systems are unique due to the long period of time that the ecosystem has been physically isolated from other aquatic sources . The number of endemic species in Lake Baikal in Russia classifies it as a hotspot for biodiversity and one of the most biodiverse wetlands in the entire world .
Democratic Republic of the Congo
The tropical climate also produced the Congo River system which dominates the region topographically along with the rainforest it flows through , though they are not mutually exclusive . The name for the Congo state is derived in part from the river . The river basin ( meaning the Congo River and all of its myriad tributaries ) occupies nearly the entire country and an area of nearly 1,000,000 km ( 390,000 sq mi ) . The river and its tributaries form the backbone of Congolese economics and transportation . Major tributaries include the Kasai , Sangha , Ubangi , Ruzizi , Aruwimi , and Lulonga . Satellite
Indus River
The Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan 's economy and society . After Pakistan and India declared Independence from the British Raj , the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan . The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the Bari Doab were split -- with the canals lying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan . The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan , as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war , caused political consternation in Pakistan . Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank , India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960 . The treaty gave India control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab , the Sutlej , the Beas and the Ravi , while Pakistan gained control of the three western rivers , the Jhelum , the Chenab and the Indus . India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non-irrigation projects .
Mississippi River
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf . Either of two new routes -- through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain -- might become the Mississippi 's main channel if flood - control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood .
Great Lakes
However , those treatment system upgrades have not , contrary to federal laws in both countries , yet eliminated Combined sewer Overflow events . This describes when older sewerage systems , which combine storm water with sewage into single sewers heading to the treatment plant , are temporarily overwhelmed by heavy rainstorms . Local sewage treatment authorities then must release untreated effluent , a mix of rainwater and sewage , into local water bodies . While enormous public investments such as the Deep Tunnel projects in Chicago and Milwaukee have greatly reduced the frequency and volume of these events , they have not been eliminated . The number of such overflow events in Ontario , for example , is flat according to the International Joint Commission . Reports about this issue on the U.S. side highlight five large municipal systems ( those of Detroit , Cleveland , Buffalo , Milwaukee and Gary ) as being the largest current periodic sources of untreated discharges into the Great Lakes .
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
Sewer overflows . Combined sewer overflows ( CSO ) and sanitary sewer overflows affect the quality of water resources in many parts of the U.S. About 772 communities have combined sewer systems , serving about 40 million people , mostly in the Northeast , the Great Lakes Region and the Pacific Northwest . CSO discharges during heavy storms can cause serious water pollution . A 2004 EPA report to Congress estimated that there are 9,348 CSO outflows in the U.S. , discharging about 850 billion US gallons ( 3.2 × 10 m ) of untreated wastewater and storm water to the environment . EPA estimates that between 23,000 and 75,000 sanitary sewer overflows occur each year , resulting in releases of between 3 and 10 billion US gallons ( 38,000,000 m ) of untreated wastewater .
Wetland
Wetland hydrology is associated with the spatial and temporal dispersion , flow , and physio - chemical attributes of surface and ground water in its reservoirs . Based on hydrology , wetlands can be categorized as riverine ( associated with streams ) , lacustrine ( associated with lakes and reservoirs ) , and palustrine ( isolated ) . Sources of hydrological flows into wetlands are predominantly precipitation , surface water , and groundwater . Water flows out of wetlands by evapotranspiration , surface runoff , and subsurface water outflow . Hydrodynamics ( the movement of water through and from a wetland ) affects hydro - periods ( temporal fluctuations in water levels ) by controlling the water balance and water storage within a wetland .
Amazon River
This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( February 2017 ) Reptiles
Catawba River
The Catawba River is crossed by many highways over its course . ( Note : this list may be incomplete )
Wetland
Encroachment Drainage Development Over-grazing Mining Unsustainable water use Ecosystem Stress Water Scarcity Endangered species Disruption of breeding grounds Imbalance in sediment load and nutrient filtration