vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Chinese Buddhism
The Qing court endorsed the Gelukpa School of Tibetan Buddhism . Early in the Taiping rebellion , the Taiping rebels targeted Buddhism . In the Battle of Nanjing ( 1853 ) , the Taiping army butchered thousands of monks in Nanjing . But from the middle of the Taiping rebellion , Taiping leaders took a more moderate approach , demanding that monks should have licences .
Chinese Buddhism
Monks and pious laymen spread Buddhist concepts through story - telling and preaching from sutra texts . These oral presentations were written down as bianwen ( transformation stories ) which influenced the writing of fiction by their new ways of telling stories combining prose and poetry . Popular legends in this style included Mulian Rescues His Mother , in which a monk descends into hell in a show of filial piety .
End of the Han dynasty
Even after moving to the new capital at Xu , the central government still lacked funds and food supplies . As suggested by Zao Zhi ( 棗 祇 ) , Cao Cao implemented a new tuntian policy to promote agricultural production , in which soldiers were sent to grow crops , and the harvest would be shared between the military and civilian population . The policy yielded commendable results as the area around Xu developed into highly productive farmland and the problem of shortage of food was resolved .
End of the Han dynasty
That year , Yuan Shu declared himself `` Son of Heaven '' in Shouchun ( 壽春 ; present - day Shou County , Anhui ) , an act perceived as treason against the Han dynasty government , prompting other warlords to use that as an excuse to attack him ( see Campaign against Yuan Shu ) . Sun Ce , son of Sun Jian , who had conquered several territories in Jiangdong between 194 and 199 , ended his alliance with Yuan Shu and became an independent warlord . Lü Bu , who was also previously Yuan Shu 's ally , broke ties with Yuan and dealt him a major defeat near Shouchun . Cao Cao also attacked Yuan Shu and defeated him . Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao but his way was blocked and he would die of illness on his return to Shouchun in 199 .
Analects
He Yan 's commentary was eventually displaced as the definitive , standard commentary by Zhu Xi 's commentary . Zhu Xi 's work also brought together the commentaries of earlier scholars ( mostly from the Song dynasty ) , along with his own interpretations . Zhu 's work took part in the context of a period of renewed interest in Confucian studies , in which Chinese scholars were interested in producing a single `` correct '' intellectual orthodoxy that would `` save '' Chinese traditions and protect them from foreign influences , and in which scholars were increasingly interested in metaphysical speculation .
Chinese Buddhism
According to Jiang Wu , for Chan masters in this period such as Hanshan Deqing , training through self - cultivation was encouraged , and clichéd or formulaic instructions were despised . Eminent monks who practiced meditation and asceticism without proper Dharma transmission were acclaimed for having acquiring `` wisdom without a teacher . ''
Qing dynasty
With Zaifeng gone , Yuan Shikai and his Beiyang commanders effectively dominated Qing politics . He reasoned that going to war would be unreasonable and costly , especially when noting that the Qing government had a goal for constitutional monarchy . Similarly , Sun Yat - sen 's government wanted a republican constitutional reform , both aiming for the benefit of China 's economy and populace . With permission from Empress Dowager Longyu , Yuan Shikai began negotiating with Sun Yat - sen , who decided that his goal had been achieved in forming a republic , and that therefore he could allow Yuan to step into the position of President of the Republic of China .
Chinese Buddhism
During the Song Dynasty , Chán ( 禪 ) was used by the government to strengthen its control over the country , and Chán grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism . An ideal picture of the Chán of the Tang period was produced , which served the legacy of this newly acquired status .
End of the Han dynasty
Towards the end of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han ( r . 168 -- 189 ) , many officials in the imperial court foresaw chaos in the political scene as soon as Emperor Ling died . One of those officials , Liu Yan , suggested to Emperor Ling in 188 that the root of the agrarian revolts during that time , including the most serious Yellow Turban Rebellion of 184 , was that Inspectors ( 刺史 ) lacked substantial administrative powers . Emperor Ling , convinced by Liu Yan , changed the Inspectors ' titles to `` Governor '' ( 牧 ) and granted them the authority to levy taxes and command armed forces within the borders . Liu Yan was commissioned as the Governor of Yi Province ( 益 州 ; covering the Sichuan Basin ) , while several other important officials also became Governors , including Liu Yu , who was appointed Governor of You Province ( 幽 州 ; covering present - day northern Hebei , Beijing , Tianjin and Liaoning ) . The increased influence of these provincial governors formed the basis on which later warlords would control large regions of the Han empire .
End of the Han dynasty
While Yuan Shao was still indecisive on whether to welcome Emperor Xian or not , Cao Cao took advantage of the situation to bring the emperor to his territory . At that time , Cao Cao was still a relatively minor warlord , with only Yan Province ( 兗州 ; covering present - day western Shandong and eastern Henan ) under his control . In 196 , Cao Cao led his army towards Luoyang . He encountered Dong Cheng and Yang Feng ( who were shielding Emperor Xian from Li Jue and Guo Si ) , convinced them of his loyalty , and was allowed to meet the emperor . In name , Cao Cao was sharing power with the other officials and nobles , but actually he was in control , but yet he ensured that the officials and nobles were treated with due respect , hence he faced minimal opposition in the imperial court . Later , Cao Cao escorted the emperor back to his base in Xu ( 許 ; present - day Xuchang , Henan ) , establishing the new capital there .
Enoch (ancestor of Noah)
According to the Figurists ( a group of Jesuit missionaries mainly led by Joachim Bouvet into China at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century and based on ideas of Matteo Ricci 1552 to 1610 ) , Fu Xi in China 's ancient history is actually Enoch .
Qing dynasty
The literal translation of the Chinese word hu ( 户 ) is `` household '' . For much of Qing history , the government 's main source of revenue came from taxation on landownership supplemented by official monopolies on salt , which was an essential household item , and tea . Thus , in the predominantly agrarian Qing dynasty , the `` household '' was the basis of imperial finance . The department was charged with revenue collection and the financial management of the government .
Qing dynasty
Yet controlling the `` Mandate of Heaven '' was a daunting task . The vastness of China 's territory meant that there were only enough banner troops to garrison key cities forming the backbone of a defense network that relied heavily on surrendered Ming soldiers . In addition , three surrendered Ming generals were singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the Qing dynasty , ennobled as feudal princes ( 藩 王 ) , and given governorships over vast territories in Southern China . The chief of these was Wu Sangui , who was given the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou , while generals Shang Kexi and Geng Jingzhong were given Guangdong and Fujian provinces respectively .
End of the Han dynasty
At the same time , Sun Quan became increasingly resentful of Guan Yu because the latter had previously shown hostility towards him in three incidents : Guan Yu drove away the officials Sun Quan sent to the three commanderies that Liu Bei had promised to give up to Sun ; Guan Yu forcefully seized food supplies from one of Sun Quan 's bases for use in his Fancheng campaign ; Guan Yu ridiculed Sun Quan when the latter proposed a marriage between his son and Guan 's daughter . When Guan Yu was away attacking Fancheng , Sun Quan sent his general Lü Meng to launch an assault on Jing Province from the east , swiftly conquering the province within weeks . The morale of Guan Yu 's forces fell sharply and his soldiers gradually deserted him until he was left with only about 300 men . Guan Yu was isolated and besieged by Sun Quan 's forces in Maicheng , and he attempted to break out but fell into an ambush and was captured . Guan Yu refused to surrender and was eventually executed on Sun Quan 's order . This marked the end of the alliance between Sun Quan and Liu Bei . Sun Quan nominally submitted to Cao Cao and was granted the title of `` Marquis of Wu '' . Sun Quan also urged Cao Cao to take the emperor 's throne but Cao declined .
History of advertising
In the first 20 years of communist control of China ( 1947 to 1966 ) Mao Zedong tried to reverse the long - standing advertising practices of Chinese newspapers , considering it a capitalist infringement on the goals of socialism . Consumerism , which had been highly developed in Shanghai , was anathema , to Mao 's peasant - based communist perspective . The regime emphasized maximum production rather than optimal consumption . The approach worsened the massive famines that happened when national resources were devoted to a highly inefficient factory production at the cost of basic food output . On the other hand , propaganda was highly developed art in the Communist Party , and so a sort of compromise was reached . Socialist - oriented advertising emphasized the collective good , rather than the benefits of products for the individual consumer . Since 1980 , the strength of the private economy , and advertising , has grown dramatically . By the 1980s much emphasis was placed on the role of advertising in promoting the Four Modernizations emphasized by Deng Xiaoping . Lip service is still paid to old Maoist ideals by recycling images of historic places and episodes , but it does not inhibit the growth of consumerism .
End of the Han dynasty
From then on , although Cao Cao was a subject of Emperor Xian in name , he actually wielded state power and controlled the imperial court . Despite so , Cao Cao never showed disrespect to Emperor Xian , and instead , honoured the emperor according to formal imperial protocol . Cao Cao also issued imperial edicts in Emperor Xian 's name to other warlords , ordering them to submit to imperial authority when in fact they were actually submitting to him . When Cao Cao sent Yuan Shao an edict in the emperor 's name , only then did Yuan realize that he had lost an opportunity to make use of the emperor to control other warlords .
Chinese Buddhism
In the early Song Dynasty `` Chán - Pure Land syncretism became a dominant movement . '' Buddhist ideology began to merge with Confucianism and Daoism , due in part to the use of existing Chinese philosophical terms in the translation of Buddhist scriptures . Various Confucian scholars of the Song dynasty , including Zhu Xi ( wg : Chu Hsi ) , sought to redefine Confucianism as Neo-Confucianism .
Famine
In 1958 in China , Mao Zedong 's Communist Government launched the Great Leap Forward campaign , aimed at rapidly industrializing the country . The government forcibly took control of agriculture . Barely enough grain was left for the peasants , and starvation occurred in many rural areas . Exportation of grain continued despite the famine and the government attempted to conceal it . While the famine is attributed to unintended consequences , it is believed that the government refused to acknowledge the problem , thereby further contributing to the deaths . In many instances , peasants were persecuted . Between 20 and 45 million people perished in this famine , making it one of the deadliest famines to date .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Rebellion occurred in the Xinjiang province in 1937 when a pro-Soviet Hui general Ma Zhanshan invaded the province accompanied by Soviet troops . The invasion was resisted by another Hui general Ma Hushan of the KMT 36th Division .
Movable type
In 1193 , Zhou Bida , an officer of Southern Song Dynasty , made a set of clay movable - type method according to the method described by Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays , and printed his book Notes of The Jade Hall ( 《 玉堂 杂记 》 ) .
Analects
Confucius judged a good ruler by his possession of de ( `` virtue '' ) : a sort of moral force that allows those in power to rule and gain the loyalty of others without the need for physical coercion ( Analects 2.1 ) . Confucius said that one of the most important ways that a ruler cultivates his sense of de is through a devotion to the correct practices of li . Examples of rituals identified by Confucius as important to cultivate a ruler 's de include : sacrificial rites held at ancestral temples to express thankfulness and humility ; ceremonies of enfeoffment , toasting , and gift exchanges that bound nobility in complex hierarchical relationships of obligation and indebtedness ; and , acts of formal politeness and decorum ( i.e. bowing and yielding ) that identify the performers as morally well - cultivated .
Analects
Confucius believed that ren could best be cultivated by those who had already learned self - discipline , and that self - discipline was best learned by practicing and cultivating one 's understanding of li : rituals and forms of propriety through which people demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society ( Analects 3.3 ) . Confucius said that one 's understanding of li should inform everything that one says and does ( Analects 12.1 ) . He believed that subjecting oneself to li did not mean suppressing one 's desires , but learning to reconcile them with the needs of one 's family and broader community . By leading individuals to express their desires within the context of social responsibility , Confucius and his followers taught that the public cultivation of li was the basis of a well - ordered society ( Analects 2.3 ) . Confucius taught his students that an important aspect of li was observing the practical social differences that exist between people in daily life . In Confucian philosophy these `` five relationships '' include : ruler to ruled ; father to son ; husband to wife ; elder brother to younger brother ; and friend to friend .
End of the Han dynasty
Against the advice of Ju Shou and Tian Feng , who reasoned that their troops were exhausted after the battles against Gongsun Zan and needed rest , Yuan Shao prepared for a campaign against Cao Cao , confident that his much larger army could easily crush Cao Cao 's . While Cao Cao readied himself for battle , he discovered that Dong Cheng , Liu Bei and a few other officials were conspiring against him . In early 200 , Liu Bei used an opportunity to break away from Cao Cao and seize control of Xu Province , after killing Cao Cao 's appointed governor of the province , Che Zhou ( 車 冑 ) . On the other hand , Dong Cheng and the others were making plans to assassinate Cao Cao . However , the plot was exposed and all the conspirators in the capital were massacred along with their families . Cao Cao then took a risk by attacking Liu Bei in Xu Province , leaving his flank open to attacks from Yuan Shao . However , Cao Cao made a right choice because Yuan Shao did not heed Tian Feng 's urging to seize the chance to attack him . Liu Bei was defeated and he fled north to join Yuan Shao . Liu Bei 's general Guan Yu surrendered to Cao Cao and temporarily served under Cao .
Modern history
The May Fourth Movement helped to rekindle the then - fading cause of republican revolution . In 1917 Sun Yat - sen had become commander - in - chief of a rival military government in Guangzhou in collaboration with southern warlords . Sun 's efforts to obtain aid from the Western democracies were ignored , however , and in 1920 he turned to the Soviet Union , which had recently achieved its own revolution . The Soviets sought to befriend the Chinese revolutionists by offering scathing attacks on Western imperialism . But for political expediency , the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both Sun and the newly established Chinese Communist Party ( CCP ) . The
End of the Han dynasty
As Liu Bei had become relatively more powerful after his conquests of the four commanderies , Sun Quan became apprehensive of him and decided to strengthen their alliance by arranging for a marriage between his younger sister , Lady Sun , and Liu Bei . Zhou Yu was suspicious of Liu Bei 's intentions and suggested to Sun Quan to capture Liu Bei , put him under house arrest , and then take control over Liu 's forces . However , Sun Quan rejected Zhou Yu 's idea as he believed that Liu Bei 's forces would rebel against him even if the plan succeeded . Sun Quan did agree with Zhou Yu 's suggestion to consider attacking the warlords Liu Zhang and Zhang Lu , who controlled parts of western China , including present - day southern Shaanxi and the Sichuan Basin . The plan was not set into motion and eventually aborted when Zhou Yu died in 210 . Even though Sun Quan did not expand his borders west , he managed to persuade several local leaders in present - day Guangdong , Guangxi and northern Vietnam to submit to him , and these territories became part of his domain . Sun Quan then agreed to `` lend '' northern Jing Province to Liu Bei as well when the latter complained that the south lacked resources to sustain his military .
Analects
In his commentary Zhu made a great effort to interpret the Analects by using theories elaborated in the other Four Books , something that He Yan had not done . Zhu attempted to give an added coherence and unity to the message of the Analects , demonstrating that the individual books of the Confucian canon gave meaning to the whole , just as the whole of the canon gave meaning to its parts . In his preface , Zhu Xi stated , `` ( T ) he Analects and the Mencius are the most important works for students pursuing the Way ( ... ) The words of the Analects are all inclusive ; what they teach is nothing but the essentials of preserving the mind and cultivating ( one 's ) nature . '' From the first publication of the Commentaries , Zhu continued to refine his interpretation for the last thirty years of his life . In the fourteenth century , the Chinese government endorsed Zhu 's commentary , and until 1905 it was read and memorized along with the Analects by all Chinese aspiring to literacy and employment as government officials .
Analects
Confucius believed that the welfare of a country depended on the moral cultivation of its people , beginning from the nation 's leadership . He believed that individuals could begin to cultivate an all - encompassing sense of virtue through ren , and that the most basic step to cultivating ren was devotion to one 's parents and older siblings . He taught that one 's individual desires do not need to be suppressed , but that people should be educated to reconcile their desires via rituals and forms of propriety , through which people could demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society . He taught that a ruler 's sense of virtue was his primary prerequisite for leadership . His primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well - cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity , speak correctly , and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things .
Chinese Tributary System
Mansur then abandoned large - scale military expeditions , though he continued to sanction raids on China to attain his objectives . Instead he offered tribute , occasionally dispatching a dozen or more embassies a year . He was apparently eager to obtain the Chinese gifts granted to foreign embassies , and therefore limited his incursions .
Qing dynasty
Meanwhile , Hong Taiji set up a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the Ming model . He established six boards or executive level ministries in 1631 to oversee finance , personnel , rites , military , punishments , and public works . However , these administrative organs had very little role initially , and it was not until the eve of completing the conquest ten years later that they fulfilled their government roles .
Golden Horde
Batu 's grandson Mengu - Timur was nominated by Kublai and succeeded his uncle Berke . However , Mengu - Timur secretly supported the Ögedeid prince Kaidu against Kublai and the Ilkhanate . After the defeat of Baraq ( Chagatai Khan ) , a peace treaty was made among Mengu - Timur , Kaidu and him in c. 1267 . One - third of Transoxiana was granted to Kaidu and Mengu - Timur according to this peace treaty . In 1268 , when a group of princes operating in Central Asia on Kublai 's behalf mutinied and arrested two sons of the Qaghan ( Great Khan ) , they sent them to Mengu - Timur . One of them , Nomoghan , favorite of Kublai , was located in the Crimea . Mengu - Timur might have struggled with Hulagu 's successor Abagha for a brief period of time , but the Great Khan Kublai forced them to sign a peace treaty . He was allowed to take his share in Persia . Independently from the Khan , Nogai expressed his desire to ally with Baybars in 1271 . Despite the fact that he was proposing a joint attack on Iran with the Mamluk Sultanate ( Cairo ) , Mengu - Timur congratulated Abagha when Baraq was defeated by the Ilkhan in 1270 .
Qing dynasty
By the mid-18th century , the Qing had successfully put outer regions such as Inner and Outer Mongolia , Tibet and Xinjiang under its control . Imperial commissioners and garrisons were sent to Mongolia and Tibet to oversee their affairs . These territories were also under supervision of a central government institution called Lifan Yuan . Qinghai was also put under direct control of the Qing court . Xinjiang , also known as Chinese Turkestan , was subdivided into the regions north and south of the Tian Shan mountains , also known today as Dzungaria and Tarim Basin respectively , but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions . Dzungaria was fully opened to Han migration by the Qianlong Emperor from the beginning . Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by Jahangir Khoja in the 1820s . Likewise , Manchuria was also governed by military generals until its division into provinces , though some areas of Xinjiang and Northeast China were lost to the Russian Empire in the mid-19th century . Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner Willow Palisade , a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese , as the area was off - limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area , especially since the 1860s . Qing
Chinese Buddhism
Unlike Catholicism and other branches of Christianity , there was no organization in China that embraced all monastics in China , nor even all monastics within the same sect . Traditionally each monastery was autonomous , with authority resting on each respective abbot . In 1953 , the Chinese Buddhist Association was established at a meeting with 121 delegates in Beijing . The meeting also elected a chairman , 4 honorary chairmen , 7 vice-chairmen , a secretary general , 3 deputy secretaries - general , 18 members of a standing committee , and 93 directors . The 4 elected honorary chairmen were the Dalai Lama , the Panchen Lama , the Grand Lama of Inner Mongolia , and Venerable Master Hsu Yun . Reform