vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Tariff
Britain 's economy still grew , but inexorably lagged : from 1870 to 1913 , industrial production rose an average of 4.7 percent per year in the U.S. , 4.1 percent in Germany , but only 2.1 percent in Britain . It was surpassed economically by the U.S. around 1880 . Britain 's lead in textiles and steelheld eroded as other nations caught up . Britain then fell behind as new industries , using more advanced technology , emerged after 1870 in states that still practiced protectionism .
Bradford
Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire , Bradford rose to prominence during the 19th century as an international centre of textile manufacture , particularly wool . It was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution , and amongst the earliest industrialised settlements , rapidly becoming the `` wool capital of the world '' . The area 's access to a supply of coal , iron ore and soft water facilitated the growth of Bradford 's manufacturing base , which , as textile manufacture grew , led to an explosion in population and was a stimulus to civic investment ; Bradford has a large amount of listed Victorian architecture including the grand Italianate City Hall .
The impact of geography on colonial America
Despite these initial misconceptions , the southern United States was rich geographically in particular for agricultural production . Tobacco , rice , and indigo were the main cash crops of the south during the colonial period . In 1612 John Rolfe introduced Tobacco into Jamestown and by 1640 England was importing 1.5 million pounds of tobacco from Virginia . Tobacco Cultivation was extremely difficult , and simple farmers on an acre of land just could not meet the demands in England on their own . With the introduction of African slaves in 1619 , plantations began to arise that could meet the demand in the Europe .
Industrial Revolution
Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport , Massachusetts memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810 . Realising that the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America , on his return to the United States , he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company . Lowell and his partners built America 's second cotton - to - cloth textile mill at Waltham , Massachusetts , second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory . After his death in 1817 , his associates built America 's first planned factory town , which they named after him . This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering , one of the first uses of it in the United States . Lowell , Massachusetts , using 5.6 miles ( 9.0 km ) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River , is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution . The short - lived utopia - like Waltham - Lowell system was formed , as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain . However , by 1850 , especially following the Irish Potato Famine , the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour .
Steam power during the Industrial Revolution
In 1775 Watt formed an engine - building and engineering partnership with manufacturer Matthew Boulton . The partnership of Boulton & Watt became one of the most important businesses of the Industrial Revolution and served as a kind of creative technical centre for much of the British economy . The partners solved technical problems and spread the solutions to other companies . Similar firms did the same thing in other industries and were especially important in the machine tool industry . These interactions between companies were important because they reduced the amount of research time and expense that each business had to spend working with its own resources . The technological advances of the Industrial Revolution happened more quickly because firms often shared information , which they then could use to create new techniques or products .
Southern United States
Industrial growth increased in the 1960s and greatly accelerated into the 1980s and 1990s . Several large urban areas in Texas , Georgia , and Florida grew to over four million people . Rapid expansion in industries such as autos , telecommunications , textiles , technology , banking , and aviation gave some states in the South an industrial strength to rival large states elsewhere in the country . By the 2000 census , the South ( along with the West ) was leading the nation in population growth . However , with this growth has come long commute times and air pollution problems in cities such as Dallas , Houston , Atlanta , Austin , Charlotte , and others that rely on sprawling development and highway networks .
California Gold Rush
The Gold Rush stimulated economies around the world as well . Farmers in Chile , Australia , and Hawaii found a huge new market for their food ; British manufactured goods were in high demand ; clothing and even prefabricated houses arrived from China . The return of large amounts of California gold to pay for these goods raised prices and stimulated investment and the creation of jobs around the world . Australian prospector Edward Hargraves , noting similarities between the geography of California and his home country , returned to Australia to discover gold and spark the Australian gold rushes . Preceding the Gold Rush , the United States was on a bi-metallic standard , but the sudden increase in physical gold supply increased the relative value of physical silver and drove silver money from circulation . The increase in gold supply also created a monetary supply shock .
Early skyscrapers
One of the reasons for the increase in the numbers of skyscrapers during the period was the growth in demand for office workers . In part this demand was fuelled by many U.S firms becoming larger and more complex , and white - collar sectors such as insurance and banking grew in scale . It was also driven by changing technology . The typewriter was joined in the office by the adding machine , the telephone and filing cabinets , all adding to the demand for office space and requiring increasingly specialised workers .
Industrial Revolution
Two decades before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel , which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do , such as for cutting edge tools and for springs . Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s . The raw material for this was blister steel , made by the cementation process .
Great Depression
The effects on the northern industrial areas of Britain were immediate and devastating , as demand for traditional industrial products collapsed . By the end of 1930 unemployment had more than doubled from 1 million to 2.5 million ( 20 % of the insured workforce ) , and exports had fallen in value by 50 % . In 1933 , 30 % of Glaswegians were unemployed due to the severe decline in heavy industry . In some towns and cities in the north east , unemployment reached as high as 70 % as shipbuilding fell by 90 % . The National Hunger March of September -- October 1932 was the largest of a series of hunger marches in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s . About 200,000 unemployed men were sent to the work camps , which continued in operation until 1939 .
Industrial Revolution
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations , beginning in the second half of the 18th century . By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies :
United States
Most settlers in every colony were small farmers , but other industries developed within a few decades as varied as the settlements . Cash crops included tobacco , rice , and wheat . Extraction industries grew up in furs , fishing and lumber . Manufacturers produced rum and ships , and by the late colonial period , Americans were producing one - seventh of the world 's iron supply . Cities eventually dotted the coast to support local economies and serve as trade hubs . English colonists were supplemented by waves of Scotch - Irish and other groups . As coastal land grew more expensive , freed indentured servants pushed further west .
Tariff
After the United States overtook European industries in the 1890s , the argument for the Mckinley tariff was no longer to protect the `` infant industry '' but rather to maintain workers ' wage levels , improve protection of the agricultural sector and the principle of reciprocity .
History of coal mining
In the Second World War the loss of 60 % of the mining areas to German invaders forced the rapid expansion of mines in the Urals , as well as greater use of mines in the Kuznetsk Basin in Siberia . In 1939 the Urals produced only half the fuel needed by local industry . During the war the mines were expanded and over 700 factories were evacuated from the west , greatly increasing the demand for Ural coal . Prisoners from the Gulag were sent to the mines ; up to a third of the workers were women . The miners were given much higher rations of food . Output doubled and the share of the region in the total national coal production rose from 8 % to 22 % .
Green Revolution in India
A main criticism of the effects of the green revolution is the cost for many small farmers using HYV seeds , with their associated demands of increased irrigation systems and pesticides . A case study is found in India , where farmers are buying Monsanto BT cotton seeds -- sold on the idea that these seeds produced ' natural insecticides ' . In reality , they need to still pay for expensive pesticides and irrigation systems , which might lead to increased borrowing to finance the change from traditional seed varieties . Many farmers have difficulty in paying for the expensive technologies , especially if they have a bad harvest .
Industrial Revolution
Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe 's water - powered silk mill at Derby , operational by 1721 . Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy ; however , since the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret , the state of the industry there is unknown . Although Lombe 's factory was technically successful , the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition . In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe 's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London .
Industrial Revolution
A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt . With financial support from his business partner Englishman Matthew Boulton , he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine , which incorporated a series of radical improvements , notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder , thereby making the low - pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere , use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber . The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder , which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam . Likewise , the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder , also improving efficiency . These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20 -- 25 % as much coal per horsepower - hour as Newcomen 's . Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of such engines in 1795 .
Textile industry in India
Challenges faced by the industry include stiff competition in the international market from synthetic substitutes and from other countries such as Bangladesh , Brazil , Philippines , Egypt and Thailand . However , the internal demand has been on the rise due to Government policy of mandatory use of jute packaging . To stimulate demand , the products need to be diversified . In 2005 , the National Jute Policy was formulated with the objective of improving quality , increasing productivity and enhancing the yield of the crop .
Industrial Revolution
By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double - acting rotative type , which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill . Both of Watt 's basic engine types were commercially very successful , and by 1800 , the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines , with 164 driving reciprocating pumps , 24 serving blast furnaces , and 308 powering mill machinery ; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp ( 3.7 to 7.5 kW ) .
Indigo revolt
Cause lead to revolt - Indigo planting in Bengal dated back to 1777 . With expansion of British power in the Nawabate of Bengal , indigo planting became more and more commercially profitable because of the demand for blue dye in Europe . It was introduced in large parts of Burdwan , Bankura , Birbhum , North 24 Parganas , and Jessore ( present Bangladesh ) . The indigo planters persuaded the peasants to plant indigo instead of food crops . They provided loans , called dadon , at a very high interest . Once a farmer took such loans he remained in debt for his whole life before passing it to his successors . The price paid by the planters was meagre , only 2.5 % of the market price . The farmers could make no profit growing indigo . The farmers were totally unprotected from the indigo planters , who resorted to mortgages or destruction of their property if they were unwilling to obey them . Government rules favoured the planters . By an act in 1833 , the planters were granted a free hand in oppression . Even the zamindars sided with the planters . Under this severe oppression , the farmers resorted to revolt .
Technological and industrial history of the United States
Late in the colonial era a few silversmiths expanded operations with manufacturing techniques and changing business practices They hired assistants , subcontracted out piecework and standardized output . One individual in the vanguard of America 's shift towards more industrial methods was Paul Revere , who emphasized the production of increasingly standardized items later in his career with the use of a silver flatting mill , increased numbers of salaried employees , and other advances . Still , traditional methods of artisan remained , and smiths performed a great deal of work by hand . The coexistence of the craft and industrial production styles prior to the industrial revolution is an example of proto - industrialization .
Industrial Revolution
Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress , technology and hard work . The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic ( see Max Weber ) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects , such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War . Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law , which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 , and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England , contributed to the capacity for , and interest in , private financial investment in industrial ventures .
Industrial Revolution
Some economists , such as Robert E. Lucas , Jr. , say that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that `` for the first time in history , the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists , even as a theoretical possibility . '' Others , however , argue that while growth of the economy 's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution , living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries , and that in many ways workers ' living standards declined under early capitalism : for instance , studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15 % between the 1780s and 1850s , and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s .
Great Migration (African American)
African Americans made substantial gains in industrial employment , particularly in the steel , automobile , shipbuilding , and meatpacking industries . Between 1910 and 1920 , the number of blacks employed in industry nearly doubled from 500,000 to 901,000 . After the Great Depression , more advances took place after workers in the steel and meatpacking industries organized into labor unions in the 1930s and 1940s , under the interracial Congress of Industrial Organizations ( CIO ) . The unions ended the segregation of many jobs , and African Americans began to advance into more skilled jobs and supervisory positions previously informally reserved for whites .
History of United States prison systems
Antebellum southern cities stood at juncture of the region 's slave economy and the international market economy , and economics appear to have played crucial role in shaping the face of crime in Southern cities . These urban centers tended to attract young and propertyless white males , not only from the Southern countryside , but also from the North and abroad . Urban immigration in the South reached a peak during the 1850s , when an economic boom in cotton produced `` flush times . '' Poor young men and others -- white and black -- settled on the peripheries of Southern cities like Savannah , Georgia . Here they came into contact with the wealthy and more stable elements of modern society , producing demographics similar to those in post-revolutionary Philadelphia and other Northern cities .
Stamp Act 1765
The Sugar Act of 1764 was the first tax in Grenville 's program to raise a revenue in America , which was a modification of the Molasses Act of 1733 . The Molasses Act had imposed a tax of 6 pence per gallon ( equal to £ 3.81 today ) on foreign molasses imported into British colonies . The purpose of the Molasses Act was not actually to raise revenue , but instead to make foreign molasses so expensive that it effectively gave a monopoly to molasses imported from the British West Indies . It did not work ; colonial merchants avoided the tax by smuggling or , more often , bribing customs officials . The Sugar Act reduced the tax to 3 pence per gallon ( equal to £ 1.63 today ) in the hope that the lower rate would increase compliance and thus increase the amount of tax collected . The Act also taxed additional imports and included measures to make the customs service more effective .
Convict lease
Prison populations also increased overall in the South . In Georgia prison populations increased tenfold during the four - decade period ( 1868 -- 1908 ) when it used convict leasing ; in North Carolina the prison population increased from 121 in 1870 to 1,302 in 1890 ; in Florida the population went from 125 in 1881 to 1,071 in 1904 ; in Mississippi the population quadrupled between 1871 and 1879 ; in Alabama it went from 374 in 1869 to 1,878 in 1903 ; and to 2,453 in 1919 .
Gilded Age
Many young women worked as servants or in shops and factories until marriage , then typically became full - time housewives . However , black , Irish and Swedish adult women often worked as servants . In most large Northern cities , the Irish Catholic women dominated the market for servants . Heavy industry was a male domain , but in light industries such as textiles and food processing , large numbers of young women were hired . Thousands of young unmarried Irish and French Canadian women worked in Northeastern textile mills . Coming from poor families these jobs meant upward social mobility , more money , and more social prestige in their community that made them more attractive marriage partners . In Cohoes , New York , mill women went on strike in 1882 to gain union recognition . They fought off Swedish strike breakers in order to protect the status they had achieved .
Industrial Revolution
The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians , as is the pace of economic and social changes . Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s , while T.S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 . Rapid industrialization first began in Britain , starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s , with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800 . Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century , with important centres of textiles , iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France .
Causes of the Great Depression
Economists such as Waddill Catchings , William Trufant Foster , Rexford Tugwell , Adolph Berle ( and later John Kenneth Galbraith ) , popularized a theory that had some influence on Franklin D. Roosevelt . This theory held that the economy produced more goods than consumers could purchase , because the consumers did not have enough income . According to this view , in the 1920s wages had increased at a lower rate than productivity growth , which had been high . Most of the benefit of the increased productivity went into profits , which went into the stock market bubble rather than into consumer purchases . Thus workers did not have enough income to absorb the large amount of capacity that had been added .
Textile industry in India
In 2010 - 2011 the jute industry was supporting 0.37 million workers directly and another 400,000 small and marginal farmers who were engaged in the cultivation of jute .
Industrial Revolution
The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712 . A number of Newcomen engines were installed in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines , with the engine on the surface ; these were large machines , requiring a significant amount of capital to build , and produced about 5 hp ( 3.7 kW ) . They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps . They were extremely inefficient by modern standards , but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads , opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper . Despite their disadvantages , Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century . By 1729 , when Newcomen died , his engines had spread ( first ) to Hungary in 1722 , Germany , Austria , and Sweden . A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired , of which 14 were abroad . In the 1770s the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements . A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800 . Newcomen
Industrial Revolution
Reports were written detailing some of the abuses , particularly in the coal mines and textile factories , and these helped to popularise the children 's plight . The public outcry , especially among the upper and middle classes , helped stir change in the young workers ' welfare .
Modern history
In China , urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex . Large urban centers , such as Nanjing and Beijing , also contributed to the growth of private industry . In particular , small - scale industries grew up , often specializing in paper , silk , cotton , and porcelain goods . For the most part , however , relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country . Town markets mainly traded food , with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil . Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism , China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated . Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world , particularly Japan , increased considerably . Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean , reaching East Africa with the treasure voyages of Zheng He .