vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
United States Secret Service
Due to the nature of their work and unique among their federal law enforcement counterparts ( e.g. FBI , DEA , ATF , ICE ) , Secret Service agents are regularly eligible for scheduled overtime pay ( SOT pay ) in addition to LEAP for hours they work beyond 50 per week , and enjoy a raised statutory pay cap of $189,600 per year ( Level II of the Executive Schedule ) as opposed to $164,200 per year ( Level IV of the Executive Schedule ) .
Taxation in the United States
Corporations must pay tax on their taxable income independently of their shareholders . Shareholders are also subject to tax on dividends received from corporations . By contrast , partnerships are not subject to income tax , but their partners calculate their taxes by including their shares of partnership items . Corporations owned entirely by U.S. citizens or residents ( S corporations ) may elect to be treated similarly to partnerships . A limited liability company and certain other business entities may elect to be treated as corporations or as partnerships . States generally follow such characterization . Many states also allow corporations to elect S corporation status . Charitable organizations are subject to tax on business income .
Medicare (United States)
Some beneficiaries are dual - eligible . This means they qualify for both Medicare and Medicaid . In some states for those making below a certain income , Medicaid will pay the beneficiaries ' Part B premium for them ( most beneficiaries have worked long enough and have no Part A premium ) , as well as some of their out of pocket medical and hospital expenses .
Purse distribution
Australia has also adopted American - style innovations in dividing its purses in thoroughbred horse races , paying the top eight finishers at some tracks and even ten at others , with the awards for 6th through 8th ( or 6th through 10th ) the same regardless of the actual placing within that segment -- sometimes 1 % each , other times a fixed dollar amount . In the Melbourne Cup , each horse placing 6th through 10th receives approximately 2 % of the total purse . In addition , virtually all Australian thoroughbred tracks pay out a starter 's bonus -- known in that country as a `` Starter Subsidy '' -- to horses which do not finish in the top eight or ten ( or the top four or five at tracks which do not pay regular purse money further down than those places ) .
Tax protester statutory arguments
This nonsensical argument is belied by the plain language of the Internal Revenue Code itself . For example , 26 U.S.C. § 3401 defines wages as `` all remuneration ( other than fees paid to a public official ) for services performed by an employee for his employer ... '' 26 U.S.C. § 3401 ( a ) ( emphasis added ) . The statute then goes on to define various exceptions to this broad definition of wages in certain categories of private employment , such as in the agricultural and domestic service fields , newspaper delivery , the clergy , and for wages incurred by individuals working for employers `` other than the United States or an agency therof '' within Puerto Rico or a possession of the United States . There is nothing in the statute limiting `` wages '' to solely publicly derived income . ( footnotes omitted )
Founding Fathers of the United States
There were indeed disparities of wealth , earned or inherited : some Signers were rich , others had about enough to enable them to attend Congress ... The majority of revolutionaries were from moderately well - to - do or average income brackets . Twice as many Loyalists belonged to the wealthiest echelon . But some Signers were rich ; few , indigent ... The Signers were elected not for wealth or rank so much as because of the evidence they had already evinced of willingness for public service . A few of them were wealthy or had financial resources that ranged from good to excellent , but there are other founders who were less than wealthy . On the whole they were less wealthy than the Loyalists .
Social class in the United States
In the passage above , Davis and Moore argue that income is one of the most prominent features of social class ; it is not one of its causes . In other words , income does not determine the status of an individual or household but rather reflects on that status . Some say that income and prestige are the incentives provided by society in order to fill needed positions with the most qualified and motivated personnel possible .
Law firm
Mergers , acquisitions , division and reorganizations occur between law firms as in other businesses . The specific books of business and specialization of attorneys as well as the professional ethical structures surrounding conflict of interest can lead to firms splitting up to pursue different clients or practices , or merging or recruiting experienced attorneys to acquire new clients or practice areas . Results often vary between firms experiencing such transitions . Firms that gain new practice areas or departments through recruiting or mergers that are more complex and demanding ( and typically more profitable ) may see the focus , organization and resources of the firm shift dramatically towards those new departments . Conversely , firms may be merged among experienced attorneys as partners for purposes of shared financing and resources , while the different departments and practice areas within the new firm retain a significant degree of autonomy .
New Deal
In 1941 , 40 % of all American families lived on less than the $1,500 per year defined as necessary by the Works Progress Administration for a modest standard of living . The median income stood at $2,000 a year , while 8 million workers earned below the legal minimum . From 1939 to 1944 , wages and salaries more than doubled , with overtime pay and the expansion of jobs leading to a 70 % rise in average weekly earnings during the course of the war . Membership in organized labor increased by 50 % between 1941 and 1945 and because the War Labor Board sought labor - management peace , new workers were encouraged to participate in the existing labor organizations , thereby receiving all the benefits of union membership such as improved working conditions , better fringe benefits and higher wages . As noted by William H. Chafe , `` with full employment , higher wages and social welfare benefits provided under government regulations , American workers experienced a level of well - being that , for many , had never occurred before '' .
Orchestra
There are a range of different employment arrangements . The most sought - after positions are permanent , tenured positions in the orchestra . Orchestras also hire musicians on contracts , ranging in length from a single concert to a full season or more . Contract performers may be hired for individual concerts when the orchestra is doing an exceptionally large late - Romantic era orchestral work , or to substitute for a permanent member who is sick . A professional musician who is hired to perform for a single concert is sometimes called a `` sub '' . Some contract musicians may be hired to replace permanent members for the period that the permanent member is on parental leave or disability leave . Gender
In-N-Out Burger
In - N - Out Burger has resisted franchising its operations or going public ; one reason is the prospect of quality or customer consistency being compromised by excessively rapid business growth . The company 's business practices have been noted for employee - centered personnel policies . For example , In - N - Out is one of the few fast food chains in the United States to pay its employees more than state and federally mandated minimum wage guidelines -- starting at US $11.00 per hour in California , as of May 2017 . The In - N - Out restaurant chain has developed a highly loyal customer base , and has been rated as one of the top fast food restaurants in several customer satisfaction surveys .
Purse distribution
In some racing jurisdictions , a `` starter 's bonus '' is paid to horses not among the top finishers in a race ; this bonus is added to the stated value of the purse , and therefore nothing needs to be subtracted from the top shares to provide it . California uses this approach , paying a starter 's bonus of $400 to each horse placed worse than fifth at its Los Angeles - area tracks and $300 at the tracks located in the northern part of the state . Such bonuses are also the rule in Delaware , Pennsylvania , and Texas .
Social class in the United States
The combination of two or more incomes allows for households to increase their income substantially without moving higher on the occupational ladder or attaining higher educational degrees . Thus it is important to remember that the favorable economic position of households in the top two quintiles is in some cases the result of combined income , rather than demand for a single worker .
Free market
The model is commonly applied to wages in the market for labor . The typical roles of supplier and consumer are reversed . The suppliers are individuals , who try to sell ( supply ) their labor for the highest price . The consumers are businesses , which try to buy ( demand ) the type of labor they need at the lowest price . As more people offer their labor in that market , the equilibrium wage decreases and the equilibrium level of employment increases as the supply curve shifts to the right . The opposite happens if fewer people offer their wages in the market as the supply curve shifts to the left .
History of the United States (1945–64)
The great majority of American workers who had stable jobs were well off financially , while even non-union jobs were associated with rising paychecks , benefits , and obtained many of the advantages that characterized union work . An upscale working class came into being , as American blue - collar workers came to enjoy the benefits of home ownership , while high wages provided blue - collar workers with the ability to pay for new cars , household appliances , and regular vacations . By the 1960s , a blue - collar worker earned more than a manager did in the 1940s , despite the fact that his relative position within the income distribution had not changed .
Medicare (United States)
MFS has been criticized for not paying doctors enough because of the low conversion factor . By adjustments to the MFS conversion factor , it is possible to make global adjustments in payments to all doctors .
Watchman (law enforcement)
The second stage was the recognition that watchmen could not be sustained without a major shift in the way local services were financed . This led to the City 's acquisition of taxing power by means of an act of parliament in 1737 which changed the obligation to serve in person into an obligation to pay to support a force of salaried man . Under the new act , the ward authorities also continued to hire their own watchmen and to make whatever local rules seemed appropriate -- establishing , for example , the places in their wards where the watchmen would stand and the beats they would patrol . But the implementation of the new Watch Act did have the effect of imposing some uniformity on the watch over the whole City , making in the process some modest incursions into the local autonomy of the wards . One of the leading elements in the regime that emerged from the implementation of the new act was an agreement that every watchman would be paid the same amount and that the wages should be raised to thirteen pounds a year .
United States Navy Reserve
Reservists receive the same promotion opportunities as active duty Sailors except they compete against other Reservists .
Social class in the United States
Sociologist Dennis Gilbert states that it is possible for households to out - earn other households over higher class standing through increasing their number of income earners . He furthermore states that household size also played an essential role , as the standard of living for two persons living off one upper middle class personal income may very well be higher than that of a household with four members living off two working class personal incomes .
Household income in the United States
Another line of analysis , known as `` total compensation , '' presents a more complete picture of real wages . The Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a study in 2013 which shows that employer contributions to employee healthcare costs went up 78 % from 2003 to 2013 . The marketplace has made a trade - off : expanding benefits packages vs. increasing wages .
House of Commons of the United Kingdom
Since the 17th century , MPs had been unpaid . Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes , while a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron . Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union , but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgment of 1909 . Consequently , a resolution was passed in the House of Commons in 1911 introducing salaries for MPs . Government ministers had always been paid .
Perfect competition
Particularly radical is the view of the Sraffian school on this issue : the labour demand curve can not be determined hence a level of wages ensuring the equality between supply and demand for labour does not exist , and economics should resume the viewpoint of the classical economists , according to whom competition in labour markets does not and can not mean indefinite price flexibility as long as supply and demand are unequal , it only means a tendency to equality of wages for similar work , but the level of wages is necessarily determined by complex sociopolitical elements ; custom , feelings of justice , informal allegiances to classes , as well as overt coalitions such as trade unions , far from being impediments to a smooth working of labour markets that would be able to determine wages even without these elements , are on the contrary indispensable because without them there would be no way to determine wages .
Income inequality in the United States
According to the CBO , the major reason for observed rise in unequal distribution of after - tax income was an increase in market income , that is household income before taxes and transfers . Market income for a household is a combination of labor income ( such as cash wages , employer - paid benefits , and employer - paid payroll taxes ) , business income ( such as income from businesses and farms operated solely by their owners ) , capital gains ( profits realized from the sale of assets and stock options ) , capital income ( such as interest from deposits , dividends , and rental income ) , and other income . Of them , capital gains accounted for 80 % of the increase in market income for the households in top 20 % , in the 2000 -- 2007 period . Even over the 1991 -- 2000 period , according to the CBO , capital gains accounted for 45 % of the market income for the top 20 % households .
Labour in India
The Workmen 's Compensation Act compensates a workman for any injury suffered during the course of his employment or to his dependents in the case of his death . The Act provides for the rate at which compensation shall be paid to an employee . This is one of many social security laws in India .
Standard of living in China
The 27 percent of the urban labor force that was employed in collectively owned enterprises earned less on average than workers in state - owned units . The income of workers in collectively owned enterprises consisted of a share of the profit earned by the enterprise . Most such enterprises were small , had little capital , and did not earn large profits . Many were engaged in traditional services , handicrafts , or small - scale , part - time assembly work . In 1985 workers in urban collective units earned an average annual income of ¥ 968 . In the more open commercial environment of the 1980s , a small but significant number of people earned incomes much larger than those in regular state - owned and collectively owned units . Employees of enterprises run by overseas Chinese , for instance , earned an average of ¥ 2,437 in 1985 , over twice the average income of workers in state - owned units .
Italian Australians
Nella maggior parte dei casi l'operaio ( italiano ) vive sotto la tenda , così chiunque non sia dedito all'ubriachezza ( cosa troppo comune in questi paesi , ma non fra i nostri connazionali ) può facilmente risparmiare la metà del suo salario . I nostri italiani , economi per eccellenza , risparmiano talvolta anche di più . ( In the great majority of cases , Italian labourers live in tents , so , whoever does not get drunk ( which is such a common habit in this country , except amongst Italians ) can easily save up to half his wage . Our Italians , extremely thrifty , save even more than that ) .
Tax incidence
Most public finance economists acknowledge that nominal tax incidence ( i.e. who writes the check to pay a tax ) is not necessarily identical to actual economic burden of the tax , but disagree greatly among themselves on the extent to which market forces disturb the nominal tax incidence of various types of taxes in various circumstances .
Whole life insurance
Whole life premiums are much higher than term insurance premiums , but because term insurance premiums rise with increasing age of the insured , the cumulative value of all premiums paid under whole and term policies are roughly equal if the policy continues to average life expectancy . Part of the insurance contract stipulates that the policyholder is entitled to a cash value reserve that is part of the policy and guaranteed by the company . This cash value can be accessed at any time through policy loans that are received income tax - free and paid back according to mutually agreed - upon schedules . These policy loans are available until the insured 's death . If any loans amounts are outstanding -- i.e. , not yet paid back -- upon the insured 's death , the insurer subtracts those amounts from the policy 's face value / death benefit and pays the remainder to the policy 's beneficiary .
Income inequality in the United States
The comparative use of Census Bureau data , as well as most sources of demographic income data , has been questioned by statisticians for being unable to account for ' mobility of incomes ' . At any given time , the Census Bureau ranks all households by household income and then divides this distribution of households into quintiles . The highest - ranked household in each quintile provides the upper income limit for each quintile . Comparing changes in these upper income limits for different quintiles is how changes are measured between one moment in time and the next . The problem with inferring income inequality on this basis is that the census statistics provide only a snapshot of income distribution in the U.S. , at individual points in time . The statistics do not reflect the reality that income for many households changes over time -- i.e. , incomes are mobile . For most people , income increases over time as they move from their first , low - paying job in high school to a better - paying job later in their lives . Also , some people lose income over time because of business - cycle contractions , demotions , career changes , retirement , etc . The implication of changing individual incomes is that individual households do not remain in the same income quintiles over time . Thus , comparing different income quintiles over time is like comparing apples to oranges , because it means comparing incomes of different people at different stages in their earnings profile .
Medicare Advantage
Evidence is mixed on how quality and access compare between Medicare Advantage and `` traditional '' Medicare . ( `` traditional '' in quotes because it is not the same as Original Medicare ; everyone in Medicare must begin by joining Original Medicare ; the term `` traditional '' typically refers to FFS and almost always means the beneficiary has a private group or individually purchased supplement to Original Medicare ) . Most research suggests that enrollees in Medicare HMOs tend to receive more preventative services than beneficiaries in traditional Medicare ; however , beneficiaries , especially those in poorer health , tend to rate the quality and access to care in traditional Medicare more favorably than in Medicare Advantage . It is difficult to generalize the results of studies across all plans participating in the program because performance on quality and access metrics varies widely across the types of Medicare Advantage plans and among the dozens of providers of Medicare Advantage plans .
Fair trade
Forced or unfair labor in textile production is not limited to developing countries . Charges of use of sweatshop labor are endemic in the United States . Immigrant women work long hours and receive less than minimum wage . In the United States , there is more of a stigma against child labor than forced labor in general . Consumers in the United States are willing to suspend the importation of textiles made with child labor in other countries but do not expect their exports to be suspended by other countries , even when produced using forced labor . Clothing
Taxation in the United States
In the United States , payroll taxes are assessed by the federal government , many states , the District of Columbia , and numerous cities . These taxes are imposed on employers and employees and on various compensation bases . They are collected and paid to the taxing jurisdiction by the employers . Most jurisdictions imposing payroll taxes require reporting quarterly and annually in most cases , and electronic reporting is generally required for all but small employers . Because payroll taxes are imposed only on wages and not on income from investments , taxes on labor income are much heavier than taxes on income from capital .
Labor history of the United States
Furthermore , the AFL was doing a better job of expanding into the fast - growing white collar sector , with its organizations of clerks , public employees , teachers , and service workers . Although the AFL building trades maintained all - white policies , the AFL had more black members in all as the CIO . The problem of union corruption was growing in public awareness , and CIO 's industrial unions were less vulnerable to penetration by criminal elements than were the AFL 's trucking , longshoring , building , and entertainment unions . But Meany had a strong record in fighting corruption in New York unions , and was highly critical of the notoriously corrupt Teamsters .
Social exchange theory
There are three or more individuals who have the opportunity to make exchanges with one another . These actors are able to make decisions about whether to exchange , with whom to exchange , and under what terms to execute an exchange . Social exchange produces emotions that are positive to negative Emotions can be construed as reward or punishment ( i.e. feeling good has a positive value and feeling bad has a negative value ) . Individuals try to avoid negative emotions and to reproduce positive emotions in social exchange . Individuals will try to understand the source or cause of feelings produced by social exchange . In this way , emotions become attributed to the object that caused them . Individuals interpret and exchange their feelings with respect to social relationships ( e.g. partners , groups , networks ) . Positive emotions produced by exchange will increase solidarity in these relationships , while negative emotions will decrease solidarity .
Income inequality in the United States
Comparisons of income over time should adjust for changes in average age , family size , number of breadwinners , and other characteristics of a population . Measuring personal income ignores dependent children , but household income also has problems -- a household of ten has a lower standard of living than one of two people , though the income of the two households may be the same . People 's earnings tend to rise over their working lifetimes , so `` snapshot measures of income inequality can be misleading . '' The inequality of a recent college graduate and a 55 - year - old at the peak of his / her career is not an issue if the graduate has the same career path .