vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Heart
Cardiovascular diseases , which include diseases of the heart , are the leading cause of death worldwide . The majority of cardiovascular disease is noncommunicable and related to lifestyle and other factors , becoming more prevalent with ageing . Heart disease is a major cause of death , accounting for an average of 30 % of all deaths in 2008 , globally . This rate varies from a lower 28 % to a high 40 % in high - income countries . Doctors that specialise in the heart are called cardiologists . Many other medical professionals are involved in treating diseases of the heart , including doctors such as general practitioners , cardiothoracic surgeons and intensivists , and allied health practitioners including physiotherapists and dieticians . Ischaemic
Atlantic slave trade
After being captured and held in the factories , slaves entered the infamous Middle Passage . Meltzer 's research puts this phase of the slave trade 's overall mortality at 12.5 % . Their deaths were the result of brutal treatment and poor care from the time of their capture and throughout their voyage . Around 2.2 million Africans died during these voyages where they were packed into tight , unsanitary spaces on ships for months at a time . Measures were taken to stem the onboard mortality rate , such as enforced `` dancing '' ( as exercise ) above deck and the practice of force - feeding enslaved persons who tried to starve themselves . The conditions on board also resulted in the spread of fatal diseases . Other fatalities were suicides , slaves who escaped by jumping overboard . The slave traders would try to fit anywhere from 350 to 600 slaves on one ship . Before the African slave trade was completely banned by participating nations in 1853 , 15.3 million enslaved people had arrived in the Americas .
Air pollution in the United States
In the United States , cardiovascular disease kills a person every 40 seconds . While the effects of air pollution on the respiratory diseases are well understood , air pollution also affects the cardiovascular system at the same level as or higher level than the respiratory system , and the adverse cardiovascular health outcomes in both children and adults are high when exposed to air pollution . Carbon monoxide , oxides of nitrogen , sulfur dioxide , ozone , lead , and particulate matter are also associated with increased hospitalization and mortality due to cardiovascular disease . Chromosomal damage is high among African American children and their mothers from Oakland , California who are exposed to traffic and regional ozone levels . Coronary heart disease has been one of the leading cause of death in ethnic groups . One study found that PM2. 5 exposure increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 13 % . Also , those who live in the area of lower socioeconomic status have higher risk of cardiovascular diseases caused by PM2. 5 exposure .
Biafra
In 2010 , researchers from Karolinska Institutet in Sweden and University of Nigeria , Nsukka , showed that Igbos born in Biafra during the years of the famine were of higher risk of suffering from obesity , hypertension and impaired glucose metabolism compared to controls born a short period after the famine had ended . The findings are in line with the developmental origin of health and disease hypothesis suggesting that malnutrition in early life is a predisposing factor for cardiovascular diseases and diabetes later in life .
Carbon monoxide poisoning
The ratio of carboxyhemoglobin to hemoglobin molecules in an average person may be up to 5 % , although cigarette smokers who smoke two packs per day may have levels up to 9 % . In symptomatic poisoned people they are often in the 10 -- 30 % range , while persons who die may have postmortem blood levels of 30 -- 90 % .
Elvis Presley
In 1994 , the Presley autopsy was reopened . Dr. Joseph Davis , who had conducted thousands of autopsies as Miami - Dade County coroner , declared at its completion , `` There is nothing in any of the data that supports a death from drugs . In fact , everything points to a sudden , violent heart attack . '' In 2013 , Dr. Forest Tennant , who had testified as a defense witness in Nichopoulos 's trial , described his own analysis of all of Presley 's available medical records . He concluded that Presley 's `` drug abuse had led to falls , head trauma , and overdoses that damaged his brain '' , and that his death was due in part to a toxic reaction to codeine -- exacerbated by an undetected liver enzyme defect -- which can cause sudden cardiac arrhythmia . DNA analysis in 2014 of a hair sample purported to be Presley 's found evidence of genetic variants that can lead to glaucoma , migraines , and obesity ; a crucial variant associated with the heart - muscle disease hypertrophic cardiomyopathy was also identified .
Mount Everest
Another health hazard is retinal haemorrhages , which can damage eyesight and cause blindness . Up to a quarter of Everest climbers can experience retinal haemorrhages , and although they usually heal within weeks of returning to lower altitudes , in 2010 a climber went blind and ended up dying in the death zone .
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Carbon monoxide is not toxic to all forms of life . Its harmful effects are due to binding with hemoglobin so its danger to organisms that do not use this compound is doubtful . It thus has no effect on photosynthesising plants . It is easily absorbed through the lungs . Inhaling the gas can lead to hypoxic injury , nervous system damage , and even death . Different people and populations may have different carbon monoxide tolerance levels . On average , exposures at 100 ppm or greater is dangerous to human health . In the United States , the OSHA limits long - term workplace exposure levels to less than 50 ppm averaged over an 8 - hour period ; in addition , employees are to be removed from any confined space if an upper limit ( `` ceiling '' ) of 100 ppm is reached . Carbon monoxide exposure may lead to a significantly shorter life span due to heart damage . The carbon monoxide tolerance level for any person is altered by several factors , including activity level , rate of ventilation , a pre-existing cerebral or cardiovascular disease , cardiac output , anemia , sickle cell disease and other hematological disorders , barometric pressure , and metabolic rate .
Sleep
Sleep disorders include narcolepsy , periodic limb movement disorder ( PLMD ) , restless leg syndrome ( RLS ) , upper airway resistance syndrome ( UARS ) , and the circadian rhythm sleep disorders . Fatal familial insomnia , or FFI , an extremely rare genetic disease with no known treatment or cure , is characterized by increasing insomnia as one of its symptoms ; ultimately sufferers of the disease stop sleeping entirely , before dying of the disease .
Non-communicable disease
Although chronic kidney disease ( CKD ) is not currently identified as one of WHO 's main targets for global NCD control , there is compelling evidence that CKD is not only common , harmful and treatable but also a major contributing factor to the incidence and outcomes of at least three of the diseases targeted by WHO ( diabetes , hypertension and CVD ) . CKD strongly predisposes to hypertension and CVD ; diabetes , hypertension and CVD are all major causes of CKD ; and major risk factors for diabetes , hypertension and CVD ( such as obesity and smoking ) also cause or exacerbate CKD . In addition , among people with diabetes , hypertension , or CVD , the subset who also have CKD are at highest risk of adverse outcomes and high health care costs . Thus , CKD , diabetes and cardiovascular disease are closely associated conditions that often coexist ; share common risk factors and treatments ; and would benefit from a coordinated global approach to prevention and control .
Apoptosis
Inhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers , autoimmune diseases , inflammatory diseases , and viral infections . It was originally believed that the associated accumulation of cells was due to an increase in cellular proliferation , but it is now known that it is also due to a decrease in cell death . The most common of these diseases is cancer , the disease of excessive cellular proliferation , which is often characterized by an overexpression of IAP family members . As a result , the malignant cells experience an abnormal response to apoptosis induction : Cycle - regulating genes ( such as p53 , ras or c - myc ) are mutated or inactivated in diseased cells , and further genes ( such as bcl - 2 ) also modify their expression in tumors . Some apoptotic factors are vital during mitochondrial respiration e.g. cytochrome C. Pathological inactivation of apoptosis in cancer cells is correlated with frequent respiratory metabolic shifts toward glycolysis ( an observation known as the `` Warburg hypothesis '' ) . HeLa
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Hemoglobin is a tetramer with four oxygen binding sites . The binding of carbon monoxide at one of these sites increases the oxygen affinity of the remaining three sites , which causes the hemoglobin molecule to retain oxygen that would otherwise be delivered to the tissue . This situation is described as carbon monoxide shifting the oxygen dissociation curve to the left . Because of the increased affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen during carbon monoxide poisoning , little oxygen will actually be released in the tissues . This causes hypoxic tissue injury . Hemoglobin acquires a bright red color when converted into carboxyhemoglobin , so poisoned cadavers and even commercial meats treated with carbon monoxide acquire an unnatural reddish hue .
Apoptosis
HIV enzymes deactivate anti-apoptotic Bcl - 2 . This does not directly cause cell death but primes the cell for apoptosis should the appropriate signal be received . In parallel , these enzymes activate proapoptotic procaspase - 8 , which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis . HIV may increase the level of cellular proteins that prompt Fas - mediated apoptosis . HIV proteins decrease the amount of CD4 glycoprotein marker present on the cell membrane . Released viral particles and proteins present in extracellular fluid are able to induce apoptosis in nearby `` bystander '' T helper cells . HIV decreases the production of molecules involved in marking the cell for apoptosis , giving the virus time to replicate and continue releasing apoptotic agents and virions into the surrounding tissue . The infected CD4+ cell may also receive the death signal from a cytotoxic T cell .
Myocardial infarction
Rates of death from ischemic heart disease ( IHD ) have slowed or declined in most high - income countries , although cardiovascular disease still accounted for one in three of all deaths in the USA in 2008 . For example , rates of death from cardiovascular disease have decreased almost a third between 2001 and 2011 in the United States .
Eduard Khil
On 8 April 2012 , Khil suffered a stroke and was hospitalized with serious brain injuries at the Mariinsky Hospital in St. Petersburg , where he fell into a coma immediately afterward . His condition was later reported as critical , with now irreversible brain damage . Doctors were initially optimistic about a partial recovery , but later retracted these statements . He died in the hospital in St. Petersburg on 4 June 2012 , from complications from the stroke , aged 77 , two days after his son 's 49th birthday .
Diphtheria
In March 2016 , a 3 - year - old girl died of diphtheria in the University Hospital of Antwerp , Belgium .
Apoptosis
For many years , the terms `` apoptosis '' and `` programmed cell death '' were not highly cited . What transformed cell death from obscurity to a major field of research were two things : the identification of components of the cell death control and effector mechanisms , and the linkage of abnormalities in cell death to human disease , in particular cancer .
Mechanism of action of aspirin
Salicylate sensitivity differs from salicylism , which occurs when an individual takes an overdose of salicylates . Salicylate overdose can occur in people without salicylate sensitivity , and can be deadly if untreated . For more information , see aspirin poisoning .
Apoptosis
In order to perform analysis of apoptotic versus necrotic ( necroptotic ) cells , one can do analysis of morphology by time - lapse microscopy , flow fluorocytometry , and transmission electron microscopy . There are also various biochemical techniques for analysis of cell surface markers ( phosphatidylserine exposure versus cell permeability by flow cytometry ) , cellular markers such as DNA fragmentation ( flow cytometry ) , caspase activation , Bid cleavage , and cytochrome c release ( Western blotting ) . It is important to know how primary and secondary necrotic cells can be distinguished by analysis of supernatant for caspases , HMGB1 , and release of cytokeratin 18 . However , no distinct surface or biochemical markers of necrotic cell death have been identified yet , and only negative markers are available . These include absence of apoptotic markers ( caspase activation , cytochrome c release , and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation ) and differential kinetics of cell death markers ( phosphatidylserine exposure and cell membrane permeabilization ) . A selection of techniques that can be used to distinguish apoptosis from necroptotic cells could be found in these references .
Chickenpox
Varicella can be lethal to adults with impaired immunity . The number of people in this high - risk group has increased , due to the HIV epidemic and the increased use of immunosuppressive therapies . Varicella is a particular problem in hospitals , when there are patients with immune systems weakened by drugs ( e.g. , high - dose steroids ) or HIV .
Democratic Republic of the Congo
During the period of 1885 -- 1908 , millions of Congolese died as a consequence of exploitation and disease . In some areas the population declined dramatically -- it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River .
Coal
The deadly London smog was caused primarily by the heavy use of coal . In the United States coal - fired power plants were estimated in 2004 to cause nearly 24,000 premature deaths every year , including 2,800 from lung cancer . Annual health costs in Europe from use of coal to generate electricity are € 42.8 billion , or $55 billion . Yet the disease and mortality burden of coal use today falls most heavily upon China .
Non-communicable disease
Dominant genetic diseases , such as Huntingtons , require the inheritance of one erroneous gene to be expressed . Recessive genetic diseases require the inheritance of erroneous genes to be expressed and this is one reason they work together .
Cell-free fetal DNA
Incompatibility of fetal and maternal RhD antigens is the main cause of Hemolytic disease of the newborn . Approximately 15 percent of Caucasian women , 3 to 5 percent of black Africa women and less than 3 percent of Asian women are RhD negative .
Huntington's disease
Huntington 's disease ( HD ) , also known as Huntington 's chorea , is an inherited disorder that results in death of brain cells . The earliest symptoms are often subtle problems with mood or mental abilities . A general lack of coordination and an unsteady gait often follow . As the disease advances , uncoordinated , jerky body movements become more apparent . Physical abilities gradually worsen until coordinated movement becomes difficult and the person is unable to talk . Mental abilities generally decline into dementia . The specific symptoms vary somewhat between people . Symptoms usually begin between 30 and 50 years of age , but can start at any age . The disease may develop earlier in life in each successive generation . About eight percent of cases start before the age of 20 years and typically present with symptoms more similar to Parkinson 's disease . People with HD often underestimate the degree of their problems .
Napoleon
There have been modern studies that have supported the original autopsy finding . In a 2008 study , researchers analysed samples of Napoleon 's hair from throughout his life , as well as samples from his family and other contemporaries . All samples had high levels of arsenic , approximately 100 times higher than the current average . According to these researchers , Napoleon 's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy , and the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by intentional poisoning ; people were constantly exposed to arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives . Studies published in 2007 and 2008 dismissed evidence of arsenic poisoning , and confirmed evidence of peptic ulcer and gastric cancer as the cause of death .
Germ theory of disease
For the morbid matter of cholera having the property of reproducing its own kind , must necessarily have some sort of structure , most likely that of a cell . It is no objection to this view that the structure of the cholera poison can not be recognized by the microscope , for the matter of smallpox and of chancre can only be recognized by their effects , and not by their physical properties . --
Cavalier King Charles Spaniel
Episodic Falling causes `` exercise - induced paroxysmal hypertonicity '' meaning that there is increased muscle tone in the dog and the muscles can not relax . Previously thought to be a muscular disorder , it is now known to be neurological . EF is caused by a single recessive gene , and a genetic test is available . Except for severe cases , episodes will be in response to exercise , excitement or similar exertions . Although EF is often misdiagnosed as epilepsy , which typically results in loss of consciousness , the dog remains conscious throughout the episode . Severity of symptoms can range from mild , occasional falling to freezing to seizure - like episodes lasting hours . Episodes can become more or less severe as the dog gets older and there is no standard pattern to the attacks . The onset of symptoms usually occurs when a dog is between 4 months and 4 years of age . It is similar to Scotty Cramp , a genetic disorder in Scottish Terriers . About 1 % of Cavaliers are affected by the condition , with 19 % being carriers . Dogs with whole coloured coats were more likely to be affected than dogs with parti - coloured coats .
Diphtheria
On 7 January 1904 , Ruth Cleveland died of diphtheria at the age of 12 years in Princeton , New Jersey . Ruth was the eldest daughter of former President Grover Cleveland and the former first lady Frances Folsom . She was the only one of the Clevelands ' five children who died before adulthood .
Apoptosis
The progression of the human immunodeficiency virus infection into AIDS is due primarily to the depletion of CD4+ T - helper lymphocytes in a manner that is too rapid for the body 's bone marrow to replenish the cells , leading to a compromised immune system . One of the mechanisms by which T - helper cells are depleted is apoptosis , which results from a series of biochemical pathways :
Heart
Coronary artery disease , also known as ischemic heart disease , is caused by atherosclerosis -- a build - up of fatty material along the inner walls of the arteries . These fatty deposits known as atherosclerotic plaques narrow the coronary arteries , and if severe may reduce blood flow to the heart . If a narrowing ( or stenosis ) is relatively minor then the patient may not experience any symptoms . Severe narrowings may cause chest pain ( angina ) or breathlessness during exercise or even at rest . The thin covering of an atherosclerotic plaque can rupture , exposing the fatty centre to the circulating blood . In this case a clot or thrombus can form , blocking the artery , and restricting blood flow to an area of heart muscle causing a myocardial infarction ( a heart attack ) or unstable angina . In the worst case this may cause cardiac arrest , a sudden and utter loss of output from the heart . Obesity , high blood pressure , uncontrolled diabetes , smoking and high cholesterol can all increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease . Heart
Kenya
Diseases of poverty directly correlate with a country 's economic performance and wealth distribution : Half of Kenyans live below the poverty level . Preventable diseases like malaria , HIV / AIDS , pneumonia , diarrhoea and malnutrition are the biggest burden , major child - killers , and responsible for much morbidity ; weak policies , corruption , inadequate health workers , weak management and poor leadership in the public health sector are largely to blame . According to 2009 estimates , HIV prevalence is about 6.3 % of the adult population . However , the 2011 UNAIDS Report suggests that the HIV epidemic may be improving in Kenya , as HIV prevalence is declining among young people ( ages 15 -- 24 ) and pregnant women . Kenya had an estimated 15 million cases of malaria in 2006 .
Non-communicable disease
Historically , many NCDs were associated with economic development and were so - called a `` diseases of the rich '' . The burden of non-communicable diseases in developing countries has increased however , with an estimated 80 % of the four main types of NCDs -- cardiovascular diseases , cancers , chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes -- now occurring in low - and middle - income countries . Action Plan for the Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of non-communicable Diseases and with two - thirds of people who are affected by diabetes now residing in developing nations , NCD can no longer be considered just a problem affecting affluent estimation of the economic impact of chronic non-communicable diseases in selected countries . New WHO report : deaths from non-communicable diseases are on the rise , with developing world hit hardest . As previously stated , in 2008 alone , NCD 's were the cause of 63 % of deaths worldwide ; a number that is expected to rise considerably in the near future if measures are not taken .
Democratic Republic of the Congo
In 2009 , The New York Times reported that people in the Congo continued to die at a rate of an estimated 45,000 per month -- estimates of the number who have died from the long conflict range from 900,000 to 5,400,000 . The death toll is due to widespread disease and famine ; reports indicate that almost half of the individuals who have died are children under five years of age . There have been frequent reports of weapon bearers killing civilians , of the destruction of property , of widespread sexual violence , causing hundreds of thousands of people to flee their homes , and of other breaches of humanitarian and human rights law . One study found that more than 400,000 women are raped in the Democratic Republic of Congo every year .
Myocardial infarction
Risk factors for complications and death include age , hemodynamic parameters ( such as heart failure , cardiac arrest on admission , systolic blood pressure , or Killip class of two or greater ) , ST - segment deviation , diabetes , serum creatinine , peripheral vascular disease , and elevation of cardiac markers .
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Carbon monoxide poisoning in pregnant women may cause severe adverse fetal effects . Poisoning causes fetal tissue hypoxia by decreasing the release of maternal oxygen to the fetus . Carbon monoxide also crosses the placenta and combines with fetal hemoglobin , causing more direct fetal tissue hypoxia . Additionally , fetal hemoglobin has a 10 to 15 % higher affinity for carbon monoxide than adult hemoglobin , causing more severe poisoning in the fetus than in the adult . Elimination of carbon monoxide is slower in the fetus , leading to an accumulation of the toxic chemical . The level of fetal morbidity and mortality in acute carbon monoxide poisoning is significant , so despite mild maternal poisoning or following maternal recovery , severe fetal poisoning or death may still occur .