vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Zapatista Army of National Liberation
The Zapatistas ' response to the introduction of NAFTA in 1994 , it is argued , reflects the shift in perception taking place in societies that have experienced colonialism . The theory of `` postcolonial gaze '' studies what is described as the cultural and political impacts of colonization on formerly colonized societies and how these societies overcome centuries of discrimination and marginalization by colonialists and their descendents . In Mexico , the theory of the postcolonial gaze is being fostered predominantly in areas of large indigenous populations and marginalization , like Chiapas . Over the last 20 years , Chiapas is said to have emerged as a formidable force against the Mexican government , fighting against structural violence and social and economic marginalization brought on by globalization . The Zapatista rebellion not only raised many questions about the consequences of globalization and free trade ; it also questioned the long - standing ideas created by the Spanish colonial system . Postcolonialism is the antithesis of imperialism because it attempts to explain how the prejudices and restrictions created by colonialism are being overcome . This is especially obvious in countries that have large social and economic inequalities , where colonial ideas are deeply entrenched in the minds of the colonials ' descendents .
New Spain
Not well documented is the number of African slaves and their descendants , who were artisans in urban areas and did hard manual labor in rural areas . In a pattern recognizable elsewhere , coastal populations were mainly African , including an unknown number of cimarrón ( runaway slave ) settlements , while inland indigenous communities were more prominent . On the Cortés haciendas , blacks and mulattoes were essential to the profitability of the enterprises .
Sahara
Gobero was discovered in 2000 during an archaeological expedition led by Paul Sereno , which sought dinosaur remains . Two distinct prehistoric cultures were discovered at the site : the early Holocene Kiffian culture , and the middle Holocene Tenerian culture . The Kiffians were a prehistoric people who preceded the Tenerians and vanished approximately 8000 years ago , when the desert became very dry . The desiccation lasted until around 4600 BC , when the earliest artefacts associated with the Tenerians have been dated to . Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero . The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier Kiffians . Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct . The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians , early Holocene Capsians , and mid-Holocene Mechta groups , whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups . Graves show that the Tenerians observed spiritual traditions , as they were buried with artifacts such as jewelry made of hippo tusks and clay pots . The most interesting find is a triple burial , dated to 5300 years ago , of an adult female and two children , estimated through their teeth as being five and eight years old , hugging each other . Pollen residue indicates they were buried on a bed of flowers . The three are assumed to have died within 24 hours of each other , but as their skeletons hold no apparent trauma ( they did not die violently ) and they have been buried so elaborately - unlikely if they had died of a plague - the cause of their deaths is a mystery .
History of Mexico
The Toltec culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican culture that dominated a state centered in Tula , Hidalgo , in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology ( ca 800 -- 1000 CE ) . The later Aztec culture saw the Toltecs as their intellectual and cultural predecessors and described Toltec culture emanating from Tollan ( Nahuatl for Tula ) as the epitome of civilization ; indeed , in the Nahuatl language the word `` Toltec '' came to take on the meaning `` artisan '' .
Nubia
Around 3300 BC , there is evidence of a unified kingdom , as shown by the finds at Qustul , that maintained substantial interactions ( both cultural and genetic ) with the culture of Naqadan Upper Egypt . The Nubian culture may have even contributed to the unification of the Nile Valley .
Mato Grosso
This historically remote area attracted expeditions of exploration in the early 20th century that sought to find lost civilizations . A notable example were efforts by British Captain Percy Fawcett . In addition , theorists of Hollow Earth speculated that this region had sites of access to the interior of the earth and its settlements .
Indirect rule
Indirect rule is a system of government used by the British and French to control parts of their colonial empires , particularly in Africa and Asia , through pre-existing local power structures . These dependencies were often called `` protectorates '' or `` trucial states '' . By this system , the day - to - day government and administration of areas both small and large was left in the hands of traditional rulers , who gained prestige and the stability and protection afforded by the Pax Britannica , at the cost of losing control of their external affairs , and often of taxation , communications , and other matters , usually with a small number of European `` advisors '' effectively overseeing the government of large numbers of people spread over extensive areas .
Colonies in antiquity
An Egyptian colony that was stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty . Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt , from regions such as Arad , En Besor , Rafiah , and Tel ʿErani . Shipbuilding was known to the ancient Egyptians as early as 3000 BC , and perhaps earlier . The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the earliest dated ship -- dating to 3000 BC -- may have possibly belonged to Pharaoh Aha .
History of West Africa
Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states , cutting across ethnic and cultural lines , often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states . Early human settlers arrived in West Africa around 12,000 BCE . In the fifth millennium , as the ancestors of modern West Africans began entering the area , the development of sedentary farming began to take place in West Africa . The Iron industry , in both smelting and forging for tools and weapons , appeared in Sub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BCE , and by 400 BCE , contact had been made with the Mediterranean civilisations , and a regular trade included exporting gold , cotton , metal , and leather in exchange for copper , horses , salt , textiles , and beads . Culture developed further with the Nok culture ( 1000 BCE to 200 or 300 BCE ) , Serer people 's ancient history , and construction of the Senegambian stone circles ( between the third century B.C. and the sixteenth century C.E. ) . The Sahelian kingdoms were a series of kingdoms or empires that were built on the sahel , the area of grasslands south of the Sahara . They controlled the trade routes across the desert , and were also quite decentralised , with member cities having a great deal of autonomy . The Ghana Empire may have been established as early as the 4th century CE . It was succeeded by the Sosso in 1230 , the Mali Empire in the 13th century CE , and later by the Songhai and Sokoto Caliphate . There were also a number of forest empires and states in this time period .
History of Vietnam
The historian Professor Liam Kelley of the University of Hawaii at Manoa on his Le Minh Khai 's SEAsian History Blog wrote on how Vietnamese ultra-nationalists misleadingly reinterpreted outdated theories by western geography professors in order to further a Vietnamese nationalist agenda by claiming that Vietnamese invented rice cultivation and therefore were responsible for civilization while Chinese were pastoralists . The outdated theory has been dis - proven with rice cultivation found to not originate in southeast Asia and the Vietnamese interpretations of the original theories were wrong . Vietnamese ultra-nationalists also claim the Yijing .
Colonies in antiquity
According to María Eugenia Aubet , Professor of Archaeology at the Pompeu Fabra University , Barcelona : `` The earliest presence of Phoenician material in the West is documented within the precinct of the ancient city of Huelva , Spain ... The high proportion of Phoenician pottery among the new material found in 1997 in the Plaza de las Monjas in Huelva argues in favor of a regular presence of Phoenician people from the start of the 9th century BC . The recent radiocarbon dates from the earliest levels in Carthage situate the founding of this Tyrian colony in the years 835 -- 800 cal BC , which coincides with the dates handed down by Flavius Josephus and Timeus for the founding of the city . ''
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
According to Pliny the Elder , the Emperor Augustus was sufficiently embarrassed by the history of Roman plunder of Greek art to return some pieces to their original homes . Modern
Neolithic Revolution
On the African continent , three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture : the Ethiopian highlands , the Sahel and West Africa . By contrast , Agriculture in the Nile River Valley is thought to have developed from the original Neolithic Revolution in the Fertile Crescent . Many grinding stones are found with the early Egyptian Sebilian and Mechian cultures and evidence has been found of a neolithic domesticated crop - based economy dating around 7,000 BP . Unlike the Middle East , this evidence appears as a `` false dawn '' to agriculture , as the sites were later abandoned , and permanent farming then was delayed until 6,500 BP with the Tasian and Badarian cultures and the arrival of crops and animals from the Near East .
Carthage
In 2016 , an ancient Carthaginian individual , who was excavated from a Punic tomb in Byrsa Hill , was found to belong to the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup . The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late 6th century BCE , and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb .
Colonies in antiquity
The Phoenicians were the major trading power in the Mediterranean in the early part of the first millennium BC . They had trading contacts in Egypt and Greece , and established colonies as far west as modern Spain , at Gadir ( modern Cádiz ) .
Nubia
The Neolithic people in the Nile Valley likely came from Sudan , as well as the Sahara , and there was shared culture with the two areas and with that of Egypt during this period . By the 5th millennium BC , the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia participated in the Neolithic revolution . Saharan rock reliefs depict scenes that have been thought to be suggestive of a cattle cult , typical of those seen throughout parts of Eastern Africa and the Nile Valley even to this day . Megaliths discovered at Nabta Playa are early examples of what seems to be one of the world 's first astronomical devices , predating Stonehenge by almost 2,000 years . This complexity as observed at Nabta Playa , and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there , likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt . Around 3500 BC , the second `` Nubian '' culture , termed the A-Group , arose . It was a contemporary of , and ethnically and culturally very similar to , the polities in predynastic Naqada of Upper Egypt . The A-Group people were engaged in trade with the Egyptians . This trade is testified archaeologically by large amounts of Egyptian commodities deposited in the graves of the A-Group people . The imports consisted of gold objects , copper tools , faience amulets and beads , seals , slate palettes , stone vessels , and a variety of pots . Nubian
History of Mexico
Mexico produced important cultural achievements during the colonial period , like the literature of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Ruiz de Alarcón , as well as cathedrals , civil monuments , forts and colonial cities such as Puebla , Mexico City , Querétaro , Zacatecas and others , today part of Unesco 's World Heritage .
History of Mexico
The presence of people in Mesoamerica was once thought to date back 40,000 years , an estimate based on what were believed to be ancient footprints discovered in the Valley of Mexico ; but after further investigation using radiocarbon dating , it appears this date may not be accurate . It is currently unclear whether 23,000 - year - old campfire remains found in the Valley of Mexico are the earliest human remains uncovered so far in Mexico .
Pre-Columbian era
The Pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents , spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period .
Thar Desert
Lithic tools belonging to the prehistoric Aterian culture of the Maghreb have been discovered in Middle Paleolithic deposits in the Thar Desert .
Roanoke Colony
In 1993 , Hurricane Emily caused numerous relics to appear , and David Phelps of East Carolina University later began digging in the area and found evidence the settlers lived with the native people .
Roanoke Colony
Fred Willard and Phillip MacMullan believe that the colonists along with the Croatans relocated to villages along the Alligator River in an area known as `` Beechland '' , slightly inland from Roanoke Island . Archeological remains of settlements have been discovered in the area , including coffins with Christian markings on them where there had been no previous record of a grave site , but their hypothesis is mostly based on oral histories and also lacks any definitive evidence .
Pre-Columbian era
Latecomers to Mexico 's central plateau , the Mexica thought of themselves , nevertheless , as heirs of the civilizations that had preceded them . For them , arts , sculpture , architecture , engraving , feather - mosaic work , and the calendar , were bequest from the former inhabitants of Tula , the Toltecs .
Philippines
The discovery of iron at around the 1st century AD created significant social and economic changes which allowed settlements to grow larger and develop new social patterns , characterized by social stratification and specialization .
United States
Over time , indigenous cultures in North America grew increasingly complex , and some , such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture in the southeast , developed advanced agriculture , grand architecture , and state - level societies . From approximately 800 to 1600 AD the Mississippian culture flourished , and its largest city Cahokia is considered the largest , most complex pre-Columbian archaeological site in the modern - day United States . While in the Four Corners region , Ancestral Puebloans culture developed . Three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the United States are credited to the Pueblos : Mesa Verde National Park , Chaco Culture National Historical Park , and Taos Pueblo . The earthworks constructed by Native Americans of the Poverty Point culture in northeastern Louisiana have also been designated a UNESCO World Heritage site . In the southern Great Lakes region , the Iroquois Confederacy ( Haudenosaunee ) was established at some point between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries , lasting until the end of the Revolutionary War .
Philippines
The earliest historical record of these kingdoms is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription , which indirectly refers to the Tagalog settlement of Tondo ( c. before 900 -- 1589 ) and two to three other settlements believed to be located somewhere near Tondo , as well as a settlement near Mt . Diwata in Mindanao , and the temple complex of Medang in Java . Although the precise political relationships between these polities is unclear in the text of the inscription , the artifact is usually accepted as evidence of intra - and inter-regional political linkages as early as 900 CE . By the arrival of the earliest European ethnographers during the 1500s , Tondo was led by the paramount ruler called a `` Lakan '' . It had grown into a major trading hub , sharing a monopoly with the Rajahnate of Maynila over the trade of Ming dynasty products throughout the archipelago . This trade was significant enough that the Yongle Emperor appointed a Chinese governor named Ko Ch'a - lao to oversee it .
Modern history
During the early modern period , an age of discovery and trade was undertaken by the Western European nations . Portugal , Spain , the Netherlands , the United Kingdom and France went on a colonial expansion and took possession of lands and set up colonies in Africa , southern Asia , and North and South America . Turkey colonized Southeastern Europe , and parts of the West Asia and North Africa . Russia took possession in Eastern Europe , Asia , and North America .
Santería
The colonial period from the standpoint of enslaved African people can be defined as a time of perseverance . Their world quickly changed . Tribal kings and their families , politicians , business and community leaders all were enslaved and taken to a foreign region of the world . Religious leaders , their relatives and their followers were no longer free people to worship as they saw fit . Colonial laws criminalized their religion . They were forced to become baptized and worship a god their ancestors had not known who was surrounded by a pantheon of saints . The early concerns during this period seem to have necessitated a need for individual survival under harsh plantation conditions . A sense of hope was sustaining the internal essence of what today is called Santería , a misnomer ( and former pejorative ) for the indigenous religion of the Lukumi people of Nigeria . In the heart of their homeland , they had a complex political and social order . They were a sedentary hoe farming cultural group with specialized labor . Their religion , based on the worship of nature , was renamed and documented by their slave owners . Santería , a pejorative term that characterizes deviant Catholic forms of worshiping saints , has become a common name for the religion . The term santero ( a ) is used to describe a priest or priestess replacing the traditional term Olorisha as an extension of the deities . The orishas became known as the saints in image of the Catholic pantheon . --
North America
Before contact with Europeans , the natives of North America were divided into many different polities , from small bands of a few families to large empires . They lived in several `` culture areas '' , which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main lifeway or occupation of the people who lived there ( e.g. , the bison hunters of the Great Plains , or the farmers of Mesoamerica ) . Native groups can also be classified by their language family ( e.g. , Athapascan or Uto - Aztecan ) . Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture , nor were they always allies . Anthropologists think that the Inuit people of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups , as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record , and their replacement by the Thule people .
Arrowhead
Stone projectile points dating back 64,000 years were excavated from layers of ancient sediment in Sibudu Cave , South Africa . Examinations found traces of blood and bone residues , and glue made from a plant - based resin that was used to fasten them on to a wooden shaft . This indicated `` cognitively demanding behavior '' required to manufacture glue .
Colonial history of the United States
Also in the seventeenth century , colonists started importing African laborers . In the coastal and other settlements , early workers lived closely together in a multiracial society . Europeans married and made unions with Africans and Native Americans . The colonies gradually passed laws that hardened early conditions of indenture into lifelong racial slavery attached to African descent . Africans contributed to the economy of rice and indigo cultivation with their skilled knowledge , technology and labor , as well as to all the commodity crops ; and to every aspect of culture ( food , music , stories and religion ) .
British Empire
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries , Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe , and in the process established large overseas empires . Envious of the great wealth these empires generated , England , France , and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia . A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England and then , following union between England and Scotland in 1707 , Great Britain , the dominant colonial power in North America . It then became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company 's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 .
New World
While it became generally accepted after Vespucci that Columbus 's discoveries were not Asia but a `` New World '' , the geographic relationship between the two continents was still unclear . That there must be a large ocean between Asia and the Americas was implied by the known existence of vast continuous sea along the coasts of East Asia . Given the size of the Earth as calculated by Eratosthenes this left a large space between Asia and the newly discovered lands .
Fur trade
Economic historians and anthropologists have studied the fur trade 's important role in early North American economies , but they have been unable to agree on a theoretical framework to describe native economic patterns . Sketches
Colonial history of the United States
David Rittenhouse , who constructed the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere New York lieutenant governor Cadwallader Colden , botanist and anthropologist Dr. Benjamin Rush , physician , social reformer , and member of the American Philosophical Society Benjamin Franklin , founder of the above American Philosophical society who contributed important discoveries to physics such as electricity , but was more successful in his practical inventions , such as stoves and lightning rods
Philippines
The exact scope and mechanisms of Indian cultural influences on early Philippine polities are still the subject of some debate among Southeast Asian historiographers , but the current scholarly consensus is that there was probably little or no direct trade between India and the Philippines , and Indian cultural traits , such as linguistic terms and religious practices , filtered in during the 10th through the early 14th centuries , through early Philippine polities ' relations with the Hindu Majapahit empire . The Philippine archipelago is thus one of the countries , ( others include Afghanistan and Southern Vietnam ) just at the outer edge of what is considered the `` Greater Indian cultural zone '' .
Spice trade
The Portuguese colonial settlements saw traders such as the Gujarati banias , South Indian Chettis , Syrian Christians , Chinese from Fujian province , and Arabs from Aden involved in the spice trade . Epics , languages , and cultural customs were borrowed by Southeast Asia from India , and later China . Knowledge of Portuguese language became essential for merchants involved in the trade . Colonial pepper trade drastically changed the experience of modernity in Europe and in Kerala and it brought , along with colonialism , early capitalism to India 's Malabar Coast , changing cultures of work and caste .
Mali Empire
Rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC , when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife . By 300 BC , large organised settlements had developed , most notable near Djenné , one of West Africa 's oldest cities . By the 6th century AD , the lucrative trans - Saharan trade in gold , salt and slaves had begun , facilitating the rise of West Africa 's great empires .