vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Probability
A good example of the use of probability theory in equity trading is the effect of the perceived probability of any widespread Middle East conflict on oil prices , which have ripple effects in the economy as a whole . An assessment by a commodity trader that a war is more likely can send that commodity 's prices up or down , and signals other traders of that opinion . Accordingly , the probabilities are neither assessed independently nor necessarily very rationally . The theory of behavioral finance emerged to describe the effect of such groupthink on pricing , on policy , and on peace and conflict .
Marshall Plan
In a National Opinion Research Center ( NORC ) poll taken in April 1945 , a cross section of Americans were asked , `` If our government keeps on sending lendlease materials , which we may not get paid for , to friendly countries for about three years after the war , do you think this will mean more jobs or fewer jobs for most Americans , or wo n't it make any difference ? '' 75 % said the same or more jobs ; 10 % said fewer .
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Cell wall
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Fahrenheit 451
I wrote this book at a time when I was worried about the way things were going in this country four years ago . Too many people were afraid of their shadows ; there was a threat of book burning . Many of the books were being taken off the shelves at that time . And of course , things have changed a lot in four years . Things are going back in a very healthy direction . But at the time I wanted to do some sort of story where I could comment on what would happen to a country if we let ourselves go too far in this direction , where then all thinking stops , and the dragon swallows his tail , and we sort of vanish into a limbo and we destroy ourselves by this sort of action .
Utilitarianism
One response to the problem is to accept its demands . This is the view taken by Peter Singer , who says : `` No doubt we do instinctively prefer to help those who are close to us . Few could stand by and watch a child drown ; many can ignore the avoidable deaths of children in Africa or India . The question , however , is not what we usually do , but what we ought to do , and it is difficult to see any sound moral justification for the view that distance , or community membership , makes a crucial difference to our obligations . ''
Tariff
Thus , theory can very easily recommend a trade policy that gives us the highest possible standard of living in the short term but none in the long term . This is what happens when a nation runs a trade deficit , which necessarily means that it goes into debt with foreigners or sells its existing assets to them . Thus , the nation applies a frenzy of consumption in the short term followed by a long - term decline . Unrealistic
Perfect competition
In contrast to a monopoly or oligopoly , in perfect competition it is impossible for a firm to earn economic profit in the long run , which is to say that a firm can not make any more money than is necessary to cover its economic costs . In order not to misinterpret this zero - long - run - profits thesis , it must be remembered that the term ' profit ' is used in different ways :
Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights
Yoshino , writing in a poetic tone , shares personal anecdotes to help frame the larger , societal issues he covers later in the book . He explores the idea and concept of a `` normal '' sexuality , with most conflict occurring as an adolescent and college student . His internal struggle to accept and embrace his identity inform the beginning of covering . Afterwards , when a colleague cautions him to be `` a homosexual professional '' instead of `` a professional homosexual '' , Yoshino begins to reflect on the concept of muting different identities .
Deaf education
This section needs expansion with : explanations of teacher training in respective countries . You can help by adding to it . ( April 2014 )
Fingerprint
Complaints have been made that there have been no published , peer - reviewed studies directly examining the extent to which people can correctly match fingerprints to one another . Experiments have been carried out using naïve undergraduates to match images of fingerprints . The results of these experiments demonstrate that people can identify fingerprints quite well , and that matching accuracy can vary as a function of both source finger type and image similarity . Defense
Cousin marriage
This section needs expansion with : Buddhism . You can help by adding to it . ( March 2010 )
North America
This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( March 2015 ) See
Myocardial infarction
Most guidelines recommend combining different preventive strategies . A 2015 Cochrane Review found some evidence that such an approach might help with blood pressure , body mass index and waist circumference . However , there was insufficient evidence to show an effect on mortality or actual cardio - vascular events . Medication
Containment
Soviet power , unlike that of Hitlerite Germany , is neither schematic nor adventuristic . It does not work by fixed plans . It does not take unnecessary risks . Impervious to logic of reason , and it is highly sensitive to logic of force . For this reason it can easily withdraw -- and usually does when strong resistance is encountered at any point .
Terror management theory
Experimentally , the MS hypothesis has been tested in close to 200 empirical articles . After participants in an experiment are asked to write about their own death ( vs. a neutral , non-death control topic , such as dental pain ) , and then following a brief delay ( distal , worldview / self - esteem defenses work the best after a delay ; see Greenberg et al. ( 1994 ) for a discussion ) , the participants ' defenses are measured . In one early TMT study assessing the MS hypothesis , Greenberg et al. ( 1990 ) had Christian participants evaluate other Christian and Jewish students that were similar demographically , but differed in their religious affiliation . After being reminded of their death ( experimental MS induction ) , Christian participants evaluated fellow Christians more positively , and Jewish participants more negatively , relative to the control condition . Conversely , bolstering self - esteem in these scenarios leads to less worldview defense and derogation of dissimilar others .
History of evolutionary thought
However , as historian of science Peter J. Bowler says , `` Through a combination of bold theorizing and comprehensive evaluation , Darwin came up with a concept of evolution that was unique for the time . '' Bowler goes on to say that simple priority alone is not enough to secure a place in the history of science ; someone has to develop an idea and convince others of its importance to have a real impact . Thomas Henry Huxley said in his essay on the reception of On the Origin of Species :
History of evolutionary thought
Teilhard de Chardin 's ideas have been seen by advocates of the Gaia hypothesis proposed by James Lovelock , which holds that the living and nonliving parts of Earth can be viewed as a complex interacting system with similarities to a single organism , as being connected to Lovelock 's ideas . The Gaia hypothesis has also been viewed by Lynn Margulis and others as an extension of endosymbiosis and exosymbiosis . This modified hypothesis postulates that all living things have a regulatory effect on the Earth 's environment that promotes life overall .
History of Kenya
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Theory of mind
Schizophrenic patients ' deficit in theory of mind impairs their daily interactions with others . An example of a disrupted interaction is one between a schizophrenic parent and a child . Theory of mind is particularly important for parents , who must understand the thoughts and behaviors of their children and react accordingly . Dysfunctional parenting is associated with deficits in the first - order theory of mind , the ability to understand another person 's thoughts , and the second - order theory of mind , the ability to infer what one person thinks about another person 's thoughts . Compared with healthy mothers , mothers with schizophrenia are found to be more remote , quiet , self - absorbed , insensitive , unresponsive , and to have fewer satisfying interactions with their children . They also tend to misinterpret their children 's emotional cues , and often misunderstand neutral faces as negative . Activities such as role - playing and individual or group - based sessions are effective interventions that help the parents improve on perspective - taking and theory of mind . Although there is a strong association between theory of mind deficit and parental role dysfunction , future studies could strengthen the relationship by possibly establishing a causal role of theory of mind on parenting abilities .
Consciousness
It is desirable to guard against the possibility of exaggerated ideas that might arise as to the powers of the Analytical Engine ... The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything . It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform . It can follow analysis ; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths . Its province is to assist us in making available what we are already acquainted with .
Child labour
According to Thomas DeGregori , an economics professor at the University of Houston , in an article published by the Cato Institute , a libertarian think - tank operating in Washington D.C. , `` it is clear that technological and economic change are vital ingredients in getting children out of the workplace and into schools . Then they can grow to become productive adults and live longer , healthier lives . However , in poor countries like Bangladesh , working children are essential for survival in many families , as they were in our own heritage until the late 19th century . So , while the struggle to end child labour is necessary , getting there often requires taking different routes -- and , sadly , there are many political obstacles .
Executive compensation
There are a number of strategies that could be employed as a response to the growth of executive compensation .
Terror management theory
Several psychologists , especially evolutionary psychologists , have argued against terror management theory . One scholar commented that the field of psychology would be advanced by a study of paralyzed states caused by anxiety that would only be alleviated with the reworking of a person 's mental state . These authors instead explain human behavior is selected to urge people to avoid situations likely to lead to death . This suggests that mortality salience effects reflect adaptive responses to solve specific life - threats rather than an unconscious attempt to avoid this realization .
Descriptive psychology
The concepts of Behavior and Person are the two most basic concepts in the vast network of concepts that is DP . Given limitations of space , others will not be pursued here . In this section , attention is turned to some applications of DP . The method of presentation will be to provide brief excerpts from published works covering different topics to which DP has been applied . Regrettably , many of the linkages between these works and the concepts just discussed can not be drawn here . While DP 's conceptual analyses have in the past often struck readers as difficult , abstract , and even arcane , its ultimate products and applications have typically emerged as possessing a clear , concrete , common sensical character .
Ideal gas
The ideal gas model has been explored in both the Newtonian dynamics ( as in `` kinetic theory '' ) and in quantum mechanics ( as a `` gas in a box '' ) . The ideal gas model has also been used to model the behavior of electrons in a metal ( in the Drude model and the free electron model ) , and it is one of the most important models in statistical mechanics .
Social development theory
Though a pioneer comes up with innovative ideas very often the initial response to a pioneer is one of indifference , ridicule or even one of outright hostility . If the pioneer persists and succeeds in an initiative , that person 's efforts may eventually get the endorsement of the public . That endorsement tempts others to imitate the pioneer . If they also succeed , news spreads and brings wider acceptance . Conscious efforts to lend organizational support to the new initiative helps institutionalize the new innovation .
Seafloor spreading
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Education reform
In order to be effective , classroom instruction needs to change subjects at times near a typical student 's attention span , which can be as frequently as every two minutes for young children . This is an important part of Marva Collins ' method .
Political campaign
Research is mixed on the precise impact of debates . Rather than encourage viewers to update their political views in accordance with the most persuasive arguments , viewers instead update their views to merely reflect what their favored candidate is saying . Presidential
Descriptive psychology
`` Worlds that individuals must negotiate are not once and forever things . Your place in the world must be maintained or improved or it may be lost ... A person not only constructs and maintains a world , but also can reconstruct that world in ways that give him or her more behavior potential . '' Note : `` Behavior potential is a principal DP term which refers to your range of `` options , '' i.e. the choices open to you .
Probability
Another significant application of probability theory in everyday life is reliability . Many consumer products , such as automobiles and consumer electronics , use reliability theory in product design to reduce the probability of failure . Failure probability may influence a manufacturer 's decisions on a product 's warranty .
Education reform
Longer school day or school year After - school tutoring Charter schools , school choice , or school vouchers Smaller class sizes Improved teacher quality Improved training Higher credential standards Generally higher pay to attract more qualified applicants Performance bonuses ( `` merit pay '' ) Firing low - performing teachers Internet and computer access in schools Track and reduce drop - out rate Track and reduce absenteeism English - only vs. bilingual education Mainstreaming or fully including students with special educational needs , rather than placing them in separate special schools Content of curriculum standards and textbooks What to teach , at what age , and to which students . For example , at what age should children normally learn to read ? Should all teenagers study algebra , or would it be more useful for them to take a mathematics class focused on statistics or personal finances ? Funding , neglected infrastructure , and adequacy of educational supplies Student rights
Teacher tenure reform (United States)
Tenure has been a controversial issue for some time . However , lately reforming or eliminating teacher tenure has become a pressing issue covered vastly by the media . Many politicians are actively voicing their opinions on tenure . Many states have new plans for their tenure system . There are many different reforms which are trying to be passed by legislation . It is hard to get reforms passed because one side of the debate must give up something every time a proposal is made . Some argue tenure is no longer necessary and that it is hurting America 's education system . Others argue tenure provides vital protections for teachers . While each state has its own specifics for how teacher tenure works , most hold a similar form . Each new teacher is given a probation period ( probation periods vary among states ) . During this probation period , teachers must prove they are worthy of receiving tenure . They must prove that they are having a positive effect on their students using a teacher evaluation system , which includes information from several facets of a teacher 's responsibilities . Some common facets are classroom observations , student growth , and self - reflection ( see , for example , New Haven and the state of Virginia ) .
Internet privacy
However most people have little idea how to go about doing many of these things . How can the average user with no training be expected to know how to run their own network security ( especially as things are getting more complicated all the time ) ? Many businesses hire professionals to take care of these issues , but most individuals can only do their best to learn about all this .
Plate tectonics
At the time , continental drift was not accepted . Some of these ideas were discussed in the context of abandoned fixistic ideas of a deforming globe without continental drift or an expanding Earth . They were published during an episode of extreme political and economic instability that hampered scientific communication . Many were published by European scientists and at first not mentioned or given little credit in the papers on sea floor spreading published by the American researchers in the 1960s .
Federal Reserve System
This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( October 2015 )
Veil of ignorance
It has been argued that such a concept can have grand effects if it were to be practiced both in the present and in the past . Referring again to the example of slavery , if the slave - owners were forced through the veil of ignorance to imagine that they themselves may be slaves , then suddenly slavery may no longer seem justifiable . Perhaps the entire practice would have been abolished without the need for a war to settle things . A grander example would be if each individual in society were to base their practices off the fact that they could be the least advantaged member of society . In this scenario , freedom and equality could possibly coexist in a way that has been the ideal of many philosophers . For example , in the imaginary society , one might or might not be intelligent , rich , or born into a preferred class . Since one may occupy any position in the society once the veil is lifted , the device forces the parties to consider society from the perspective of all members , including the worst - off and best - off members .
Social exchange theory
The prisoner 's dilemma is a widely used example in game theory that attempts to illustrate why or how two individuals may not cooperate with each other , even if it is in their best interest to do so . It demonstrates that while cooperation would give the best outcome , people might nevertheless act selfishly . All relationships involve exchanges although the balance of this exchange is not always equal . We can not achieve our goals alone so as humans sometimes we have to become actors . In the world today we see actors as unemotional people but that is not the case once we reach our goals in the end .
Individualism
On the traditional view , an explanation of economic phenomena that reaches a difference in tastes between people or times is the terminus of the argument : the problem is abandoned at this point to whoever studies and explains tastes ( psychologists ? anthropologists ? phrenologists ? sociobiologists ? ) . On our preferred interpretation , one never reaches this impasse : the economist continues to search for differences in prices or incomes to explain any differences or changes in behavior .
Descriptive psychology
DP comprises a vast network of concepts , and it will not be possible here to convey more than the general sense or `` flavor '' of the total enterprise . This will be attempted by presenting the basics of its treatment of two core concepts , those of `` behavior '' and of `` person '' , arguably the two most important concepts in DP . Following this , many applications of DP 's total conceptual network will be presented .
Utilitarianism
An article in the American journal for Economics has addressed the issue of Utilitarian ethics within redistribution of wealth . The journal stated that taxation of the wealthy is the best way to make use of the disposable income they receive . This says that the money creates utility for the most people by funding government services . Many utilitarian philosophers , including Peter Singer and Toby Ord , argue that inhabitants of developed countries in particular have an obligation to help to end extreme poverty across the world , for example by regularly donating some of their income to charity . Peter Singer , for example , argues that donating some of one 's income to charity could help to save a life or cure somebody from a poverty - related illness , which is a much better use of the money as it brings someone in extreme poverty far more happiness than it would bring to oneself if one lived in relative comfort . However , Singer not only argues that one ought to donate a significant proportion of one 's income to charity , but also that this money should be directed to the most cost - effective charities , in order to bring about the greatest good for the greatest number , consistent with utilitarian thinking . Singer 's ideas have formed the basis of the modern effective altruist movement .
Age of Enlightenment
The philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism , the scientific method , religious tolerance and the organization of states into self - governing republics through democratic means . In this view , the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change .
Treaty of Versailles
I am leaving Paris , after eight fateful months , with conflicting emotions . Looking at the conference in retrospect , there is much to approve and yet much to regret . It is easy to say what should have been done , but more difficult to have found a way of doing it . To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement , I feel like admitting it . But I would also say in reply that empires can not be shattered , and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance . To create new boundaries is to create new troubles . The one follows the other . While I should have preferred a different peace , I doubt very much whether it could have been made , for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris .
Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights
`` But now I must temper passion with realism . I believe we should adopt a group - based accommodation model to protect traditional civil rights groups from covering demands ''
Think globally, act locally
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Banksy
I do n't want to take sides . But when you see entire suburban neighbourhoods reduced to rubble with no hope of a future -- what you 're really looking at is a vast outdoor recruitment centre for terrorists . And we should probably address this for all our sakes . Dismaland