vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Natural selection
The early 19th - century zoologist Jean - Baptiste Lamarck suggested the inheritance of acquired characteristics as a mechanism for evolutionary change ; adaptive traits acquired by an organism during its lifetime could be inherited by that organism 's progeny , eventually causing transmutation of species . This theory , Lamarckism , was an influence on the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko 's antagonism to mainstream genetic theory as late as the mid 20th century .
Original sin
Eastern Orthodoxy accepts the doctrine of ancestral sin : `` Original sin is hereditary . It did not remain only Adam and Eve 's . As life passes from them to all of their descendants , so does original sin . '' `` As from an infected source there naturally flows an infected stream , so from a father infected with sin , and consequently mortal , there naturally proceeds a posterity infected like him with sin , and like him mortal . ''
Eukaryotic transcription
The gene expression patterns that define cell identity are inherited through cell division . This process is called epigenetic regulation . DNA methylation is reliably inherited through the action of maintenance methylases that modify the nascent DNA strand generated by replication . In mammalian cells , DNA methylation is the primary marker of transcriptionally silenced regions . Specialized proteins can recognize the marker and recruit histone deacetylases and methylases to re-establish the silencing . Nucleosome histone modifications could also be inherited during cell division , however , it is not clear whether it can work independently without the direction by DNA methylation .
Asexual reproduction
For example , in the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus asexual reproduction ( obligate parthenogenesis ) can be inherited by a recessive allele , which leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring . Inheritance of asexual reproduction by a single recessive locus has also been found in the parasitoid wasp Lysiphlebus fabarum .
Wealth inequality in the United States
There are many causes , including years of home ownership , household income , unemployment , and education , but inheritance might be the most important . Inheritance can directly link the disadvantaged economic position and prospects of today 's blacks to the disadvantaged positions of their parents ' and grandparents ' generations . According to a report done by Robert B. Avery and Michael S. Rendall , `` one in three white households will receive a substantial inheritance during their lifetime compared to only one in ten black households . '' This relative lack of inheritance that has been observed among African Americans can be attributed in large part to factors such as unpaid labor ( slavery ) , violent destruction of personal property in incidents such as Red Summer of 1919 , unequal opportunity in education and employment ( racial discrimination ) , and more recent policies such as redlining and planned shrinkage . Other ethnic minorities , particularly those with darker complexions , have at times faced many of these same adversities to various degrees .
Human brain
Some brain disorders such as Tay -- Sachs disease are congenital , and linked to genetic and chromosomal mutations . A rare group of congenital cephalic disorders known as lissencephaly is characterised by the lack of , or inadequacy of , cortical folding . Normal development of the brain can be affected during pregnancy by nutritional deficiencies , teratogens , infectious diseases , and by the use of recreational drugs and alcohol .
Gene
Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century . Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s . The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins using X-ray crystallography , which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double - stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication .
BRCA1
All germ - line BRCA1 mutations identified to date have been inherited , suggesting the possibility of a large `` founder '' effect in which a certain mutation is common to a well - defined population group and can , in theory , be traced back to a common ancestor . Given the complexity of mutation screening for BRCA1 , these common mutations may simplify the methods required for mutation screening in certain populations . Analysis of mutations that occur with high frequency also permits the study of their clinical expression . Examples of manifestations of a founder effect are seen among Ashkenazi Jews . Three mutations in BRCA1 have been reported to account for the majority of Ashkenazi Jewish patients with inherited BRCA1 - related breast and / or ovarian cancer : 185delAG , 188del11 and 5382insC in the BRCA1 gene . In fact , it has been shown that if a Jewish woman does not carry a BRCA1 185delAG , BRCA1 5382insC founder mutation , it is highly unlikely that a different BRCA1 mutation will be found . Additional examples of founder mutations in BRCA1 are given in Table 1 ( mainly derived from ) . This
Cousin marriage
Comprehensive genetic education and premarital genetic counseling programs can help to lessen the burden of genetic diseases in endogamous communities . Genetic education programs directed at high - school students have been successful in Middle Eastern countries such as Bahrain . Genetic counseling in developing countries has been hampered , however , by lack of trained staff , and couples may refuse prenatal diagnosis and selective abortion despite the endorsement of religious authorities . In Britain , the Human Genetics Commission recommends a strategy comparable with previous strategies in dealing with increased maternal age , notably as this age relates to an increased risk of Down Syndrome . All pregnant women in Britain are offered a screening test from the government - run national health service to identify those at an increased risk of having a baby with Down syndrome . The HGC states that similarly , it is appropriate to offer genetic counseling to consanguineous couples , preferably before they conceive , in order to establish the precise risk of a genetic abnormality in offspring . Under this system the offering of genetic counseling can be refused , unlike , for example , in the US state of Maine where genetic counseling is mandatory to obtain a marriage license for first cousins . Leading researcher Alan Bittles also concluded that though consanguinity clearly has a significant effect on childhood mortality and genetic disease in areas where it is common , it is `` essential that the levels of expressed genetic defect be kept in perspective , and to realize that the outcome of consanguineous marriages is not subject to assessment solely in terms of comparative medical audit '' . He states that the social , cultural , and economic benefits of cousin marriage also need to be fully considered .
Protein folding
Aggregated proteins are associated with prion - related illnesses such as Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease , bovine spongiform encephalopathy ( mad cow disease ) , amyloid - related illnesses such as Alzheimer 's disease and familial amyloid cardiomyopathy or polyneuropathy , as well as intracellular aggregation diseases such as Huntington 's and Parkinson 's disease . These age onset degenerative diseases are associated with the aggregation of misfolded proteins into insoluble , extracellular aggregates and / or intracellular inclusions including cross-β amyloid fibrils . It is not completely clear whether the aggregates are the cause or merely a reflection of the loss of protein homeostasis , the balance between synthesis , folding , aggregation and protein turnover . Recently the European Medicines Agency approved the use of Tafamidis or Vyndaqel ( a kinetic stabilizer of tetrameric transthyretin ) for the treatment of transthyretin amyloid diseases . This suggests that the process of amyloid fibril formation ( and not the fibrils themselves ) causes the degeneration of post-mitotic tissue in human amyloid diseases . Misfolding and excessive degradation instead of folding and function leads to a number of proteopathy diseases such as antitrypsin - associated emphysema , cystic fibrosis and the lysosomal storage diseases , where loss of function is the origin of the disorder . While protein replacement therapy has historically been used to correct the latter disorders , an emerging approach is to use pharmaceutical chaperones to fold mutated proteins to render them functional .
Cell-free fetal DNA
The analysis of cffDNA from a sample of maternal plasma allows the determination of fetal sex . Whether the sex of the fetus is male or female allows the determination of the risk of a particular X-linked recessive genetic disorder in a particular pregnancy , especially where the mother is a genetic carrier of the disorder . Most X-linked diseases are evident in males because of the lack of the second X-chromosome that can compensate for the disease allele . Common X-linked recessive disorders include Duchenne muscular dystrophy , fragile X syndrome and haemophilia .
Cell nucleus
Mutations in lamin genes leading to defects in filament assembly cause a group of rare genetic disorders known as laminopathies . The most notable laminopathy is the family of diseases known as progeria , which causes the appearance of premature aging in its sufferers . The exact mechanism by which the associated biochemical changes give rise to the aged phenotype is not well understood .
One-drop rule
Given the intense interest in ethnicity , genetic genealogists and other scientists have studied population groups . Henry Louis Gates , Jr. publicized such genetic studies on his two series African American Lives , shown on PBS , in which the ancestry of prominent figures was explored . His experts discussed the results of autosomal DNA tests , in contrast to direct - line testing , which survey all the DNA that has been inherited from the parents of an individual . Autosomal tests focus on SNPs .
Cousin marriage
Studies into the effect of cousin marriage on polygenic traits and complex diseases of adulthood have often yielded contradictory results due to the rudimentary sampling strategies used . Both positive and negative associations have been reported for breast cancer and heart disease . Consanguinity seems to affect many polygenic traits such as height , body mass index , intelligence and cardiovascular profile . Long - term studies conducted on the Dalmatian islands in the Adriatic Sea have indicated a positive association between inbreeding and a very wide range of common adulthood disorders , including hypertension , coronary heart disease , stroke , cancer , uni / bipolar depression , asthma , gout , peptic ulcer , and osteoporosis . However , these results may principally reflect village endogamy rather than consanguinity per se . Endogamy is marrying within a group and in this case the group was a village . The marital patterns of the Amish are also an example of endogamy .
X chromosome
Luke Hutchison noticed that a number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence . A male individual has an X chromosome , which he received from his mother , and a Y chromosome , which he received from his father . The male counts as the `` origin '' of his own X chromosome ( F 1 = 1 ( \ displaystyle F_ ( 1 ) = 1 ) ) , and at his parents ' generation , his X chromosome came from a single parent ( F 2 = 1 ( \ displaystyle F_ ( 2 ) = 1 ) ) . The male 's mother received one X chromosome from her mother ( the son 's maternal grandmother ) , and one from her father ( the son 's maternal grandfather ) , so two grandparents contributed to the male descendant 's X chromosome ( F 3 = 2 ( \ displaystyle F_ ( 3 ) = 2 ) ) . The maternal grandfather received his X chromosome from his mother , and the maternal grandmother received X chromosomes from both of her parents , so three great - grandparents contributed to the male descendant 's X chromosome ( F 4 = 3 ( \ displaystyle F_ ( 4 ) = 3 ) ) . Five great - great - grandparents contributed to the male descendant 's X chromosome ( F 5 = 5 ( \ displaystyle F_ ( 5 ) = 5 ) ) , etc . ( Note that this assumes that all ancestors of a given descendant are independent , but if any genealogy is traced far enough back in time , ancestors begin to appear on multiple lines of the genealogy , until eventually , a population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy . )
Cousin marriage
The increased mortality and birth defects observed among British Pakistanis may , however , have another source besides current consanguinity . This is population subdivision among different Pakistani groups . Population subdivision results from decreased gene flow among different groups in a population . Because members of Pakistani biradari have married only inside these groups for generations , offspring have higher average homozygosity even for couples with no known genetic relationship . According to a statement by the UK 's Human Genetics Commission on cousin marriages , the BBC also `` fails to clarify '' that children born to these marriages were not found to be 13 times more likely to develop genetic disorders . Instead they are 13 times more likely to develop recessive genetic disorders . The HGC states , `` Other types of genetic conditions , including chromosomal abnormalities , sex - linked conditions and autosomal dominant conditions are not influenced by cousin marriage . '' The HGC goes on to compare the biological risk between cousin marriage and increased maternal age , arguing that `` Both represent complex cultural trends . Both however , also carry a biological risk . They key difference , GIG argue , is that cousin marriage is more common amongst a British minority population . '' Genetic effects from cousin marriage in Britain are more obvious than in a developing country like Pakistan because the number of confounding environmental diseases is lower . Increased focus on genetic disease in developing countries may eventually result from progress in eliminating environmental diseases there as well .
Briard
This breed is also commonly screened for congenital stationary night blindness ( SNB ) with a DNA test . SNB is inherited through recessive genes . Progressive retinal atrophy PRA , is a disease that causes nerve cells at the back of the eye to degenerate . The condition usually begins in older pets and can lead to blindness . Progressive retinal degeneration or atrophy ( PRD / PRA ) represents a group of inherited eye diseases characterized by abnormal development or premature degeneration of the retina . There are two types of photoreceptors in the retina and these are the light - sensitive rods and cones . They are responsible for detecting light and converting it into an electrical signal that travels to the brain . When the photoreceptor cells deteriorate , vision is lost because the animal has no way to generate an image from the light reaching the retina . Puppies are usually blind before one year of age . For the first time ever , animals ( Briards ) that were born blind gained the ability to see after undergoing gene therapy , according to research from the University of Florida , Cornell University and the University of Pennsylvania . UF researchers had established that the apparently harmless adeno - associated virus can carry healthy copies of a gene into the cells of the retina , which is composed of layers of light - sensitive nerve cells . The healthy gene 's mission : to produce a protein critical to translating light waves into nerve impulses that can be interpreted as images by the brain . The study was successful and the puppies could see in the eye that was treated . Officials from the Foundation Fighting Blindness , which supported the study with grant funds , said the success in reversing blindness in dogs is an important advance .
Tooth decay
These bacterial strains , most notably S. mutans , can be inherited by a child from a caretaker 's kiss or through feeding premasticated .
Membrane transport protein
A number of inherited diseases involve defects in carrier proteins in a particular substance or group of cells . Cysteinuria ( cysteine in the urine and the bladder ) is such a disease involving defective cysteine carrier proteins in the kidney cell membranes . This transport system normally removes cysteine from the fluid destined to become urine and returns this essential amino acid to the blood . When this carrier malfunctions , large quantities of cysteine remain in the urine , where it is relatively insoluble and tends to precipitate . This is one cause of urinary stones . Some vitamin carrier proteins have been shown to be overexpressed in patients with malignant disease . For example , levels of riboflavin carrier protein ( RCP ) have been shown to be significantly elevated in people with breast cancer .
BRCA1
Women having inherited a defective BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene have risks for breast and ovarian cancer that are so high and seem so selective that many mutation carriers choose to have prophylactic surgery . There has been much conjecture to explain such apparently striking tissue specificity . Major determinants of where BRCA1 / 2 hereditary cancers occur are related to tissue specificity of the cancer pathogen , the agent that causes chronic inflammation or the carcinogen . The target tissue may have receptors for the pathogen , may become selectively exposed to an inflammatory process or to a carcinogen . An innate genomic deficit in a tumor suppressor gene impairs normal responses and exacerbates the susceptibility to disease in organ targets . This theory also fits data for several tumor suppressors beyond BRCA1 or BRCA2 . A major advantage of this model is that it suggests there may be some options in addition to prophylactic surgery .
Nation state
Huntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended , the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict . In his thesis , he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines .
Enzyme
Another way enzyme malfunctions can cause disease comes from germline mutations in genes coding for DNA repair enzymes . Defects in these enzymes cause cancer because cells are less able to repair mutations in their genomes . This causes a slow accumulation of mutations and results in the development of cancers . An example of such a hereditary cancer syndrome is xeroderma pigmentosum , which causes the development of skin cancers in response to even minimal exposure to ultraviolet light .
One-drop rule
As noted by Troy Duster , direct - line testing of the Y - chromosome and mtDNA ( mitochondrial DNA ) fails to pick up the heritage of many other ancestors . DNA testing has limitations and should not be depended on by individuals to answer all questions about heritage . Duster said that neither Shriver 's research nor Gates ' PBS program adequately acknowledged the limitations of genetic testing .
Neurotransmitter
Diseases and disorders may also affect specific neurotransmitter systems . For example , problems in producing dopamine can result in Parkinson 's disease , a disorder that affects a person 's ability to move as they want to , resulting in stiffness , tremors or shaking , and other symptoms . Some studies suggest that having too little or too much dopamine or problems using dopamine in the thinking and feeling regions of the brain may play a role in disorders like schizophrenia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . Similarly , after some research suggested that drugs that block the recycling , or reuptake , of serotonin seemed to help some people diagnosed with depression , it was theorized that people with depression might have lower - than - normal serotonin levels . Though widely popularized , this theory was not borne out in subsequent research . Furthermore , problems with producing or using glutamate have been suggestively and tentatively linked to many mental disorders , including autism , obsessive compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , schizophrenia , and depression . CAPON
Original sin
Witnesses believe that all men possess `` inherited sin '' from the `` one man '' Adam and they teach that verses such as Romans 5 : 12 - 22 , Psalm 51 : 5 , Job 14 : 4 , and 1st Corinthians 15 : 22 show that man is born corrupt , and dies because of inherited sin and imperfection , that inherited sin is the reason and cause for sickness and suffering , made worse by the Devil 's wicked influence . They believe Jesus is the `` second Adam '' , being the sinless Son of God and the Messiah , and that he came to undo Adamic sin ; and that salvation and everlasting life can only be obtained through faith and obedience to the second Adam . They believe that `` sin '' is `` missing the mark '' of God 's standard of perfection , and that everyone is born a sinner , due to being the offspring of sinner Adam .
Neuron
Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) , also known as Parkinson disease , is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer 's motor skills and speech . Parkinson 's disease belongs to a group of conditions called movement disorders . It is characterized by muscle rigidity , tremor , a slowing of physical movement ( bradykinesia ) , and in extreme cases , a loss of physical movement ( akinesia ) . The primary symptoms are the results of decreased stimulation of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia , normally caused by the insufficient formation and action of dopamine , which is produced in the dopaminergic neurons of the brain . Secondary symptoms may include high level cognitive dysfunction and subtle language problems . PD is both chronic and progressive .
Cousin marriage
Even in the absence of preferential consanguinity , alleles that are rare in large populations can randomly increase to high frequency in small groups within a few generations due to the founder effect and accelerated genetic drift in a breeding pool of restricted size . For example , because the entire Amish population is descended from only a few hundred 18th - century German - Swiss settlers , the average coefficient of inbreeding between two random Amish is higher than between two non-Amish second cousins . First - cousin marriage is taboo among Amish , but they still suffer from several rare genetic disorders . In Ohio 's Geauga County , Amish make up only about 10 percent of the population but represent half the special needs cases . In the case of one debilitating seizure disorder , the worldwide total of 12 cases exclusively involves Amish sufferers . Similar disorders have been found in the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - Day Saints , who do allow first - cousin marriage and of whom 75 to 80 percent are related to two 1830s founders .