vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
White blood cell
Infection Chronic inflammation -- especially juvenile rheumatoid arthritis , rheumatoid arthritis , Still 's disease , Crohn 's disease , ulcerative colitis , granulomatous infections ( for example , tuberculosis ) , and chronic hepatitis Cigarette smoking -- occurs in 25 -- 50 % of chronic smokers and can last up to 5 years after quitting Stress -- exercise , surgery , general stress Medication induced -- corticosteroids ( for example , prednisone , β - agonists , lithium ) Cancer -- either by growth factors secreted by the tumor or invasion of bone marrow by the cancer Increased destruction of cells in peripheral circulation can stimulate bone marrow . This can occur in hemolytic anemia and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura Eosinophilia
Apoptosis
The removal of dead cells by neighboring phagocytic cells has been termed efferocytosis . Dying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display phagocytotic molecules , such as phosphatidylserine , on their cell surface . Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the inner leaflet surface of the plasma membrane , but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as scramblase . These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells possessing the appropriate receptors , such as macrophages . The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response . During apoptosis cellular RNA and DNA are separated from each other and sorted to different apoptotic bodies ; separation of RNA is initiated as nucleolar segregation .
Stem cell
Stem cells can also be taken from umbilical cord blood just after birth . Of all stem cell types , autologous harvesting involves the least risk . By definition , autologous cells are obtained from one 's own body , just as one may bank his or her own blood for elective surgical procedures .
Lead poisoning
The main body compartments that store lead are the blood , soft tissues , and bone ; the half - life of lead in these tissues is measured in weeks for blood , months for soft tissues , and years for bone . Lead in the bones , teeth , hair , and nails is bound tightly and not available to other tissues , and is generally thought not to be harmful . In adults , 94 % of absorbed lead is deposited in the bones and teeth , but children only store 70 % in this manner , a fact which may partially account for the more serious health effects on children . The estimated half - life of lead in bone is 20 to 30 years , and bone can introduce lead into the bloodstream long after the initial exposure is gone . The half - life of lead in the blood in men is about 40 days , but it may be longer in children and pregnant women , whose bones are undergoing remodeling , which allows the lead to be continuously re-introduced into the bloodstream . Also , if lead exposure takes place over years , clearance is much slower , partly due to the re-release of lead from bone . Many other tissues store lead , but those with the highest concentrations ( other than blood , bone , and teeth ) are the brain , spleen , kidneys , liver , and lungs . Lead is removed from the body very slowly , mainly through urine . Smaller amounts of lead are also eliminated through the feces , and very small amounts in hair , nails , and sweat .
Germ cell
In reptiles and birds , germ cells use another path . PGCs come from the epiblast and move to the hypoblast to form the germinal crescent ( anterior extraembryonic structure ) . The gonocytes then squeeze into blood vessels and use the circulatory system for transport . They squeeze out of the vessels when they are at height of the gonadal ridges . Cell adhesion on the endothelium of the blood vessels and molecules such as chemoattractants are probably involved in helping PGCs migrate . The
Human brain
From the skin , the brain receives information about fine touch , pressure , pain , vibration and temperature . From the joints , the brain receives information about joint position . The sensory cortex is found just near the motor cortex , and , like the motor cortex , has areas related to sensation from different body parts . Sensation collected by a sensory receptor on the skin is changed to a nerve signal , that is passed up a series of neurons through tracts in the spinal cord . The posterior column -- medial lemniscus pathway contains information about fine touch , vibration and position of joints . Neurons travel up the back part of the spinal cord to the back part of the medulla , where they connect with `` second order '' neurons that immediately swap sides . These neurons then travel upwards into the ventrobasal complex in the thalamus where they connect with `` third order '' neurons , and travel up to the sensory cortex. The spinothalamic tract carries information about pain , temperature , and gross touch . Neurons travel up the spinal cord and connect with second - order neurons in the reticular formation of the brainstem for pain and temperature , and also at the ventrobasal complex of the medulla for gross touch .
Human musculoskeletal system
The skeletal system serves many important functions ; it provides the shape and form for the body , support and protection , allows bodily movement , produces blood for the body , and stores minerals . The number of bones in the human skeletal system is a controversial topic . Humans are born with over 300 bones ; however , many bones fuse together between birth and maturity . As a result , an average adult skeleton consists of 206 bones . The number of bones varies according to the method used to derive the count . While some consider certain structures to be a single bone with multiple parts , others may see it as a single part with multiple bones . There are five general classifications of bones . These are long bones , short bones , flat bones , irregular bones , and sesamoid bones . The human skeleton is composed of both fused and individual bones supported by ligaments , tendons , muscles and cartilage . It is a complex structure with two distinct divisions ; the axial skeleton , which includes the vertebral column , and the appendicular skeleton . Function
Thymus
The epithelium forms fine lobules , and develops into a sponge - like structure . During this stage , hematopoietic bone - marrow precursors migrate into the thymus . Normal development is dependent on the interaction between the epithelium and the hematopoietic thymocytes . Iodine is also necessary for thymus development and activity .
Respiratory system
The kidneys measure the oxygen content ( mmol O / liter blood , rather than the partial pressure of O ) of the arterial blood . When the oxygen content of the blood is chronically low , as at high altitude , the oxygen - sensitive kidney cells secrete erythropoietin ( often known only by its abbreviated form as EPO ) into the blood . This hormone stimulates the red bone marrow to increase its rate of red cell production , which leads to an increase in the hematocrit of the blood , and a consequent increase in its oxygen carrying capacity ( due to the now high hemoglobin content of the blood ) . In other words , at the same arterial partial pressure of O , a person with a high hematocrit carries more oxygen per liter of blood than a person with a lower hematocrit does . High altitude dwellers therefore have higher hematocrits than sea - level residents .
Kidney
The kidneys are two bean - shaped organs found on the left and right sides of the body in vertebrates . They are located at the back of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space . In adults they are about 11 centimetres ( 4.3 in ) in length . They receive blood from the paired renal arteries ; blood exits into the paired renal veins . Each kidney is attached to a ureter , a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder ...
Connective tissue
In hematopoietic and lymphatic tissues , reticular fibers made by reticular cells provide the stroma -- or structural support -- for the parenchyma -- or functional part -- of the organ .
Cell nucleus
The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells . Inside its fully enclosed nuclear membrane , it contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material . This material is organized as DNA molecules , along with a variety of proteins , to form chromosomes .
Bohr effect
The Bohr effect increases the efficiency of oxygen transportation through the blood . After hemoglobin binds to oxygen in the lungs due to the high oxygen concentrations , the Bohr effect facilitates its release in the tissues , particularly those tissues in most need of oxygen . When a tissue 's metabolic rate increases , so does its carbon dioxide waste production . When released into the bloodstream , carbon dioxide forms bicarbonate and protons through the following reaction :
Stem cell
The primitive stem cells located in the organs of fetuses are referred to as fetal stem cells . There are two types of fetal stem cells :
Cell nucleus
An anucleated cell contains no nucleus and is , therefore , incapable of dividing to produce daughter cells . The best - known anucleated cell is the mammalian red blood cell , or erythrocyte , which also lacks other organelles such as mitochondria , and serves primarily as a transport vessel to ferry oxygen from the lungs to the body 's tissues . Erythrocytes mature through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow , where they lose their nuclei , organelles , and ribosomes . The nucleus is expelled during the process of differentiation from an erythroblast to a reticulocyte , which is the immediate precursor of the mature erythrocyte . The presence of mutagens may induce the release of some immature `` micronucleated '' erythrocytes into the bloodstream . Anucleated cells can also arise from flawed cell division in which one daughter lacks a nucleus and the other has two nuclei .
Sickle cell disease
Bone marrow transplants have proven effective in children . Bone marrow transplants are the only known cure for SCD . However , bone marrow transplants are difficult to obtain because of the specific HLA typing necessary . Ideally , a close relative ( allogeneic ) would donate the bone marrow necessary for transplantation .
Anemia
Other characteristics visible on the peripheral smear may provide valuable clues about a more specific diagnosis ; for example , abnormal white blood cells may point to a cause in the bone marrow . Microcytic
Stem cell
Stem cell treatments may lower symptoms of the disease or condition that is being treated . The lowering of symptoms may allow patients to reduce the drug intake of the disease or condition . Stem cell treatment may also provide knowledge for society to further stem cell understanding and future treatments .
Stem cell
Adult stem cells are frequently used in various medical therapies ( e.g. , bone marrow transplantation ) . Stem cells can now be artificially grown and transformed ( differentiated ) into specialized cell types with characteristics consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves . Embryonic cell lines and autologous embryonic stem cells generated through somatic cell nuclear transfer or dedifferentiation have also been proposed as promising candidates for future therapies . Research into stem cells grew out of findings by Ernest A. McCulloch and James E. Till at the University of Toronto in the 1960s .
Germ cell
PGCs come from the epiblast and migrate subsequently into the mesoderm , the endoderm and the posterior of the yolk sac . Migration then takes place from the hindgut along the gut and across the dorsal mesentery to reach the gonads ( 4.5 weeks in human beings ) . Fibronectin maps here also a polarized network together with other molecules . The somatic cells on the path of germ cells provide them attractive , repulsive , and survival signals . But germ cells also send signals to each other .
Bone marrow
Cellular constitution of the red bone marrow parenchyma Group Cell type Average fraction Reference range Myelopoietic cells Myeloblasts 0.9 % 0.2 -- 1.5 Promyelocytes 3.3 % 2.1 -- 4.1 Neutrophilic myelocytes 12.7 % 8.2 -- 15.7 Eosinophilic myelocytes 0.8 % 0.2 -- 1.3 Neutrophilic metamyelocytes 15.9 % 9.6 -- 24.6 Eosinophilic metamyelocytes 1.2 % 0.4 -- 2.2 Neutrophilic band cells 12.4 % 9.5 -- 15.3 Eosinophilic band cells 0.9 % 0.2 -- 2.4 Segmented neutrophils 7.4 % 6.0 -- 12.0 Segmented eosinophils 0.5 % 0.0 -- 1.3 Segmented basophils and mast cells 0.1 % 0.0 -- 0.2 Erythropoietic cells Pronormoblasts 0.6 % 0.2 -- 1.3 Basophilic normoblasts 1.4 % 0.5 -- 2.4 Polychromatic normoblasts 21.6 % 17.9 -- 29.2 Orthochromatic normoblast 2.0 % 0.4 -- 4.6 Other cell types Megakaryocytes < 0.1 % 0.0 - 0.4 Plasma cells 1.3 % 0.4 - 3.9 Reticular cells 0.3 % 0.0 - 0.9 Lymphocytes 16.2 % 11.1 - 23.2 Monocytes 0.3 % 0.0 - 0.8
Epiphyseal plate
Endochondral ossification is responsible for the initial bone development from cartilage in utero and infants and the longitudinal growth of long bones in the epiphyseal plate . The plate 's chondrocytes are under constant division by mitosis . These daughter cells stack facing the epiphysis while the older cells are pushed towards the diaphysis . As the older chondrocytes degenerate , osteoblasts ossify the remains to form new bone . In puberty increasing levels of estrogen , in both females and males , leads to increased apoptosis of chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate . Depletion of chondrocytes due to apoptosis leads to less ossification and growth slows down and later stops when the entire cartilage have become replaced by bone , leaving only a thin epiphyseal scar which later disappears .
Human musculoskeletal system
It is made up of the bones of the skeleton , muscles , cartilage , tendons , ligaments , joints , and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together . The musculoskeletal system 's primary functions include supporting the body , allowing motion , and protecting vital organs . The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the hematopoietic system .
Eukaryote
Mitochondria are organelles found in all but one eukaryote . Mitochondria provide energy to the eukaryote cell by converting sugars into ATP . They have two surrounding membranes , each a phospholipid bi-layer ; the inner of which is folded into invaginations called cristae where aerobic respiration takes place .
Sickle cell disease
When treating avascular necrosis of the bone in people with sickle cell disease , the aim of treatment is to reduce or stop the pain and maintain joint mobility . Current treatment options are to rest the joint , physical therapy , pain relief medicine , joint replacement surgery , or bone grafting . High quality randomized controlled trials are needed to assess the most effective treatment option and determine if a combination of physical therapy and surgery are more effective than physical therapy alone .
Cell nucleus
In cell biology , the nucleus ( pl . nuclei ; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus , meaning kernel or seed ) is a membrane - enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells . Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus , but a few cell types , such as mammalian red blood cells , have no nuclei , and a few others have many . Human skeletal muscle cells have more than one nucleus , as do eukaryotes like fungi .
Glycogen
Glycogen functions as one of two forms of long - term energy reserves , with the other form being triglyceride stores in adipose tissue ( i.e. , body fat ) . In humans , glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle . In the liver , glycogen can make up from 5 -- 6 % of the organ 's fresh weight and the liver of an adult weighing 70 kg can store roughly 100 -- 120 grams of glycogen . In skeletal muscle , glycogen is found in a low concentration ( 1 -- 2 % of the muscle mass ) and the skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg can store roughly 400 grams of glycogen . The amount of glycogen stored in the body -- particularly within the muscles and liver -- mostly depends on physical training , basal metabolic rate , and eating habits . Small amounts of glycogen are also found in other tissues and cells , including the kidneys , red blood cells , white blood cells , and glial cells in the brain . The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo .
Stem cell
Research is underway to develop various sources for stem cells , and to apply stem cell treatments for neurodegenerative diseases and conditions , diabetes , heart disease , and other conditions . Research is also underway in generating organoids using stem cells , which would allow for further understanding of human development , organogenesis , and modeling of human diseases .
Endocrine system
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Parathyroid hormone PTH Parathyroid chief cell Calcium : Stimulates Ca release from bone , thereby increasing blood Ca Stimulates osteoclasts , thus breaking down bone Stimulates Ca reabsorption in kidney Stimulates activated vitamin D production in kidney Phosphate : Stimulates PO release from bones , thereby increasing blood PO . Inhibits PO reabsorption in kidney , so more PO is excreted Overall , small net drop in serum PO . Skin
Heart
The right heart collects deoxygenated blood from two large veins , the superior and inferior venae cavae . Blood collects in the right and left atrium continuously . The superior vena cava drains blood from above the diaphragm and empties into the upper back part of the right atrium . The inferior vena cava drains the blood from below the diaphragm and empties into the back part of the atrium below the opening for the superior vena cava . Immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava is the opening of the thin - walled coronary sinus . Additionally , the coronary sinus returns deoxygenated blood from the myocardium to the right atrium . The blood collects in the right atrium . When the right atrium contracts , the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle . As the right ventricle contracts , the tricuspid valve closes and the blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk through the pulmonary valve . The pulmonary trunk divides into pulmonary arteries and progressively smaller arteries throughout the lungs , until it reaches capillaries . As these pass by alveoli carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen . This happens through the passive process of diffusion .
Human brain
The brainstem lies beneath the cerebrum and consists of the midbrain , pons and medulla . It lies in the back part of the skull , resting on the part of the base known as the clivus , and ends at the foramen magnum , a large opening in the occipital bone . The brainstem continues below this as the spinal cord , protected by the vertebral column .
Testosterone
The largest amounts of testosterone ( > 95 % ) are produced by the testes in men , while the adrenal glands account for most of the remainder . Testosterone is also synthesized in far smaller total quantities in women by the adrenal glands , thecal cells of the ovaries , and , during pregnancy , by the placenta . In the testes , testosterone is produced by the Leydig cells . The male generative glands also contain Sertoli cells , which require testosterone for spermatogenesis . Like most hormones , testosterone is supplied to target tissues in the blood where much of it is transported bound to a specific plasma protein , sex hormone - binding globulin ( SHBG ) . Regulation
Spinal cord
The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system . Much shorter than its protecting spinal column , the human spinal cord originates in the brainstem , passes through the foramen magnum , and continues through to the conus medullaris near the second lumbar vertebra before terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale .
Cell theory
All known living things are made up of one or more cells All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division . The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms . The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells . Energy flow ( metabolism and biochemistry ) occurs within cells . Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm . All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .
Mitochondrion
Mitochondria ( and related structures ) are found in all eukaryotes ( except one -- the Oxymonad Monocercomonoides sp . ) . Although commonly depicted as bean - like structures they form a highly dynamic network in the majority of cells where they constantly undergo fission and fusion . Mitochondria vary in number and location according to cell type . A single mitochondrion is often found in unicellular organisms . Conversely , numerous mitochondria are found in human liver cells , with about 1000 -- 2000 mitochondria per cell , making up 1 / 5 of the cell volume . The population of all the mitochondria of a given cell constitutes the chondriome . The mitochondrial content of otherwise similar cells can vary substantially in size and membrane potential , with differences arising from sources including uneven partitioning at cell divisions , leading to extrinsic differences in ATP levels and downstream cellular processes . The mitochondria can be found nestled between myofibrils of muscle or wrapped around the sperm flagellum . Often , they form a complex 3D branching network inside the cell with the cytoskeleton . The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape , which can affect the function as well : different structures of the mitochondrial network may afford the population a variety of physical , chemical , and signalling advantages or disadvantages . Mitochondria in cells are always distributed along microtubules and the distribution of these organelles is also correlated with the endoplasmic reticulum . Recent evidence suggests that vimentin , one of the components of the cytoskeleton , is also critical to the association with the cytoskeleton .
Femur
The femur is the longest and , by most measures , the strongest bone in the human body . Its length on average is 26.74 % of a person 's height , a ratio found in both men and women and most ethnic groups with only restricted variation , and is useful in anthropology because it offers a basis for a reasonable estimate of a subject 's height from an incomplete skeleton .
Heart
The human heart is situated in the middle mediastinum , at the level of thoracic vertebrae T5 - T8 . A double - membraned sac called the pericardium surrounds the heart and attaches to the mediastinum . The back surface of the heart lies near the vertebral column , and the front surface sits behind the sternum and rib cartilages . The upper part of the heart is the attachment point for several large blood vessels -- the venae cavae , aorta and pulmonary trunk . The upper part of the heart is located at the level of the third costal cartilage . The lower tip of the heart , the apex , lies to the left of the sternum ( 8 to 9 cm from the midsternal line ) between the junction of the fourth and fifth ribs near their articulation with the costal cartilages .
White blood cell
The complete blood cell count is a blood panel that includes the overall WBC count and various subsets such as the absolute neutrophil count . Reference ranges for blood tests specify the typical counts in healthy people .
Positron emission tomography
To conduct the scan , a short - lived radioactive tracer isotope is injected into the living subject ( usually into blood circulation ) . Each tracer atom has been chemically incorporated into a biologically active molecule . There is a waiting period while the active molecule becomes concentrated in tissues of interest ; then the subject is placed in the imaging scanner . The molecule most commonly used for this purpose is F - 18 labeled fluorodeoxyglucose ( FDG ) , a sugar , for which the waiting period is typically an hour . During the scan , a record of tissue concentration is made as the tracer decays . Schema