vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Entamoeba histolytica
Poor sanitary conditions are known to increase the risk of contracting amebiasis E. hystolytica . In the United States , there is a much higher rate of amebiasis - related mortality in California and Texas , which might be caused by the proximity of those states to E. histolytica - endemic areas , such as Mexico , other parts of Latin America , and Asia . E. hystolytica is also recognized as an emerging sexually transmissible pathogen , especially in male homosexual relations , causing outbreaks in non-endemic regions . As such , high - risk sex behaviour is also a potential source of infection . Although it is unclear whether there is a causal link , studies indicate a higher chance of being infected with E. hystolytica if one is also infected with HIV .
CCR5
The hypothesis that smallpox exerted positive selection for CCR5 Δ32 is also biologically plausible , since poxviruses , like HIV , are viruses that enter white blood cells by using chemokine receptors . By contrast , Yersinia pestis is a bacterium with a very different biology .
Diphtheria
In 1975 , an outbreak of cutaneous diphtheria in Seattle , Washington , was reported .
Origin of language
According to the recent African origins hypothesis , from around 60,000 -- 50,000 years ago a group of humans left Africa and began migrating to occupy the rest of the world , carrying language and symbolic culture with them .
Apartheid
Malawi was the first country not - neighbouring country to accept South African aid . In 1967 , the two states set out their political and economic relations , and in 1969 ; Malawi was the only country at the assembly which did not sign the Lusaka Manifesto condemning South Africa ' apartheid policy . In 1970 , Malawian president Hastings Banda made his first and most successful official stopover in South Africa .
Germ theory of disease
The Italian Agostino Bassi was the first person to prove that a disease was caused by a microorganism when he conducted a series of experiments between 1808 and 1813 , demonstrating that a `` vegetable parasite '' caused a disease in silkworms known as calcinaccio -- this disease was devastating the French silk industry at the time . The `` vegetable parasite '' is now known to be a fungus pathogenic to insects called Beauveria bassiana ( named after Bassi ) .
Indigenous Australians
One immediate consequence was a series of epidemics of European diseases such as measles , smallpox and tuberculosis . In the 19th century , smallpox was the principal cause of Aboriginal deaths , and was listed in the inventory of goods brought by the first fleet . There is contention as to whether smallpox was deliberately introduced , or spread from Macassan traders from the north . This smallpox epidemic in 1789 is estimated to have killed up to 90 % of the Darug people . The cause of the outbreak is disputed . Some scholars have attributed it to European settlers , but it is also argued that Macassan fishermen from South Sulawesi and nearby islands may have introduced smallpox to Australia prior to the arrival of Europeans . A third suggestion is that the outbreak was caused by contact with members of the First Fleet . A fourth theory is that the epidemic was of chickenpox , not smallpox , carried by members of the First Fleet , and to which the Aborigines also had no immunity .
Saudi Arabia
There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago . It is now believed that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left Africa about 75,000 years ago across the Bab - el - Mandeb connecting Horn of Africa and Arabia .
Cashew
The species is originally native to northeastern Brazil . Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s . Major production of cashews occurs in Vietnam , Nigeria , India , and Ivory Coast .
Rodinia
The Rodinia hypothesis assumes that rifting did not start everywhere simultaneously . Extensive lava flows and volcanic eruptions of Neoproterozoic age are found on most continents , evidence for large scale rifting about 750 million years ago . As early as 850 and 800 million years ago , a rift developed between the continental masses of present - day Australia , East Antarctica , India and the Congo and Kalahari cratons on one side and later Laurentia , Baltica , Amazonia and the West African and Rio de la Plata cratons on the other . This rift developed into the Adamastor Ocean during the Ediacaran .
Afrikaans
The linguist Paul Roberge suggested the earliest ' truly Afrikaans ' texts are doggerel verse from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825 . Printed material among the Afrikaners at first used only standard European Dutch . By the mid-19th century , more and more were appearing in Afrikaans , which was very much still regarded as a set of regional dialects .
History of West Africa
European traders first became a force in the region in the 15th century , with the 1445 establishment of a Portuguese trading post at Arguin Island , off the coast of present - day Senegal ; by 1475 , Portuguese traders had reached as far as the Bight of Benin . The transatlantic African slave trade began almost immediately after based on the already well established slave trading capacity serving the Islamic world , with the Portuguese taking hundreds of captives back to their country for use as slaves ; however , it would not begin on a grand scale until Christopher Columbus 's voyage to the Americas and the subsequent demand for cheap colonial labour . In 1510 , the Spanish crown legalised the African slave trade , followed by the English in 1562 . By 1650 the slave trade was in full force at a number of sites along the coast of West Africa , and over the coming centuries would result in severely reduced growth for the region 's population and economy . The expanding Atlantic slave trade produced significant populations of West Africans living in the New World , recently colonised by Europeans . The oldest known remains of African slaves in the Americas were found in Mexico in early 2006 ; they are thought to date from the late 16th century and the mid-17th century .
History of West Africa
This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )
Easter Island
The immunosuppressant drug sirolimus was first discovered in the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus in a soil sample from Easter Island . The drug is also known as rapamycin , after Rapa Nui . It is now being studied for extending longevity in mice .
History of West Africa
The Akan speak a Kwa Language . The speakers of Kwa languages are believed to have come from East / Central Africa , before settling in the Sahel . By the 12th century , the Akan Kingdom of Bonoman ( Bono State ) was established . Bonoman was a trading state created by the Abron people . Bonoman was a medieval Akan kingdom in what is now the Brong - Ahafo Region of Ghana and eastern Ivory Coast . It is generally accepted as the origin of the subgroups of the Akan people who migrated out of the state at various times to create new Akan states in search of gold . The gold trade , which started to boom in Bonoman as early in the 12th century , was the genesis of Akan power and wealth in the region , beginning in the Middle Ages . During the 13th century , when the gold mines in modern - day Mali started to dry up , Bonoman and later other Akan states began to rise to prominence as the major players in the gold trade .
Origin of replication
The origin of replication ( also called the replication origin ) is a particular sequence in a genome at which replication is initiated . This can either involve the replication of DNA in living organisms such as prokaryotes and eukaryotes , or that of DNA or RNA in viruses , such as double - stranded RNA viruses .
Horn of Africa
According to linguists , the first Afro - Asiatic - speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family 's proposed urheimat ( `` original homeland '' ) in the Nile Valley , or the Near East . Other scholars propose that the Afro - Asiatic family developed in situ in the Horn , with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there . Genetic analysis also indicates that , beginning in the pre-agricultural period , settlers from the Near East founded communities in Northeast Africa . These early settlements eventually gave rise to the Afro - Asiatic - speaking populations in the Horn and Maghreb as the groups spread .
History of West Africa
The region of western Africa was formed from the ancient craton Atlantica approximately 2 billion years ago when the Earth was beginning to form . Archaeological studies have found that early human settlers arrived in West Africa around 12,000 BCE . Geological and geomorphological studies have revealed that there were significant structural changes and crustal movements that occurred in West Africa like other parts of Africa ( Sowunmi , 2006 ) . Stone industries known as the Stone Age have been found primarily in the region of the Savannah where pastoral tribes existed using chiselled stone blades and spears . The tribesmen of Guinea and the forested regions of the coast were without microliths for thousands of years , but prospered using bone tools and other means .
Cigarette
The earliest forms of cigarettes were similar to their predecessor , the cigar . Cigarettes appear to have had antecedents in Mexico and Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds and smoking tubes . The Maya , and later the Aztecs , smoked tobacco and other psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings . The cigarette and the cigar were the most common methods of smoking in the Caribbean , Mexico , and Central and South America until recent times .
Virus
Many viruses can be synthesised de novo ( `` from scratch '' ) and the first synthetic virus was created in 2002 . Although somewhat of a misconception , it is not the actual virus that is synthesised , but rather its DNA genome ( in case of a DNA virus ) , or a cDNA copy of its genome ( in case of RNA viruses ) . For many virus families the naked synthetic DNA or RNA ( once enzymatically converted back from the synthetic cDNA ) is infectious when introduced into a cell . That is , they contain all the necessary information to produce new viruses . This technology is now being used to investigate novel vaccine strategies . The ability to synthesise viruses has far - reaching consequences , since viruses can no longer be regarded as extinct , as long as the information of their genome sequence is known and permissive cells are available . As of November 2017 , the full - length genome sequences of 7454 different viruses , including smallpox , are publicly available in an online database maintained by the National Institutes of Health .
Victorian morality
Throughout the Victorian Era , homosexuality held a vexed position in the culture . Homosexual acts were a capital offence until 1861 . Michel Foucault has argued that homosexual and heterosexual identities did not emerge until the 19th century ; before that time terms described practices and not identity . Foucault cites `` Westphal 's famous article of 1870 on ' contrary sexual sensations ' '' as the `` date of birth '' of the categorization of the homosexual ( Foucault 1976 ) . The first known use of homosexual in English is not until Charles Gilbert Chaddock 's 1895 translation of Richard von Krafft - Ebing 's Psychopathia Sexualis , a study on sexual practices .
Herpes simplex
A genomic study of the herpes simplex type 1 virus confirmed the human migration pattern theory known as the out - of - Africa hypothesis .
Cell theory
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope . The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s . In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly - like substance , sometimes called living jelly . At about the same time , colloidal chemistry began its development , and the concepts of bound water emerged . A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension , where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation . The idea of a semipermeable membrane , a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time . The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized , but it was n't until 1877 , when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology . In this view , the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface , the plasma membrane , and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution . In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes . By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit , the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume . He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50 % in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells .
Horn of Africa
Ethiopian agriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grass Teff ( Poa abyssinica ) between 4000 -- 1000 BCE . Teff is used to make the flat bread injera / taita . Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage . Ethiopian art is renowned for the ancient tradition of Ethiopian Orthodox Christian iconography stretching back to wall paintings of the 7th century CE . Somali architecture includes the Fakr ad - Din Mosque , which was built in 1269 by the Fakr ad - Din , the first Sultan of the Sultanate of Mogadishu . Ethiopia , too is renowned for its ancient churches , such as at the UNESCO World Heritage Site at Lalibela .
History of the Jews in Egypt
Among those Jews deported , Dr. Raymond F. Schinazi who was born in Alexandria left Egypt with his family to an Italian refugee camp at the age of thirteen . Later on , Dr. Schinazi working for Gilead Sciences , agreed to provide Egypt with the drug Sovaldi at $300 which is only one percent of its market price . In Egypt , there is currently a total of around 12 million Egyptians infected with hepatitis C .
Colonial history of the United States
The first successful English colony was Jamestown , established May 14 , 1607 near Chesapeake Bay . The business venture was financed and coordinated by the London Virginia Company , a joint stock company looking for gold . Its first years were extremely difficult , with very high death rates from disease and starvation , wars with local Indians , and little gold . The colony survived and flourished by turning to tobacco as a cash crop . By the late 17th century , Virginia 's export economy was largely based on tobacco , and new , richer settlers came in to take up large portions of land , build large plantations and import indentured servants and slaves . In 1676 , Bacon 's Rebellion occurred , but was suppressed by royal officials . After Bacon 's Rebellion , African slaves rapidly replaced indentured servants as Virginia 's main labor force .
Tooth decay
In 1924 in London , Killian Clarke described a spherical bacterium in chains isolated from carious lesions which he called Streptococcus mutans . Although Clarke proposed that this organism was the cause of caries , the discovery was not followed up . Later , in the 1950s in the USA , Keyes and Fitzgerald working with hamsters showed that caries was transmissible and caused by an acid - producing Streptococcus . It was not until the late 1960s that it became generally accepted that the Streptococcus isolated from hamster caries was the same as S. mutans described by Clarke .
Herpes simplex
In October 2011 , the anti-HIV drug tenofovir , when used topically in a microbicidal vaginal gel , was reported to reduce herpes virus sexual transmission by 51 % .
Plant virus
The discovery of plant viruses causing disease is often accredited to A. Mayer ( 1886 ) working in the Netherlands demonstrated that the sap of mosaic obtained from tobacco leaves developed mosaic symptom when injected in healthy plants . However the infection of the sap was destroyed when it was boiled . He thought that the causal agent was the bacteria . However , after larger inoculation with a large number of bacteria , he failed to develop a mosaic symptom .
First Fleet
Convicts were originally transported to the Thirteen Colonies in North America , but after the American War of Independence ended in 1783 , the newly formed United States refused to accept further convicts . On 6 December 1785 , Orders in Council were issued in London for the establishment of a penal colony in New South Wales , on land claimed for Britain by explorer James Cook in his first voyage to the Pacific in 1770 .
Famine
The first documentation of weather in West - Central Africa occurs around the mid-16th to 17th centuries in areas such as Luanda Kongo , however , not much data was recorded on the issues of weather and disease except for a few notable documents . The only records obtained are of violence between Portuguese and Africans during the Battle of Mbilwa in 1665 . In these documents the Portuguese wrote of African raids on Portuguese merchants solely for food , giving clear signs of famine . Additionally , instances of cannibalism by the African Jaga were also more prevalent during this time frame , indicating an extreme deprivation of a primary food source .
History of Kenya
Linguistic evidence points to a relative sequence of population movements into Kenya that begins with the entry into northern Kenya of a Southern Cushitic speaking population around the 3rd millennium BC . They kept domestic stock , most likely sheep and goats , and possibly also had a knowledge of agriculture . By 1000 BC and even earlier , the Southern Cushities had spread into central Kenya and northern Tanzania .
Plant virus
The purification ( crystallization ) of TMV was first performed by Wendell Stanley , who published his findings in 1935 , although he did not determine that the RNA was the infectious material . However , he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1946 . In the 1950s a discovery by two labs simultaneously proved that the purified RNA of the TMV was infectious which reinforced the argument . The RNA carries genetic information to code for the production of new infectious particles .
Ancient Egypt
The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment . Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites , which caused liver and intestinal damage . Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat . The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints , and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body . The grit and sand from stone - ground flour abraded teeth , leaving them susceptible to abscesses ( though caries were rare ) .
History of West Africa
The Ghana Empire may have been an established kingdom as early as the 6th century CE , founded among the Soninke , a Mandé people who lived at the crossroads of this new trade , around the city of Kumbi Saleh . Ghana was first mentioned by Arab geographer Al - Farazi in the late 8th century . After 800 , the empire expanded rapidly , coming to dominate the entire western Sudan ; at its height , the empire could field an army of 200,000 soldiers .
South Africa
South African literature emerged from a unique social and political history . One of the first well known novels written by a black author in an African language was Solomon Thekiso Plaatje 's Mhudi , written in 1930 . During the 1950s , Drum magazine became a hotbed of political satire , fiction , and essays , giving a voice to urban black culture .
History of Kenya
Beginning around 700 BC , Southern Nilotic speaking communities whose homelands lay somewhere near the common border between Sudan , Uganda , Kenya and Ethiopia moved south into the western highlands and Rift Valley region of Kenya .
Atlantic slave trade
The Rastafari movement , which originated in Jamaica , where 98 % of the population are descended from victims of the Atlantic slave trade , has made great efforts to publicize the slavery and to ensure it is not forgotten , especially through reggae music .
Virus
Co-evolution hypothesis This is also called the virus - first hypothesis and proposes that viruses may have evolved from complex molecules of protein and nucleic acid at the same time as cells first appeared on Earth and would have been dependent on cellular life for billions of years . Viroids are molecules of RNA that are not classified as viruses because they lack a protein coat . They have characteristics that are common to several viruses and are often called subviral agents . Viroids are important pathogens of plants . They do not code for proteins but interact with the host cell and use the host machinery for their replication . The hepatitis delta virus of humans has an RNA genome similar to viroids but has a protein coat derived from hepatitis B virus and can not produce one of its own . It is , therefore , a defective virus . Although hepatitis delta virus genome may replicate independently once inside a host cell , it requires the help of hepatitis B virus to provide a protein coat so that it can be transmitted to new cells . In similar manner , the sputnik virophage is dependent on mimivirus , which infects the protozoan Acanthamoeba castellanii . These viruses , which are dependent on the presence of other virus species in the host cell , are called satellites and may represent evolutionary intermediates of viroids and viruses .
First Fleet
There is a third theory , that the 1789 epidemic was not smallpox but chickenpox -- to which indigenous Australians also had no inherited resistance -- that happened to be affecting , or was carried by , members of the First Fleet . This theory has also been disputed .
Herpes simplex
Herpes antiviral therapy began in the early 1960s with the experimental use of medications that interfered with viral replication called deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) inhibitors . The original use was against normally fatal or debilitating illnesses such as adult encephalitis , keratitis , in immunocompromised ( transplant ) patients , or disseminated herpes zoster . The original compounds used were 5 - iodo - 2 ' - deoxyuridine , AKA idoxuridine , IUdR , or ( IDU ) and 1 - β - D - arabinofuranosylcytosine or ara - C , later marketed under the name cytosar or cytorabine . The usage expanded to include topical treatment of herpes simplex , zoster , and varicella . Some trials combined different antivirals with differing results . The introduction of 9 - β - D - arabinofuranosyladenine , ( ara - A or vidarabine ) , considerably less toxic than ara - C , in the mid-1970s , heralded the way for the beginning of regular neonatal antiviral treatment . Vidarabine was the first systemically administered antiviral medication with activity against HSV for which therapeutic efficacy outweighed toxicity for the management of life - threatening HSV disease . Intravenous vidarabine was licensed for use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1977 . Other experimental antivirals of that period included : heparin , trifluorothymidine ( TFT ) , Ribivarin , interferon , Virazole , and 5 - methoxymethyl - 2 ' - deoxyuridine ( MMUdR ) . The introduction of 9 - ( 2 - hydroxyethoxymethyl ) guanine , AKA acyclovir , in the late 1970s raised antiviral treatment another notch and led to vidarabine vs. acyclovir trials in the late 1980s . The lower toxicity and ease of administration over vidarabine has led to acyclovir becoming the drug of choice for herpes treatment after it was licensed by the FDA in 1998 .