vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of the Roman Empire
Constantius 's rule would however be opposed again in 360 . He had named his paternal half - cousin and brother - in - law Julian as his Caesar of the Western Roman Empire in 355 . During the following five years , Julian had a series of victories against invading Germanic tribes , including the Alamanni . This allowed him to secure the Rhine frontier . His victorious Gallic troops thus ceased campaigning . Constantius sent orders for the troops to be transferred to the east as reinforcements for his own currently unsuccessful campaign against Shapur II of Persia . This order led the Gallic troops to an insurrection . They proclaimed their commanding officer Julian to be an Augustus . Both Augusti readied their troops for another Roman Civil War , but the timely demise of Constantius on 3 November 361 prevented this war from occurring .
History of the Roman Empire
In the years following the emperor 's death , generals of the Roman army fought each other for control of the Empire and neglected their duties in preventing invasions . Provincials became victims of frequent raids by foreign tribes , such as the Carpians , Goths , Vandals , and Alamanni , along the Rhine and Danube Rivers in the western part of the Empire , as well as attacks from Sassanids in the eastern part of the Empire . Additionally , in 251 , the Plague of Cyprian ( possibly smallpox ) broke out , causing large - scale mortality which may have seriously affected the ability of the Empire to defend itself . An
Western Roman Empire
With the deposition of Romulus Augustus by Odoacer , direct roman control ceased to exist in Italy . Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as a de jure representative of Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos . With the death of Julius Nepos in 480 , the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno abolished the title and position of Western Roman Emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer 's sovereign . The position of Roman Emperor would never again be divided , though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman re-conquests of the sixth century , such as Belisarius in 540 and Germanus in 582 .
Byzantine Empire
As the only stable long - term state in Europe during the Middle Ages , Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East . Constantly under attack , it distanced Western Europe from Persians , Arabs , Seljuk Turks , and for a time , the Ottomans . From a different perspective , since the 7th century , the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam .
Name of Iran
Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the Iranian peoples , the use of ērān to refer to the empire ( and the antonymic anērān to refer to the Roman territories ) is also attested by the early Sassanid period . Both ērān and anērān appear in 3rd century calendrical text written by Mani . In an inscription of Ardashir 's son and immediate successor , Shapur I `` apparently includes in Ērān regions such as Armenia and the Caucasus which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians '' . In Kartir 's inscriptions ( written thirty years after Shapur 's ) , the high priest includes the same regions ( together with Georgia , Albania , Syria and the Pontus ) in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān . Ērān also features in the names of the towns founded by Sassanid dynasts , for instance in Ērān - xwarrah - šābuhr `` Glory of Ērān ( of ) Shapur '' . It also appears in the titles of government officers , such as in Ērān - āmārgar `` Accountant - General ( of ) Ērān '' or Ērān - dibirbed `` Chief Scribe ( of ) Ērān '' .
Islamic architecture
Greco - Roman tradition : In particular , the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine Empire ( Southwestern Anatolia , Syria , Egypt and the Maghreb ) supplied architects , masons , mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers . These artisans were trained in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts , and continued building and decorating in Byzantine style , which had developed out of Hellenistic and ancient Roman architecture . Eastern tradition : Mesopotamia and Persia , despite adopting elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style , retained their independent architectural traditions , which derived from Sasanian architecture and its predecessors .
Eastern Orthodox Church
The ecclesia recognised the gathering of these early church communities as being greatest in areas of the known world that were famous for their significance on the world stage -- either as hotbeds of intellectual discourse , high volumes of trade , or proximity to the original sacred sites . These locations were targeted by the early apostles , who recognised the need for humanitarian efforts in these large urban centers and sought to bring as many people as possible into the ecclesia -- such a life was seen as a form of deliverance from the decadent lifestyles promoted throughout the eastern and western Roman empire .
Third Rome
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD , Mehmed II declared himself Kayser - i Rum , literally `` Caesar of Rome '' . The claim was recognized by the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople , but not by Roman Catholic Western Europe . Gennadios ( Georgios Scholarios ) , a staunch enemy of the West , had been enthroned Patriarch of Constantinople with all the ceremonial attributes of Byzantium by Mehmed himself acting as Roman Emperor and in turn Gennadios recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne . Mehmed 's claim rested with the concept that Constantinople was the seat of the Roman Empire , after the transfer of its capital to Constantinople in 330 AD and the fall of the Western Roman Empire . Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family ; his predecessor , Sultan Orhan I had married a Byzantine princess , and Mehmed may have claimed descent from John Tzelepes Komnenos . During that period the Ottoman Empire also destroyed Otranto and its people , and Mehmed II was planning on taking Rome itself when the Italian campaign was cut short by his sudden death . The title fell into disuse after his death , but the imperial bodies created by Mehmed II lived on for centuries to come .
Byzantine Empire
Under Basil 's son and successor , Leo VI the Wise , the gains in the east against the now - weak Abbasid Caliphate continued . However , Sicily was lost to the Arabs in 902 , and in 904 Thessaloniki , the Empire 's second city , was sacked by an Arab fleet . The naval weakness of the Empire was rectified . Despite this revenge the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims , who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain Crete in 911 .
Byzantine Empire
In the east , however , Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the Battle of Myriokephalon , against the Turks . Yet the losses were quickly recovered , and in the following year Manuel 's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of `` picked Turks '' . The Byzantine commander John Vatatzes , who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir , not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way , a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful . 12th
Eastern Orthodox Church
As well , there are the `` Nestorian '' churches , which are Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of only the first two ecumenical councils , i.e. , the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople . `` Nestorian '' is an outsider 's term for a tradition that predated the influence of Nestorius , the origin of which might lay in certain sections of the School of Antioch or via Nestorius ' teacher ( s ) Theodore of Mopsuestia and / or Diodore of Tarsus . The `` Nestorian Church '' is commonly referred to as `` the Assyrian Church '' or fully as the Assyrian Church of the East .
History of the Roman Empire
Gratian governed the Western Roman Empire with energy and success for some years , but he gradually sank into indolence . He is considered to have become a figurehead while Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose of Milan jointly acted as the power behind the throne . Gratian lost favor with factions of the Roman Senate by prohibiting traditional paganism at Rome and relinquishing his title of Pontifex Maximus . The senior Augustus also became unpopular with his own Roman troops because of his close association with so - called barbarians . He reportedly recruited Alans to his personal service and adopted the guise of a Scythian warrior for public appearances .
Middle Ages
Population decline , counterurbanisation , invasion , and movement of peoples , which had begun in Late Antiquity , continued in the Early Middle Ages . The large - scale movements of the Migration Period , including various Germanic peoples , formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire . In the 7th century , North Africa and the Middle East -- once part of the Byzantine Empire -- came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate , an Islamic empire , after conquest by Muhammad 's successors . Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures , the break with classical antiquity was not complete . The still - sizeable Byzantine Empire , Rome 's direct continuation , survived in the Eastern Mediterranean and remained a major power . The empire 's law code , the Corpus Juris Civilis or `` Code of Justinian '' , was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages . In the West , most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions . Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued . The Franks , under the Carolingian dynasty , briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th century . It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions : Vikings from the north , Magyars from the east , and Saracens from the south .
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Church in Egypt ( Patriarchate of Alexandria ) split into two groups following the Council of Chalcedon ( 451 ) , over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of Jesus . Eventually this led to each group anathematizing the other . Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs ( by accepting the Council of Chalcedon ) are known today as the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria , where the adjective `` Greek '' refers to their ties to the Greek - speaking culture of the Byzantine Empire . However , those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon were the majority in Egypt , and today they are known as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria , having maintained a separate patriarchate . The Coptic Orthodox Church is currently the largest Christian church in Egypt and in the whole Middle East . There was also a similar , albeit smaller scale , split in Syria ( Patriarchate of Antioch ) , which resulted in the separation of the Syriac Orthodox Church from the Byzantine Patriarchate of Antioch .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Under Ottoman rule , the Greek Orthodox Church acquired substantial power as an autonomous millet . The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the Rûm ( Ottoman administrative unit meaning `` Roman '' ) , which encompassed all the Orthodox subjects of the Empire .
History of the Roman Empire
Gratian acquiesced in their choice and administered the Gallic part of the Western Roman Empire . Italy , Illyria and Africa were officially administrated by his brother and his stepmother Justina . However the division was merely nominal as the actual authority still rested with Gratian .
Byzantine Empire
The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and quickly attacked , started a major fire that damaged large parts of the city , and briefly seized control . Alexios III fled from the capital , and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac . However , Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by Alexios V . The crusaders again took the city on 13 April 1204 , and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days . Many priceless icons , relics , and other objects later turned up in Western Europe , a large number in Venice . According to Choniates , a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne . When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his crusaders , he castigated them in no uncertain terms . But the situation was beyond his control , especially after his legate , on his own initiative , had absolved the crusaders from their vow to proceed to the Holy Land . When order had been restored , the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement ; Baldwin of Flanders was elected Emperor of a new Latin Empire , and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen as Patriarch . The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions , though resistance would continue through the Byzantine remnants of the Nicaea , Trebizond , and Epirus . Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory , it took key areas of Constantinople , and the Doge took the title of `` Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire '' .
Byzantine Empire
In 535 , a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily met with easy success , but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance , and victory did not come until 540 , when Belisarius captured Ravenna , after successful sieges of Naples and Rome . In 535 -- 536 , Theodahad sent Pope Agapetus I to Constantinople to request the removal of Byzantine forces from Sicily , Dalmatia , and Italy . Although Agapetus failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian , he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced , despite empress Theodora 's support and protection .
Western Roman Empire
Valentinian III was designated Honorius ' heir in 421 , although he was not proclaimed caesar , only given the title of nobilissimus puer . In 423 , after the death of Honorius , a usurper named Joannes rose up , forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II . He was installed as Western Emperor in 425 , after Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in Ravenna . Valentinian was killed on 16 March 455 , by Optila , a friend of Flavius Aetius , whom Valentinian had killed .
Name of Iran
The gentilic ēr - and ary - in ērān and aryān derives from Old Iranian * arya - ( Old Persian airya - , Avestan airiia - , etc . ) , meaning `` Aryan '' , in the sense of `` of the Iranians '' . This term is attested as an ethnic designator in Achaemenid inscriptions and in Zoroastrianism 's Avesta tradition , and it seems `` very likely '' that in Ardashir 's inscription ērān still retained this meaning , denoting the people rather than the empire .
Byzantine Empire
Jews were a significant minority in the Byzantine state throughout its history , and , according to Roman law , they constituted a legally recognised religious group . In the early Byzantine period they were generally tolerated , but then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued . In any case , after the Arab conquests , the majority of Jews found themselves outside the Empire ; those left inside the Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from the 10th century onwards .
Spice trade
In 1453 , however , the Ottomans took Constantinople and so the Byzantine Empire was no more . Now in control of the sole spice trade route that existed at the time , the Ottoman Empire was in a favorable position to charge hefty taxes on merchandise bound for the west . The Western Europeans , not wanting to be dependent on an expansionist , non-Christian power for the lucrative commerce with the east , set out to find an alternate sea route around Africa .
History of the Roman Empire
Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius , attempting to gain their official recognition . By 384 , negotiations were unfruitful and Maximus tried to press the matter by settling succession as only a legitimate Emperor could do : proclaiming his own infant son Flavius Victor an Augustus . The end of the year found the Empire having five Augusti ( Valentinian II , Theodosius I , Arcadius , Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor ) with relations between them yet to be determined .
Middle Ages
In the Eastern Empire the slow infiltration of the Balkans by the Slavs added a further difficulty for Justinian 's successors . It began gradually , but by the late 540s Slavic tribes were in Thrace and Illyrium , and had defeated an imperial army near Adrianople in 551 . In the 560s the Avars began to expand from their base on the north bank of the Danube ; by the end of the 6th - century , they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the Eastern emperors to pay tribute . They remained a strong power until 796 .
Western Roman Empire
Imperial rule continued in Sicily throughout the eighth century , with the island slowly being overrun by the Arabs over the course of the ninth century . In Italy , a few strongholds in Calabria ultimately provided a base for modest imperial expansion , which reached its peak in the early eleventh century , with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort . This , however , was undone by further civil wars in the empire , and the slow conquest of the region by the Empires ' former mercenaries , the Normans , who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with the conquest of Bari . The last Emperor to attempt reconquests in the West was Manuel I Komnenos , who invaded Southern Italy during a war with the Norman Kingdom of Sicily in the 1150s . The city of Bari willingly opened its gates to the Emperor and facing successes in the taking of other cities in the region , Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches of Rome and Constantinople , separated since the schism of 1054 . Despite initial successes and Papal support , the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return East .
Ancient Greece
Via the Roman Empire , Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture in general . The Byzantine Empire inherited Classical Greek culture directly , without Latin intermediation , and the preservation of classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted strong influence on the Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age and the Western European Renaissance . A modern revival of Classical Greek learning took place in the Neoclassicism movement in 18th - and 19th - century Europe and the Americas .
Western Roman Empire
Upon the defeat of Mark Antony , a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire . While the Roman Empire featured many distinct cultures , all were often said to experience gradual Romanization . While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole , political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines . More often than not , Greek and Latin practices ( and to some extent the languages themselves ) would be combined in fields such as histories ( such as those by Cato the Elder ) , philosophy and rhetoric .
Byzantine Empire
By contrast , the Byzantine position in Southern Italy was gradually consolidated so that by 873 Bari was once again under Byzantine rule , and most of Southern Italy would remain in the Empire for the next 200 years . On the more important eastern front , the Empire rebuilt its defences and went on the offensive . The Paulicians were defeated and their capital of Tephrike ( Divrigi ) taken , while the offensive against the Abbasid Caliphate began with the recapture of Samosata . The
Byzantine Empire
The writings of Classical antiquity were cultivated and extended in Byzantium . Therefore , Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient philosophy , and metaphysics . In the field of engineering Isidore of Miletus , the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia , produced the first compilation of Archimedes ' works c. 530 , and it is through this manuscript tradition , kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded c. 850 during the `` Byzantine Renaissance '' by Leo the Geometer , that such works are known today ( see Archimedes Palimpsest ) . Indeed , geometry and its applications ( architecture and engineering instruments of war ) remained a specialty of the Byzantines . In medicine the works of Byzantine doctors , such as the Vienna Dioscorides ( 6th century ) , and works of Paul of Aegina ( 7th century ) and Nicholas Myrepsos ( late 13th century ) , continued to be used as the authoritative texts by Europeans through the Renaissance , and several technological advancements , including the pendentive dome and Greek Fire , are attributed to the Byzantines .
Byzantine Empire
The Empire soon fell into a period of difficulties , caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military . Nikephoros II , John Tzimiskes , and Basil II changed the military divisions ( τάγματα , tagmata ) from a rapid response , primarily defensive , citizen army into a professional , campaigning army , increasingly manned by mercenaries . Mercenaries were expensive , however , and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century , so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications . Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death , but he neglected to plan for his succession . None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent and the administration of the Empire increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service . Efforts to revive the Byzantine economy only resulted in inflation and a debased gold coinage . The army was now seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat . Native troops were therefore cashiered and replaced by foreign mercenaries on specific contract .
Byzantine Empire
John 's chosen heir was his fourth son , Manuel I Komnenos , who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east . In Palestine , Manuel allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt . Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states , with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald , Prince of Antioch , and Amalric , King of Jerusalem . In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy , he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155 , but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign . Despite this military setback , Manuel 's armies successfully invaded the Southern parts of Kingdom of Hungary in 1167 , defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium . By 1168 , nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel 's hands . Manuel made several alliances with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms , and he successfully handled the passage of the Second Crusade through his empire .