vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Origin of the domestic dog
`` ... Remove domestication from the human species , and there 's probably a couple of million of us on the planet , max . Instead , what do we have ? Seven billion people , climate change , travel , innovation and everything . Domestication has influenced the entire earth . And dogs were the first . For most of human history , we 're not dissimilar to any other wild primate . We 're manipulating our environments , but not on a scale bigger than , say , a herd of African elephants . And then , we go into partnership with this group of wolves . They altered our relationship with the natural world ... '' -- Greger Larson
Lion
The majority of lions kept in zoos are hybrids of different subspecies . Approximately 77 % of the captive lions registered by the International Species Information System are of unknown origin . Nonetheless , they might carry genes that are extinct in the wild , and might be therefore important to maintain overall genetic variability of the lion . It is thought that those lions , imported to Europe before the middle of the 19th century , were mainly either Barbary lions from North Africa , or Cape lions from Southern Africa . Classification
Lion
Samples of 53 lions , both wild and captive individuals , from 15 countries were used for phylogenetic analysis . Results showed little genetic diversity between lions from Asia , West and Central Africa , whereas lions from East Africa were genetically closer to lions from Southern Africa .
Red fox
The origin of the Sardinian ichnusae subspecies is uncertain , as it is absent from Pleistocene deposits in their current homeland . It is possible it originated during the Neolithic following its introduction to the island by humans . It is likely then that Sardinian fox populations stem from repeated introductions of animals from different localities in the Mediterranean . This latter theory may explain the subspecies ' phenotypic diversity .
Primate
Primate hybrids usually arise in captivity , but there have also been examples in the wild . Hybridization occurs where two species ' range overlap to form hybrid zones ; hybrids may be created by humans when animals are placed in zoos or due to environmental pressures such as predation . Intergeneric hybridizations , hybrids of different genera , have also been found in the wild . Although they belong to genera that have been distinct for several million years , interbreeding still occurs between the gelada and the hamadryas baboon .
Red panda
Reliable population numbers are hard to find , partly because other animals have been mistaken for the red panda . For instance , one report from Burma stated that red pandas were still fairly common in some areas ; however , the accompanying photographic proof of the `` red panda '' is in fact a species of civet .
Origin of the domestic dog
In 2009 , a study looked at the two earliest dog skulls that had been found at Eliseevich 1 in comparison to other much earlier but morphologically similar fossil skulls that had been found across Europe and concluded that the earlier specimens were `` Paleolithic dogs '' , which were morphologically and genetically distinct from Pleistocene wolves that lived in Europe at that time . These also include the 36,000 - year - old `` Goyet dog '' and the 33,000 - year - old `` Altai dog '' . Further
Species
Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations ; these can be categorized as two types : ( i ) one morphology , multiple lineages ( e.g. morphological convergence , cryptic species ) and ( ii ) one lineage , multiple morphologies ( e.g. phenotypic plasticity , multiple life - cycle stages ) . In addition , horizontal gene transfer ( HGT ) makes it difficult to define a species . All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the `` daughter '' organism , but that is not what happens in HGT . There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes , and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes , including some crustaceans and echinoderms .
Origin of the domestic dog
An attempt to explore admixture between Taimyr - 1 and gray wolves produced unreliable results .
Columbian Exchange
Initially , at least , the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route , from Europe to the New World , as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals . Horses , donkeys , mules , pigs , cattle , sheep , goats , chickens , large dogs , cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport , food , and other uses . One of the first European exports to the Americas , the horse , changed the lives of many Native American tribes in the mountains . They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle , as opposed to agriculture , based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains . The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses , and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth .
History of agriculture
Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe , and included a diverse range of taxa . At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin . Some of the earliest known domestications were of animals . Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 BC . Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 11,000 and 9,000 BC . Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8,500 BC . Camels were domesticated late , perhaps around 3,000 BC . Centres
History of Native Americans in the United States
With the meeting of two worlds , animals , insects , and plants were carried from one to the other , both deliberately and by chance , in what is called the Columbian Exchange . Sheep , pigs , horses , and cattle were all Old World animals that were introduced to contemporary Native Americans who never knew such animals .
Columbian Exchange
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres , the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans , such as smallpox , were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long - distance trade networks . Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people , or were brought by traders from Asia , so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants . While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases , their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity .
Species
No surer criterion for determining species has occurred to me than the distinguishing features that perpetuate themselves in propagation from seed . Thus , no matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species , if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant , they are accidental variations and not such as to distinguish a species ... Animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently ; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa . Carl
Origin of the domestic dog
The study used the radiocarbon age of the Newgrange dog to calibrate the mutation rate for dogs , which was similar to that calculated for the Late Pleistocene Taimyr wolf . Comparing the sequence of the Newgrange dog using this mutation rate with two modern wolves from Russia gave a divergence time between 20,000 - 60,000 YBP . However , these two modern wolves may not have been closely related to the population that gave rise to the dog , which may have diverged from their ancestor at a later time . Neolithic
Origin of the domestic dog
As a result of the domestication process there is also evidence of convergent evolution having occurred between dogs and humans . The history of the two is forever intertwined . Biological
Red fox
The red fox originated from smaller - sized ancestors from Eurasia during the Middle Villafranchian period , and colonised North America shortly after the Wisconsin glaciation . Among the true foxes , the red fox represents a more progressive form in the direction of carnivory . Apart from its large size , the red fox is distinguished from other fox species by its ability to adapt quickly to new environments . Despite its name , the species often produces individuals with other colourings , including albinos and melanists . Forty - five subspecies are currently recognised , which are divided into two categories : the large northern foxes , and the small , basal southern foxes of Asia and North Africa .
Water buffalo
Water buffalo were domesticated in Indian subcontinent about 5000 years ago , and in China about 4000 years ago . Two types are recognized , based on morphological and behavioural criteria -- the river buffalo of the Indian subcontinent and further west to the Balkans and Italy , and the swamp buffalo , found from Assam in the west through Southeast Asia to the Yangtze valley of China in the east . The present - day river buffalo is the result of complex domestication processes involving more than one maternal lineage and a significant maternal gene flow from wild populations after the initial domestication events . Twenty - two breeds of the river type water buffalo are known , including Murrah , NiliRavi , Surti , Jafarabadi , Anatolian , Mediterranean , and Egyptian buffalo . China has a huge variety of buffalo genetic resources , comprising 16 local swamp buffalo breeds in various regions .
Origin of the domestic dog
In 2007 , a mtDNA analysis of extinct eastern Beringian wolves showed that two ancient wolves from the Ukraine dated 30,000 YBP and 28,000 YBP and the 33,000 YBP Altai dog had the same sequence as six Beringian wolves , indicating a common maternal ancestor . In 2013 , a DNA study of the Altai dog deposited the sequence in GenBank with a classification of Canis lupus familiaris ( dog ) . `` The analyses revealed that the unique haplotype of the Altai dog is more closely related to modern dogs and prehistoric New World canids than it is to contemporary wolves ... This preliminary analysis affirms the conclusion that the Altai specimen is likely an ancient dog with shallow divergence from ancient wolves . These results suggest a more ancient history of the dog outside of the Middle East or East Asia . '' The haplotype groups closest to the Altai dog included such diverse breeds as the Tibetan mastiff , Newfoundland , Chinese crested , cocker spaniel and Siberian husky .
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
The position of Richard Owen was unknown : when emphasising to a Parliamentary committee the need for a new Natural History museum , he pointed out that `` The whole intellectual world this year has been excited by a book on the origin of species ; and what is the consequence ? Visitors come to the British Museum , and they say , ' Let us see all these varieties of pigeons : where is the tumbler , where is the pouter ? ' and I am obliged with shame to say , I can show you none of them ... '' As to showing you the varieties of those species , or of any of those phenomena that would aid one in getting at that mystery of mysteries , the origin of species , our space does not permit ; but surely there ought to be a space somewhere , and , if not in the British Museum , where is it to be obtained ? '' Thomas
History of agriculture
After 1492 , a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred . Maize , potatoes , sweet potatoes and manioc were the key crops that spread from the New World to the Old , while varieties of wheat , barley , rice and turnips traveled from the Old World to the New . There had been few livestock species in the New World , with horses , cattle , sheep and goats being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers . Crops moving in both directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many cultures . Maize and cassava were introduced from Brazil into Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century , becoming staple foods , replacing native African crops .
Origin of the domestic dog
Six million years ago at the close of the Miocene era , the earth 's climate was gradually cooling and this would lead to the glaciations of the Pliocene and the Pleistocene ( the Ice Age ) . In many areas the forests and savannahs were being replaced with steppe or grasslands and only those creatures that could adapt would survive . On opposite sides of the planet , two very different lineages would adapt to these changes and their evolution would produce two species that would become the most widely distributed of mammals . In southern North America , small woodland foxes were growing bigger and becoming more adapted to running , and by the late Miocene the first of the genus Canis had arisen , the ancestors of coyotes , wolves and the domestic dog . In eastern Africa , a split was occurring among the large primates . Some would remain in the trees , while others would move out of the trees , learn to walk upright , develop enlarged brains , and learn to avoid predators while becoming a predator themselves in the more open country . The two lineages would ultimately meet on the Eurasian continent . `` They were individual animals and people involved , from our perspective , in a biological and cultural process that involved linking not only their lives but the evolutionary fate of their heirs in ways , we must assume , they could never have imagined . ''
Water buffalo
European buffalo are all of the river type and considered to be of the same breed named Mediterranean buffalo . In Italy , the Mediterranean type was particularly selected and is called Mediterranean Italian breed to distinguish it from other European breeds , which differ genetically . Mediterranean buffalo are also found in Romania , Bulgaria , Greece , Albania , Kosovo , and the Republic of Macedonia , with a few hundred in the United Kingdom , Germany , the Netherlands , Switzerland , and Hungary . Little exchange of breeding buffalo has occurred among countries , so each population has its own phenotypic features and performances . In Bulgaria , they were crossbred with the Indian Murrah breed , and in Romania , some were crossbred with Bulgarian Murrah . Populations in Turkey are of the Anatolian buffalo breed .
Water buffalo
Results of mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that the two types were domesticated independently . Sequencing of cytochrome b genes of Bubalus species implies that the domestic buffalo originated from at least two populations , and that the river and the swamp types have differentiated at the full species level . The genetic distance between the two types is so large that a divergence time of about 1.7 million years has been suggested . The swamp type was noticed to have the closest relationship with the tamaraw .
Origin of the domestic dog
The Zhokhov Island ( 8,700 YBP ) and Aachim ( 1,700 YBP ) canid haplotypes fell within the domestic dog clade , cluster with S805 , and also share their haplotypes with -- or are one mutation away from -- the Tibetan wolf ( C. l. chanco ) and the recently - extinct Japanese wolf ( C. l. hodophilax ) . This may indicate that these canids retained the genetic signature of admixture with regional wolf populations . Another haplotype designated as S504 ( 47,000 YBP ) from Duvanny Yar appeared on the phylogenetic tree as not being connected to wolves ( both ancient and modern ) yet ancestral to dogs , and may represent a genetic source for regional dogs . Further
Origin of the domestic dog
mDNA ( maternal ) ancestry of the Dog Gray wolf Dog D2 dog / wolf hybrid rare Middle east D1 dog / wolf hybrid Scandinavia , wolf no match ABCEF F dog / wolf hybrid rare Japan with Japanese wolf ABCE BCE C2 C1 BE E dog / wolf hybrid rare East Asia B2 dog / wolf hybrid B1 A6 dog / wolf hybrid A4 - 5 A5 dog / wolf hybrid A4 dog / wolf hybrid A1 - 3 A2 - 3 A3 dog / wolf hybrid A2 dog / wolf hybrid A1 Phylogenetic classification based on the entire mitochondrial genomes of the domestic dog . These resolve into 6 mDNA Haplogroups , most indicated as a result of male dog / female wolf hybridization .
Origin of the domestic dog
In 2013 , a DNA sequencing study indicated that parallel evolution in humans and dogs is most apparent in the genes for digestion and metabolism , neurological processes , and cancer , likely as a result of shared selection pressures .
Red deer
Historically , related deer species such as central Asian red deer , wapiti , Thorold 's deer , and sika deer have been reared on deer farms in Central and Eastern Asia by Han Chinese , Turkic peoples , Tungusic peoples , Mongolians , and Koreans . In modern times , Western countries such as New Zealand and United States have taken to farming European red deer for similar purposes .
Origin of the domestic dog
Haplogroup A : Includes 64 - 65 % of dogs . Haplotypes of subclades a2 -- a6 are derived from post-domestication wolf -- dog hybridization .
Evidence of common descent
The genetic data indicates that the molestus form in the London Underground mosquito appears to have a common ancestry , rather than the population at each station being related to the nearest aboveground population ( i.e. the pipiens form ) . Byrne and Nichols ' working hypothesis was that adaptation to the underground environment had occurred locally in London only once . These widely separated populations are distinguished by very minor genetic differences , which suggest that the molestus form developed : a single mtDNA difference shared among the underground populations of ten Russian cities ; a single fixed microsatellite difference in populations spanning Europe , Japan , Australia , the middle East and Atlantic islands . Snapping
Conquistador
The conquistadors found new animal species , but reports confused these with monsters such as giants , dragons , or ghosts . Stories about castaways on mysterious islands were common .
Ryukyu Islands
Subspecies of the Chinese box turtle and the yellow pond turtle are native to the islands , as is the Ryukyu black - breasted leaf turtle .
Red panda
Variations of `` lesser panda '' occur in French petit panda ( small panda ) , German Kleiner Panda ( small panda ) , Spanish panda menor ( lesser panda ) , Dutch kleine panda ( small panda ) , Russian малая панда ( malaya panda , `` small panda '' ) , Korean 애기 판다 ( aeki panda , `` baby panda '' ) , and Japanese レッサーパンダ ( ressā panda , a transliteration of English `` lesser panda '' ) .
Origin of the domestic dog
In 2017 , two prominent evolutionary biologists reviewed all of the evidence available on dog divergence and supported the specimens from the Altai mountains as being those of dogs from a lineage that is now extinct and that was derived from a population of small wolves that is also now extinct . Further
Neolithic Revolution
Bananas and plantains , which were first domesticated in Southeast Asia , most likely Papua New Guinea , were re-domesticated in Africa possibly as early as 5,000 years ago . Asian yams and taro were also cultivated in Africa .
Evidence of common descent
A study of four mammalian genera : Hyopsodus , Pelycodus , Haplomylus ( three from the Eocene ) , and Plesiadapis ( from the Paleocene ) found that -- through a large number of stratigraphic layers and specimen sampling -- each group exhibited , `` gradual phyletic evolution , overall size increase , iterative evolution of small species , and character divergence following the origin of each new lineage '' . The authors of this study concluded that speciation was discernible . In another study concerning morphological trends and rates of evolution found that the European arvicolid rodent radiated into 52 distinct lineages over a time frame of 5 million years while documenting examples of phyletic gradualism , punctuation , and stasis .
Origin of the domestic dog
The extinction of the wolves that were the direct ancestors of dogs , and the sustained admixture between different dog and wolf populations over at least the last 10,000 years , has blurred the genetic signatures and confounded efforts of researchers at pinpointing the origins of dogs . An alternate proposal is that during the ecological upheavals of the Late Pleistocene , all of the remaining members of a dwindling lineage joined with humans . See
Origin of the domestic dog
In August 2015 , a study undertook an analysis of the complete mitogenome sequences of 555 modern and ancient dogs . The sequences showed an increase in the population size approximately 23,500 YBP , which broadly coincides with the proposed separation of the ancestors of dogs and present - day wolves before the Last Glacial Maximum ( refer first divergence ) . A ten-fold increase in the population size occurred after 15,000 YBP , which may be attributable to domestication events and is consistent with the demographic dependence of dogs on the human population ( refer archaeological evidence ) .
Water buffalo
Carl Linnaeus first described the genus Bos and the water buffalo under the binomial Bos bubalis in 1758 ; the species was known to occur in Asia and was held as a domestic form in Italy . Ellerman and Morrison - Scott treated the wild and domestic forms of the water buffalo as conspecifics , whereas others treated them as different species . The nomenclatorial treatment of wild and domestic forms has been inconsistent and varies between authors and even within the works of single authors .
Primate
Simians are divided into two groups : catarrhine ( narrow - nosed ) monkeys and apes of Africa and Southeast Asia and platyrrhine ( `` flat - nosed '' ) or New World monkeys of South and Middle America . Catarrhines consist of Old World monkeys ( such as baboons and macaques ) , gibbons and great apes ; New World monkeys include the capuchin , howler and squirrel monkeys . Humans are the only extant catarrhines to have spread successfully outside of Africa , South Asia , and East Asia , although fossil evidence shows many other species were formerly present in Europe . New primate species are still being discovered . More than 25 species were taxonomically described in the decade of the 2000s and eleven have been described since 2010 .
Lion
In a subsequent study , tissue and bone samples of 32 lion specimens in museums were used . Results indicated that lions form three phylogeographic groups , one each in North Africa and Asia , in Central Africa and in Southern Africa .
Evidence of common descent
A study of the gall - forming wasp species Belonocnema treatae found that populations inhabiting different host plants ( Quercus geminata and Q. Virginiana ) exhibited different body size and gall morphology alongside a strong expression of sexual isolation . The study hypothesized that B. treatae populations inhabiting different host plants would show evidence of divergent selection promoting speciation . The researchers sampled gall wasp species and oak tree localities , measured body size ( right hand tibia of each wasp ) , and counted gall chamber numbers . In addition to measurements , they conducted mating assays and statistical analyses . Genetic analysis was also conducted on two mtDNA sites ( 416 base pairs from cytochrome C and 593 base pairs from cytochrome oxidase ) to `` control for the confounding effects of time since divergence among allopatric populations '' .