vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of women in the United States
Most of the African - Americans in business were men , however women played a major role especially in the area of beauty . Standards of beauty were different for whites and blacks , and the black community developed its own standards , with an emphasis on hair care . Beauticians could work out of their own homes , and did not need storefronts . As a result , black beauticians were numerous in the rural South , despite the absence of cities and towns . They pioneered the use of cosmetics , at a time when rural white women in the South avoided them . As Blain Roberts has shown , beauticians offered their clients a space to feel pampered and beautiful in the context of their own community because , `` Inside black beauty shops , rituals of beautification converged with rituals of socialization . '' Beauty contests emerged in the 1920s , and in the white community they were linked to agricultural county fairs . By contrast in the black community , beauty contests were developed out of the homecoming ceremonies at their high schools and colleges . The most famous entrepreneur was Madame C.J. Walker ( 1867 - 1919 ) ; she built a national franchise business called Madame C.J. Walker Manufacturing Company based on her invention of the first successful hair straightening process .
Political party
There are two broad categories of public funding , direct , which entails a monetary transfer to a party , and indirect , which includes broadcasting time on state media , use of the mail service or supplies . According to the Comparative Data from the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network , out of a sample of over 180 nations , 25 % of nations provide no direct or indirect public funding , 58 % provide direct public funding and 60 % of nations provide indirect public funding . Some countries provide both direct and indirect public funding to political parties . Funding may be equal for all parties or depend on the results of previous elections or the number of candidates participating in an election . Frequently parties rely on a mix of private and public funding and are required to disclose their finances to the Election management body .
UNICEF
UNICEF 's Supply Division is based in Copenhagen and serves as the primary point of distribution for such essential items as vaccines , antiretroviral medicines for children and mothers with HIV , nutritional supplements , emergency shelters , family reunification , and educational supplies . A 36 - member executive board establishes policies , approves programs and oversees administrative and financial plans . The executive board is made up of government representatives who are elected by the United Nations Economic and Social Council , usually for three - year terms .
Lobbying in the United States
Still , distinguishing lobbyists from a strategic adviser can be difficult , since the duties of each can often overlap and are hard to define precisely . There have been issues raised about what constitutes the difference between a lobbyist and a bundler ; one report described bundlers as `` supporters who contribute their own money to his campaign and solicit it from others '' , and there was a question whether such persons were really lobbyists involved with raising campaign monies for the election of Barack Obama , and whether Obama had broken his own pledge not to receive money from lobbyists . The legal ramifications of lobbying are further intertangled with aspects of campaign finance reform , since lobbyists often spend time seeking donations for the reelection efforts of congresspersons ; sorting out these issues can pose ethical challenges .
Lobbying in the United States
There are numerous examples of lobbying activity reported by the media . One report chronicled a somewhat unusual alliance of consumer advocates and industry groups to boost funding for the Food and Drug Administration ; the general pattern of lobbying efforts had been to try to reduce the regulatory oversight of such an agency . In this case , however , lobbying groups wanted the federal watchdog agency to have tougher policing authority to avert expensive problems when oversight was lax ; in this case , industry and consumer groups were in harmony , and lobbyists were able to persuade officials that higher FDA budgets were in the public interest . Religious consortiums , according to one report , have engaged in a $400 million lobbying effort on such issues as the relation between church and state , civil rights for religious minorities , bioethics issues including abortion and capital punishment and end - of - life issues , and family issues .
Secretary
By the mid-20th century , the need for secretaries was great and offices and organizations featured large secretarial pools . In some cases the demand was great enough to spur secretaries being recruited from overseas ; in particular , there was often a steady demand for young British women to come to the U.S. and fill temporary or permanent secretarial positions . Several organizations were created to assist secretaries from foreign lands , including the Society of International Secretaries and the Association of British Secretaries in America .
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The LDS Church stresses the importance of worldwide humanitarian service . The church 's welfare and humanitarian efforts are coordinated by LDS Philanthropies ( LDSP ) , a church department under the direction of the Presiding Bishopric . Welfare efforts , originally initiated during the Great Depression , provide aid for the poor , financed by donations from church members . LDSP is also responsible for philanthropic donations to the LDS Church and other affiliated charities , such as the Church History Library , the Church Educational System -- which includes Brigham Young University , the Perpetual Education Fund , and the Polynesian Cultural Center -- the Mormon Tabernacle Choir , and efforts dedicated to providing funds for LDS missionaries and temple construction . Donations are also used to operate bishop 's storehouses , which package and store food for the poor at low cost . Distribution of funds and food is administered by local bishops . These local storehouses distribute commodities to the needy as requested by local bishops on a specified form . Bishop 's storehouses also provide service opportunities for those receiving assistance and for those desiring to serve missions or to volunteer in the church 's welfare program . The day - to - day operations of the storehouses are typically run by senior - aged missionaries as store managers .
Society of the United States
As the United States is a diverse nation , it is home to numerous organization and social groups and individuals may derive their group affiliated identity from a variety of sources . Many Americans , especially white collar professionals belong to professional organizations such as the APA , ASA or ATFLC , although books like Bowling Alone indicate that Americans affiliate with these sorts of groups less often than they did in the 1950s and 1960s .
Social development theory
The income tax office is an example of an organization that is actively maintained by the enactment of laws and the formation of an office for procuring taxes . Without active governmental support , this organization would disappear , as it does not enjoy universal public support . On the other hand , the institution of marriage is universally accepted , and would persist even if governments withdrew regulations that demand registration of marriage and impose age restrictions . The institution of marriage is sustained by the weight of tradition , not by government agencies and legal enactments .
Sociology
Structure and agency , sometimes referred to as determinism versus voluntarism , form an enduring ontological debate in social theory : `` Do social structures determine an individual 's behaviour or does human agency ? '' In this context ' agency ' refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make free choices , whereas ' structure ' relates to factors that limit or affect the choices and actions of individuals ( such as social class , religion , gender , ethnicity , and so on ) . Discussions over the primacy of either structure and agency relate to the core of sociological epistemology ( `` What is the social world made of ? '' , `` What is a cause in the social world , and what is an effect ? '' ) . A perennial question within this debate is that of `` social reproduction '' : how are structures ( specifically , structures producing inequality ) reproduced through the choices of individuals ?
Public administration
The bureau - shaping model , a modification of Niskanen , holds that rational bureaucrats only maximize the part of their budget that they spend on their own agency 's operations or give to contractors and interest groups . Groups that are able to organize a `` flowback '' of benefits to senior officials would , according to this theory , receive increased budgetary attention . For instance , rational officials will get no benefit from paying out larger welfare checks to millions of low - income citizens because this does not serve a bureaucrats ' goals . Accordingly , one might instead expect a jurisdiction to seek budget increases for defense and security purposes in place programming . If we refer back to Reagan once again , Dunleavy 's bureau shaping model accounts for the alleged decrease in the `` size '' of government while spending did not , in fact , decrease . Domestic entitlement programming was financially deemphasized for military research and personnel .
Elections in the United States
Money contributed to campaigns can be classified into `` hard money '' and `` soft money '' . Hard money is money contributed directly to a campaign , by an individual or organization . Soft money is money from an individual or organization not contributed to a campaign , but spent in candidate specific advertising or other efforts that benefits that candidate by groups supporting the candidate , but legally not coordinated by the official campaign .
Letter of credit
It might also be feasible to typify letters of credit as a collateral contract for a third - party beneficiary , because three different entities participate in the transaction : the seller , the buyer , and the banker . Jean Domat suggests that because letters of credit are prompted by the buyer 's necessity , the cause of a LC is to release the buyer of his obligation to pay directly to the seller . Therefore , a LC theoretically fits as a collateral contract accepted by conduct or in other words , an implied - in - fact contract where the buyer participates as the third party beneficiary with the bank acting as the stipulator and the seller as the promisor . The term `` beneficiary '' is not used properly in the scheme of an LC because a beneficiary ( also , in trust law , cestui que use ) in the broadest sense is a natural person or other legal entity who receives money or other benefits from a benefactor . Note that under the scheme of letters of credit , banks are neither benefactors of sellers nor benefactors of buyers and the seller receives no money in gratuity mode . Thus is possible that a `` letter of credit '' was one of those contracts that needed to be masked to disguise the `` consideration or privity requirement '' . As a result , this kind of arrangement would make letter of credit to be enforceable under the action assumpsit because of its promissory connotation .
Colonial history of the United States
Most New England parents tried to help their sons establish farms of their own . When sons married , fathers gave them gifts of land , livestock , or farming equipment ; daughters received household goods , farm animals , or cash . Arranged marriages were very unusual ; normally , children chose their own spouses from within a circle of suitable acquaintances who shared their race , religion , and social standing . Parents retained veto power over their children 's marriages .
Ecuador
The public healthcare system should not be confused with the Ecuadorian Social Security healthcare service , which is dedicated to individuals with formal employment and who are affiliated obligatorily through their employers . Citizens with no formal employment may still contribute to the social security system voluntarily and have access to the medical services rendered by the social security system . The Ecuadorian Institute of Social Security ( IESS ) has several major hospitals and medical sub-centers under its administration across the nation .
UNICEF
Each country office carries out UNICEF 's mission through a unique program of cooperation developed with the host government . This five - year program focuses on practical ways to realize the rights of children and women . Regional offices guide this work and provide technical assistance to country offices as needed . Overall management and administration of the organization takes place at headquarters , where global policy on children is shaped . Guiding and monitoring all of UNICEF 's work is an Executive Board made up of 36 members who are government representatives . They establish policies , approve programs and decide on administrative and financial plans and budgets . Executive Board 's work is coordinated by the Bureau , comprising the President and four Vice-Presidents , each officer representing one of the five regional groups . These five officers , each one representing one of the five regional groups , are elected by the Executive Board each year from among its members , with the presidency rotating among the regional groups on an annual basis . As a matter of custom , permanent members of the Security Council do not serve as officers of the Executive Board . Office of the Secretary of the Executive Board supports and services the Executive Board . It is responsible for maintaining an effective relationship between the Executive Board and the UNICEF secretariat , and helps to organize the field visits of the Executive Board . UNICEF
Federal Housing Administration
The Federal Housing Administration is one of the few government agencies that is completely self - funded .
United States budget process
Other health programs in this function fund anti-bioterrorism activities , national biomedical research , protecting the health of the general population and workers in their places of employment , providing health services for under - served populations , and promoting training for the health care workforce . Some of the agencies funded in this function include the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Health Resources and Services Administration , and the Food and Drug Administration . The major mandatory programs in this function are Medicaid , the State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( SCHIP ) , federal and retirees ' health benefits , and health care for Medicare - eligible military retirees . 570 Medicare Function 570 includes only the Medicare program , which provides health insurance to senior citizens and persons with disabilities . Congress provides an annual appropriation for the costs of administering and monitoring the Medicare program . Nearly 99 percent of spending in this function occurs on the mandatory side of the budget , and almost all of the mandatory spending consists of payments for Medicare benefits . 600 Income Security Function 600 consists of a range of income security programs that provide cash or near - cash assistance ( e.g. , housing , nutrition , and energy assistance ) to low - income persons , and benefits to certain retirees , persons with disabilities , and the unemployed . Housing assistance programs account for the largest share of discretionary funding in this function . Major federal entitlement programs in this function include unemployment insurance , trade adjustment assistance income support , food stamps , Temporary Assistance to Needy Families , foster care , and Supplemental Security Income . Federal and other retirement and disability programs comprise approximately one third of the funds in this function . 650 Social Security Function 650 consists of the two payroll tax - financed programs that are collectively known as Social Security : Old - Age and Survivors Insurance and Disability Insurance ( OASDI ) . This function includes Social Security benefit payments and funds to administer the program . Under provisions of the Congressional Budget Act and the Budget Enforcement Act , Social Security trust funds are off - budget and do not appear in the budget resolution totals . However , a small portion of spending in Function 650 - the general fund transfer of income taxes on Social Security benefits - is considered on - budget and appears in the budget resolution totals .
World Health Organization
The WHO is financed by contributions from member states and outside donors . As of 2012 , the largest annual assessed contributions from member states came from the United States ( $110 million ) , Japan ( $58 million ) , Germany ( $37 million ) , United Kingdom ( $31 million ) and France ( $31 million ) . The combined 2012 -- 2013 budget has proposed a total expenditure of $3,959 million , of which $944 million ( 24 % ) will come from assessed contributions . This represented a significant fall in outlay compared to the previous 2009 -- 2010 budget , adjusting to take account of previous underspends . Assessed contributions were kept the same . Voluntary contributions will account for $3,015 million ( 76 % ) , of which $800 million is regarded as highly or moderately flexible funding , with the remainder tied to particular programmes or objectives .
Sociological theory
Structure and agency , sometimes referred to as determinism versus voluntarism , form an enduring ontological debate in social theory : `` Do social structures determine an individual 's behaviour or does human agency ? '' In this context ' agency ' refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make free choices , whereas ' structure ' relates to factors which limit or affect the choices and actions of individuals ( such as social class , religion , gender , ethnicity , and so on ) . Discussions over the primacy of either structure and agency relate to the core of sociological epistemology ( `` What is the social world made of ? '' , `` What is a cause in the social world , and what is an effect ? '' ) . A perennial question within this debate is that of `` social reproduction '' : how are structures ( specifically , structures producing inequality ) reproduced through the choices of individuals ?
Lobbying in the United States
Strategy usually dictates targeting specific office holders . On the state level , one study suggested that much of the lobbying activity targeted the offices of governors as well as state - level executive bureaucrats ; state lobbying was an `` intensely personal game '' with face - to - face contact being required for important decisions .
Political action committee
In the 2012 election campaign , most of the money given to super PACs came from wealthy individuals , not corporations . According to data from the Center for Responsive Politics , the top 100 individual super PAC donors in 2011 -- 2012 made up just 3.7 % of contributors , but accounted for more than 80 % of the total money raised , while less than 0.5 % of the money given to `` the most active Super PACs '' was donated by publicly traded corporations . Super PACs have been criticized for relying heavily on negative ads .
Israel
Israeli foreign aid ranks low among OECD nations , spending less than 0.1 % of its GNI on development assistance , as opposed to the recommended 0.7 % . The country also ranked 43rd in the 2016 World Giving Index . However , Israel has a history of providing emergency aid and humanitarian response teams to disasters across the world . Israel 's humanitarian efforts officially began in 1957 , with the establishment of Mashav , the Israel 's Agency for International Development Cooperation . There are additional Israeli humanitarian and emergency response groups that work with the Israel government , including IsraAid , a joint programme run by 14 Israeli organizations and North American Jewish groups , ZAKA , The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team ( FIRST ) , Israeli Flying Aid ( IFA ) , Save a Child 's Heart ( SACH ) and Latet .
It Takes a Village
Clinton notes in the book many institutions responsible in some way for raising children , including : direct family , grandparents , neighbors , teachers , ministers , doctors , employers , politicians , nonprofits , faith communities , businesses , and international governmental groups .
National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry
Rapid growth infused the national organization with money from dues , and many local granges established consumer cooperatives , initially supplied by the wholesaler Aaron Montgomery Ward . Poor fiscal management , combined with organizational difficulties resulting from rapid growth , led to a massive decline in membership . By the turn of the 20th century , the Grange rebounded and membership stabilized .
Education in Bangladesh
NGO - run schools differ from other non-government private schools . While the private schools operate like private enterprises often guided by commercial interests , NGO schools operate mainly in areas not served either by the government or private schools , essentially to meet the educational needs of vulnerable groups in the society . They usually follow an informal approach to suit the special needs of children from these vulnerable groups . But nowadays , some NGO schools are operating into places where there are both private and government schools .
Political campaign
In a modern political campaign , the campaign organization ( or `` machine '' ) will have a coherent structure of personnel in the same manner as any business of similar size .
United Nations
Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget , such as UNICEF and the World Food Programme , are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments , corporations , and private individuals .
Education in Bangladesh
Similarly , in NGO - run schools there does not exist any SMC . The style of management differs depending upon differences in policies pursued by different NGOs . Some are centrally managed within a highly bureaucratic set - up , while others enjoy considerable autonomy .
Education in India
Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of such programmes , themselves divided further into individual - based , community based , or the Individual - cum - community - based , in which microscopic levels of development are overseen at village level by an appointed worker :
Foreign policy of the United States
In absolute dollar terms , the United States government is the largest international aid donor ( $23 billion in 2014 ) . The U.S. Agency for International Development ( USAID ) manages the bulk of bilateral economic assistance ; the Treasury Department handles most multilateral aid . In addition many private agencies , churches and philanthropies provide aid .
UNICEF
UNICEF is funded entirely by voluntary contributions , and the National Committees collectively raise around one - third of UNICEF 's annual income . This comes through contributions from corporations , civil society organizations around six million individual donors worldwide .
UNICEF
Many people in developed countries first hear about UNICEF 's work through the activities of one of the 36 National Committees for UNICEF . These non-governmental organizations ( NGO ) are primarily responsible for fundraising , selling UNICEF greeting cards and products , creating private and public partnerships , advocating for children 's rights , and providing other support . The US Fund for UNICEF is the oldest of the national committees , founded in 1947 .