vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
American Civil War
To fight an offensive war , the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain , converted them to warships , and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans . Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters . However , the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested . After the war , the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done , and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871 . Rivers
American Civil War
On April 14 , 1865 , President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth , a Southern sympathizer . Lincoln died early the next morning , and Andrew Johnson became the president . Meanwhile , Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee 's surrender reached them . On April 26 , 1865 , General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present - day Durham , North Carolina . It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces , effectively bringing the war to an end . President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9 , 1865 ; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day . On June 2 , Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans - Mississippi Department . On June 23 , Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces .
Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War
The economic warfare between Great Britain and the colonists began well before the colonies declared their independence in 1776 . Regulations from the crown were met with fierce opposition from the colonists . After lobbies and petitions proved ineffective , the colonists turned to boycotting imported English goods . Boycotting proved to be successful in crippling British trade . After the first colonial boycott in 1765 , Parliament overturned the Sugar and Stamp Acts , and after a second boycott in 1768 Parliament overturned all of the Townshend duties except for the tax on tea . The colonists persisted , and the American boycott on tea ultimately culminated in the Boston Tea Party of 1773 . Despite the Revolution 's widespread association with the colonists ' aversion to higher taxes , it has been claimed that the colonists actually paid far less tax compared to their British counterparts .
American Civil War
Sectionalism refers to the different economies , social structure , customs and political values of the North and South . Regional tensions came to a head during the War of 1812 , resulting in the Hartford Convention which manifested Northern dissastisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately , the Three - Fifths Compromise , dilution of Northern power by new states , and a succession of Southern Presidents . Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North , which phased slavery out of existence , industrialized , urbanized , and built prosperous farms , while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor , together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen . In the 1840s and 50s , the issue of accepting slavery ( in the guise of rejecting slave - owning bishops and missionaries ) split the nation 's largest religious denominations ( the Methodist , Baptist and Presbyterian churches ) into separate Northern and Southern denominations .
American Civil War
Hooker , too , proved unable to defeat Lee 's army ; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one , he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863 . Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications . Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee 's second invasion of the North , in June . Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg ( July 1 to 3 , 1863 ) . This was the bloodiest battle of the war , and has been called the war 's turning point . Pickett 's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high - water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory . Lee 's army suffered 28,000 casualties ( versus Meade 's 23,000 ) . However , Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee 's retreat , and after Meade 's inconclusive fall campaign , Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership . At the same time , the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered , giving the Union control of the Mississippi River , permanently isolating the western Confederacy , and producing the new leader Lincoln needed , Ulysses S. Grant .
Confederate States of America
Secessionists argued that the United States Constitution was a contract among sovereign states that could be abandoned at any time without consultation and that each state had a right to secede . After intense debates and statewide votes , seven Deep South cotton states passed secession ordinances by February 1861 ( before Abraham Lincoln took office as president ) , while secession efforts failed in the other eight slave states . Delegates from those seven formed the CSA in February 1861 , selecting Jefferson Davis as the provisional president . Unionist talk of reunion failed and Davis began raising a 100,000 man army . States
Tennessee in the American Civil War
Governor Isham Harris began military mobilization , submitted an ordinance of secession to the General Assembly , and made direct overtures to the Confederate government .
American Civil War
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession . Efforts at compromise , including the `` Corwin Amendment '' and the `` Crittenden Compromise '' , failed . Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction . The slave states , which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives , were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North . Before Lincoln took office in March 1861 , seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy .
American Civil War
Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861 , seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America , or the South . The Confederacy grew to include eleven slave states . The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government , nor was it recognized by any foreign country ( although the United Kingdom and France granted it belligerent status ) . The states that remained loyal to the U.S. ( including the border states where slavery was legal ) were known as the Union or the North .
Confederate States of America
In the antebellum months , the Corwin Amendment was an unsuccessful attempt by the Congress to bring back the seceding states to the Union and to prevent the border slave states to remain . It was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution by Ohio Congressman Thomas Corwin that would shield `` domestic institutions '' of the states ( which in 1861 included slavery ) from the constitutional amendment process and from abolition or interference by Congress .
Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation , or Proclamation 95 , was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1 , 1863 . It changed the federal legal status of more than 3 million enslaved people in the designated areas of the South from slave to free . As soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government , by running away or through advances of federal troops , the slave became legally free . Ultimately , the rebel surrender liberated and resulted in the proclamation 's application to all of the designated slaves . It did not cover slaves in Union areas that were freed by state action ( or by the 13th amendment in December 1865 ) . It was issued as a war measure during the American Civil War , directed to all of the areas in rebellion and all segments of the executive branch ( including the Army and Navy ) of the United States .
War of 1812
Before 1813 , the war between the Creeks ( or Muscogee ) had been largely an internal affair sparked by the ideas of Tecumseh farther north in the Mississippi Valley . A faction known as the Red Sticks , so named for the color of their war stics , had broken away from the rest of the Creek Confederacy , which wanted peace with the United States . The Red Sticks were allied with Tecumseh , who about a year before 1813 had visited the Creeks and encouraged greater resistance to the Americans . The Creek Nation was a trading partner of the United States , actively involved with Spanish and British trade as well . The Red Sticks , as well as many southern Muscogeean people like the Seminole , had a long history of alliance with the Spanish and British Empires . This alliance helped the North American and European powers protect each other 's claims to territory in the south .
Confederate States of America
In a message to the Confederate Congress on April 29 , 1861 Jefferson Davis cited both the tariff and slavery for the South 's secession . Secessionists
Confederate States of America
A third count of southern pre-capitalist economy relates to the cultural setting . The South and southerners did not adopt a work ethic , nor the habits of thrift that marked the rest of the country . It had access to the tools of capitalism , but it did not adopt its culture . The Southern Cause as a national economy in the Confederacy was grounded in `` slavery and race , planters and patricians , plain folk and folk culture , cotton and plantations '' . National
Tennessee in the American Civil War
On February 3 , 1861 , the pro-Union Knoxville Whig published a `` Secret Circular '' that had mistakenly been sent by its authors to a pro-Union Tennessee U.S. Postmaster . In it was revealed a comprehensive plan by pro-slavery Tennesseeans and others to launch a propaganda campaign to convince Tennesseans that the strength of the pro-secessionist movement was overwhelming :
Democratic Party (United States)
As the American Civil War broke out , Northern Democrats were divided into War Democrats and Peace Democrats . The Confederate States of America , whose political leadership , mindful of the welter prevalent in antebellum American politics and with a pressing need for unity , largely viewed political parties as inimical to good governance ; consequently the Confederacy had none , or at least none with the wide organization inherent to other American parties . Most War Democrats rallied to Republican President Abraham Lincoln and the Republicans ' National Union Party in the election of 1864 , which featured Andrew Johnson on the Republican ticket even though he was a Democrat from the South . Johnson replaced Lincoln in 1865 , but stayed independent of both parties . The Democrats benefited from white Southerners ' resentment of Reconstruction after the war and consequent hostility to the Republican Party . After Redeemers ended Reconstruction in the 1870s , and following the often extremely violent disenfranchisement of African Americans led by such white supremacist Democratic politicians as Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina in the 1880s and 1890s , the South , voting Democratic , became known as the `` Solid South '' . Though Republicans won all but two presidential elections , the Democrats remained competitive . The party was dominated by pro-business Bourbon Democrats led by Samuel J. Tilden and Grover Cleveland , who represented mercantile , banking , and railroad interests ; opposed imperialism and overseas expansion ; fought for the gold standard ; opposed bimetallism ; and crusaded against corruption , high taxes , and tariffs . Cleveland was elected to non-consecutive presidential terms in 1884 and 1892 .
Confederate States of America
Each state declared its secession from the United States , which became known as the Union during the ensuing civil war , following the November 1860 election of Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln to the U.S. presidency on a platform which opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories . Before Lincoln took office in March , a new Confederate government was established in February 1861 , which was considered illegal by the government of the United States . States volunteered militia units and the new government hastened to form its own Confederate States Army from scratch practically overnight . After the American Civil War began in April , four slave states of the Upper South -- Virginia , Arkansas , Tennessee , and North Carolina -- also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy . The Confederacy later accepted Missouri and Kentucky as members , although neither officially declared secession nor were they ever largely controlled by Confederate forces ; Confederate shadow governments attempted to control the two states but were later exiled from them . Map
American Civil War
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African - Americans , both free blacks and escaped slaves , to join the Union Army . About 190,000 volunteered , further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates , who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery .
Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend ( also known as pocahontis , Tohopeka , Cholocco Litabixbee , or The Horseshoe ) , was fought during the War of 1812 in the Mississippi Territory , now central Alabama . On March 27 , 1814 , United States forces and Indian allies under Major General Andrew Jackson defeated the Red Sticks , a part of the Creek Indian tribe who opposed American expansion , effectively ending the Creek War .
American Civil War
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South . All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit ; most banks and railroads were bankrupt . Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North , a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century . Southern influence in the U.S. federal government , previously considerable , was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century . The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction .
History of United States foreign policy
Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history . The Union victory energized popular democratic forces . A Confederate victory , on the other hand , would have meant a new birth of slavery , not freedom . Historian Fergus Bordewich , following Doyle , argues that :
United States presidential election, 1860
The United States Presidential Election of 1860 was the nineteenth quadrennial presidential election to select the President and Vice President of the United States . The election was held on Tuesday , November 6 , 1860 . In a four - way contest , the Republican Party ticket of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin emerged triumphant . The election of Lincoln served as the primary catalyst of the American Civil War .
American Civil War
At first , Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont ( in Missouri ) and David Hunter ( in South Carolina , Georgia and Florida ) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats . Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected . But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan , which was enacted by Congress . When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation , Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it , as to do otherwise would seem like `` our last shriek on the retreat '' . Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley 's newspaper .
American Civil War
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy 's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived ; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation . Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or ( on December 6 , 1865 ) by the Thirteenth Amendment .
Confederate States of America
Vice President Alexander H. Stephens feared losing the very form of republican government . Allowing President Davis to threaten `` arbitrary arrests '' to draft hundreds of governor - appointed `` bomb - proof '' bureaucrats conferred `` more power than the English Parliament had ever bestowed on the king . History proved the dangers of such unchecked authority . '' The abolishment of draft exemptions for newspaper editors was interpreted as an attempt by the Confederate government to muzzle presses , such as the Raleigh NC Standard , to control elections and to suppress the peace meetings there . As Rable concludes , `` For Stephens , the essence of patriotism , the heart of the Confederate cause , rested on an unyielding commitment to traditional rights '' without considerations of military necessity , pragmatism or compromise .
Trent Affair
The Trent affair did not erupt as a major crisis until late November 1861 . The first link in the chain of events occurred in February 1861 , when the Confederacy created a three person European delegation consisting of William Lowndes Yancey , Pierre Rost , and Ambrose Dudley Mann . Their instructions from Confederate Secretary of State Robert Toombs were to explain to these governments the nature and purposes of the southern cause , to open diplomatic relations , and to `` negotiate treaties of friendship , commerce , and navigation . '' Toombs ' instructions included a long legal argument on states ' rights and the right of secession . Because of the reliance on the double attack of cotton and legality , many important issues were absent from the instructions including the blockade of Southern ports , privateering , trade with the North , slavery , and the informal blockade the Southerners had imposed whereby no cotton was being shipped out .
American Civil War
The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory . There are innumerable statues , commemorations , books and archival collections . The memory includes the home front , military affairs , the treatment of soldiers , both living and dead , in the war 's aftermath , depictions of the war in literature and art , evaluations of heroes and villains , and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war . The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery , heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines , and the issues of democracy and minority rights , as well as the notion of an `` Empire of Liberty '' influencing the world .
Southern United States
Nearly all Southerners , black and white , suffered as a result of the Civil War . Within a few years cotton production and harvest was back to pre-war levels , but low prices through much of the 19th century hampered recovery . They encouraged immigration by Chinese and Italian laborers into the Mississippi Delta . While the first Chinese entered as indentured laborers from Cuba , the majority came in the early 20th century . Neither group stayed long at rural farm labor . The Chinese became merchants and established stores in small towns throughout the Delta , establishing a place between white and black .
American Civil War
Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote 's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy 's `` Gibraltar of the West '' at Columbus , Kentucky . Though rebuffed at Belmont , Grant cut off Columbus . The Confederates , lacking their own gunboats , were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862 .
History of the United States Constitution
During Andrew Jackson 's administration , South Carolina objected to U.S. government 's `` tariff of abominations '' collected as federal duties in Charleston Harbor . The Nullification Crisis ensued . Justification for the nullifiers was found in the U.S. Senate speeches and writings of John C. Calhoun . He defended slavery against the Constitutional provisions allowing its statutory regulation or its eventual abolition by Constitutional amendment , most notably in his Disquisition on Government . The crisis was averted when once General Jackson declared he would march a U.S. army into South Carolina and hang the first nullifier he saw from the first tree , and a new negotiated tariff , the Compromise Tariff of 1833 , satisfactory to South Carolina was enacted . Despite this , a states - rights - based defense of slavery persisted amongst Southerners until the American Civil War ; conversely , Northerners explored nullification of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 . Abraham Lincoln kept a portrait of Andrew Jackson above his desk at the War Department during efforts to defend the Constitution as understood by a national majority of people and states at that time .
American Civil War
The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization ( 1927 ) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s . The Beards downplayed slavery , abolitionism , and issues of morality . They ignored constitutional issues of states ' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war . Indeed , the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event . Much more important was the calculus of class conflict . The Beards announced that the Civil War was really :
Twenty Negro Law
When Abraham Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation on September 22 , 1862 , many in the Confederacy believed that the Union president was specifically trying to foment a slave revolt . Partly to address this concern , and partly to address other issues related to the First Conscription Act , the Confederate congress passed its Second Conscription Act on October 11 , 1862 , which included a provision that read :
English Civil War
Thomas Hobbes gives a much earlier historical account of the English Civil War in his essay Behemoth , written in 1668 and published in 1681 . He reports that the causes of the war were the doctrines of politics and conflicts that arose from science that disputed those political doctrines .
History of the United States Merchant Marine
The Civil War dealt our once famous merchant marine a blow from which it never recovered except for the assistance of government intervention in World War I and later . Destruction by Confederate privateers and large sales abroad decreased the amount of tonnage . Delay in adopting iron steam - driven ships gave British builders an advantage which they continued to hold . But more important than all else was the fact that more profitable investments in internal transportation and the exploration of raw materials in the great industrial age which dawned after the war drew capital away from the sea . Lack of government interest helped complete the downfall of American shipping .