vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Italian Empire
In 1939 , Italy invaded and captured Albania and made it a part of the Italian Empire as a separate kingdom in personal union with the Italian crown . The region of modern - day Albania had been an early part of the Roman Empire , which had actually been held before northern parts of Italy had been taken by the Romans , but had long since been populated by Albanians , even though Italy had retained strong links with the Albanian leadership and considered it firmly within its sphere of influence . It is possible that Mussolini simply wanted a spectacular success over a smaller neighbour to match Germany 's absorption of Austria and Czechoslovakia . Italian King Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown , and a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci was established to rule over Albania .
History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year , which created a large pool of experienced magistrates , and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters . Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province , and to more tightly link the other provinces of the empire into a single , cohesive unit . This process , of ossifying the entire Roman Empire into a single unit , rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities , would ultimately be completed by Caesar 's successor , the emperor Augustus . When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC , he raised the senate 's membership to 900 . While the Roman assemblies continued to meet , Caesar submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election , and all bills to the assemblies for enactment , which caused the assemblies to become powerless and unable to oppose him . To minimize the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him , Caesar passed a law which subjected governors to term limits . Near the end of his life , Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire . Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own Consuls , he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC , and all Consuls and Tribunes in 42 BC . This , in effect , transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the Dictator , and robbed the popular assemblies of much of their remaining influence .
Indo-Roman trade relations
Roman and Greek traders frequented the ancient Tamil country , present day Southern India and Sri Lanka , securing trade with the seafaring Tamil states of the Pandyan , Chola and Chera dynasties and establishing trading settlements which secured trade with the Indian Subcontinent by the Greco - Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty a few decades before the start of the Common Era and remained long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . As recorded by Strabo , Emperor Augustus of Rome received at Antioch an ambassador from a South Indian king called Pandyan of Dramira . The country of the Pandyas , Pandi Mandala , was described as Pandyan Mediterranea in the Periplus and Modura Regia Pandyan by Ptolemy . They also outlasted Byzantium 's loss of the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea ( c. 639 -- 645 CE ) under the pressure of the Muslim conquests . Sometime after the sundering of communications between the Axum and Eastern Roman Empire in the 7th century , the Christian kingdom of Axum fell into a slow decline , fading into obscurity in western sources . It survived , despite pressure from Islamic forces , until the 11th century , when it was reconfigured in a dynastic squabble . Communications were reinstated after the Muslim forces retreated .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Anthemius was still in command of an army in Italy . Additionally , in northern Gaul , a British army led by one Riothamus , operated in imperial interests . Anthemius sent his son over the Alps , with an army , to request that the Visigoths return southern Gaul to Roman control . This would have allowed the Empire land access to Hispania again . The Visigoths refused , defeated the forces of both Riothamus and Anthemius , and with the Burgundians took over almost all of the remaining imperial territory in southern Gaul .
Education in ancient Rome
Prior to the 3rd century BC . the Roman system of education was closely bound to the Roman social institution of patria potestas , in which the father acted as head of the household ( paterfamilias ) , and had , according to law , absolute right of control over his children . It was the father 's duty to educate his children and should he be unable to fulfill this duty , the task was assumed by other family members . It was not until 272 BC with the capture of Tarentum , the annexation of Sicily in 241 BC , and the period following the First Punic War that Romans were exposed to a strong influence of Greek thought and lifestyle and found leisure to study the arts .
Indo-Roman trade relations
The southern route so helped enhance trade between the ancient Roman Empire and the Indian subcontinent , that Roman politicians and historians are on record decrying the loss of silver and gold to buy silk to pamper Roman wives , and the southern route grew to eclipse and then totally supplant the overland trade route .
Republic
The dominant form of government for these early republics was control by a limited council of elite patricians . In those areas that held elections , property qualifications or guild membership limited both who could vote and who could run . In many states no direct elections were held and council members were hereditary or appointed by the existing council . This left the great majority of the population without political power , and riots and revolts by the lower classes were common . The late Middle Ages saw more than 200 such risings in the towns of the Holy Roman Empire . Similar revolts occurred in Italy , notably the Ciompi Revolt in Florence . Mercantile
Italian Australians
In 1883 , a commercial Treaty between the United Kingdom and Italy was signed , allowing Italian subjects freedom of entry , travel and residence , and the rights to acquire and own property and to carry on business activities . This Agreement certainly favoured the arrival in Australia of many more Italians .
Romance languages
With the rise of the Roman Empire , Vulgar Latin spread first throughout Italy and then through southern , western , central , and southeast Europe , and northern Africa along parts of western Asia .
Republic
The term `` republic '' is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city states , especially if outside Europe and the area which was under Graeco - Roman influence . However some early states outside Europe had governments that are sometimes today considered similar to republics .
Freedom of speech by country
In Italy the Constitution guarantees freedom of speech , as stated in Article 21 , Paragraph 1 :
Romanticism
In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman , meaning the fairly new literary form of the novel , had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages . The use of the word did not become general very quickly , and was probably spread more widely in France by its persistent use by Madame de Staël in her De l'Allemagne ( 1813 ) , recounting her travels in Germany . In England Wordsworth wrote in a preface to his poems of 1815 of the `` romantic harp '' and `` classic lyre '' , but in 1820 Byron could still write , perhaps slightly disingenuously , `` I perceive that in Germany , as well as in Italy , there is a great struggle about what they call ' Classical ' and ' Romantic ' , terms which were not subjects of classification in England , at least when I left it four or five years ago '' . It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name , and in 1824 the Académie française took the wholly ineffective step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature .
Military history of Italy during World War II
On 25 July , the Grand Council of Fascism voted to limit the power of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and handed control of the Italian armed forces over to King Victor Emmanuel III . The next day Mussolini met with the King , was dismissed as prime minister , and was then imprisoned . A new Italian government , led by General Pietro Badoglio and Victor Emmanuel III , took over in Italy . Although they publicly declared that they would keep fighting alongside the Germans , the new Italian government began secret negotiations with the Allies to come over to the Allied side . On 3 September , a secret armistice was signed with the Allies at Fairfield Camp in Sicily . The armistice was publicly announced on 8 September . By then , the Allies were on the Italian mainland .
Italian language
An important event that helped the diffusion of Italian was the conquest and occupation of Italy by Napoleon in the early 19th century ( who was himself of Italian - Corsican descent ) . This conquest propelled the unification of Italy some decades after and pushed the Italian language into a lingua franca used not only among clerks , nobility , and functionaries in the Italian courts , but also by the bourgeoisie .
Modern history
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Italian Empire
In both 1932 and 1935 , Italy demanded a League of Nations mandate of the former German Cameroon and a free hand in Ethiopia from France in return for Italian support against Germany ( see Stresa Front ) . This was refused by French Prime Minister Édouard Herriot , who was not yet sufficiently worried about the prospect of a German resurgence . The failed resolution of the Abyssinia Crisis led to the Second Italo - Ethiopian War , in which Italy annexed Ethiopia to its empire .
World War II
In Europe , Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive . In March 1938 , Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers . Encouraged , Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population ; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government , in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands . Soon afterwards , Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland annexed Czechoslovakia 's Zaolzie region .
History of the Roman Empire
Caligula started out well , by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle 's records . Unfortunately , he quickly lapsed into illness . The Caligula that emerged in late 37 demonstrated features of mental instability that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as encephalitis , which can cause mental derangement , hyperthyroidism , or even a nervous breakdown ( perhaps brought on by the stress of his position ) . Whatever the cause , there was an obvious shift in his reign from this point on , leading his biographers to label him as insane .
Western Roman Empire
As the Roman Republic expanded , it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces . Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire . News of invasion , revolt , natural disasters , or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service , often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome 's orders to be realized in the province of origin . For this reason , provincial governors had de facto rule in the name of the Roman Republic . Governors had several duties , including the command of armies , handling the taxes of the province and serving as a local chief judges .
Military history of Italy during World War II
Italian forces around Sidi Barrani had severe weaknesses in their deployment . Their five main fortifications were placed too far apart to allow mutual support against an attacking force , and the areas between were weakly patrolled . The absence of motorised transport did not allow for rapid reorganisation , if needed . The rocky terrain had prevented an anti-tank ditch from being dug and there were too few mines and 47 mm anti-tank guns to repel an armoured advance . By the summer of 1941 , the Italians in North Africa had regrouped , retrained and rearmed into a much more effective fighting force , one that proved to be much harder for the British to overcome in encounters from 1941 to 1943 .
Italian nationalism
The initial important figure in the development of Italian nationalism was Giuseppe Mazzini , who became a nationalist in the 1820s . In his political career , Mazzini held as objectives the liberation of Italy from the Austrian occupation , indirect control by Austria , princely despotism , aristocratic privilege , and clerical authority . Mazzini was captivated by ancient Rome that he considered the `` temple of humanity '' and sought to establish a united Italy as a `` Third Rome '' that emphasized Roman spiritual values that Italian nationalists claimed were preserved by the Catholic Church . Mazzini and Italian nationalists in general promoted the concept of Romanità ( the Roman - ness ) , which claimed that Roman culture made invaluable contributions to the Italian and Western civilization . Since the 1820s , Mazzini supported a revolution to create a utopy of an ideal Italian republic based in Rome . Mazzini formed revolutionary patriotic Young Italy society in 1832 . Upon Young Italy breaking apart in the 1830s , Mazzini reconstituted it in 1839 with the intention to gain the support of workers ' groups . However , at the time Mazzini was hostile to socialism due to his belief that all classes needed to be united in the cause of creating a united Italy rather than divided against each other . Giuseppe
Modern history
At the time of the Berlin Conference , Africa contained one - fifth of the world 's population living in one - quarter of the world 's land area . However , from Europe 's perspective , they were dividing an unknown continent . European countries established a few coastal colonies in Africa by the mid-nineteenth century , which included Cape Colony ( Great Britain ) , Angola ( Portugal ) , and Algeria ( France ) , but until the late nineteenth century Europe largely traded with free African states without feeling the need for territorial possession . Until the 1880s most of Africa remained uncharted , with western maps from the period generally showing blank spaces for the continent 's interior .
Italian Australians
Italian nationalism acted as an element of reaction and defence to the Australian environment . By the early 1930s , even Italian diplomatic activity in Australia -- as a direct expression of the Fascist government -- became more incisive and oriented to make more and more Fascist proselytes among Italians . Migrants were invited to become members of the fascist political organisations of Australia , to come to fascist meetings and eventually to return to Italy , to consent to serve in the Italian armed forces , both in view of the Italian war campaign of Ethiopia ( 1936 ) and , later , at the outbreak of World War II .
Ancient Roman architecture
Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from Spain , to the Middle East . Because of the Romans ' ability to influence local architecture , we see numerous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman attributes .
Ancient Roman architecture
The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits . Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland . At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers . A portcullis covered the opening when the city was under siege , and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls . An aqueduct was built outside the city walls .
Economic history of Italy
Mezzadria , a form of sharefarming where tenant families obtained a plot to work on from an owner and kept a reasonable share of the profits , was more prevalent in central Italy , which is one of the reasons why there was less emigration from that part of Italy . Although owning land was the basic yardstick of wealth , farming in the south was socially despised . People did not invest in agricultural equipment but in such things as low - risk state bonds .
Economic history of Italy
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Republic
While the philosophical terminology developed in classical Greece and Rome , as already noted by Aristotle there was already a long history of city states with a wide variety of constitutions , not only in Greece but also in the Middle East . After the classical period , during the Middle Ages , many free cities developed again , such as Venice .
Causes of World War II
After the Stresa Conference and even as a reaction to the Anglo - German Naval Agreement , Italian dictator Benito Mussolini attempted to expand the Italian Empire in Africa by invading the Ethiopian Empire ( also known as Abyssinia ) . The League of Nations declared Italy the aggressor and imposed sanctions on oil sales that proved ineffective . Italy annexed Ethiopia in May 7 and merged Ethiopia , Eritrea , and Somaliland into a single colony known as Italian East Africa . On June 30 , 1936 , Emperor Haile Selassie gave a stirring speech before the League of Nations denouncing Italy 's actions and criticizing the world community for standing by . He warned that `` It is us today . It will be you tomorrow '' . As a result of the League 's condemnation of Italy , Mussolini declared the country 's withdrawal from the organization .
History of the Roman Empire
The history of the Roman Empire covers the history of Ancient Rome from the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the abdication of the last Western emperor in 476 AD . Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Republic in the 6th century BC , though it did not expand outside of the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC . Civil war engulfed the Roman state in the mid 1st century BC , first between Julius Caesar and Pompey , and finally between Octavian and Mark Antony . Antony was defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC . In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian imperator ( `` commander '' ) thus beginning the Principate , the first epoch of Roman imperial history usually dated from 27 BC to 284 AD ; they later awarded him the name Augustus , `` the venerated '' . The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs : the Julio - Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors -- Tiberius , Caligula , Claudius , and Nero -- before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife - torn Year of Four Emperors , from which Vespasian emerged as victor . Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty , to be followed by the Nerva -- Antonine dynasty which produced the `` Five Good Emperors '' : Nerva , Trajan , Hadrian , Antoninus Pius and the philosophically inclined Marcus Aurelius . In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius , a contemporary observer , the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 AD marked the descent `` from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron '' -- a famous comment which has led some historians , notably Edward Gibbon , to take Commodus ' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire .
Western Roman Empire
With the Roman legions withdrawn , northern Gaul became subject to more and more Frankish influence , the Franks naturally adopting a somewhat leading role in the region . In 418 , Honorius granted southwestern Gaul ( Gallia Aquitania ) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation . Removing the local imperial governors , the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants were left to conduct their own affairs . As such , the first of the `` barbarian kingdoms '' , the Visigothic Kingdom , was formed .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
As a declared ' enemy of the Emperor ' , Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons , which he could not afford to detach . He again offered to move his men , this time to Pannonia , in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of Comes , but he was refused as a supporter of Stilicho . He moved into Italy , probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho , bypassing the imperial court in Ravenna which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port , and he menaced the city of Rome itself . In 407 , there was no equivalent of the determined response to the catastrophic Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE , when the entire Roman population , even slaves , had been mobilized to resist the enemy .
New World
Even prior to Vespucci , several maps , e.g. the Cantino planisphere of 1502 and the Canerio map of 1504 , placed a large open ocean between China on the east side of the map , and the inchoate largely water - surrounded North American and South American discoveries on the western side of map . However , out of uncertainty , they depicted a finger of the Asian land mass stretching across the top to the eastern edge of the map , suggesting it carried over into the western hemisphere ( e.g. the Cantino Planisphere denotes Greenland as `` Punta d'Asia '' -- `` edge of Asia '' ) . Some maps , e.g. the 1506 Contarini -- Rosselli map and the 1508 Johannes Ruysch map , bowing to Ptolemaic authority and Columbus 's assertions , have the northern Asian landmass stretching well into the western hemisphere and merging with known North America ( Labrador , Newfoundland , etc . ) . These maps place the island of Japan near Cuba and leave the South American continent -- Vespucci 's `` New World '' proper -- detached and floating below by itself . The Waldseemüller map of 1507 , which accompanied the famous Cosmographiae Introductio volume ( which includes reprints of Vespucci 's letters ) comes closest to modernity by placing a completely open sea ( with no stretching land fingers ) between Asia on the eastern side and the New World ( being represented two times in the same map in a different way : with and without a sea passage in the middle of what is now named Central America ) on the western side -- which ( on what is now named South America ) that same map famously labels simply `` America '' . However , Martin Waldseemüller 's map of 1516 retreats considerably from his earlier map and back to classical authority , with the Asian land mass merging into North America ( which he now calls Terra de Cuba Asie partis ) , and quietly drops the `` America '' label from South America , calling it merely Terra Incognita .