vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Across the Universe
On 4 February 2008 , at 00 : 00 UTC , NASA transmitted the Interstellar Message `` Across the Universe '' in the direction of the star Polaris , 431 light years from Earth . The transmission was made using a 70m antenna in the Deep Space Network 's Madrid Deep Space Communication Complex , located outside of Madrid , Spain . It was done with an `` X band '' transmitter , radiating into the antenna at 18 kW . This was done to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the song 's recording , the 45th anniversary of the Deep Space Network ( DSN ) , and the 50th anniversary of NASA . The idea was hatched by Beatles historian Martin Lewis , who encouraged all Beatles fans to play the track as it was beamed to the distant star . The event marked the first time a song had ever been intentionally transmitted into deep space , and was approved by McCartney , Yoko Ono , and Apple Corps . ( The first musical interstellar message was `` 1st Theremin Concert to Aliens '' , section 2 of the Teen Age Message , in 2001 . )
Moon landing
The LCROSS data collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ( LRO ) on 18 June 2009 on board an Atlas V rocket with a Centaur upper stage . On 9 October 2009 , at 11 : 31 UTC , the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface , releasing the kinetic energy equivalent of detonating approximately 2 tons of TNT ( 8.86 GJ ) . Six minutes later at 11 : 37 UTC , the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface .
Kuiper belt
The 1 : 2 resonance appears to be an edge beyond which few objects are known . It is not clear whether it is actually the outer edge of the classical belt or just the beginning of a broad gap . Objects have been detected at the 2 : 5 resonance at roughly 55 AU , well outside the classical belt ; predictions of a large number of bodies in classical orbits between these resonances have not been verified through observation .
Moon landing
Mission Mass ( kg ) Booster Launch date Goal Result Landing zone Lat / Lon Surveyor 1 292 Atlas -- Centaur 30 May 1966 Landing Success -- 11,000 pictures returned , first U.S. Moon landing Oceanus Procellarum 002.45 S 043.22 W Surveyor 2 292 Atlas -- Centaur 20 September 1966 Landing Failure -- midcourse engine malfunction , placing vehicle in unrecoverable tumble ; crashed southeast of Copernicus Crater Sinus Medii 004.00 S 011.00 W Surveyor 3 302 Atlas -- Centaur 20 April 1967 Landing Success -- 6,000 pictures returned ; trench dug to 17.5 cm depth after 18 hr of robot arm use Oceanus Procellarum 002.94 S 336.66 E Surveyor 4 282 Atlas -- Centaur 14 July 1967 Landing Failure -- radio contact lost 2.5 minutes before touchdown ; perfect automated Moon landing possible but outcome unknown Sinus Medii unknown Surveyor 5 303 Atlas -- Centaur 8 September 1967 Landing Success -- 19,000 photos returned , first use of alpha scatter soil composition monitor Mare Tranquillitatis 001.41 N 023.18 E Surveyor 6 300 Atlas -- Centaur 7 November 1967 Landing Success -- 30,000 photos returned , robot arm & alpha scatter science , engine restart , second landing 2.5 m away from first Sinus Medii 000.46 N 358.63 E Surveyor 7 306 Atlas -- Centaur 7 January 1968 Landing Success -- 21,000 photos returned ; robot arm & alpha scatter science ; laser beams from Earth detected Tycho Crater 041.01 S 348.59 E
Earth
The main part of Earth 's magnetic field is generated in the core , the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy . The field extends outwards from the core , through the mantle , and up to Earth 's surface , where it is , approximately , a dipole . The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth 's geographic poles . At the equator of the magnetic field , the magnetic - field strength at the surface is 3.05 × 10 T , with global magnetic dipole moment of 7.91 × 10 T m . The convection movements in the core are chaotic ; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment . This causes secular variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years . The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago . Magnetosphere
Moon landing
In contrast to Soviet lunar exploration triumphs in 1959 , success eluded initial U.S. efforts to reach the Moon with the Pioneer and Ranger programs . Fifteen consecutive U.S. unmanned lunar missions over a six - year period from 1958 to 1964 all failed their primary photographic missions ; however , Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions .
Lunar phase
The average calendar month , which is ⁄ of a tropical year , is about 30.44 days , while the Moon 's phase ( synodic ) cycle repeats on average every 29.53 days . Therefore , the timing of the Moon 's phases shifts by an average of almost one day for each successive month . ( Lunar year = 354 days . )
Vredefort crater
The asteroid that hit Vredefort is estimated to have been one of the largest ever to strike Earth ( at least since the Hadean Eon some four billion years ago ) , thought to have been approximately 10 -- 15 km ( 6.2 -- 9.3 mi ) in diameter . The bolide that created the Sudbury Basin could have been even larger .
Earth's orbit
In 1989 , Jacques Laskar 's work indicated that the Earth 's orbit ( as well as the orbits of all the inner planets ) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years ' time . Modeling the Solar System is a subject covered by the n - body problem .
Moon landing
Many conspiracy theorists hold that the Apollo Moon landings were a hoax ; however , empirical evidence is readily available to show that manned moon landings did indeed occur . Anyone on Earth with an appropriate laser and telescope system can bounce laser beams off three retroreflector arrays left on the Moon by Apollo 11 , 14 and 15 , verifying deployment of the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment at historically documented Apollo Moon landing sites and so proving equipment constructed on Earth was successfully transported to the surface of the Moon . In addition , in August 2009 NASA 's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter began to send back high resolution photos of the Apollo landing sites . These photos show not only the large Descent Stages of the lunar landers left behind but also tracks of the astronauts ' walking paths in the lunar dust .
Earth
Earth has at least five co-orbital asteroids , including 3753 Cruithne and 2002 AA 29 . A trojan asteroid companion , 2010 TK 7 , is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point , L4 , in the Earth 's orbit around the Sun .
Mid-ocean ridge
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form the Ocean Ridge , a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean , making it the longest mountain range in the world . The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km ( 40,400 mi ) long ( several times longer than the Andes , the longest continental mountain range ) , and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km ( 49,700 mi ) long .
Eyepiece
The generally accepted visual distance of closest focus D ( \ displaystyle D ) is 250 mm , and eyepiece power is normally specified assuming this value . Common eyepiece powers are 8 × , 10 × , 15 × , and 20 × . The focal length of the eyepiece ( in mm ) can thus be determined if required by dividing 250 mm by the eyepiece power .
Space Race
In 1958 , Korolev upgraded the R - 7 to be able to launch a 400 - kilogram ( 880 lb ) payload to the Moon . Three secret 1958 attempts to launch Luna E-1 - class impactor probes failed . The fourth attempt , Luna 1 , launched successfully on January 2 , 1959 , but missed the Moon . The fifth attempt on June 18 also failed at launch . The 390 - kilogram ( 860 lb ) Luna 2 successfully impacted the Moon on September 14 , 1959 . The 278.5 - kilogram ( 614 lb ) Luna 3 successfully flew by the Moon and sent back pictures of its far side on October 6 , 1959 .
Global Positioning System
Triple differencing followed by numerical root finding , and a mathematical technique called least squares can estimate the position of one receiver given the position of another . First , compute the difference between satellites , then between receivers , and finally between epochs . Other orders of taking differences are equally valid . Detailed discussion of the errors is omitted .
Moon landing
A total of twelve men have landed on the Moon . This was accomplished with two US pilot - astronauts flying a Lunar Module on each of six NASA missions across a 41 - month period starting on 20 July 1969 UTC , with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on Apollo 11 , and ending on 14 December 1972 UTC with Gene Cernan and Jack Schmitt on Apollo 17 . Cernan was the last to step off the lunar surface .
Time dilation
Jump up ^ Average time dilation has a weak dependence on the orbital inclination angle ( Ashby 2003 , p. 32 ) . The r ≈ 1.497 result corresponds to the orbital inclination of modern GPS satellites , which is 55 degrees .
North Pole
It is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates ( latitude , longitude , and elevations or orography ) to fixed landforms . Of course , given plate tectonics and isostasy , there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed . Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System .
Jupiter
area 6.1419 × 10 km ( 2.3714 × 10 sq mi ) 7002121900000000000 ♠ 121.9 Earths Volume 1.4313 × 10 km ( 3.434 × 10 cu mi ) 7003132100000000000 ♠ 1,321 Earths Mass 1.8982 × 10 kg ( 4.1848 × 10 lb ) 7002317800000000000 ♠ 317.8 Earths 1 / 1047 Sun Mean density 1,326 kg / m ( 2,235 lb / cu yd ) Surface gravity 24.79 m / s ( 81.3 ft / s ) 2.528 g Moment of inertia factor 6999254000000000000 ♠ 0.254 I / MR ( estimate ) Escape velocity 59.5 km / s ( 37.0 mi / s ) Sidereal rotation period 9.925 hours ( 9 h 55 m 30 s ) Equatorial rotation velocity 12.6 km / s ( 7.8 mi / s ; 45,000 km / h ) Axial tilt 3.13 ° ( to orbit ) North pole right ascension 268.057 ° ; 17 52 14 North pole declination 64.495 ° Albedo 0.343 ( Bond ) 0.538 ( geometric ) Surface temp .
Mariana Trench
The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the center of the Earth . This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere ; its radius is about 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) less at the poles than at the equator . As a result , parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 kilometres ( 8.1 mi ) closer to the Earth 's center than the Challenger Deep seafloor .
Earth
Earth 's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere . Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 7000270000000000000 ♠ 2.7 Gya , forming the primarily nitrogen -- oxygen atmosphere of today . This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and , indirectly , the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O 2 into O 3 . The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation , permitting life on land . Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor , providing useful gases , causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface , and moderating temperature . This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect : trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground , thereby raising the average temperature . Water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . Without this heat - retention effect , the average surface temperature would be − 18 ° C ( 0 ° F ) , in contrast to the current + 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) , and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form . In May 2017 , glints of light , seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away , were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere . Weather
Metrication in the United States
Domestic airline flights are assigned altitudes in feet and measure speed in knots . Nautical charts show depth in fathoms and use the nautical mile for distance . ( One minute of arc of latitude at the radius of the earth at sea level was the standard for one nautical mile until about 1929 . The nautical mile is now defined as exactly 1,852 meters . ) Railroads use the standard gauge of 4 feet 81⁄2 inches , as does most of Europe ( where it is expressed instead as 1,435 mm ) . MPH
Earth
Earth 's expected long - term future is tied to that of the Sun . Over the next 7000110000000000000 ♠ 1.1 Bys , solar luminosity will increase by 10 % , and over the next 7000350000000000000 ♠ 3.5 Bys by 40 % . The Earth 's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic carbon cycle , reducing CO 2 concentration to levels lethally low for plants ( 6995099999999999999 ♠ 10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis ) in approximately 7002500000000000000 ♠ 500 -- 900 Mys . The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere , making animal life impossible . After another billion years all surface water will have disappeared and the mean global temperature will reach 70 ° C ( 158 ° F ) . From that point , the Earth is expected to be habitable for another 7016157788000000000 ♠ 500 Ma , possibly up to 7016725824800000000 ♠ 2.3 Ga if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere . Even if the Sun were eternal and stable , 27 % of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the mantle in one billion years , due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges .
Equator
At the equinoxes , the Earth 's axis is not tilted toward the sun , instead it is perpendicular to the sun meaning that the day is about 12 hours long , as is the night , across the whole of the Earth .
Speed of light
light time for unit distance : t = 7002499004783836000 ♠ 499.004 783 836 ( 10 ) s c = 7008299792457999999 ♠ 0.002 003 988 804 10 ( 4 ) AU / s = 7002173144632674000 ♠ 173.144 632 674 ( 3 ) AU / day .
Pendulum
1620 : British scientist Francis Bacon was one of the first to propose using a pendulum to measure gravity , suggesting taking one up a mountain to see if gravity varies with altitude . 1644 : Even before the pendulum clock , French priest Marin Mersenne first determined the length of the seconds pendulum was 39.1 inches ( 990 mm ) , by comparing the swing of a pendulum to the time it took a weight to fall a measured distance . 1669 : Jean Picard determined the length of the seconds pendulum at Paris , using a 1 - inch ( 25 mm ) copper ball suspended by an aloe fiber , obtaining 39.09 inches ( 993 mm ) . 1672 : The first observation that gravity varied at different points on Earth was made in 1672 by Jean Richer , who took a pendulum clock to Cayenne , French Guiana and found that it lost ​ 2 ⁄ minutes per day ; its seconds pendulum had to be shortened by ​ 1 ⁄ lignes ( 2.6 mm ) shorter than at Paris , to keep correct time . In 1687 Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed this was because the Earth had a slightly oblate shape ( flattened at the poles ) caused by the centrifugal force of its rotation . At higher latitudes the surface was closer to the center of the Earth , so gravity increased with latitude . From this time on , pendulums began to be taken to distant lands to measure gravity , and tables were compiled of the length of the seconds pendulum at different locations on Earth . In 1743 Alexis Claude Clairaut created the first hydrostatic model of the Earth , Clairaut 's theorem , which allowed the ellipticity of the Earth to be calculated from gravity measurements . Progressively more accurate models of the shape of the Earth followed . 1687 : Newton experimented with pendulums ( described in Principia ) and found that equal length pendulums with bobs made of different materials had the same period , proving that the gravitational force on different substances was exactly proportional to their mass ( inertia ) . Borda
Mount Everest
In 1849 , Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area , who made two observations from Jirol , 190 km ( 120 mi ) away . Nicolson then took the largest theodolite and headed east , obtaining over 30 observations from five different locations , with the closest being 174 km ( 108 mi ) from the peak .
Magnetic field
The field at the surface of the Earth is approximately the same as if a giant bar magnet were positioned at the center of the Earth and tilted at an angle of about 11 ° off the rotational axis of the Earth ( see the figure ) . The north pole of a magnetic compass needle points roughly north , toward the North Magnetic Pole . However , because a magnetic pole is attracted to its opposite , the North Magnetic Pole is actually the south pole of the geomagnetic field . This confusion in terminology arises because the pole of a magnet is defined by the geographical direction it points .
Moon landing
On 16 August 2006 , the Associated Press reported that NASA is missing the original Slow - scan television tapes ( which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV ) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk . Some news outlets have mistakenly reported that the SSTV tapes were found in Western Australia , but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11 Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package .
Time
Earth is split up into a number of time zones . Most time zones are exactly one hour apart , and by convention compute their local time as an offset from GMT . For example , time zones at sea are based on GMT . In many locations ( but not at sea ) these offsets vary twice yearly due to daylight saving time transitions .
Islamic Golden Age
Al - Biruni ( 973 - 1048 ) estimated the radius of the earth as 6339.6 km ( modern value is c. 6,371 km ) , the best estimate at that time .
Earth's location in the Universe
Knowledge of Earth 's location in the Universe has been shaped by 400 years of telescopic observations , and has expanded radically in the last century . Initially , Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe , which consisted only of those planets visible with the naked eye and an outlying sphere of fixed stars . After the acceptance of the heliocentric model in the 17th century , observations by William Herschel and others showed that the Sun lay within a vast , disc - shaped galaxy of stars . By the 20th century , observations of spiral nebulae revealed that our galaxy was one of billions in an expanding universe , grouped into clusters and superclusters . By the end of the 20th century , the overall structure of the visible universe was becoming clearer , with superclusters forming into a vast web of filaments and voids . Superclusters , filaments and voids are the largest coherent structures in the Universe that we can observe . At still larger scales ( over 1000 megaparsecs ) the Universe becomes homogeneous meaning that all its parts have on average the same density , composition and structure .
Earth
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle , , representing the four corners of the world .
Satellite
The commonly used altitude classifications of geocentric orbit are Low Earth orbit ( LEO ) , Medium Earth orbit ( MEO ) and High Earth orbit ( HEO ) . Low Earth orbit is any orbit below 2,000 km . Medium Earth orbit is any orbit between 2,000 and 35,786 km . High Earth orbit is any orbit higher than 35,786 km .
Earth
Earth 's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans , including food , wood , pharmaceuticals , oxygen , and the recycling of many organic wastes . The land - based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water , and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land . In 1980 , 50.53 million km ( 19.51 million sq mi ) of Earth 's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands , 67.88 million km ( 26.21 million sq mi ) was grasslands and pasture , and 15.01 million km ( 5.80 million sq mi ) was cultivated as croplands . The estimated amount of irrigated land in 1993 was 2,481,250 km ( 958,020 sq mi ) . Humans also live on the land by using building materials to construct shelters .
Coordinated Universal Time
Earth 's rotational speed is very slowly decreasing because of tidal deceleration ; this increases the length of the mean solar day . The length of the SI second was calibrated on the basis of the second of ephemeris time and can now be seen to have a relationship with the mean solar day observed between 1750 and 1892 , analysed by Simon Newcomb . As a result , the SI second is close to 1 / 86400 of a mean solar day in the mid ‐ 19th century . In earlier centuries , the mean solar day was shorter than 86,400 SI seconds , and in more recent centuries it is longer than 86,400 seconds . Near the end of the 20th century , the length of the mean solar day ( also known simply as `` length of day '' or `` LOD '' ) was approximately 86,400.0013 s . For this reason , UT is now `` slower '' than TAI by the difference ( or `` excess '' LOD ) of 1.3 ms / day .
Earth
The abundance of water on Earth 's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the `` Blue Planet '' from other planets in the Solar System . Earth 's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans , but technically includes all water surfaces in the world , including inland seas , lakes , rivers , and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m ( 6,600 ft ) . The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of 10,911.4 m ( 35,799 ft ) .
Cardinal direction
The Earth has a magnetic field which is approximately aligned with its axis of rotation . A magnetic compass is a device that uses this field to determine the cardinal directions . Magnetic compasses are widely used , but only moderately accurate . The north pole of the magnetic needle points towards the geographic north pole of the earth and vice versa . This is because the geographic north pole of the earth lies very close to the magnetic south pole of the earth . This south magnetic pole of the earth located at an angle of 17 degrees to the geographic north pole attracts the north pole of the magnetic needle and vice versa .
Sun path
Sun paths at any latitude and any time of the year can be determined from basic geometry . The Earth 's axis of rotation tilts about 23.5 degrees , relative to the plane of Earth 's orbit around the Sun . As the Earth orbits the Sun , this creates the 47 ° declination difference between the solstice sun paths , as well as the hemisphere - specific difference between summer and winter .
International Date Line
The International Date Line ( IDL ) is an imaginary line of navigation on the surface of the Earth that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole and demarcates the change of one calendar day to the next . It passes through the middle of the Pacific Ocean , roughly following the 180 ° line of longitude but deviating to pass around some territories and island groups .
Quasar
The luminosity of some quasars changes rapidly in the optical range and even more rapidly in the X-ray range . Because these changes occur very rapidly they define an upper limit on the volume of a quasar ; quasars are not much larger than the Solar System . This implies an extremely high power density . The mechanism of brightness changes probably involves relativistic beaming of astrophysical jets pointed nearly directly toward Earth . The highest redshift quasar known ( as of June 2011 ) is ULAS J1120 + 0641 , with a redshift of 7.085 , which corresponds to a comoving distance of approximately 29 billion light - years from Earth ( see more discussion of how cosmological distances can be greater than the light - travel time at metric expansion of space ) .