vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Adam and Eve
The Primeval History forms the opening chapters of the Torah , the five books making up the history of the origins of Israel . This achieved something like its current form in the 5th century BCE , but Genesis 1 - 11 shows little relationship to the rest of the Bible : for example , the names of its characters and its geography - Adam ( man ) and Eve ( life ) , the Land of Nod ( `` Wandering '' ) , and so on - are symbolic rather than real , and almost none of the persons , places and stories mentioned in it are ever met anywhere else . This has led scholars to suppose that the History forms a late composition attached to Genesis and the Pentateuch to serve as an introduction . Just how late is a subject for debate : at one extreme are those who see it as a product of the Hellenistic period , in which case it can not be earlier than the first decades of the 4th century BCE ; on the other hand the Yahwist source has been dated by some scholars , notably John Van Seters , to the exilic pre-Persian period ( the 6th century BCE ) precisely because the Primeval History contains so much Babylonian influence in the form of myth . The Primeval History draws on two distinct `` sources '' , the Priestly source and what is sometimes called the Yahwist source and sometimes simply the `` non-Priestly '' ; for the purpose of discussing Adam and Eve in the Book of Genesis the terms `` non-Priestly '' and `` Yahwist '' can be regarded as interchangeable .
Comparative mythology
It is speculated that like genes , myths evolve by a process of descent with modification . The striking parallels between biological and mythological evolution allow the use of computational statistics to infer evolutionary relatedness and to build the most likely phylogenetic tree for a mythological family . Mythological phylogenies constructed with mythemes clearly support low horizontal transmissions ( borrowings ) , historical ( sometimes pre-historic ) diffusions and punctuated evolution . Additionally , the protoversion could be statistically reconstructed . Mythological phylogenies also are a potentially powerful way to test hypotheses about cross-cultural relationships among folktales
Historian
In Chinese historiography , the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China . The Spring and Autumn Annals , the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 to 481 BCE , is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts arranged on annalistic principles . Sima Qian ( around 100 BCE ) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing . His written work was the Shiji ( Records of the Grand Historian ) , a monumental lifelong achievement in literature . Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BCE , and it includes many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people , and also explores the lives and deeds of commoners , both contemporary and those of previous eras . A
Afghanistan
Excavations of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree and others suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago , and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world . An important site of early historical activities , many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites .
Maya civilization
Individual glyph blocks may be composed of a number of elements . These consist of the main sign , and any affixes . Main signs represent the major element of the block , and may be a noun , verb , adverb , adjective , or phonetic sign . Some main signs are abstract , some are pictures of the object they represent , and others are `` head variants '' , personifications of the word they represent . Affixes are smaller rectangular elements , usually attached to a main sign , although a block may be composed entirely of affixes . Affixes may represent a wide variety of speech elements , including nouns , verbs , verbal suffixes , prepositions , pronouns , and more . Small sections of a main sign could be used to represent the whole main sign , and Maya scribes were highly inventive in their usage and adaptation of glyph elements .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Since around 1970 , a unique ISBN has been assigned to each English language edition and variation ( except reprintings ) of a book . It is acknowledged that there are ( at least potentially ) variations between editions as distinct from reprints that occur between editions . In effect , different editions of the same work can be considered different sources . A reprint in this context is distinctly different from a contemporary reprint of an historical publication ( see Reprints of older publications ) . Reference details should include the edition ( if not the first edition ) and the date / year published reported is the year that the particular edition became available ( see On the Origin of Species for an example that references multiple editions of the same work ) . Where publishers list multiple locations / offices on the title page , the location used is the first of these .
Cradle of civilization
The Olmecs are sometimes referred to as the mother culture of Mesoamerica , as they were the first Mesoamerican civilization and laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed . However , the causes and degree of Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures has been a subject of debate over many decades . Practices introduced by the Olmec include ritual bloodletting and the Mesoamerican ballgame ; hallmarks of subsequent Mesoamerican societies such as the Maya and Aztec . Although the Mesoamerican writing system would fully develop later , early Olmec ceramics show representations that may be interpreted as codices .
Cradle of civilization
Chinese civilization begins during the second phase of the Erlitou period ( 1900 to 1500 BC ) , with Erlitou considered the first state level society of East Asia . There is considerable debate whether Erlitou sites correlate to the semi-legendary Xia dynasty . The Xia dynasty ( 2070 to 1600 BC ) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient Chinese historical records such as the Bamboo Annals , first published more than a millennium later during the Western Zhou period . Although Xia is an important element in Chinese historiography , there is to date no archeological evidence to corroborate the dynasty . Erlitou saw an increase in bronze metallurgy and urbanization and was a rapidly growing regional center with palatial complexes that provide evidence for social stratification . The earliest traditional Chinese dynasty for which there is both archeological and written evidence is the Shang dynasty ( 1600 to 1046 BC ) . Shang sites have yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing , the oracle bone script , mostly divinations inscribed on bones . These inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics , economy , and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization . Some historians argue that Erlitou should be considered an early phase of the Shang dynasty . The U.S. National Gallery of Art defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the period between about 2000 and 771 BC ; a period that begins with the Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of Western Zhou rule . The Sanxingdui culture is another Chinese Bronze Age society , contemporaneous to the Shang dynasty , however they developed a different method of bronze - making from the Shang .
Greco-Persian Wars
Almost all the primary sources for the Greco - Persian Wars are Greek ; there are no surviving historical accounts from the Persian side . By some distance , the main source for the Greco - Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus . Herodotus , who has been called the `` Father of History '' , was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus , Asia Minor ( then part of the Persian empire ) . He wrote his ' Enquiries ' ( Greek Historia , English ( The ) Histories ) around 440 -- 430 BC , trying to trace the origins of the Greco - Persian Wars , which would still have been recent history . Herodotus 's approach was novel and , at least in Western society , he invented ' history ' as a discipline . As historian Tom Holland has it , `` For the first time , a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous , nor to the whims and wishes of some god , nor to a people 's claim to manifest destiny , but rather explanations he could verify personally . ''
Adam and Eve
Analysis like the documentary hypothesis also suggests that the text is a result of the compilation of multiple previous traditions , explaining apparent contradictions . Other stories of the same canonical book , like the Genesis flood narrative , are also understood as having been influenced by older literature , with parallels in the older Epic of Gilgamesh .
Maya civilization
Temples were sometimes referred to in hieroglyphic texts as k'uh nah , meaning `` god 's house '' . Temples were raised on platforms , most often upon a pyramid . The earliest temples were probably thatched huts built upon low platforms . By the Late Preclassic period , their walls were of stone , and the development of the corbel arch allowed stone roofs to replace thatch . By the Classic period , temple roofs were being topped with roof combs that extended the height of the temple and served as a foundation for monumental art . The temple shrines contained between one and three rooms , and were dedicated to important deities . Such a deity might be one of the patron gods of the city , or a deified ancestor . In general , freestanding pyramids were shrines honouring powerful ancestors . E-Groups
Ancient Egypt
Along with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services . Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples , to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death . Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh , and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration . As the power of the pharaoh diminished , regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh . This , coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC , is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140 - year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period .
Cradle of civilization
Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A ( PPNA ) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B ( 7600 to 6000 BC ) appeared in the fertile crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards . One of the most notable PPNA settlements is Jericho in the Levant region , thought to be the world 's first town ( settled around 8500 BC and fortified around 6800 BC ) . In Mesopotamia , the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers produced rich fertile soil and a supply of water for irrigation . The civilizations that emerged around these rivers are among the earliest known non-nomadic agrarian societies . It is because of this that the fertile crescent region , and Mesopotamia in particular , are often referred to as the cradle of civilization . The period known as the Ubaid period ( c. 6500 to 3800 BC ) is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain , although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium . It was during the Ubaid period that the movement towards urbanization began . Agriculture and animal husbandry were widely practiced in sedentary communities , particularly in Northern Mesopotamia , and intensive irrigated hydraulic agriculture began to be practiced in the south . Eridu is the oldest Sumerian site settled during this period , around 5300 BC , and the city of Ur also first dates to the end of this period . In the south , the Ubaid period had a very long duration from around 6500 to 3800 BC ; when it is replaced by the Uruk period .
Mesolithic
The inhabitants of a small Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant left little more than their chipped stone tools behind . The industry was of small tools made of bladelets struck off single - platform cores . Besides bladelets , burins and end - scrapers were found . A few bone tools and some ground stone have also been found . These so - called Mesolithic sites of Asia are far less numerous than those of the Neolithic and the archeological remains are very poor . The second period , Mesolithic 2 , is also called the Natufian culture . The change from Mesolithic 1 to Natufian culture can be dated more closely . The latest date from a Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant is 12,150 BCE . The earliest date from a Natufian site is 11,140 BCE . This period is characterized by the early rise of agriculture that would later emerge into the Neolithic period . Radiocarbon dating places the Natufian culture between 12,500 and 9500 BCE , just before the end of the Pleistocene . This period is characterised by the beginning of agriculture . The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Sudan known as Cemetery 117 .
Cradle of civilization
Norte Chico is unusual in that it completely lacked ceramics and apparently had almost no visual art . Nevertheless , the civilization exhibited impressive architectural feats , including large earthwork platform mounds and sunken circular plazas , and an advanced textile industry . The platform mounds , as well as large stone warehouses , provide evidence for a stratified society and a centralized authority necessary to distribute resources such as cotton . However , there is no evidence of warfare or defensive structures during this period . Originally , it was theorized that , unlike other early civilizations , Norte Chico developed by relying on maritime food sources in place of a staple cereal . This hypothesis , the Maritime Foundation of Andean Civilization , is still hotly debated ; however , most researches now agree that agriculture played a central role in the civilization 's development while still acknowledging a strong supplemental reliance on maritime proteins .
Reconstructive memory
In the regular process of reconstruction , several sources are used accrue information and add detail to a memory . For patients producing confabulations , some key sources of information are missing and so other sources are used to produce a cohesive , internally consistent and often believable false memory . The source and type of confabulations differ for each type of disease or area of traumatic damage .
Maya civilization
Maya cities tended to expand haphazardly , and the city centre would be occupied by ceremonial and administrative complexes , surrounded by an irregular sprawl of residential districts . Different parts of a city would often be linked by causeways . The principal architecture of the city consisted of palaces , pyramid - temples , ceremonial ballcourts , and structures aligned for astronomical observation . The Maya elite were literate , and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing that was the most advanced in the pre-Columbian Americas . The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in screenfold books , of which only three uncontested examples remain , the rest having been destroyed by the Spanish . There are also a great many examples of Maya text found on stelae and ceramics . The Maya developed a highly complex series of interlocking ritual calendars , and employed mathematics that included one of the earliest instances of the explicit zero in the world . As a part of their religion , the Maya practised human sacrifice .
Maya civilization
Classic period rule was centred on the concept of the `` divine king '' , who acted as a mediator between mortals and the supernatural realm . Kingship was patrilineal , and power would normally pass to the eldest son . A prospective king was also expected to be a successful war leader . Maya politics was dominated by a closed system of patronage , although the exact political make - up of a kingdom varied from city - state to city - state . By the Late Classic , the aristocracy had greatly increased , resulting in the corresponding reduction in the exclusive power of the divine king . The Maya civilization developed highly sophisticated artforms , and the Maya created art using both perishable and non-perishable materials , including wood , jade , obsidian , ceramics , sculpted stone monuments , stucco , and finely painted murals .
Chola dynasty
There is very little written evidence available of the Cholas prior to the 7th century . Historic records exist thereafter , including inscriptions on temples . During the past 150 years , historians have gleaned significant knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature , oral traditions , religious texts , temple and copperplate inscriptions . The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period . There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns , ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ( Periplus Maris Erythraei ) , and in the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy . Mahavamsa , a Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE , recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon and Cholas in the 1st century BCE . Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka ( inscribed 273 BCE -- 232 BCE ) inscriptions , where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which , though not subject to Ashoka , were on friendly terms with him .
Mycenaean Greece
The unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece and they do not support the existence of a larger Mycenaean state . On the other hand , contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a `` Great King '' . Alternatively , based on archaeological data , some sort of confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible . If some kind of united political entity existed , the dominant center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae , with the latter state being the most probable center of power .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Editors should be aware that older sources ( especially those in the public domain ) are sometimes reprinted with modern publication dates . When this occurs and the citation style being used requires it , cite both the original publication date , as well as the date of the re-publication . E.g. :
Cradle of civilization
The Indus Valley Civilisation starts around 3300 BC with what is referred to as the Early Harappan Phase ( 3300 to 2600 BC ) . The earliest examples of the Indus Script date to this period , as well as the emergence of citadels representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life . Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials , including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead - making . By this time , villagers had domesticated numerous crops , including peas , sesame seeds , dates , and cotton , as well as animals , including the water buffalo .
Latin America
Pre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral , though the Aztecs and Mayans , for instance , produced elaborate codices . Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers , as was the case with the Popol Vuh . Moreover , a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day , for instance among the Quechua - speaking population of Peru and the Quiché ( K'iche ' ) of Guatemala .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Include a source to support the new information . There are several ways to write this , including :
Cradle of civilization
The cradle of civilization refers to locations where , according to current archaeological data , civilization is understood to have emerged . Current thinking is that there was no single `` cradle '' , but several civilizations that developed independently , with the Fertile Crescent ( Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt ) understood to be the earliest . Other civilizations arose in Asia among cultures situated along large river valleys , notably the Indus River in the Indian subcontinent and the Yellow River in China . The extent to which there was significant influence between the early civilizations of the Near East and those of East Asia is disputed . Scholars accept that the civilizations of Mesoamerica , mainly in modern Mexico , and Norte Chico in present - day Peru emerged independently from those in Eurasia .
Evidence of common descent
The fossil record is an important source for scientists when tracing the evolutionary history of organisms . However , because of limitations inherent in the record , there are not fine scales of intermediate forms between related groups of species . This lack of continuous fossils in the record is a major limitation in tracing the descent of biological groups . When transitional fossils are found that show intermediate forms in what had previously been a gap in knowledge , they are often popularly referred to as `` missing links '' .
Maya civilization
The Catholic Church and colonial officials , notably Bishop Diego de Landa , destroyed Maya texts wherever they found them , and with them the knowledge of Maya writing , but by chance three uncontested pre-Columbian books dated to the Postclassic period have been preserved . These are known as the Madrid Codex , the Dresden Codex and the Paris Codex . A few pages survive from a fourth , the Grolier Codex , whose authenticity is disputed . Archaeology conducted at Maya sites often reveals other fragments , rectangular lumps of plaster and paint chips which were codices ; these tantalizing remains are , however , too severely damaged for any inscriptions to have survived , most of the organic material having decayed . In reference to the few extant Maya writings , Michael D. Coe , a prominent archaeologist at Yale University , stated :
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