vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Cell wall
Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall . Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan ( also called murein ) , which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D - amino acids . Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin , respectively . The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea , which do not contain peptidoglycan . The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria , although L - form bacteria can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall . The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse . The lysozyme enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls .
Carbon dioxide
CO is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air - breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and wine making . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is an unwanted byproduct in many large scale oxidation processes , for example , in the production of acrylic acid ( over 5 million tons / year ) .
Protein folding
Folding is a spontaneous process that is mainly guided by hydrophobic interactions , formation of intramolecular hydrogen bonds , van der Waals forces , and it is opposed by conformational entropy . The process of folding often begins co-translationally , so that the N - terminus of the protein begins to fold while the C - terminal portion of the protein is still being synthesized by the ribosome ; however , a protein molecule may fold spontaneously during or after biosynthesis . While these macromolecules may be regarded as `` folding themselves '' , the process also depends on the solvent ( water or lipid bilayer ) , the concentration of salts , the pH , the temperature , the possible presence of cofactors and of molecular chaperones . Proteins will have limitations on their folding abilities by the restricted bending angles or conformations that are possible . These allowable angles of protein folding are described with a two - dimensional plot known as the Ramachandran plot , depicted with psi and phi angles of allowable rotation . Hydrophobic
Insulin
Biosynthetic human insulin ( insulin human rDNA , INN ) for clinical use is manufactured by recombinant DNA technology . Biosynthetic human insulin has increased purity when compared with extractive animal insulin , enhanced purity reducing antibody formation . Researchers have succeeded in introducing the gene for human insulin into plants as another method of producing insulin ( `` biopharming '' ) in safflower . This technique is anticipated to reduce production costs .
Insulin
The first genetically engineered , synthetic `` human '' insulin was produced using E. coli in 1978 by Arthur Riggs and Keiichi Itakura at the Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope in collaboration with Herbert Boyer at Genentech . Genentech , founded by Swanson , Boyer and Eli Lilly and Company , went on in 1982 to sell the first commercially available biosynthetic human insulin under the brand name Humulin . The vast majority of insulin currently used worldwide is now biosynthetic recombinant `` human '' insulin or its analogues .
Vector (molecular biology)
Origin of replication : Necessary for the replication and maintenance of the vector in the host cell . Promoter : Promoters are used to drive the transcription of the vector 's transgene as well as the other genes in the vector such as the antibiotic resistance gene . Some cloning vectors need not have a promoter for the cloned insert but it is an essential component of expression vectors so that the cloned product may be expressed . Cloning site : This may be a multiple cloning site or other features that allow for the insertion of foreign DNA into the vector through ligation . Genetic markers : Genetic markers for viral vectors allow for confirmation that the vector has integrated with the host genomic DNA . Antibiotic resistance : Vectors with antibiotic - resistance open reading frames allow for survival of cells that have taken up the vector in growth media containing antibiotics through antibiotic selection . Epitope : Some vectors may contain a sequence for a specific epitope that can be incorporated into the expressed protein . It allows for antibody identification of cells expressing the target protein . Reporter genes : Some vectors may contain a reporter gene that allow for identification of plasmid that contains inserted DNA sequence . An example is lacZ - α which codes for the N - terminus fragment of β - galactosidase , an enzyme that digests galactose . A multiple cloning site is located within lacZ - α , and an insert successfully ligated into the vector will disrupt the gene sequence , resulting in an inactive β - galactosidase . Cells containing vector with an insert may be identified using blue / white selection by growing cells in media containing an analogue of galactose ( X-gal ) . Cells expressing β - galactosidase ( therefore does n't contain an insert ) appear as blue colonies . White colonies would be selected as those that may contain an insert . Other commonly used reporters include green fluorescent protein and luciferase . Targeting sequence : Expression vectors may include encoding for a targeting sequence in the finished protein that directs the expressed protein to a specific organelle in the cell or specific location such as the periplasmic space of bacteria . Protein purification tags : Some expression vectors include proteins or peptide sequences that allows for easier purification of the expressed protein .
Western blot normalization
Stain - free technology employs an in - gel chemistry for staining . Pre-cast gels are commercially available as well as casting kits and hand - cast gels . The gel formulation consists of a trihalo compound that catalyzes a covalent reaction in the presence of tryptophan residues , when exposed to ultraviolet ( UV ) irradiation . The resulting `` activated '' protein fluoresces under UV excitation and can be readily detected by fluorescent imaging systems , either within the gel or after transfer to a blotting membrane .
Protein folding
Protein folding is the physical process by which a protein chain acquires its native 3 - dimensional structure , a conformation that is usually biologically functional , in an expeditious and reproducible manner . It is the physical process by which a polypeptide folds into its characteristic and functional three - dimensional structure from random coil . Each protein exists as an unfolded polypeptide or random coil when translated from a sequence of mRNA to a linear chain of amino acids . This polypeptide lacks any stable ( long - lasting ) three - dimensional structure ( the left hand side of the first figure ) . As the polypeptide chain is being synthesized by the ribosome , the linear chain begins to fold into its three dimensional structure . Folding begins to occur even during translation of the polypeptide chain . Amino acids interact with each other to produce a well - defined three - dimensional structure , the folded protein ( the right hand side of the figure ) , known as the native state . The resulting three - dimensional structure is determined by the amino acid sequence or primary structure ( Anfinsen 's dogma ) . The energy landscape describes the folding pathways in which the unfolded protein is able to assume its native state . Experiments beginning in the 1980s indicate the codon for an amino acid can also influence protein structure .
Vector (molecular biology)
Transcription of the cloned gene is a necessary component of the vector when expression of the gene is required : one gene may be amplified through transcription to generate multiple copies of mRNAs , the template on which protein may be produced through translation . A larger number of mRNAs would express a greater amount of protein , and how many copies of mRNA are generated depends on the promoter used in the vector . The expression may be constitutive , meaning that the protein is produced constantly in the background , or it may be inducible whereby the protein is expressed only under certain condition , for example when a chemical inducer is added . These two different types of expression depend on the types of promoter and operator used .
Mesoamerican ballgame
However , based on a review of modern - day game balls , ancient rubber balls , and other archaeological evidence , it is presumed by most researchers that the ancient hip - ball was made of a mix from one or another of the latex - producing plants found all the way from the southeastern rain forests to the northern desert . Most balls were made from latex sap of the lowland Castilla elastica tree . Someone discovered that by mixing latex with sap from the vine of a species of morning glory ( Calonyction aculeatum ) they could turn the slippery polymers in raw latex into a resilient rubber . The size varied between 10 and 12 in ( 25 and 30 cm ) ( measured in hand spans ) and weighed 3 to 6 lb ( 1.4 to 2.7 kg ) . The ball used in the ancient handball or stick - ball game was probably slightly larger and heavier than a modern - day baseball .
Gene
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism 's genome through biotechnology . Since the 1970s , a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add , remove and edit genes in an organism . Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired . The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism .
Insulin
Recombinant insulin is produced either in yeast ( usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) or E. coli . In yeast , insulin may be engineered as a single - chain protein with a KexII endoprotease ( a yeast homolog of PCI / PCII ) site that separates the insulin A chain from a c - terminally truncated insulin B chain . A chemically synthesized c - terminal tail is then grafted onto insulin by reverse proteolysis using the inexpensive protease trypsin ; typically the lysine on the c - terminal tail is protected with a chemical protecting group to prevent proteolysis . The ease of modular synthesis and the relative safety of modifications in that region accounts for common insulin analogs with c - terminal modifications ( e.g. lispro , aspart , glulisine ) . The Genentech synthesis and completely chemical synthesis such as that by Bruce Merrifield are not preferred because the efficiency of recombining the two insulin chains is low , primarily due to competition with the precipitation of insulin B chain .
Nutella
The process of making this spread begins with the extraction of cocoa powder from the cocoa bean . These cocoa beans are harvested from cocoa trees and are left to dry for about ten days before being shipped for processing . Typically cocoa beans contain approximately 50 percent of cocoa butter ; therefore , they must be roasted to reduce the cocoa bean into a liquid form . This step is not sufficient for turning cocoa bean into a chocolate paste because it solidifies at room temperature , and would not be spreadable . After the initial roast , the liquid paste is sent to presses , which are used to squeeze the butter out of the cocoa bean . The final products are round discs of chocolate made of pure compressed cocoa . The cocoa butter is transferred elsewhere so it can be used in other products .
Bacterial cell structure
Many bacteria secrete extracellular polymers outside of their cell walls called glycocalyx . These polymers are usually composed of polysaccharides and sometimes protein . Capsules are relatively impermeable structures that can not be stained with dyes such as India ink . They are structures that help protect bacteria from phagocytosis and desiccation . Slime layer is involved in attachment of bacteria to other cells or inanimate surfaces to form biofilms . Slime layers can also be used as a food reserve for the cell . A-Monotrichous
Post-transcriptional modification
RNA splicing is the process by which introns , regions of RNA that do not code for proteins , are removed from the pre-mRNA and the remaining exons connected to re-form a single continuous molecule . Exons are sections of mRNA which become `` expressed '' or translated into a protein . They are the coding portions of a mRNA molecule . Although most RNA splicing occurs after the complete synthesis and end - capping of the pre-mRNA , transcripts with many exons can be spliced co-transcriptionally . The splicing reaction is catalyzed by a large protein complex called the spliceosome assembled from proteins and small nuclear RNA molecules that recognize splice sites in the pre-mRNA sequence . Many pre-mRNAs , including those encoding antibodies , can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences . This process is known as alternative splicing , and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA .
Camel
Camel milk can not be made into butter by the traditional churning method . It can be made if it is soured first , churned , and a clarifying agent is then added . Until recently , camel milk could not be made into camel cheese because rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds . Developing less wasteful uses of the milk , the FAO commissioned Professor J.P. Ramet of the École Nationale Supérieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires , who was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet . The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest , even for the lactose intolerant . The sale of camel cheese is limited owing to the small output of the few dairies producing camel cheese and the absence of camel cheese in local ( West African ) markets . Cheese imports from countries that traditionally breed camels are difficult to obtain due to restrictions on dairy imports from these regions .
Respiratory system
The lungs make a surfactant , a surface - active lipoprotein complex ( phospholipoprotein ) formed by type II alveolar cells . It floats on the surface of the thin watery layer which lines the insides of the alveoli , reducing the water 's surface tension .
Virus
The genetic material within virus particles , and the method by which the material is replicated , varies considerably between different types of viruses .
Tapioca balls
To create pearls , tapioca starch / flour is mixed with boiling water until a kneadable consistency is achieved . The dough is cut and rolled into a spherical shape . One method of achieving the correct shape is called the gangsor method . The starch is inserted into a long , cylindrical twill cloth bag and a jerking motion is used to toss the starch lumps back and forth . The lumps will become more firm and gain a more spherical shape . The process is repeated until the pearls have roughly become the desired size . Afterwards , the pearls will be sorted according to size .
DNA replication
Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) . PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA , and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase . Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region . At the start of each cycle , the mixture of template and primers is heated , separating the newly synthesized molecule and template . Then , as the mixture cools , both of these become templates for annealing of new primers , and the polymerase extends from these . As a result , the number of copies of the target region doubles each round , increasing exponentially .
DNA replication
DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands . During replication , these strands are separated . Each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a template for the production of its counterpart , a process referred to as semiconservative replication . Cellular proofreading and error - checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication .
Bacterial conjugation
Donor cell produces pilus . Pilus attaches to recipient cell and brings the two cells together . The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is then transferred to the recipient cell . Both cells synthesize a complementary strand to produce a double stranded circular plasmid and also reproduce pili ; both cells are now viable donor for the F - factor .
Plastic bottle
Bioplastic A bioplastic is a polymer structure based on processed biological materials rather than petrochemicals . Bioplastics are commonly made from renewable sources like starch , vegetable oil , and less commonly , chicken feathers . The idea behind bioplastic is to create a plastic that has the ability to biodegrade . Bisphenol A ( BPA ) : BPA is a synthetic compound that serves as a raw material in the manufacturing of such plastics as polycarbonates and epoxy resins . It is commonly found in reusable drink containers , food storage containers , canned foods , and children 's toys . BPA can seep into food or beverages from containers that are made with BPA .
Tooth decay
Enamel is a highly mineralized acellular tissue , and caries act upon it through a chemical process brought on by the acidic environment produced by bacteria . As the bacteria consume the sugar and use it for their own energy , they produce lactic acid . The effects of this process include the demineralization of crystals in the enamel , caused by acids , over time until the bacteria physically penetrate the dentin . Enamel rods , which are the basic unit of the enamel structure , run perpendicularly from the surface of the tooth to the dentin . Since demineralization of enamel by caries , in general , follows the direction of the enamel rods , the different triangular patterns between pit and fissure and smooth - surface caries develop in the enamel because the orientation of enamel rods are different in the two areas of the tooth .
Moth
Moth larvae , or caterpillars , make cocoons from which they emerge as fully grown moths with wings . Some moth caterpillars dig holes in the ground , where they live until they are ready to turn into adult moths . Moth
Incandescent light bulb
The Ribbon Machine works by passing a continuous ribbon of glass along a conveyor belt , heated in a furnace , and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds . Thus the glass bulbs or envelopes are created . A typical machine of this sort can produce anywhere from 50,000 - 120,000 bulbs per hour , depending on the size of the bulb . By the 1970s , 15 ribbon machines installed in factories around the world produced the entire supply of incandescent bulbs . The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem , which is then. fused to the bulb . The air is pumped out of the bulb , and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame . The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base , and the whole assembly tested . The 2016 closing of Osram - Sylvania 's Wellsboro , Pennsylvania plant meant that one of the last remaining ribbon machines in the United States was shut down .
Football (ball)
The first balls were made of natural materials , such as an inflated pig bladder , later put inside a leather cover , which has given rise to the American slang - term `` pigskin '' . Modern balls are designed by teams of engineers to exacting specifications , with rubber or plastic bladders , and often with plastic covers . Various leagues and games use different balls , though they all have one of the following basic shapes :
Glycolysis
This process occurs in the bacteria involved in making yogurt ( the lactic acid causes the milk to curdle ) . This process also occurs in animals under hypoxic ( or partially anaerobic ) conditions , found , for example , in overworked muscles that are starved of oxygen . In many tissues , this is a cellular last resort for energy ; most animal tissue can not tolerate anaerobic conditions for an extended period of time .
Nutella
The cocoa powder is then mixed with the hazelnuts along with sugar , vanillin and skim milk in a large tank until it becomes a paste - like spread . Modified palm oil is then added to help retain the solid phase of the Nutella at room temperature , which substitutes for the butter found in the cocoa bean . Whey powder is then added to the mix to act as a binder for the paste . Whey powder is an additive commonly used in spreads to prevent the coagulation of the product because it stabilizes the fat emulsions . Similarly , lecithin , a form of a fatty substance found in animal and plant tissues , is added to help emulsify the paste as it promotes homogenized mixing of the different ingredients , allowing the paste to become spreadable . It also aids the lipophilic properties of the cocoa powder which , again , keeps the product from separating . Vanillin is added to enhance the sweetness of the chocolate . The finished product is then packaged .
Diphtheria
ADP - ribosylation of EF - 2 is reversed by giving high doses of nicotinamide ( a form of vitamin B ) , since this is one of the reaction 's end products , and high amounts drive the reaction in the opposite direction .
Insulin
Insulin is produced and stored in the body as a hexamer ( a unit of six insulin molecules ) , while the active form is the monomer . The hexamer is an inactive form with long - term stability , which serves as a way to keep the highly reactive insulin protected , yet readily available . The hexamer - monomer conversion is one of the central aspects of insulin formulations for injection . The hexamer is far more stable than the monomer , which is desirable for practical reasons ; however , the monomer is a much faster - reacting drug because diffusion rate is inversely related to particle size . A fast - reacting drug means insulin injections do not have to precede mealtimes by hours , which in turn gives people with diabetes more flexibility in their daily schedules . Insulin can aggregate and form fibrillar interdigitated beta - sheets . This can cause injection amyloidosis , and prevents the storage of insulin for long periods .