vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of education in the United States
Public schools were funded and supervised by independent districts that depended on taxpayer support . In dramatic contrast to the centralized systems in Europe , where national agencies made the major decisions , the American districts designed their own rules and curricula . Teachers
Wikipedia:Citing sources
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World War I
Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent years . Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation , radicalization of politics , race , and the male body . Furthermore , new research has revised our understanding of five major topics that historians have long debated . These are : Why did the war begin ? Why did the Allies win ? Were the generals to blame for the high casualty rates ? How did the soldiers endure the horrors of trench warfare ? To what extent did the civilian homefront accept and endorse the war effort ?
French Revolution
Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in history . It marks the end of the early modern period , which started around 1500 and is often seen as marking the `` dawn of the modern era '' . Within France itself , the Revolution permanently crippled the power of the aristocracy and drained the wealth of the Church , although the two institutions survived despite the damage they sustained . After the collapse of the First Empire in 1815 , the French public lost the rights and privileges earned since the Revolution , but they remembered the participatory politics that characterised the period , with one historian commenting : `` Thousands of men and even many women gained firsthand experience in the political arena : they talked , read , and listened in new ways ; they voted ; they joined new organisations ; and they marched for their political goals . Revolution became a tradition , and republicanism an enduring option . ''
Causes of the Great Depression
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Edward Augustus Freeman
His reputation as a historian rests chiefly on his History of the Norman Conquest ( 1867 -- 1876 ) , his longest completed book . In common with his works generally , it is distinguished by exhaustiveness of treatment and research , critical ability , and general accuracy . He is almost exclusively a political historian , and his works are infused with personal insights he gained from his practical experience of people and institutions . His saying that `` history is past politics and politics are present history '' is significant of this limitation of his work , which dealt less with other subjects in a nation 's life .
Loyalist (American Revolution)
Historian Robert Middlekauff summarized scholarly research on the nature of Loyalist support as follows :
Modern history
The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition , using methods that are primarily analytic , critical , or speculative , as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural and social sciences . Although many of the subjects of modern history coincide with that of standard history , the subject is taught independently by various systems of education in the world .
Historian
Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development . In his conception , the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point . Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations . Process of nationalization of history , as part of national revivals in the 19th century , resulted with separation of `` one 's own '' history from common universal history by such way of perceiving , understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation . A new discipline , sociology , emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Simple facts such as this can have inline citations to reliable sources as an aid to the reader , but normally the text itself is best left as a plain statement without in - text attribution :
History of education in the United States
The history of education in the United States , or Foundations of Education covers the trends in educational philosophy , policy , institutions , as well as formal and informal learning in America from the 17th century to the early 21st century .
Democracy
Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy . Cultural factors like Protestantism influenced the development of democracy , rule of law , human rights and political liberty ( the faithful elected priest - substitutes , religious pluralism sometimes led to religious freedom and tolerance ) .
Analects
The Analects ( Chinese : 論 語 ; Old Chinese : * run ŋ ( r ) aʔ ; pinyin : lúnyǔ ; literally : `` Edited Conversations '' ) , also known as the Analects of Confucius , is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries , traditionally believed to have been compiled and written by Confucius 's followers . It is believed to have been written during the Warring States period ( 475 -- 221 BC ) , and it achieved its final form during the mid-Han dynasty ( 206 BC -- 220 AD ) . By the early Han dynasty the Analects was considered merely a `` commentary '' on the Five Classics , but the status of the Analects grew to be one of the central texts of Confucianism by the end of that dynasty .
Bill of Rights 1689
All the main principles of the Bill of Rights are still in force today , and the Bill of Rights continues to be cited in legal cases in the UK and in Commonwealth countries . It has a primary place in a wider national historical narrative of documents which established the rights of Parliament and set out universal civil liberties , starting with Magna Carta in 1215 . It also has international significance , as it was a model for the US Bill of Rights 1789 , and its influence can be seen in other documents which establish rights of human beings , such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man , the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights .
Primary election
A primary election is the process by which the general public can indicate their preference for a candidate in an upcoming general election or by - election , thus narrowing the field of candidates .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
In the sources recorded by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and Dominican Diego Durán , there are accounts of events that were interpreted as supernatural omens of the conquest . These two accounts are full - blown narratives from the viewpoint of the Spanish opponents . Most first - hand accounts about the conquest of the Aztec Empire were written by Spaniards : Hernán Cortés ' letters to Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and the first - person narrative of Bernal Díaz del Castillo , The True History of the Conquest of New Spain . The primary sources from the native people affected as a result of the conquest are seldom used , because they tend to reflect the views of a particular native group , such as the Tlaxcalans . Indigenous accounts were written in pictographs as early as 1525 . Later accounts were written in the native tongue of the Aztec and other native peoples of central Mexico , Nahuatl .
Historian
World history , as a distinct field of historical study , emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s . It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures . Arnold J. Toynbee 's ten - volume A Study of History , written between 1933 and 1954 , was an important influence on this developing field . He took a comparative topical approach to independent civilizations and demonstrated that they displayed striking parallels in their origin , growth , and decay . William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West ( 1965 ) to improve upon Toynbee by showing how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history , borrowing critical skills from one another , and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary .
History of chemistry
Much of the early development of purification methods is described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia . He made attempts to explain those methods , as well as making acute observations of the state of many minerals .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
`` Say where you read it '' follows the practice in academic writing of citing sources directly only if you have read the source yourself . If your knowledge of the source is secondhand -- that is , if you have read Jones ( 2010 ) , who cited Smith ( 2009 ) , and you want to use what Smith ( 2009 ) said -- make clear that your knowledge of Smith is based on your reading of Jones .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
The earlier part of this period , the fourteenth century , is particularly difficult for historians to study due to the scarcity of sources . Not a single written document survives from the reign of Osman I , and very little survives from the rest of the century . The Ottomans , furthermore , did not begin to record their own history until the fifteenth century , more than a hundred years after many of the events they describe . It is thus a great challenge for historians to differentiate between fact and myth in analyzing the stories contained in these later chronicles , so much so that one historian has even declared it impossible , describing the earliest period of Ottoman history as a `` black hole . ''
History of India
The Sangam literature deals with the history , politics , wars and culture of the Tamil people of this period . The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings , but who mainly wrote about the common people and their concerns . Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins , Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins . They belonged to different faiths and professions like farmers , artisans , merchants , monks , priests and even princes and quite few of them were even women .
Ancient Greece
Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides , Xenophon , Demosthenes , Plato and Aristotle . Most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian , which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities . Their scope is further limited by a focus on political , military and diplomatic history , ignoring economic and social history .
Spartan army
The principal source for the organization of the Spartan Army is Xenophon , who admired the Spartans and whose Constitution of Sparta offers a detailed overview of the Spartan state and society at the beginning of the 4th century BC . Other authors , notably Thucydides , also provide information , but it is not always as reliable as Xenophon 's first - hand accounts .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
As noted above under What information to include , it is helpful to include hyperlinks to source material , when available . Here we note some issues concerning these links .
History of democracy
The Germanic tribal thing assemblies described by Tacitus in his Germania . The Christian Church well into the 6th century AD had its bishops elected by popular acclaim . The collegia of the Roman period : associations of various social , economic , religious , funerary and even sportive natures elected officers yearly , often directly modeled on the Senate of Rome .
Lectionary
Within Christianity , the use of pre-assigned , scheduled readings from the scriptures can be traced back to the early church , and seems to have been inherited from Judaism . The earliest documentary record of a special book of readings is a reference by Gennadius of Massilia to a work produced at the request of Bishop Venerius of Marseilles , who died in 452 , though there are 3rd - century references to liturgical readers as a special role in the clergy . Not all of the Christian Church used the same lectionary , and throughout history , many varying lectionaries have been used in different parts of the Christian world . Until the Second Vatican Council , most Western Christians ( Catholics , Old Catholics , Anglicans , Lutherans , and those Methodists who employed the lectionary of Wesley ) used a lectionary that repeated on a one - year basis . This annual lectionary provided readings for Sundays and , in those Churches that celebrated the festivals of saints , feast - day readings . The Eastern Orthodox Church and many of the Oriental Churches continue to use an annual lectionary . Within Lutheranism there remains an active minority of pastors and congregations who use the old one - year lectionary , often referred to as the Historic Lectionary . The Reformed churches divided the Heidelberg Catechism into 52 weekly sections , and many churches preach or teach from a corresponding source scripture weekly .
Civil–military relations
The history of civil - military server relations can be traced to the writings of Sun Tzu and Carl von Clausewitz , both of whom argued that military organizations were primarily the servants of the state .
History of education in the United States
German settlements from New York through Pennsylvania , Maryland and down to the Carolinas sponsored elementary schools closely tied to their churches , with each denomination or sect sponsoring its own schools . In the early colonial years , German immigrants were Protestant and the drive for education was related to teaching students to read Scripture .
Industrial Revolution
Historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred . The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo - Christianity and Greek thought . Conversely , Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius , Mencius , Han Feizi ( Legalism ) , Lao Tzu ( Taoism ) , and Buddha ( Buddhism ) , resulting in very different worldviews . Other factors include the considerable distance of China 's coal deposits , though large , from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea .
Historian
The historian must treat sources with appropriate reservations ; The historian must not dismiss counterevidence without scholarly consideration ; The historian must be even - handed in treatment of evidence and eschew `` cherry - picking '' ; The historian must clearly indicate any speculation ; The historian must not mistranslate documents or mislead by omitting parts of documents ; The historian must weigh the authenticity of all accounts , not merely those that contradict a favored view ; and The historian must take the motives of historical actors into consideration .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Citations are especially desirable for statements about living persons , particularly when the statements are contentious or potentially defamatory . In accordance with the biography of living persons policy , unsourced information of this type is likely to be removed on sight .
Republic
This understanding of a republic as a distinct form of government from a liberal democracy is one of the main theses of the Cambridge School of historical analysis . This grew out of the work of J.G.A. Pocock who in 1975 argued that a series of scholars had expressed a consistent set of republican ideals . These writers included Machiavelli , Milton , Montesquieu and the founders of the United States of America .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
^ Miller , Edward . The Sun . Academic Press , 2005 , p. 1 . ^ Brown , Rebecca . `` Size of the Moon '' , Scientific American , 51 ( 78 ) : 46 . ^ Smith , John . The Sun 's Heat . Academic Press , 2005 , p. 2 .
Analects
The political importance and popularity of Confucius and Confucianism grew throughout the Han dynasty , and by the Eastern Han the Analects was widely read by schoolchildren and anyone aspiring to literacy , and often read before the Five Classics themselves . During the Eastern Han , the heir apparent was provided a tutor specifically to teach him the Analects . The growing importance of the Analects was recognized when the Five Classics was expanded to the `` Seven Classics '' : the Five Classics plus the Analects and the Classic of Filial Piety , and its status as one of the central texts of Confucianism continued to grow until the late Song dynasty ( 960 -- 1279 ) , when it was identified and promoted as one of the Four Books by Zhu Xi and generally accepted as being more insightful than the older Five Classics .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
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History of Vietnam
Literacy remained the provenance of the upper classes . Initially , Chinese was used for writing purposes , but by the 13th century , a set of derivative characters known as Chữ Nôm emerged that allowed native Vietnamese words to be written . However , it remained limited to poetry , literature , and practical texts like medicine while all state and official documents were written in Classical Chinese . Aside from some mining and fishing , agriculture was the primary activity of most Vietnamese , and economic development and trade were not promoted or encouraged by the state .
History of Mexico
During the pre-Columbian period , many city - states , kingdoms , and empires competed with one another for power and prestige . Ancient Mexico can be said to have produced five major civilizations : the Olmec , Maya , Teotihuacan , Toltec , and Aztec . Unlike other indigenous Mexican societies , these civilizations ( with the exception of the politically fragmented Maya ) extended their political and cultural reach across Mexico and beyond .
Republic
The political philosophy of the classical republics have in any case had an influence on republican thought throughout the subsequent centuries . Philosophers and politicians advocating for republics , such as Machiavelli , Montesquieu , Adams , and Madison , relied heavily on classical Greek and Roman sources which described various types of regimes .
Modern history
Karl Marx summarized his approach to history and politics in the opening line of the first chapter of The Communist Manifesto ( 1848 ) . He wrote :
Alternative energy
Historians of economies have examined the key transitions to alternative energies and regard the transitions as pivotal in bringing about significant economic change . Prior to the shift to an alternative energy , supplies of the dominant energy type became erratic , accompanied by rapid increases in energy prices .
Nation state
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History of advertising
The history of advertising can be traced to ancient civilizations . It became a major force in capitalist economies in the mid-19th century , based primarily on newspapers and magazines . In the 20th century , advertising grew rapidly with new technologies such as direct mail , radio , television , the internet and mobile devices .
Church of Ireland
The 16th - century apologist , Richard Hooker , posits that there are three sources of authority in Anglicanism : scripture , tradition and reason . It is not known how widely accepted this idea is within Anglicanism . It is further posited that the three sources uphold and critique each other in a dynamic way . In Hooker 's model , scripture is the primary means of arriving at doctrine ; things stated plainly in scripture are accepted as true . Issues that are ambiguous are determined by tradition , which is checked by reason .
Central Intelligence Agency
This section should include only a brief summary of History of the Central Intelligence Agency . See Wikipedia : Summary style for information on how to properly incorporate it into this article 's main text . ( September 2017 ) The
Great Depression
Economists and economic historians are almost evenly split as to whether the traditional monetary explanation that monetary forces were the primary cause of the Great Depression is right , or the traditional Keynesian explanation that a fall in autonomous spending , particularly investment , is the primary explanation for the onset of the Great Depression . Today the controversy is of lesser importance since there is mainstream support for the debt deflation theory and the expectations hypothesis that building on the monetary explanation of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz add non-monetary explanations .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Citations are not used on disambiguation pages ( sourcing for the information given there should be done in the target articles ) . Citations are often omitted from the lead section of an article , insofar as the lead summarizes information for which sources are given later in the article , although quotations and controversial statements , particularly if about living persons , should be supported by citations even in the lead . See WP : LEADCITE for more information .
History of democracy
Athens is often regarded as the birthplace of democracy and remains an important reference - point for democracy .
United States Declaration of Independence
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence . By Jefferson 's own admission , the Declaration contained no original ideas , but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution . As he explained in 1825 :
Primary election
In Italy , the first open primaries took place on 16 October 2005 . It led to the designation of Romano Prodi as leader of the Olive Tree coalition , which gathered several center and left - wing parties , for the legislative elections of 9 and 10 April 2006 . Several parties of the coalition decided to form a single major Centre - left party : The Democratic Party , which uses the primary elections to choose its candidate to the premiership .
British Empire in World War II
The contributions from individual colonies , protectorates and dominions to the war effort were extensive and global . Further information about their involvement can be found in the military histories of the individual colonies and dominions listed below .
History of Manila
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