vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Endocrine system
Secreted hormone From cells Effect Progesterone Granulosa cells , theca cells Support pregnancy : Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus thick and impenetrable to sperm . Inhibit immune response , e.g. , towards the human embryo Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor . Other : Raise epidermal growth factor - 1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle ( widen bronchi and regulate mucus ) Anti-inflammatory Reduce gall - bladder activity Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone , zinc and copper levels , cell oxygen levels , and use of fat stores for energy Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Increase resilience in bone , teeth , gums , joint , tendon , ligament , and skin Promote healing by regulating collagen Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen Androstenedione Theca cells Substrate for estrogen Estrogens ( mainly estradiol ) Granulosa cells Structural : Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics Accelerate height growth Accelerate metabolism ( burn fat ) Reduce muscle mass Stimulate endometrial growth Increase uterine growth Maintain blood vessels and skin Reduce bone resorption , increase bone formation Protein synthesis : Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation : Increase circulating level of factors 2 , 7 , 9 , 10 , antithrombin III , plasminogen Increase platelet adhesiveness Increase HDL , triglyceride , height growth Decrease LDL , fat deposition Fluid balance : Regulate salt ( sodium ) and water retention Increase growth hormone Increase cortisol , SHBG Gastrointestinal tract : Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin : Increase pheomelanin , reduce eumelanin Cancer : Support hormone - sensitive breast cancers ( Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers . ) Lung function : Promote lung function by supporting alveoli . Inhibin Granulosa cells Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary Placenta
Estrogen
It is also suggested that there is an interaction between hormone levels and eating at different points in the female menstrual cycle . Research has predicted increased emotional eating during hormonal flux , which is characterized by high progesterone and estradiol levels that occur during the mid-luteal phase . It is hypothesized that these changes occur due to brain changes across the menstrual cycle that are likely a genomic effect of hormones . These effects produce menstrual cycle changes , which result in hormone release leading to behavioral changes , notably binge and emotional eating . These occur especially prominently among women who are genetically vulnerable to binge eating phenotypes .
Estrogen
Testosterone , which is available as a pharmaceutical drug , is metabolized in part to estrogens such as estradiol , and can produce significant estrogenic effects at high dosages , most notably gynecomastia in males . The same is true for some synthetic anabolic -- androgenic steroids , like methyltestosterone and metandienone . DHEA is available over-the - counter as a dietary supplement in the United States ( but not in many other countries ) , though it is only very weakly estrogenic .
Hormonal contraception
While combined contraceptives increase the risk for deep vein thrombosis ( DVT - blood clots ) , progestogen - only contraceptives are not believed to affect DVT formation .
Estrogen
Menopausal hormone therapy with replacement dosages of estrogens and progestogens has been associated with a significantly increased risk of cardiovascular events such as VTE . However , such risks have been found to vary depending on the type of estrogen or progestogen and the route of administration . The risk of VTE is increased by approximately 2-fold in women taking oral estrogen for menopausal hormone therapy . However , this research has not distinguished between CEEs and estradiol , and CEEs have been found to be more resistant to hepatic metabolism than estradiol and to increase clotting factors to a greater extent . In accordance , a recent case - control study found that oral CEEs were associated with a significantly greater increase in risk of cardiovascular events including venous thrombosis ( 2-fold ) and myocardial infarction ( 2-fold ) relative to oral estradiol . However , these findings need to be confirmed . In any case , another study found that oral CEEs were associated with an increase in risk of VTE but that oral esterified estrogens were not ( OR = 1.65 and 0.92 , respectively ; OR = 1.78 for the difference ) . In contrast to oral estrogens as a group , transdermal estradiol has not been found to increase the risk of VTE or other cardiovascular events .
Female reproductive system
Vaginitis is inflammation of the vagina and largely caused by an infection . It is the most common gynaecological condition presented . It is difficult to determine any one organism most responsible for vaginitis because it varies from range of age , sexual activity , and method of microbial identification . Vaginitis is not necessarily caused by a sexually transmitted infection as there are many infectious agents that make use of the close proximity to mucous membranes and secretions . Vaginitis is usually diagnosed based on the presence of vaginal discharge , which can have a certain color , odor , or quality .
Evidence of common descent
Similar to the laryngeal nerve in giraffes , the vas deferens is part of the male anatomy of many vertebrates ; it transports sperm from the epididymis in anticipation of ejaculation . In humans , the vas deferens routes up from the testicle , looping over the ureter , and back down to the urethra and penis . It has been suggested that this is due to the descent of the testicles during the course of human evolution -- likely associated with temperature . As the testicles descended , the vas deferens lengthened to accommodate the accidental `` hook '' over the ureter .
Testosterone
In males , testosterone is synthesized primarily in Leydig cells . The number of Leydig cells in turn is regulated by luteinizing hormone ( LH ) and follicle - stimulating hormone ( FSH ) . In addition , the amount of testosterone produced by existing Leydig cells is under the control of LH , which regulates the expression of 17β - hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase .
Primate
Infanticide is common in polygynous species such as gray langurs and gorillas . Adult males may kill dependent offspring that are not theirs so the female will return to estrus and thus they can sire offspring of their own . Social monogamy in some species may have evolved to combat this behavior . Promiscuity may also lessen the risk of infanticide since paternity becomes uncertain .
Testosterone
During the second trimester , androgen level is associated with gender formation . This period affects the femininization or masculinization of the fetus and can be a better predictor of feminine or masculine behaviours such as sex typed behaviour than an adult 's own levels . A mother 's testosterone level during pregnancy is correlated with her daughter 's sex - typical behavior as an adult , and the correlation is even stronger than with the daughter 's own adult testosterone level .
Luteinizing hormone
LH is available mixed with FSH in the form of menotropin , and other forms of urinary gonadotropins . More purified forms of urinary gonadotropins may reduce the LH portion in relation to FSH . Recombinant LH is available as lutropin alfa ( Luveris ) . All these medications have to be given parenterally . They are commonly used in infertility therapy to stimulate follicular development , the notable one being in IVF therapy .
Testosterone
Plasma protein binding of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone show Compound Group Level ( nM ) Free ( % ) SHBG ( % ) CBG ( % ) Albumin ( % ) Testosterone Adult men 23.0 2.23 44.3 3.56 49.9 Adult women Follicular phase 1.3 1.36 66.0 2.26 30.4 Luteal phase 1.3 1.37 65.7 2.20 30.7 Pregnancy 4.7 0.23 95.4 0.82 3.6 Dihydrotestosterone Adult men 1.70 0.88 49.7 0.22 39.2 Adult women Follicular phase 0.65 0.47 78.4 0.12 21.0 Luteal phase 0.65 0.48 78.1 0.12 21.3 Pregnancy 0.93 0.07 97.8 0.04 21.2
Testosterone
Sperm competition theory : Testosterone levels are shown to increase as a response to previously neutral stimuli when conditioned to become sexual in male rats . This reaction engages penile reflexes ( such as erection and ejaculation ) that aid in sperm competition when more than one male is present in mating encounters , allowing for more production of successful sperm and a higher chance of reproduction . Males
Estrogen
Estrogens are implicated in various estrogen - dependent conditions , such as ER - positive breast cancer , as well as a number of genetic conditions involving estrogen signaling or metabolism , such as estrogen insensitivity syndrome , aromatase deficiency , and aromatase excess syndrome .
Female reproductive system
At certain intervals , the ovaries release an ovum , which passes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus . If , in this transit , it meets with sperm , a single sperm can enter and merge with the egg , fertilizing it .
Martie Maguire
Erwin has been frank about using invitro fertilization to conceive their daughters . In an interview in Conceive , she said , `` All my paperwork said ' unspecified origin . ' We spent three years of active trying before we went to IVF . First I went on Clomid . Then I had some dye tests and found I had a collapsed tube , so I had laparoscopic surgery ; the tube was n't blocked , just spasming . '' After three attempts at intrauterine insemination , she said , she and her husband did n't think it was worth continuing in that manner , and switched to IVF . In August 2007 , Maguire began IVF again , resulting in their third daughter Harper .
Estrogen
The three major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone ( E1 ) , estradiol ( E2 ) , and estriol ( E3 ) . Estradiol is the predominant estrogen during reproductive years both in terms of absolute serum levels as well as in terms of estrogenic activity . During menopause , estrone is the predominant circulating estrogen and during pregnancy estriol is the predominant circulating estrogen in terms of serum levels . Though estriol is the most plentiful of the three estrogens it is also the weakest , whereas estradiol is the strongest with a potency of approximately 80 times that of estriol . Thus , estradiol is the most important estrogen in non-pregnant females who are between the menarche and menopause stages of life . However , during pregnancy this role shifts to estriol , and in postmenopausal women estrone becomes the primary form of estrogen in the body . Another type of estrogen called estetrol ( E4 ) is produced only during pregnancy . All of the different forms of estrogen are synthesized from androgens , specifically testosterone and androstenedione , by the enzyme aromatase .
Semen
Sertoli cells , which nurture and support developing spermatocytes , secrete a fluid into seminiferous tubules that helps transport sperm to the genital ducts . The ductuli efferentes possess cuboidal cells with microvilli and lysosomal granules that modify the ductal fluid by reabsorbing some fluid . Once the semen enters the ductus epididymis the principal cells , which contain pinocytotic vessels indicating fluid reabsorption , secrete glycerophosphocholine which most likely inhibits premature capacitation . The accessory genital ducts , the seminal vesicle , prostate glands , and the bulbourethral glands , produce most of the seminal fluid .
Pteridophyte
These terms are not the same as monoecious and dioecious , which refer to whether a seed plant 's sporophyte bears both male and female gametophytes , i.e. , produces both pollen and seeds , or just one of the sexes .
Endocrine system
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Growth hormone ( somatotropin ) GH Somatotrophs Stimulates growth and cell reproduction Stimulates Insulin - like growth factor 1 release from liver Thyroid - stimulating hormone ( thyrotropin ) TSH Thyrotrophs Stimulates thyroxine ( T4 ) and triiodothyronine ( T3 ) synthesis and release from thyroid gland Stimulates iodine absorption by thyroid gland Adrenocorticotropic hormone ( corticotropin ) ACTH Corticotrophs Stimulates corticosteroid ( glucocorticoid and mineralcorticoid ) and androgen synthesis and release from adrenocortical cells Beta - endorphin -- Corticotrophs Inhibits perception of pain Follicle - stimulating hormone FSH Gonadotrophs In females : Stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles in ovary In males : Stimulates maturation of seminiferous tubules In males : Stimulates spermatogenesis In males : Stimulates production of androgen - binding protein from Sertoli cells of the testes Luteinizing hormone LH Gonadotrophs In females : Stimulates ovulation In females : Stimulates formation of corpus luteum In males : Stimulates testosterone synthesis from Leydig cells ( interstitial cells ) Prolactin PRL Lactotrophs Stimulates milk synthesis and release from mammary glands Mediates sexual gratification Melanocyte - stimulating hormone MSH Melanotropes in the Pars intermedia of the Anterior Pituitary Stimulates melanin synthesis and release from skin / hair melanocytes Posterior
Semen
In some cultures , semen is considered to have special properties associated with masculinity . Several tribes of Papua New Guinea , including the Sambia and the Etoro , believe that semen promotes sexual maturation among the younger men of their tribe . To them , semen possesses the manly nature of the tribal elders , and in order to pass down their authority and powers , younger men of their next generation must fellate their elders and ingest their semen . Prepubescent and postpubescent males are required to engage in this practice . This act may also be associated with the culturally active homosexuality throughout these and other tribes . Spiritual
Gynaecology
Possible reasons reported for the decrease in male gynaecologists range from there being a perception of a lack of respect from other doctors towards them , distrust about their motivations for wanting to work exclusively with female sexual organs and questions about their overall character , as well as a concern about being associated with other male gynaecologists who have been arrested for sex offences and limited future employment opportunities .
Semen
The seminal plasma provides a nutritive and protective medium for the spermatozoa during their journey through the female reproductive tract . The normal environment of the vagina is a hostile one for sperm cells , as it is very acidic ( from the native microflora producing lactic acid ) , viscous , and patrolled by immune cells . The components in the seminal plasma attempt to compensate for this hostile environment . Basic amines such as putrescine , spermine , spermidine and cadaverine are responsible for the smell and flavor of semen . These alkaline bases counteract and buffer the acidic environment of the vaginal canal , and protect DNA inside the sperm from acidic denaturation .
Infertility
ICSI technique is used in case of poor semen quality , low sperm count or failed fertilization attempts during prior IVF cycles . This technique involves an injection of a single healthy sperm directly injected into mature egg . The fertilized embryo is then transferred to womb .
Infertility
Women over the age of 35 should see their physician or WHNP after six months as fertility tests can take some time to complete , and age may affect the treatment options that are open in that case .
Rapid eye movement sleep
Erections of the penis ( nocturnal penile tumescence or NPT ) normally accompany REM sleep in rats and humans . If a male has erectile dysfunction ( ED ) while awake , but has NPT episodes during REM , it would suggest that the ED is from a psychological rather than a physiological cause . In females , erection of the clitoris ( nocturnal clitoral tumescence or NCT ) causes enlargement , with accompanying vaginal blood flow and transudation ( i.e. lubrication ) . During a normal night of sleep the penis and clitoris may be erect for a total time of from one hour to as long as three and a half hours during REM .
Testosterone
Before puberty effects of rising androgen levels occur in both boys and girls . These include adult - type body odor , increased oiliness of skin and hair , acne , pubarche ( appearance of pubic hair ) , axillary hair ( armpit hair ) , growth spurt , accelerated bone maturation , and facial hair .
Testosterone
Androgen receptors occur in many different vertebrate body system tissues , and both males and females respond similarly to similar levels . Greatly differing amounts of testosterone prenatally , at puberty , and throughout life account for a share of biological differences between males and females .
Hormonal contraception
Hormonal contraception methods are consistently linked with the risk of developing blood clots . However , the risk does vary depending on the hormone type or birth control method being used .
Gynaecology
Surveys have also shown a large and consistent majority of women are uncomfortable being forced to have intimate exams done by a male doctor . They are also less likely to be embarrassed , so as a result talk more openly and in greater details , when discussing their sexual history with another woman rather than a man , leading to questions about the ability of male gynaecologists to offer quality care to patients . This , when coupled with more women choosing female physicians has decreased the employment opportunities for men choosing to become gynaecologists .
Luteinizing hormone
Pasqualini syndrome Kallmann syndrome Hypothalamic suppression Hypopituitarism Eating disorder Female athlete triad Hyperprolactinemia Hypogonadism Gonadal suppression therapy GnRH antagonist GnRH agonist ( inducing an initial stimulation ( flare up ) followed by permanent blockage of the GnRH pituitary receptor )
Finger
Research has linked the ratio of lengths between the index and ring fingers to higher levels of testosterone , and to various physical and behavioral traits such as penis length and risk for development of alcohol dependence or video game addiction .
Hormonal contraception
Progestogen negative feedback decreases the pulse frequency of gonadotropin - releasing hormone ( GnRH ) release by the hypothalamus , which decreases the release of follicle - stimulating hormone ( FSH ) and greatly decreases the release of luteinizing hormone ( LH ) by the anterior pituitary . Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development , preventing an increase in estradiol levels . Progestogen negative feedback and the lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevent a mid-cycle LH surge . Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of a LH surge prevent ovulation .
Germ cell
Spermatogenesis has equivalent meiotic divisions resulting in four equivalent spermatids while oogenic meiosis is asymmetrical : only one egg is formed together with three polar bodies . Different timing of maturation : oogenic meiosis is interrupted at one or more stages ( for a long time ) while spermatogenic meiosis is rapid and uninterrupted .
Estrogen
Estrogen is also used in the therapy of vaginal atrophy , hypoestrogenism ( as a result of hypogonadism , oophorectomy , or primary ovarian failure ) , amenorrhea , dysmenorrhea , and oligomenorrhea . Estrogens can also be used to suppress lactation after child birth .
Gambler's fallacy
Some expectant parents believe that , after having multiple children of the same sex , they are `` due '' to have a child of the opposite sex . While the Trivers -- Willard hypothesis predicts that birth sex is dependent on living conditions ( i.e. more male children are born in `` good '' living conditions , while more female children are born in poorer living conditions ) , the probability of having a child of either sex is still generally regarded as near 50 % .
Adolescence
In females , changes in the primary sex characteristics involve growth of the uterus , vagina , and other aspects of the reproductive system . Menarche , the beginning of menstruation , is a relatively late development which follows a long series of hormonal changes . Generally , a girl is not fully fertile until several years after menarche , as regular ovulation follows menarche by about two years . Unlike males , therefore , females usually appear physically mature before they are capable of becoming pregnant .
Hormonal contraception
Combined oral contraceptives can increase the risk of certain types of cardiovascular disease in women with a pre-existing condition or already - heightened risk of cardiovascular disease . Smoking ( for women over 35 ) , metabolic conditions like diabetes , obesity and family history of heart disease are all risk factors which may be exacerbated by the use of certain hormonal contraceptives .
Luteinizing hormone
Persistently high LH levels are indicative of situations where the normal restricting feedback from the gonad is absent , leading to a pituitary production of both LH and FSH . While this is typical in menopause , it is abnormal in the reproductive years . There it may be a sign of :
BRCA1
In addition to breast cancer , mutations in the BRCA1 gene also increase the risk of ovarian and prostate cancers . Moreover , precancerous lesions ( dysplasia ) within the Fallopian tube have been linked to BRCA1 gene mutations . Pathogenic mutations anywhere in a model pathway containing BRCA1 and BRCA2 greatly increase risks for a subset of leukemias and lymphomas .
Germ cell
After migration primordial germ cells will become oogonia in the forming gonad ( ovary ) . The oogonia proliferate extensively by mitotic divisions , up to 5 - 7 million cells in humans . But then many of these oogonia die and about 50,000 remain . These cells differentiate into primary oocytes . In week 11 - 12 post coitus the first meiotic division begins ( before birth for most mammals ) and remains arrested in prophase I from a few days to many years depending on the species . It is in this period or in some cases at the beginning of sexual maturity that the primary oocytes secrete proteins to form a coat called zona pellucida and they also produce cortical granules containing enzymes and proteins needed for fertilization . Meiosis stands by because of the follicular granulosa cells that send inhibitory signals through gap junctions and the zona pellucida . Sexual maturation is the beginning of periodic ovulation . Ovulation is the regular release of one oocyte from the ovary into the reproductive tract and is preceded by follicular growth . A few follicle cells are stimulated to grow but only one oocyte is ovulated . A primordial follicle consists of an epithelial layer of follicular granulosa cells enclosing an oocyte . The pituitary gland secrete follicle - stimulating hormones ( FSHs ) that stimulate follicular growth and oocyte maturation . The thecal cells around each follicle secrete estrogen . This hormone stimulates the production of FSH receptors on the follicular granulosa cells and has at the same time a negative feedback on FSH secretion . This results in a competition between the follicles and only the follicle with the most FSH receptors survives and is ovulated . Meiotic division I goes on in the ovulated oocyte stimulated by luteinizing hormones ( LHs ) produced by the pituitary gland . FSH and LH block the gap junctions between follicle cells and the oocyte therefore inhibiting communication between them .