vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Exploration of Mars
On November 8 , 2011 , Russia 's Roscosmos launched an ambitious mission called Fobos - Grunt . It consisted of a lander aimed to retrieve a sample back to Earth from Mars ' moon Phobos , and place the Chinese Yinghuo - 1 probe in Mars ' orbit . The Fobos - Grunt mission suffered a complete control and communications failure shortly after launch and was left stranded in low Earth orbit , later falling back to Earth . The Yinghuo - 1 satellite and Fobos - Grunt underwent destructive re-entry on January 15 , 2012 , finally disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean . Curiosity
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
In February 2014 , NHK reported that TEPCO was reviewing its radioactivity data , after finding much higher levels of radioactivity than was reported earlier . TEPCO now says that levels of 5 MBq ( 0.12 milli curies ) of strontium per liter ( 23 MBq / imp gal ; 19 MBq / U.S. gal ; 610 μCi / imp gal ; 510 μCi / U.S. gal ) were detected in groundwater collected in July 2013 and not the 900 kBq ( 0.02 milli curies ) ( 4.1 MBq / imp gal ; 3.4 MBq / U.S. gal ; 110 μCi / imp gal ; 92 μCi / U.S. gal ) that were initially reported .
Mars
The lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge : the planet has little heat transfer across its surface , poor insulation against bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form ( water instead sublimes to a gaseous state ) . Mars is nearly , or perhaps totally , geologically dead ; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet . Detection
United States home front during World War II
Various items , previously discarded , were saved after use for what was called `` recycling '' years later . Families were requested to save fat drippings from cooking for use in soap making . Neighborhood `` scrap drives '' collected scrap copper and brass for use in artillery shells . Milkweed was harvested by children ostensibly for lifejackets .
Space Race
bars party States from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit , on the Moon , or any other celestial body ; exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes , and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind , conducting military maneuvers , or establishing military bases , installations , and fortifications ; declares that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and shall be free for exploration and use by all the States ; explicitly forbids any government from claiming a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet , claiming that they are the common heritage of mankind , `` not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty , by means of use or occupation , or by any other means '' . However , the State that launches a space object retains jurisdiction and control over that object ; holds any State liable for damages caused by their space object ; declares that `` the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space , including the Moon and other celestial bodies , shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty '' , and `` States Parties shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities '' ; and `` A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space , including the Moon and other celestial bodies , would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space , including the Moon and other celestial bodies , may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment . ''
Chernobyl disaster
Groundwater was not badly affected by the Chernobyl accident since radionuclides with short half - lives decayed away long before they could affect groundwater supplies , and longer - lived radionuclides such as radiocaesium and radiostrontium were adsorbed to surface soils before they could transfer to groundwater . However , significant transfers of radionuclides to groundwater have occurred from waste disposal sites in the 30 km ( 19 mi ) exclusion zone around Chernobyl . Although there is a potential for transfer of radionuclides from these disposal sites off - site ( i.e. out of the 30 km ( 19 mi ) exclusion zone ) , the IAEA Chernobyl Report argues that this is not significant in comparison to current levels of washout of surface - deposited radioactivity . Flora
Mars
Methane has been detected in the Martian atmosphere with a concentration of about 30 ppb ; it occurs in extended plumes , and the profiles imply that the methane was released from discrete regions . In northern midsummer , the principal plume contained 19,000 metric tons of methane , with an estimated source strength of 0.6 kilograms per second . The profiles suggest that there may be two local source regions , the first centered near 30 ° N 260 ° W ﻿ / ﻿ 30 ° N 260 ° W ﻿ / 30 ; - 260 and the second near 0 ° N 310 ° W ﻿ / ﻿ 0 ° N 310 ° W ﻿ / 0 ; - 310 . It is estimated that Mars must produce 270 tonnes per year of methane .
Maya civilization
The basic staples of the Maya diet were maize , beans , and squashes . These were supplemented with a wide variety of other plants either cultivated in gardens or gathered in the forest . At Joya de Cerén , a volcanic eruption preserved a record of foodstuffs stored in Maya homes , among them were chilies and tomatoes . Cotton seeds were in the process of being ground , perhaps to produce cooking oil . In addition to basic foodstuffs , the Maya also cultivated prestige crops such as cotton , cacao and vanilla . Cacao was especially prized by the elite , who consumed chocolate beverages . Cotton was spun , dyed , and woven into valuable textiles in order to be traded .
Exploration of Mars
Sky - Sailor -- 2014 -- Plane developed by Switzerland to take detailed pictures of Mars surface Mars Astrobiology Explorer - Cacher -- 2018 rover Red Dragon -- Derivative of a Dragon 2 capsule by SpaceX , designed to land by aerobraking and retropropulsion . Planned for 2018 , then 2020 . Cancelled in favor of an unspecified new landing method on future larger spacecraft . Tumbleweed rover . Mars One , orbiters , lander , rover .
Mars
The seasonal changes ( consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summer ) in combination with the canals led to speculation about life on Mars , and it was a long - held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation . The telescope never reached the resolution required to give proof to any speculations . As bigger telescopes were used , fewer long , straight canali were observed . During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with an 84 cm ( 33 in ) telescope , irregular patterns were observed , but no canali were seen .
Exploration of Mars
In January 2004 , the NASA twin Mars Exploration Rovers named Spirit ( MER - A ) and Opportunity ( MER - B ) landed on the surface of Mars . Both have met or exceeded all their targets . Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites . Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers ' solar panels , and thus increased their lifespan . Spirit Rover ( MER - A ) was active until 2010 , when it stopped sending data because it had fallen into a sand dune .
Radioactive decay
Radioactive primordial nuclides found in the Earth are residues from ancient supernova explosions that occurred before the formation of the solar system . They are the fraction of radionuclides that survived from that time , through the formation of the primordial solar nebula , through planet accretion , and up to the present time . The naturally occurring short - lived radiogenic radionuclides found in today 's rocks , are the daughters of those radioactive primordial nuclides . Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive nuclides are cosmogenic nuclides , that are formed by cosmic ray bombardment of material in the Earth 's atmosphere or crust . The decay of the radionuclides in rocks of the Earth 's mantle and crust contribute significantly to Earth 's internal heat budget .
Atom
The Earth contains approximately 7050133000000000000 ♠ 1.33 × 10 atoms . Although small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist , such as argon , neon , and helium , 99 % of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules , including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen . At the surface of the Earth , an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds , including water , salt , silicates and oxides . Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules , including crystals and liquid or solid metals . This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small - scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter .
Xenon
Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes , xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the Solar System . The iodine -- xenon method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula . In 1960 , physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon - 129 . He inferred that this was a decay product of radioactive iodine - 129 . This isotope is produced slowly by cosmic ray spallation and nuclear fission , but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions . Because the half - life of I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale ( 16 million years ) , this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the I. These two events ( supernova and solidification of gas cloud ) were inferred to have happened during the early history of the Solar System , because the I isotope was likely generated shortly before the Solar System was formed , seeding the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source . This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud .
Wetland
Food converted to sweeteners and carbohydrates include the sago palm of Asia and Africa ( cooking oil ) , the nipa palm of Asia ( sugar , vinegar , alcohol , and fodder ) and honey collection from mangroves . More than supplemental dietary intake , this produce sustains entire villages . Coastal Thailand villages earn the key portion of their income from sugar production while the country of Cuba relocates more than 30,000 hives each year to track the seasonal flowering of the mangrove Avicennia .
Xenon
Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from the Earth 's atmosphere , it has a number of applications .
Sustainability
Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . Of this , 97.5 % is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5 % freshwater , most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet . The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers , lakes , rivers , wetlands , the soil , aquifers and atmosphere . Due to the water cycle , fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation , however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource . Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as , during the 20th century , more than half the world 's wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services . Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean , safe water . Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue ( harvestable ) and green ( soil water available for plant use ) water , and this applies at all scales of water management .
Mars
The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.93 % argon and 1.89 % nitrogen along with traces of oxygen and water . The atmosphere is quite dusty , containing particulates about 1.5 μm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface . It may take on a pink hue due to iron oxide particles suspended in it . Potential
Mars
As of 2016 , Mars is host to eight functioning spacecraft : six in orbit -- 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , MAVEN , Mars Orbiter Mission and ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter -- and two on the surface -- Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity and the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity . Observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have revealed possible flowing water during the warmest months on Mars . In 2013 , NASA 's Curiosity rover discovered that Mars 's soil contains between 1.5 % and 3 % water by mass ( albeit attached to other compounds and thus not freely accessible ) . The public can request images of Mars via the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 's HiWish program .
History of chemistry
The following year , Ramsay liberated another inert gas from a mineral called cleveite ; this proved to be helium , previously known only in the solar spectrum . In his book The Gases of the Atmosphere ( 1896 ) , Ramsay showed that the positions of helium and argon in the periodic table of elements indicated that at least three more noble gases might exist . In 1898 Ramsay and the British chemist Morris W. Travers isolated these elements -- called neon , krypton , and xenon -- from air brought to a liquid state at low temperature and high pressure . Sir William Ramsay worked with Frederick Soddy to demonstrate , in 1903 , that alpha particles ( helium nuclei ) were continually produced during the radioactive decay of a sample of radium . Ramsay was awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize for Chemistry in recognition of `` services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air , and his determination of their place in the periodic system . ''
Mars
In May 2017 , evidence of the earliest known life on land on Earth may have been found in 3.48 - billion - year - old geyserite and other related mineral deposits ( often found around hot springs and geysers ) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia . These findings may be helpful in deciding where best to search for early signs of life on the planet Mars .
Exploration of Mars
The lander 's fate remained a mystery until it was located intact on the surface of Mars in a series of images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . The images suggest that two of the spacecraft 's four solar panels failed to deploy , blocking the spacecraft 's communications antenna . Beagle 2 is the first British and first European probe to achieve a soft landing on Mars . MER
Chicxulub crater
In 1990 , Houston Chronicle reporter Carlos Byars told Hildebrand of Penfield 's earlier discovery of a possible impact crater . Hildebrand contacted Penfield in April 1990 and the pair soon secured two drill samples from the Pemex wells , stored in New Orleans . Hildebrand 's team tested the samples , which clearly showed shock - metamorphic materials .
Exploration of Mars
Mars 1 ( 1962 Beta Nu 1 ) , an automatic interplanetary spacecraft launched to Mars on November 1 , 1962 , was the first probe of the Soviet Mars probe program to achieve interplanetary orbit . Mars 1 was intended to fly by the planet at a distance of about 11,000 km and take images of the surface as well as send back data on cosmic radiation , micrometeoroid impacts and Mars ' magnetic field , radiation environment , atmospheric structure , and possible organic compounds . Sixty - one radio transmissions were held , initially at two - day intervals and later at 5 day intervals , from which a large amount of interplanetary data was collected . On 21 March 1963 , when the spacecraft was at a distance of 106,760,000 km from Earth , on its way to Mars , communications ceased due to failure of its antenna orientation system .
Mars
Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO sublimes . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth - like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water - ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 .
Space Race
NASA had ambitious follow - on human spaceflight plans as it reached its lunar goal , but soon discovered it had expended most of its political capital to do so .
Helium
On Earth it is relatively rare -- 5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere . Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements ( thorium and uranium , although there are other examples ) , as the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium - 4 nuclei . This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations as great as 7 % by volume , from which it is extracted commercially by a low - temperature separation process called fractional distillation . Previously , terrestrial helium -- a non-renewable resource , because once released into the atmosphere it readily escapes into space -- was thought to be in increasingly short supply . However , recent studies suggest that helium produced deep in the earth by radioactive decay can collect in natural gas reserves in larger than expected quantities , in some cases having been released by volcanic activity .
Mesolithic
There is some evidence for the beginning of construction at sites with a ritual or astronomical significance , including Stonehenge , with a short row of large post holes aligned east - west , and a possible `` lunar calendar '' at Warren Field in Scotland , with pits of post holes of varying sizes , thought to reflect the lunar phases . Both are dated to around 8,000 BCE .
Moon landing
Khrushchev directed Korolev 's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology , while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft , the Proton booster and the Zond , for a manned cislunar flight in 1966 . In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all manned projects under his direction .
Chernobyl disaster
Two sizes of particles were released : small particles of 0.3 to 1.5 micrometres ( aerodynamic diameter ) and large particles of 10 micrometres . The large particles contained about 80 % to 90 % of the released nonvolatile radioisotopes zirconium - 95 , niobium - 95 , lanthanum - 140 , cerium - 144 and the transuranic elements , including neptunium , plutonium and the minor actinides , embedded in a uranium oxide matrix .
Manhattan Project
Marshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5,000 short tons ( 4,500 tonnes ) of copper , which was in desperately short supply . However , silver could be substituted , in an 11 : 10 ratio . On 3 August 1942 , Nichols met with Under Secretary of the Treasury Daniel W. Bell and asked for the transfer of 6,000 tons of silver bullion from the West Point Bullion Depository . `` Young man , '' Bell told him , `` you may think of silver in tons but the Treasury will always think of silver in troy ounces ! '' Eventually , 14,700 short tons ( 13,300 tonnes ; 430,000,000 troy ounces ) were used .
Halley's Comet
Giotto provided the first evidence in support of Fred Whipple 's `` dirty snowball '' hypothesis for comet construction ; Whipple postulated that comets are icy objects warmed by the Sun as they approach the inner Solar System , causing ices on their surfaces to sublimate ( change directly from a solid to a gas ) , and jets of volatile material to burst outward , creating the coma . Giotto showed that this model was broadly correct , though with modifications . Halley 's albedo , for instance , is about 4 % , meaning that it reflects only 4 % of the sunlight hitting it ; about what one would expect for coal . Thus , despite appearing brilliant white to observers on Earth , Halley 's Comet is in fact pitch black . The surface temperature of evaporating `` dirty ice '' ranges from 170 K ( − 103 ° C ) at higher albedo to 220 K ( − 53 ° C ) at low albedo ; Vega 1 found Halley 's surface temperature to be in the range 300 -- 400 K ( 30 -- 130 ° C ) . This suggested that only 10 % of Halley 's surface was active , and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust that retained heat . Together , these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non-volatile materials , and thus more closely resembled a `` snowy dirtball '' than a `` dirty snowball '' .
Great Salt Lake
Solar evaporation ponds at the edges of the lake produce salts and brine ( water with high salt quantity ) . Minerals extracted from the lake include : sodium chloride ( common salt ) , used in water softeners , salt lick blocks for livestock , and to melt ice on local roadways ( food - grade salt is not produced from the lake , as it would require further costly processing to ensure its purity ) ; potassium sulfate , used as a commercial fertilizer ; and magnesium - chloride brine , used in the production of magnesium metal , chlorine gas , and as a dust suppressant . US Magnesium operates a plant on the Southwest shore of the lake , which produces 14 percent of the worldwide supply of magnesium , more than any other North American magnesium operation . Mineral - extraction companies operating on the lake pay royalties on their products to the State of Utah , which owns the lake .
Hawaii (island)
Geological evidence from exposures of old surfaces on the south and west flanks of Mauna Loa led to the proposal that two ancient volcanic shields ( named Ninole and Kulani ) were all but buried by the younger Mauna Loa . Geologists now consider these `` outcrops '' to be part of the earlier building of Mauna Loa . Another volcano which has already disappeared below the surface of the ocean is Māhukona .
Alan Shepard
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Captain Alan Bartlett Shepard , Jr . ( NSN : 0 - 389998 ) , United States Navy , for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished service in a position of great responsibility to the Government of the United States , as Spacecraft Commander for the Apollo 14 flight to the Fra - Mauro area of the moon during the period 31 January 1971 to 9 February 1971 . Responsible for the on - board control of the spacecraft command module Kittyhawk and the lunar module Antares in the gathering of scientific data involving complex and difficult instrumentation positing and sample gathering , including a hazardous two - mile traverse of the lunar surface , Captain Shepard , by his brilliant performance , contributed essentially to the success of this vital scientific moon mission . As a result of his skillful leadership , professional competence and dedication , the Apollo 14 mission , with its numerous tasks and vital scientific experiments , was accomplished in an outstanding manner , enabling scientists to determine more precisely the moon 's original formation and further forecast man 's proper role in the exploration of his Universe . By his courageous and determined devotion to duty , Captain Shepard rendered valuable and distinguished service and contributed greatly to the success of the United States Space Program , thereby upholding the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .