vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Hurricane Hugo
After becoming extratropical , the remnants of Hugo entered Canada into the province of Ontario . In the Niagara Falls area , winds between 37 and 43 mph ( 60 and 70 km / h ) were reported . Winds near 47 mph ( 75 km / h ) were also reported in Toronto . Heavy rainfall also occurred in Ontario , with precipitation in Ontario peaking at 4.5 in ( 110 mm ) , while a maximum amount of 1.85 in ( 47 mm ) was reported in Toronto . As a result of the storm , blackouts and car accidents were reported in Toronto . Furthermore , heavy rains and high winds also occurred across the southern portions of Ontario . Quebec
Mexico City
The region of the Valley of Mexico receives anti-cyclonic systems . The weak winds of these systems do not allow for the dispersion , outside the basin , of the air pollutants which are produced by the 50,000 industries and 4 million vehicles operating in and around the metropolitan area .
Trade winds
As part of the Hadley cell , surface air flows toward the equator while the flow aloft is towards the poles . A low - pressure area of calm , light variable winds near the equator is known as the doldrums , near - equatorial trough , intertropical front , or the Intertropical Convergence Zone . When located within a monsoon region , this zone of low pressure and wind convergence is also known as the monsoon trough . Around 30 ° in both hemispheres , air begins to descend toward the surface in subtropical high - pressure belts known as subtropical ridges . The subsident ( sinking ) air is relatively dry because as it descends , the temperature increases , but the absolute humidity remains constant , which lowers the relative humidity of the air mass . This warm , dry air is known as a superior air mass and normally resides above a maritime tropical ( warm and moist ) air mass . An increase of temperature with height is known as a temperature inversion . When it occurs within a trade wind regime , it is known as a trade wind inversion .
The impact of geography on colonial America
Since the soil and weather in New England was not suitable for farming , many people did not farm . Instead they imported crops from other regions or even other countries . In return , they would trade products they had to other countries . These products included fish , whale products , ships , timber products . Also , they traded furs and livestock products made from animals living in the surrounding forests .
Anticyclone
When the subtropical ridge in the Northwest Pacific is stronger than normal , it leads to a wet monsoon season for Asia . The subtropical ridge position is linked to how far northward monsoon moisture and thunderstorms extend into the United States . Typically , the subtropical ridge across North America migrates far enough northward to begin monsoon conditions across the Desert Southwest from July to September . When the subtropical ridge is farther north than normal towards the Four Corners , monsoon thunderstorms can spread northward into Arizona . When suppressed to the south , the atmosphere dries out across the Desert Southwest , causing a break in the monsoon regime .
Tropical cyclone
Though their effects on human populations are often devastating , tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions . They also carry heat energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes , which may play an important role in modulating regional and global climate .
Tropical cyclone
In popular culture , tropical cyclones have made several appearances in different types of media , including films , books , television , music , and electronic games . These media often portray tropical cyclones that are either entirely fictional or based on real events . For example , George Rippey Stewart 's Storm , a best - seller published in 1941 , is thought to have influenced meteorologists on their decision to assign female names to Pacific tropical cyclones . Another example is the hurricane in The Perfect Storm , which describes the sinking of the Andrea Gail by the 1991 Perfect Storm . Hypothetical hurricanes have been featured in parts of the plots of series such as The Simpsons , Invasion , Family Guy , Seinfeld , Dawson 's Creek , Burn Notice and CSI : Miami . The 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow includes several mentions of actual tropical cyclones and features fantastical `` hurricane - like '' , albeit non-tropical , Arctic storms .
History of agriculture
The Middle Ages saw further improvements in agriculture . Monasteries spread throughout Europe and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry . The manorial system allowed large landowners to control their land and its laborers , in the form of peasants or serfs . During the medieval period , the Arab world was critical in the exchange of crops and technology between the European , Asia and African continents . Besides transporting numerous crops , they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the beginnings of the plantation system of sugarcane growing through the use of slaves for intensive cultivation . Agricultural
Great Lakes
The Great Lakes have been observed to help intensify storms , such as Hurricane Hazel in 1954 , and the 2011 Goderich , Ontario tornado , which moved onshore as a tornadic waterspout . In 1996 a rare tropical or subtropical storm was observed forming in Lake Huron , dubbed the 1996 Lake Huron cyclone . Rather large severe thunderstorms covering wide areas are well known in the Great Lakes during mid-summer ; these Mesoscale convective complexs or MCCs can cause damage to wide swaths of forest and shatter glass in city buildings . These storms mainly occur during the night , and the systems sometimes have small embedded tornadoes , but more often straight - line winds accompanied by intense lightning .
Soil erosion
Despite the USLE 's plot - scale spatial focus , the model has often been used to estimate soil erosion on much larger areas , such as watersheds or even whole continents . For example , RUSLE has recently been used to quantify soil erosion across the whole of Europe ( 1 ) . This is scientifically controversial , for several reasons . One major problem is that the USLE can not simulate gully erosion , and so erosion from gullies is ignored in any USLE - based assessment of erosion . Yet erosion from gullies can be a substantial proportion ( 10 -- 80 % ) of total erosion on cultivated and grazed land .
La Niña
La Niña causes mostly the opposite effects of El Niño , above - average precipitation across the northern Midwest , the northern Rockies , Northern California , and the Pacific Northwest 's southern and eastern regions . Meanwhile , precipitation in the southwestern and southeastern states , as well as Southern California , is below average . This also allows for the development of many stronger - than - average hurricanes in the Atlantic and fewer in the Pacific .
Geography and wealth
Researchers at Harvard 's Center for International Development found in 2001 that only three tropical economies -- Hong Kong , Singapore , and part of Taiwan -- were classified as high - income by the World Bank , while all countries within regions zoned as temperate had either middle - or high - income economies .
San Francisco fog
Another pattern variation occurs in connection with heat spells that reach the coast from inland . Such heat waves typically occur when an area of high atmospheric pressure orients itself in such a way that the northerly to northeasterly gradient becomes dominant , driving the marine layer out to sea south and west of the California coast . These spells typically end with what is called a `` southerly surge '' , when the northerly gradient relaxes , allowing the marine layer to `` slosh back '' up the coastline .
Climate of the United States
The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States . Such `` North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest , then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains , northern Great Plains , upper Midwest , Great Lakes and New England states . Across the central states from late fall to spring , `` Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma / Texas panhandle areas , then northeast toward the Great Lakes . They generate unusually large temperature contrasts , and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward , resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly - heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track , and warm conditions , heavy rains and potentially - severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously . Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward , `` Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England , and often , windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them . When winter - season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward , `` Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico , then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states , or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters . They often bring rain , but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states .
Rodinia
Most reconstructions show Rodinia 's core formed by the North American craton ( the later paleocontinent of Laurentia ) , surrounded in the southeast with the East European craton ( the later paleocontinent of Baltica ) , the Amazonian craton ( `` Amazonia '' ) and the West African craton ; in the south with the Río de la Plata and São Francisco cratons ; in the southwest with the Congo and Kalahari cratons ; and in the northeast with Australia , India and eastern Antarctica . The positions of Siberia and North and South China north of the North American craton differ strongly depending on the reconstruction :
Ancient Roman architecture
The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning , developed for military defense and civil convenience . The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services , surrounded by a compact , rectilinear grid of streets , and wrapped in a wall for defense . To reduce travel times , two diagonal streets crossed the square grid , passing through the central square . A river usually flowed through the city , providing water , transport , and sewage disposal . Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire . Many European towns , such as Turin , preserve the remains of these schemes , which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities . They would lay out the streets at right angles , in the form of a square grid . All roads were equal in width and length , except for two , which were slightly wider than the others . One of these ran east -- west , the other , north -- south , and they intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid . All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller , hard - packed rocks and pebbles . Bridges were constructed where needed . Each square marked off by four roads was called an insula , the Roman equivalent of a modern city block .
Cradle of civilization
2600 BC marks the Mature Harappan Phase during which Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres including Harappa , Dholavira , Mohenjo - Daro , Lothal , and Rakhigarhi , and more than 1,000 towns and villages , often of relatively small size . Mature Harappans evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper , bronze , lead , and tin and displayed advanced levels of engineering . The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today . The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards , granaries , warehouses , brick platforms , and protective walls . The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts .
Ancient Egypt
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture . The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops , which supported a more dense population , and social development and culture . With resources to spare , the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions , the early development of an independent writing system , the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects , trade with surrounding regions , and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance . Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes , religious leaders , and administrators under the control of a pharaoh , who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs .
History of agriculture
The civilization of Ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its dependable seasonal flooding . The river 's predictability and the fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth . Egyptians were among the first peoples to practice agriculture on a large scale , starting in the pre-dynastic period from the end of the Paleolithic into the Neolithic , between around 10,000 and 4,000 BC . This was made possible with the development of basin irrigation . Their staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley , alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus .
Ancient Roman architecture
The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns , supplying public baths , latrines , fountains and private households . Waste water was removed by complex sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water , keeping the towns clean and free from effluent . Aqueducts also provided water for mining operations , milling , farms and gardens .
Mesopotamia
The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and good drainage , a fact which has had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization . The need for irrigation led the Sumerians , and later the Akkadians , to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers . Major cities , such as Ur and Uruk , took root on tributaries of the Euphrates , while others , notably Lagash , were built on branches of the Tigris . The rivers provided the further benefits of fish ( used both for food and fertilizer ) , reeds , and clay ( for building materials ) . With irrigation , the food supply in Mesopotamia was compabale to the Canadian prairies . The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the Fertile Crescent , which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile . Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops , portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable . This is why the development of irrigation was very important for settlers of Mesopotamia . Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts . Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley , onions , grapes , turnips , and apples . Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine . As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian , farmers did not depend on slaves to complete farm work for them , but there were some exceptions . There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical ( i.e. the escape / mutiny of the slave ) . Although the rivers sustained life , they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities . The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers ; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept . Over time the southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils , leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad , further north .
Ancient Egypt
The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history . The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated , centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization . Nomadic modern human hunter - gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago . By the late Paleolithic period , the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry , forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region .
Ancient Roman architecture
The most frequent dam types were earth - or rock - filled embankment dams and masonry gravity dams . These served a wide array of purposes , such as irrigation , flood control , river diversion , soil - retention , or a combination of these functions . The impermeability of Roman dams was increased by the introduction of waterproof hydraulic mortar and especially opus caementicium in the Concrete Revolution . These materials also allowed for bigger structures to be built , like the Lake Homs Dam , possibly the largest water barrier today , and the sturdy Harbaqa Dam , both of which consist of a concrete core .
Ancient Roman architecture
Transporting was done by land or water ( or a combination of both ) , in the later case often by special - built ships such as obelisk carriers . For lifting operations , ancient cranes were employed since ca . 515 BC , such as in the construction of Trajan 's Column .
Desert
The Judean Desert was farmed in the 7th century BC during the Iron Age to supply food for desert forts . Native Americans in the south western United States became agriculturalists around 600 AD when seeds and technologies became available from Mexico . They used terracing techniques and grew gardens beside seeps , in moist areas at the foot of dunes , near streams providing flood irrigation and in areas irrigated by extensive specially built canals . The Hohokam tribe constructed over 500 miles ( 800 km ) of large canals and maintained them for centuries , an impressive feat of engineering . They grew maize , beans , squash and peppers .
Ancient Roman architecture
The Romans produced massive public buildings and works of civil engineering , and were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene , for example their public and private baths and latrines , under - floor heating in the form of the hypocaust , mica glazing ( examples in Ostia Antica ) , and piped hot and cold water ( examples in Pompeii and Ostia ) .
Ancient Roman architecture
Roman builders were the first to realize the stabilizing effect of arches and buttresses , which they integrated into their dam designs . Previously unknown dam types introduced by the Romans include arch - gravity dams , arch dams , ; buttress dams , and multiple - arch buttress dams .
Maya civilization
The great cities of the Maya civilization were composed of pyramid temples , palaces , ballcourts , sacbeob ( causeways ) , patios and plazas . Some cities also possessed extensive hydraulic systems or defensive walls . The exteriors of most buildings were painted , either in one or multiple colours , or with imagery . Many buildings were adorned with sculpture or painted stucco reliefs . Palaces
Nile
Water buffalo were introduced from Asia , and Assyrians introduced camels in the 7th century BC . These animals were killed for meat , and were domesticated and used for ploughing -- or in the camels ' case , carriage . Water was vital to both people and livestock . The Nile was also a convenient and efficient means of transportation for people and goods . The Nile was an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life . Hapy was the god of the annual floods , and both he and the pharaoh were thought to control the flooding . The Nile was considered to be a causeway from life to death and the afterlife . The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth , and the west was considered the place of death , as the god Ra , the Sun , underwent birth , death , and resurrection each day as he crossed the sky . Thus , all tombs were west of the Nile , because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife , they had to be buried on the side that symbolized death .
Siege
The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces , temples , and defensive walls . Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were also fortified . By about 3500 BC , hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus River floodplain . Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets .
Ancient Roman architecture
Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the termini of aqueducts and their branch lines , supplying urban households , agricultural estates , imperial palaces , thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy .
Ancient Greek architecture
During the late 5th and 4th centuries BC , town planning became an important consideration of Greek builders , with towns such as Paestum and Priene being laid out with a regular grid of paved streets and an agora or central market place surrounded by a colonnade or stoa . The completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in Athens . Towns were also equipped with a public fountain where water could be collected for household use . The development of regular town plans is associated with Hippodamus of Miletus , a pupil of Pythagoras .
Ancient Greek architecture
The clay ornaments were limited to the roof of buildings , decorating the cornice , the corners and surmounting the pediment . At the corners of pediments they were called acroteria and along the sides of the building , antefixes . Early decorative elements were generally semi-circular , but later of roughly triangular shape with moulded ornament , often palmate . Ionic cornices were often set with a row of lion 's masks , with open mouths that ejected rainwater . From the Late Classical period , acroteria were sometimes sculptured figures. See `` Architectural sculpture ''
Sahara
An urban civilization , the Garamantes , arose around 500 BCE in the heart of the Sahara , in a valley that is now called the Wadi al - Ajal in Fezzan , Libya . The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields . The Garamantes grew populous and strong , conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves ( who were put to work extending the tunnels ) . The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads . However , they traded with them , and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes ' capital of Garama . Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes ' territory . The Garamantes ' civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains .
Cradle of civilization
Around 1800 BC , signs of a gradual decline began to emerge , and by around 1700 BC most of the cities had been abandoned . Many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation . The migration of Aryan peoples into the region at this time is also notable ; however , the idea of a violent invasion is no longer widely accepted . The Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the civilisation continue in later South Asian and Vedic cultures .