vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Julian calendar
The Julian calendar spread beyond the borders of the Roman Empire through its use as the Christian liturgical calendar . When a people or a country was converted to Christianity , they generally also adopted the Christian calendar of the church responsible for conversion . Thus , Christian Nubia and Ethiopia adopted the Alexandrian calendar , while Christian Europe adopted the Julian calendar , in either the Catholic or Orthodox variant . Starting in the 16th century , European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere likewise inherited the Julian calendar of the mother country , until they adopted the Gregorian reform . The last country to adopt the Julian calendar was the Ottoman Empire , which used it for financial purposes for some time under the name Rumi calendar and dropped the `` escape years '' which tied it to Muslim chronology in 1840 .
History of the Catholic Church
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Crusades
Europe was immersed in power struggles on many different fronts . The Christian Church split along Latin Orthodox lines in 1054 after centuries of disagreement leading to a permanent division called the East -- West Schism . Following the Gregorian Reform , an assertive , reformist papacy attempted to increase its power and influence over the laity . Beginning around 1075 and continuing during the First Crusade , the Investiture Controversy was a power struggle between Church and state in medieval Europe over whether the Catholic Church or the Holy Roman Empire held the right to appoint church officials and other clerics . Antipope Clement III was an alternative pope for most of this period , and Pope Urban spent much of his early pontificate in exile from Rome . The result was intense piety and an increased interest in religious affairs amongst the general population in Catholic Europe and religious propaganda by the Papacy advocating a just war to reclaim Palestine from the Muslims . Participation in a crusade was seen as a form of penance that could counterbalance sin .
Russian culture
The use and making of icons entered Kievan Rus ' following its conversion to Orthodox Christianity from the Eastern Roman ( Byzantine ) Empire in 988 AD . As a general rule , these icons strictly followed models and formulas hallowed by usage , some of which had originated in Constantinople . As time passed , the Russians -- notably Andrei Rublev and Dionisius -- widened the vocabulary of iconic types and styles far beyond anything found elsewhere . The personal , improvisatory and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Russia before the seventeenth century , when Simon Ushakov 's painting became strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from Protestant as well as Catholic Europe .
Russian Orthodox Church
On December 28 , 2006 , it was officially announced that the Act of Canonical Communion would finally be signed between the ROC and ROCOR . The signing took place on the May 17 , 2007 , followed immediately by a full restoration of communion with the Moscow Patriarchate , celebrated by a Divine Liturgy at the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow , at which the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexius II and the First Hierarch of ROCOR concelebrated for the first time .
History of the Catholic Church
Toward the latter part of the 17th century , Pope Innocent XI viewed the increasing Turkish attacks against Europe , which were supported by France , as the major threat for the Church . He built a Polish - Austrian coalition for the Turkish defeat at Vienna in 1683 . Scholars have called him a saintly pope because he reformed abuses by the Church , including simony , nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a papal debt of 50,000,000 scudi . By eliminating certain honorary posts and introducing new fiscal policies , Innocent XI was able to regain control of the church 's finances . In France , the Church battled Jansenism and Gallicanism , which supported Conciliarism , and rejected papal primacy , demanding special concessions for the Church in France . This weakened the Church 's ability to respond to gallicanist thinkers such as Denis Diderot , who challenged fundamental doctrines of the Church .
Christianity in Africa
At the beginning of the 3rd century the church in Alexandria expanded rapidly , with five new suffragan bishoprics . At this time , the Bishop of Alexandria began to be called Pope , as the senior bishop in Egypt . In the middle of the 3rd century the church in Egypt suffered severely in the persecution under the Emperor Decius . Many Christians fled from the towns into the desert . When the persecution died down , however , some remained in the desert as hermits to pray . This was the beginning of Christian monasticism , which over the following years spread from Africa to other parts of the Gohar , and Europe through France and Ireland .
Third Rome
The whole idea could be traced as early as 1492 when Metropolitan of Moscow Zosimus expressed it in a foreword to his work of 1492 `` Presentation of the Paschalion '' ( Russian : `` Изложение Пасхалии '' ) .
Russian Orthodox Church
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries , the Russian Orthodox Church experienced a vast geographic expansion . Numerous financial and political incentives ( as well as immunity from military service ) were offered local political leaders who would convert to Orthodoxy , and bring their people with them .
Nubia
While bishop Athanasius of Alexandria consecrated one Marcus as bishop of Philae before his death in 373 , showing that Christianity had penetrated the region by the 4th century , John of Ephesus records that a Monophysite priest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545 . John of Ephesus also writes that the kingdom of Alodia was converted around 569 . However , John of Biclarum records that the kingdom of Makuria was converted to Catholicism the same year , suggesting that John of Ephesus might be mistaken . Further doubt is cast on John 's testimony by an entry in the chronicle of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Eutychius , which states that in 719 the church of Nubia transferred its allegiance from the Greek to the Coptic Orthodox Church . Nubians
Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements . Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms , people sought to participate in new forms of religious life . New monastic orders were founded , including the Carthusians and the Cistercians . The latter especially expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux ( d . 1153 ) . These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen , who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity , or to live an Apostolic life . Religious pilgrimages were also encouraged . Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome , Jerusalem , and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors , and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence .
Eastern Orthodox Church
8 . The Fourth Council of Constantinople was called in 879 . It restored St. Photius to his See in Constantinople and condemned any alteration of the Nicene - Constantinopolitan Creed of 381 .
History of the Catholic Church
The history of the Catholic Church begins with Jesus Christ and His teachings ( c. 4 BC -- c . AD 30 ) , and the Catholic Church is a continuation of the early Christian community established by Jesus . The Church considers its bishops to be the successors to Jesus 's apostles and the Church 's leader , the Bishop of Rome ( also known as the Pope ) to be the sole successor to Saint Peter , who ministered in Rome in the first century AD , after his appointment by Jesus as head of the church . By the end of the 2nd century , bishops began congregating in regional synods to resolve doctrinal and policy issues . By the 3rd century , the bishop of Rome began to act as a court of appeals for problems that other bishops could not resolve .
History of the Catholic Church
The anti-clericalism of the French Revolution saw the wholesale nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state - run church . Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the National Assembly , leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of `` Reason '' but it never gained popularity . In this period , all monasteries were destroyed , 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed . When Pope Pius VI sided against the revolution in the First Coalition , Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy . The 82 - year - old pope was taken as a prisoner to France in February 1799 and soon died . To win popular support for his rule , Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801 . The church lands were never returned , however the priests and other religious were given salaries by the government , which maintained church properties through tax revenues . Catholics were allowed to continue some of their schools . The end of the Napoleonic wars , signaled by the Congress of Vienna , brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States to the pope ; the Jesuits were restored . 19th
Trinity
Richard E. Rubenstein says that Emperor Constantine and his advisor Hosius of Corduba were aware of the usefulness of having a divinely ordained church in which the church authority , and not the individual , was able to determine individual salvation , and threw their support toward the homoousion Nicene formula . According to Eusebius , Constantine suggested the term homoousios at the Council of Nicaea , though most scholars have doubted that Constantine had such knowledge and have thought that most likely Hosius had suggested the term to him . Constantine later changed his view about the Arians , who opposed the Nicene formula , and supported the bishops who rejected the formula , as did several of his successors , the first emperor to be baptized in the Nicene faith being Theodosius the Great , emperor from 379 to 395 .
Western Roman Empire
Julian was proclaimed caesar in 355 , before becoming emperor in 361 , after Constantius II died of a violent fever in 361 . Julian died in March 363 , of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra .
Eastern Orthodox Church
The contemporary Eastern Orthodox Church shared communion with the contemporary Roman Catholic Church until the East -- West Schism in AD 1054 , triggered by disputes over doctrine , especially the authority of the Pope . Prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451 , also Oriental Orthodox churches shared in this communion , separating primarily over differences in Christology .
Middle Ages
During the High Middle Ages , which began after 1000 , the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and the Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase . Manorialism , the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles , and feudalism , the political structure whereby knights and lower - status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors , were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages . The Crusades , first preached in 1095 , were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims . Kings became the heads of centralised nation - states , reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant . Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism , a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason , and by the founding of universities . The theology of Thomas Aquinas , the paintings of Giotto , the poetry of Dante and Chaucer , the travels of Marco Polo , and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages .
History of the Catholic Church
A growing sense of church - state conflicts marked the 14th century . To escape instability in Rome , Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France during a period known as the Avignon Papacy . The papacy returned to Rome in 1378 at the urging of Catherine of Siena and others who felt the See of Peter should be in the Roman church . With the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year , the papal election was disputed between supporters of Italian and French - backed candidates leading to the Western schism . For 38 years , separate claimants to the papal throne sat in Rome and Avignon . Efforts at resolution further complicated the issue when a third compromise pope was elected in 1409 . The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign , and held a new election naming Martin V pope .
Pope
In 1049 , Leo IX became pope , at last a pope with the character to face the papacy 's problems . He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church 's moral problems firsthand , notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage . With his long journey , he restored the prestige of the papacy in Northern Europe .
Pope
Peter ( c. 30 -- 64 / 67 ) : c. 34 -- c. 37 years ( 12,410 -- 13,505 days ) . Pius IX ( 1846 -- 1878 ) : 31 years , 7 months and 23 days ( 11,560 days ) . St. John Paul II ( 1978 -- 2005 ) : 26 years , 5 months and 18 days ( 9,665 days ) . Leo XIII ( 1878 -- 1903 ) : 25 years , 5 months and 1 day ( 9,281 days ) . Pius VI ( 1775 -- 1799 ) : 24 years , 6 months and 15 days ( 8,962 days ) . Adrian I ( 772 -- 795 ) : 23 years , 10 months and 25 days ( 8,729 days ) . Pius VII ( 1800 -- 1823 ) : 23 years , 5 months and 7 days ( 8,560 days ) . Alexander III ( 1159 -- 1181 ) : 21 years , 11 months and 24 days ( 8,029 days ) . St. Sylvester I ( 314 -- 335 ) : 21 years , 11 months and 1 day ( 8,005 days ) . St. Leo I ( 440 -- 461 ) : 21 years , 1 month , and 13 days ( 7,713 days ) . Urban VIII ( 1623 -- 1644 ) : 20 years , 11 months and 24 days ( 7,664 days ) .
Yemen
In 354 AD , Roman Emperor Constantius II sent an embassy headed by Theophilos the Indian to convert the Himyarites to Christianity . According to Philostorgius , the mission was resisted by local Jews . Several inscriptions have been found in Hebrew and Sabaean praising the ruling house in Jewish terms for `` ... helping and empowering the People of Israel . ''
Russian Orthodox Church
In 1439 , at the Council of Florence , some Orthodox hierarchs from Byzantium as well as Metropolitan Isidore , who represented the Russian Church , signed a union with the Roman Church , whereby the Eastern Church would recognise the primacy of the Pope . However , the Moscow Prince Vasili II rejected the act of the Council of Florence brought to Moscow by Isidore in March 1441 . Isidore was in the same year removed from his position as an apostate and expelled from Moscow . The Russian metropolitanate remained effectively vacant for the next few years due largely to the dominance of Uniates in Constantinople then . In December 1448 , Jonas , a Russian bishop , was installed by the Council of Russian bishops in Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia ( with permanent residence in Moscow ) without the consent from Constantinople . This occurred five years prior to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and , unintentionally , signified the beginning of an effectively independent church structure in the Moscow ( North - Eastern Russian ) part of the Russian Church . Subsequently , there developed a theory in Moscow that saw Moscow as the Third Rome , the legitimate successor to Constantinople , and the Primate of the Moscow Church as head of all the Russian Church . Meanwhile , the newly established in 1458 Russian Orthodox ( initially Uniate ) metropolitanate in Kiev ( then in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and subsequently in the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth ) continued under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical See until 1686 , when it was transferred to the jurisdiction of Moscow .
Julian calendar
The Julian calendar was in general use in Europe and northern Africa until 1582 , when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian calendar . Reform was required because too many leap days are added with respect to the astronomical seasons on the Julian scheme . On average , the astronomical solstices and the equinoxes advance by 10.8 minutes per year against the Julian year . As a result , the calculated date of Easter gradually moved out of alignment with the March equinox . This
Timeline of the Ottoman Empire
Year Date Event 1566 The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent ( Suleiman I ) ends . Siege of Szigetvár . 1569 The great fire of Istanbul Burns . 1570 - 73 Ottoman -- Venetian War ( 1570 -- 73 ) . Conquest of Cyprus . 1571 Battle of Lepanto . The Holy League defeat the Ottomans . 1571 Fire of Moscow ( 1571 ) . Crimean khan Devlet I Giray raided the city of Moscow . 1574 Conquest of Tunis . Selim II death . Murad III accession to the throne . 1575 Selimiye Mosque was built by architect Mimar Sinan between 1569 and 1575 . 1578 Ottoman -- Safavid War ( 1578 -- 90 ) . When this war ended , the Ottomans reached the widest extent in the east . 1590 Treaty of İstanbul between Ottoman Empire and the Safavids ; Georgia , Azerbaijan and Armenia as well as western Iran under Ottoman rule . Reaching the widest border in the east of the Ottomans . 1593 June 22 Battle of Sisak . 1593 - 1606 Long Turkish War . The series of wars that lasted 13 years , ended with the Peace of Zsitvatorok . 1596 October 23 -- 26 Battle of Keresztes .
Traditionalist Catholicism
Liturgical De-Latinization began with the 1930s corrections of the liturgical books by Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky . According to his biographer Cyril Korolevsky , however , Metropolitan Andrey opposed the use of coercive force against those who remained attached to Latin Rite practices . He expressed fear that any attempt to do so would lead to a Greek Catholic equivalent of the 1666 Schism within the Russian Orthodox Church .
Western Roman Empire
Honorius became Western Emperor in 395 , after the death of his father Theodosius . His reign was beset by barbarian invasions , and for much of his early reign , until 408 , he was controlled by Stilicho , whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors . Honorius died of edema in 423 .
Middle Ages
The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of monasticism in the West . The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with the Desert Fathers of Egypt and Syria . Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life , called cenobitism , which was pioneered by Pachomius ( d . 348 ) in the 4th century . Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through hagiographical literature such as the Life of Anthony . Benedict of Nursia ( d . 547 ) wrote the Benedictine Rule for Western monasticism during the 6th century , detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an abbot . Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages , in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families , centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions , and bases for missions and proselytisation . They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region . Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages . Monks were also the authors of new works , including history , theology , and other subjects , written by authors such as Bede ( d . 735 ) , a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries .
Napoleon
Napoleon 's baptism took place in Ajaccio on 21 July 1771 ; he was piously raised as a Catholic but he never developed much faith . As an adult , Napoleon was a deist . Napoleon 's deity was an absent and distant God . However he had a keen appreciation of the power of organized religion in social and political affairs , and paid a great deal of attention to bending it to his purposes . He noted the influence of Catholicism 's rituals and splendors . Napoleon had a civil marriage with Joséphine de Beauharnais , without religious ceremony . Napoleon was crowned Emperor on 2 December 1804 at Notre - Dame de Paris in a ceremony presided over by Pope Pius VII . On the eve of the Coronation ceremony , and at the insistence of Pope Pius VII , a private religious wedding ceremony of Napoleon and Josephine was celebrated . Cardinal Fesch performed the wedding . This marriage was annulled by tribunals under Napoleon 's control in January 1810 . On 1 April 1810 , Napoleon married the Austrian princess Marie Louise in a Catholic ceremony . During his brother 's rule in Spain , he abolished the Spanish Inquisition in 1813 . Napoleon was excommunicated by the Catholic Church , but later reconciled with the Church before his death in 1821 .
Crusades
In 1095 , Pope Urban II called for the First Crusade in a sermon at the Council of Clermont . He encouraged military support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor , Alexios I , who needed reinforcements for his conflict with westward migrating Turks colonizing Anatolia . One of Urban 's aims was to guarantee pilgrims access to the Eastern Mediterranean holy sites that were under Muslim control but scholars disagree as to whether this was the primary motive for Urban or those who heeded his call . Urban 's strategy may have been to unite the Eastern and Western branches of Christendom , which had been divided since the East -- West Schism of 1054 and to establish himself as head of the unified Church . The initial success of the Crusade established the first four Crusader states in the Eastern Mediterranean : the County of Edessa , the Principality of Antioch , the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli . The enthusiastic response to Urban 's preaching from all classes in Western Europe established a precedent for other Crusades . Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a public vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the Church . Some were hoping for a mass ascension into heaven at Jerusalem or God 's forgiveness for all their sins . Others participated to satisfy feudal obligations , obtain glory and honour or to seek economic and political gain .
History of the Roman Empire
Constantine II was killed in conflict with his youngest brother in 340 . Constans was himself killed in conflict with the army - proclaimed Augustus Magnentius on January 18 , 350 . Magnentius was at first opposed in the city of Rome by self - proclaimed Augustus Nepotianus , a paternal first cousin of Constans . Nepotianus was killed alongside his mother Eutropia . His other first cousin Constantia convinced Vetriano to proclaim himself Caesar in opposition to Magnentius . Vetriano served a brief term from March 1 to December 25 , 350 . He was then forced to abdicate by the legitimate Augustus Constantius . The usurper Magnentius would continue to rule the Western Roman Empire until 353 while in conflict with Constantius . His eventual defeat and suicide left Constantius as sole Emperor .