vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Celtic Britons
With the beginning of Anglo - Saxon settlement and Gaelic Scots in the 5th century , the culture and language of the Britons fragmented and much of their territory was taken over by the Anglo - Saxons and Scots Gaels . The extent to which this cultural and linguistic change was accompanied by wholesale changes in the population is still a matter of discussion . During this period some Britons migrated to mainland Europe and established significant settlements in Brittany ( now part of France ) as well as Britonia in modern Galicia , Spain . By the 11th century , remaining Brittonic Celtic - speaking populations had split into distinct groups : the Welsh in Wales , the Cornish in Cornwall , the Bretons in Brittany , and the people of the Hen Ogledd ( `` Old North '' ) in southern Scotland and northern England . Common Brittonic developed into the distinct Brittonic languages : Welsh , Cumbric , Cornish and Breton .
Celtic Britons
The Latin name in the early Roman Empire period was Britanni or Brittanni , following the Roman conquest in AD 43 .
Celts
All Celtic languages extant today belong to the Insular Celtic languages , derived from the Celtic languages spoken in Iron Age Britain and Ireland . They were separated into a Goidelic and a Brythonic branch from an early period .
Celts
... a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus , a Caledonian , to Julia Augusta . When the empress was jesting with her , after the treaty , about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain , she replied : `` We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women ; for we consort openly with the best men , whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest . '' Such was the retort of the British woman .
Republic of Ireland
Ireland 's culture was for centuries predominantly Gaelic , and it remains one of the six principal Celtic nations . Following the Anglo - Norman invasion in the 12th century , and gradual British conquest and colonisation beginning in the 16th century , Ireland became influenced by English and Scottish culture . Subsequently , Irish culture , though distinct in many aspects , shares characteristics with the Anglosphere , Catholic Europe , and other Celtic regions . The Irish diaspora , one of the world 's largest and most dispersed , has contributed to the globalisation of Irish culture , producing many prominent figures in art , music , and science .
Catalonia
The first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of the Middle Palaeolithic . The oldest known trace of human occupation is a mandible found in Banyoles , described by some sources as pre-Neanderthal some 200,000 years old ; other sources suggest it to be only about one third that old . From the next prehistoric era , the Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic , important remains survive , the greater part dated between 8000 BC and 5000 BC , such as those of Sant Gregori ( Falset ) and el Filador ( Margalef de Montsant ) .
Celts
Roman reports of the druids mention ceremonies being held in sacred groves . La Tène Celts built temples of varying size and shape , though they also maintained shrines at sacred trees and votive pools .
Celts
Celtic religious patterns were regionally variable ; however , some patterns of deity forms , and ways of worshipping these deities , appeared over a wide geographical and temporal range . The Celts worshipped both gods and goddesses . In general , Celtic gods were deities of particular skills , such as the many - skilled Lugh and Dagda , while goddesses were associated with natural features , particularly rivers ( such as Boann , goddess of the River Boyne ) . This was not universal , however , as goddesses such as Brighid and The Morrígan were associated with both natural features ( holy wells and the River Unius ) and skills such as blacksmithing and healing .
Celts
Polybius ( 2.33 ) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a long bladed sword which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing . Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades . This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists , who note that Noric steel , steel produced in Celtic Noricum , was famous in the Roman Empire period and was used to equip the Roman military . However , Radomir Pleiner , in The Celtic Sword ( 1993 ) argues that `` the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point '' , as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes .
France–United Kingdom relations
Although all peoples concerned were Celts ( and the Germanic Angles and Franks had not yet invaded either country that would later bear their names ) , this could arguably be seen as the first major example of Anglo - French cooperation in recorded history . As a consequence , Caesar felt compelled to invade in an attempt to subdue Britain . Rome was reasonably successful at conquering Gaul and Britain and Belgica all ; and all three areas became provinces of the Roman Empire .
Celts
There are instances recorded where women participated both in warfare and in kingship , although they were in the minority in these areas . Plutarch reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celts chiefdoms in the Po valley during the 4th century BC .
Celtic Britons
The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle , which was originally compiled by the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately 890 , and subsequently maintained and added to by generations of anonymous scribes until the middle of the 12th century , starts with this sentence : `` The island Britain is 800 miles long , and 200 miles broad , and there are in the island five nations : English , Welsh ( or British , including the Cornish ) , Scottish , Pictish , and Latin . The first inhabitants were the Britons , who came from Armenia , and first peopled Britain southward . '' ( `` Armenia '' is possibly a mistaken transcription of Armorica , an area in northwestern Gaul including modern Brittany . )
Celts
`` manner of fighting , being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied , was an erratic procedure , quite lacking in military science . Thus , at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of wild boars , throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks , and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target , as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries , protective armour and all '' .
Celtic Britons
9th Century AD ; The Kingdom of Cait , covering modern Caithness , Sutherland , Orkneys and Shetlands was conquered by Gaelic Ccots in 871 AD . Dumnonia ( encompassing Cornwall , Devonshire and the Scilly Isles was partly conquered during the mid 9th century AD , with most of modern Devonshire being annexed by the Anglo - Saxons , but leaving Cornwall and the Scilly Isles still in the hands of the Britons , where they became Kernow .
Celts
The earliest undisputed direct examples of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions beginning in the 6th century BC . Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place - names . Insular Celtic languages are attested beginning around the 4th century in Ogham inscriptions , although it was clearly being spoken much earlier . Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century CE . Coherent texts of Early Irish literature , such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge ( `` Cattle Raid of Cooley '' ) , survive in 12th century recensions .
Celts
Triplicity is a common theme in Celtic cosmology , and a number of deities were seen as threefold . This trait is exhibited by The Three Mothers , a group of goddesses worshipped by many Celtic tribes ( with regional variations ) .
Celtic Britons
In English , the terms `` Briton '' and British for many centuries originally denoted only the ancient Celtic Britons and their descendants , most particularly the Welsh , Cornish and Bretons , who were seen as heirs to the ancient British people . After the Acts of Union 1707 , the terms British and Briton gradually came to be applied to all inhabitants of the Kingdom of Great Britain , including the English , Scottish and some Northern Irish .
Celtic Britons
Ideas about the development of British Iron Age culture changed greatly in the 20th century , and remain in development . Generally cultural exchange has tended to replace migration from the continent as the explanation for changes , although Aylesford - Swarling Pottery and the Arras culture of Yorkshire are examples of developments still thought to be linked to migration .
Celtic Britons
The Britons also retained control of Wales , Kernow ( encompassing Cornwall and the Scilly Isles ) ) until the mid 11th century AD when Cornwall was annexed by the English , with the Isles of Scilly following a few years later .
Mesopotamia
Studies have reported that most Irish and Britons are descendants of farmers who left modern day Iraq and Syria 10,000 years ago . Genetic researchers say they have found compelling evidence that four out of five ( 80 % ) of white Europeans can trace their roots to the Near East . In another study , scientists analysed DNA from the 8,000 - year - old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in Germany . They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today 's Turkey and Iraq .
Celts
Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked , `` The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle , for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life . '' According to Livy , this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor .
Celts
Celts had a reputation as head hunters . According to Paul Jacobsthal , `` Amongst the Celts the human head was venerated above all else , since the head was to the Celt the soul , centre of the emotions as well as of life itself , a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other - world . '' Arguments for a Celtic cult of the severed head include the many sculptured representations of severed heads in La Tène carvings , and the surviving Celtic mythology , which is full of stories of the severed heads of heroes and the saints who carry their own severed heads , right down to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , where the Green Knight picks up his own severed head after Gawain has struck it off , just as St. Denis carried his head to the top of Montmartre .
Celtic Britons
Cornwall ( Kernow , Dumnonia ) had certainly been largely absorbed by England by the 1050s , although it retained a distinct Brittonic culture and language . Britonia in Spanish Galicia seems to have disappeared by 900 AD .
First Nations
There are reports of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents . Even in Columbus ' time there was much speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times ; Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records accounts of these in his General y natural historia de las Indias of 1526 , which includes biographical information on Columbus . Aboriginal first contact period is not well defined . The earliest accounts of contact occurred in the late 10th century , between the Beothuk and Norseman . According to the Sagas of Icelanders , the first European to see what is now Canada was Bjarni Herjólfsson , who was blown off course en route from Iceland to Greenland in the summer of 985 or 986 CE . The first European explorers and settlers of what is now Canada relied on the First Nations peoples , for resources and trade to sustain a living . The first written accounts of interaction show a predominantly Old world bias , labelling the indigenous peoples as savages , although the indigenous peoples were organized and self - sufficient . Although not without conflict , European / Canadian early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful , compared to the experience of native peoples in the United States .
Celts
In 58 BC the Helvetii planned to migrate westward but Julius Caesar forced them back . He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul , and by 55 BC had overrun most of Gaul . In 52 BC Vercingetorix led a revolt against the Roman occupation but was defeated at the Siege of Alesia and surrendered .
Celts
The French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by druids wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the Julian calendar was imposed throughout the Roman Empire . However , the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars ( or parapegmata ) found throughout the Greek and Roman world .
United Kingdom
Historically , indigenous British people were thought to be descended from the various ethnic groups that settled there before the 11th century : the Celts , Romans , Anglo - Saxons , Norse and the Normans . Welsh people could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK . A 2006 genetic study shows that more than 50 % of England 's gene pool contains Germanic Y chromosomes . Another 2005 genetic analysis indicates that `` about 75 % of the traceable ancestors of the modern British population had arrived in the British isles by about 6,200 years ago , at the start of the British Neolithic or Stone Age '' , and that the British broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people .
Celtic Britons
The Britons spoke an Insular Celtic language known as Common Brittonic . Brittonic was spoken throughout the island of Britain ( in modern terms , England , Wales and Scotland ) , as well as offshore islands such as the Isle of Man , Scilly Isles , Orkneys , Hebrides , Isle of Wight and Shetlands . According to early medieval historical tradition , such as The Dream of Macsen Wledig , the post-Roman Celtic - speakers of Armorica were colonists from Britain , resulting in the Breton language , a language related to Welsh and identical to Cornish in the early period and still used today . Thus the area today is called Brittany ( Br . Breizh , Fr . Bretagne , derived from Britannia ) .
Mesolithic
The Mesolithic This box : view talk edit ↑ Upper Paleolithic Mesolithic Europe Fosna -- Hensbacka culture Komsa culture Maglemosian culture Lepenski Vir culture Kunda culture Narva culture Komornica culture Swiderian culture Epipaleolithic Transylvania Mesolithic Transylvania Tardenoisian Schela Cladovei culture Mesolithic Southeastern Europe Epipaleolithic ( Levant ) Levantine corridor Natufian Khiamian Caucasus Trialetian Zagros Zarzian culture ↓ Neolithic
North Africa
The most notable nations of antiquity in western North Africa are Carthage and Numidia . The Phoenicians colonized much of North Africa including Carthage and parts of present - day Morocco ( including Chellah , Essaouira and Volubilis ) . The Carthaginians were of Phoenician origin , with the Roman myth of their origin being that Dido , a Phoenician princess , was granted land by a local ruler based on how much land she could cover with a piece of cowhide . She ingeniously devised a method to extend the cowhide to a high proportion , thus gaining a large territory . She was also rejected by the Trojan prince Aeneas according to Virgil , thus creating a historical enmity between Carthage and Rome , as Aeneas would eventually lay the foundations for Rome . Ancient Carthage was a commercial power and had a strong navy , but relied on mercenaries for land soldiers . The Carthaginians developed an empire in the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily , the latter being the cause of First Punic War with the Romans .
Celtic Britons
However , by the beginning of the 12th century , the Anglo - Saxons and Gaels had become the dominant cultural force in most of the formerly Brittonic ruled territory in Britain , and the language and culture of the native Britons was thereafter gradually replaced in those regions , remaining only in Wales , Cornwall , Scilly Isles and Brittany , and for a time in parts of Cumbria , Strathclyde , and eastern Galloway .
Celtic Britons
Thirty years or so after the time of the Roman departure , the Germanic - speaking Anglo - Saxons began a migration to the eastern coast of Britain , where they began to establish their own kingdoms , and the Gaelic speaking Scots migrating from Dál nAraidi ( modern Northern Ireland ) , did the same on the west coast of Scotland and the Isle of Man .
Colonial history of the United States
The early colonists , especially the Scots - Irish in the back - country , engaged in warfare , trade , and cultural exchanges . Those living in the backcountry were more likely to join with Creek Indians , Cherokee , and Choctaws and other regional native groups .
Celtic Britons
In 43 AD , the Roman Empire invaded Britain . The British tribes opposed the Roman legions for many decades , but by 84 AD the Romans had decisively conquered southern Britain and had pushed into Brittonic areas of what would later become northern England and southern Scotland . In 122 AD , they fortified the northern border with Hadrian 's Wall , which spanned what is now Northern England . In 142 AD , Roman forces pushed north again and began construction of the Antonine Wall , which ran between the Forth - Clyde isthmus , but they retreated back to Hadrian 's Wall after only twenty years . Although the native Britons south of Hadrian 's Wall mostly kept their land , they were subject to the Roman governors , whilst the Brittonic - Pictish Britons north of the wall remained fully independent and unconquered . The Roman Empire retained control of `` Britannia '' until its departure about AD 410 , although some parts of Britain had already effectively shrugged off Roman rule decades earlier .
Brittany
Homo sapiens settled in Brittany around 35,000 years ago . They replaced or absorbed the Neanderthals and developed local industries , similar to the Châtelperronian or to the Magdalenian . After the last glacial period , the warmer climate allowed the area to become heavily wooded . At that time , Brittany was populated by relatively large communities who started to change their lifestyles from a life of hunting and gathering , to become settled farmers . Agriculture was introduced during the 5th millennium BC by migrants from the south and east . However , the Neolithic Revolution in Brittany did not happen due to a radical change of population , but by slow immigration and exchange of skills .
Wales
The 400 - year period following the collapse of Roman rule is the most difficult to interpret in the history of Wales . After the Roman departure from Britain in AD 410 , much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south - east was overrun by various Germanic peoples . Before extensive studies of the distribution of R1b Y - DNA subclades , some previously maintained that native Britons were displaced by the invaders . This idea has been discarded in the face of evidence that much of the population has , at the latest , Hallstatt era origins , but probably late Neolithic , or at earliest Mesolithic origins with little contribution from Anglo - Saxon source areas . However , by AD 500 , the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo - Saxon rule . The kingdoms of Gwynedd , Powys , Dyfed and Seisyllwg , Morgannwg and Gwent emerged as independent Welsh successor states . Archaeological evidence , in the Low Countries and what was to become England , shows early Anglo - Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 to 550 , which concurs with Frankish chronicles . John Davies notes this as consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill , attributed to Arthur by Nennius . This tenacious survival by the Romano - Britons and their descendants in the western kingdoms was to become the foundation of what we now know as Wales . With the loss of the lowlands , England 's kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria , and later Wessex , wrestled with Powys , Gwent and Gwynedd to define the frontier between the two peoples .
Elf (Middle-earth)
Needless to say they are not Celtic ! Neither are the tales . I do know Celtic things ( many in their original languages Irish and Welsh ) , and feel for them a certain distaste : largely for their fundamental unreason . They have bright colour , but are like a broken stained glass window reassembled without design . They are in fact `` mad '' as your reader says -- but I do n't believe I am .
Prague
The region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age . Around the fifth and fourth century BC , the Celts appeared in the area , later establishing settlements including an oppidum in Závist , a present - day suburb of Prague , and giving name to the region of Bohemia , `` home of the Boii '' . In the last century BC , the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes ( Marcomanni , Quadi , Lombards and possibly the Suebi ) , leading some to place the seat of the Marcomanni king Maroboduus on the southern Prague 's site Závist . Around the area where present - day Prague stands , the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis .
History of the Isle of Wight
The first inhabitants are assumed to have been hunter - gatherers migrating by land during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age period , as the ice age began to recede and the climate improved . The island has no visible Paleolithic or Mesolithic ( Middle Stone Age ) sites , but flints from these periods have been found and are on display at Carisbrooke Castle .
Celtic Britons
Wales remained free from Anglo - Saxon , Gaelic Scots and Viking control , and was divided among varying Brittonic kingdoms , the foremost being Gwynedd , Powys ( including Clwyd and Ynys Mon ( Anglesey ) , Deheubarth ( originally Ceredigion , Seisyllwg and Dyfed ) , Gwent and Morgannwg ( Glamorgan . Some of these Welsh kingdoms initially included territories further east , for example Powys included parts of modern Merseyside , Cheshire and The Wirral and Gwent held parts of modern Herefordshire , Worcestershire , Somerset and Gloucestershire , but had largely been confined to the borders of modern Wales by the beginning of the 12th century .
The Gambia
Europeans also figure prominently in Gambian history because the River Gambia is navigable deep into the continent , a geographic feature that made this area one of the most profitable sites for the slave trade from the 15th through the 17th centuries . ( It also made it strategic to the halt of this trade once it was outlawed in the 19th century . ) Some of this history was popularised in the Alex Haley book and TV series Roots which was set in the Gambia .
Brittany
Brittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic . The first settlers were Neanderthals . This population was scarce and very similar to the other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe . Their only original feature was a distinct culture , called `` Colombanian '' . One of the oldest hearths in the world has been found in Plouhinec , Finistère . It is 450,000 years old .
Neolithic Revolution
The fertile Carpathian Basin was the place where Europeans survived the Ice Age . The territory between the Danube and the Tisza rivers was a powerhouse of agricultural knowledge .
Celts
Latin Gallus ( pl . Galli ) might stem from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name originally , perhaps one borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansions into Italy during the early fifth century BC . Its root may be the Proto - Celtic * galno , meaning `` power , strength '' , hence Old Irish gal `` boldness , ferocity '' and Welsh gallu `` to be able , power '' . The tribal names of Gallaeci and the Greek Γαλάται ( Galatai , Latinized Galatae ; see the region Galatia in Anatolia ) most probably have the same origin . The suffix - atai might be an Ancient Greek inflection . Classical writers did not apply the terms Κελτοί or Celtae to the inhabitants of Britain or Ireland , which has led to some scholars preferring not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands .