vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Pre-Columbian era
The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America . The term `` Woodland '' was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures . The Adena culture and the ensuing Hopewell tradition during this period built monumental earthwork architecture and established continent - spanning trade and exchange networks .
Latin America
From the very moment of Europe 's discovery of the continents , early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experience -- such as Columbus 's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo 's description of the conquest of Mexico . During the colonial period , written culture was often in the hands of the church , within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays . Towards the end of the 18th Century and the beginning of the 19th , a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged , including the first novels such as Lizardi 's El Periquillo Sarniento ( 1816 ) .
History of Native Americans in the United States
The Clovis culture , a megafauna hunting culture , is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points . Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis , New Mexico . The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America . The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point , a flaked flint spear - point with a notched flute , by which it was insecarbon - dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years BP ( roughly 9100 to 8850 BCE ) .
Nation state
Irredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies , which are not generally considered part of the national homeland . Some French overseas colonies would be an exception : French rule in Algeria unsuccessfully treated the colony as a département of France .
Economic history of Argentina
Historians like Milcíades Peña consider this historical period of the Americas as pre-capitalist , as most production of the coastal cities was destined to overseas markets . Rodolfo Puiggrós consider it instead a feudalist society , based on work relations such as the encomienda or the slavery . Norberto Galasso and Enrique Rivera consider that it was neither capitalist nor feudalist , but an hybrid system result of the interaction of the Spanish civilization , on the transition from feudalism to capitalism , and the natives , still living in the prehistory .
Neolithic Revolution
Agriculture spread to Central and Southern Africa in the Bantu expansion during the 1st millennium BC to 1st millennium AD .
Pre-Columbian era
Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era . Many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives .
New Spain
Gold mining was an early draw for Spaniards , who directed indigenous labor to its extraction , but did not continue beyond the mid-sixteenth century . Over the long run , ranching and commerce were the most important economic activities , with the settlement of Tehuantepec becoming the hub . The region 's history can be divided into three distinct periods , an initial period of engagement with Spanish colonial rule to 1563 , during which there was a working relationship with the Zapotec ruling line and the establishment of Cortés 's economic enterprises . This early period came to a close with the death of the last native king in 1562 and the escheatment of Cortés 's Tehuantepec encomiendas to the crown in 1563 . The second period of approximately a century ( 1563 -- 1660 ) saw the decline of the indigenous entailed estate ( cacicazgo ) and indigenous political power and development of the colonial economy and imposition of Spanish political and religious structures . The final period is the maturation of these structures ( 1660 -- 1750 ) . The 1660 rebellion can be a dividing line between the two later periods .
Meroë
As Margoliouth notes in the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica , small scale excavations occurred in 1834 , led by Giuseppe Ferlini , who , as Margoliouth states , `` discovered ( or professed to discover ) various antiquities , chiefly in the form of jewelry , now in the museums of Berlin and Munich . '' Margoliouth continues ,
Neolithic Revolution
The dispersal of Neolithic culture from the Middle East has recently been associated with the distribution of human genetic markers . In Europe , the spread of the Neolithic culture has been associated with distribution of the E1b1b lineages and Haplogroup J that are thought to have arrived in Europe from North Africa and the Near East respectively . In Africa , the spread of farming , and notably the Bantu expansion , is associated with the dispersal of Y - chromosome haplogroup E1b1a from West Africa .
European colonization of the Americas
The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows , pigs , sheep , goats , horses , dogs and various domesticated fowl , from which many diseases originally stemmed . Thus , in contrast to the indigenous people , Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies . The large - scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced novel germs to the indigenous people of the Americas .
New Spain
New Spain developed highly regional divisions , reflecting the impact of climate , topography , the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations , and the presence or absence of mineral resources . The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social , political , and economic organization . The northern area of Mexico , a region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations , was not generally conducive to dense settlements , but the discovery of silver in Zacatecas in the 1540s drew settlement there to exploit the mines . Silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain , but vastly enriched Spain and transformed the global economy . New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade , making the viceroyalty a vital link between Spain 's New World empire and its Asian empire .
The impact of geography on colonial America
While not as prevalent a belief , some European colonial leaders argued that the warmer climates of the southern latitudes would also cause such precious metals to rise towards the surface of the earth . Along with the stories of Spanish conquests finding `` cities of gold '' , the Virginia Company sent along with their initial colonists equipment for prospecting and mining gold . These beliefs were shown to be wrong and equipment for agriculture and cultivation would have aided the early colonists .
Pre-Columbian era
The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Amerindian genetics is Haplogroup Q1a3a ( Y - DNA ) . Y - DNA , like mtDNA , differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis . This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can easily be studied . The pattern indicates Indigenous Amerindians experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes ; first with the initial - peopling of the Americas , and secondly with European colonization of the Americas . The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today 's Indigenous Amerindian populations .
Cradle of civilization
The developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A ( 10,200 BC ) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B ( 7600 to 6000 BC ) appeared in the fertile crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards . Contemporaneously , a grain - grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had replaced the culture of hunters , fishers , and gathering people using stone tools along the Nile . Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies also suggest that natural climate changes around 8000 BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of northern Africa , eventually forming the Sahara . Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle . By about 5500 BC , small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of inter-related cultures as far south as Sudan , demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry , and identifiable by their pottery and personal items , such as combs , bracelets , and beads . The largest of these early cultures in upper ( Southern ) Egypt was the Badari , which probably originated in the Western Desert ; it was known for its high quality ceramics , stone tools , and use of copper . The oldest known domesticated bovine in Africa are from Fayum dating to around 4400 BC . The Badari cultures was followed by the Naqada culture , which brought a number of technological improvements . As early as the first Naqada Period , Amratia , Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia , used to shape blades and other objects from flakes . By 3300 BC , just before the first Egyptian dynasty , Egypt was divided into two kingdoms , known as Upper Egypt to the south , and Lower Egypt to the north .
History of Native Americans in the United States
Coles Creek culture : The Coles Creek culture is an indigenous development of the Lower Mississippi Valley that took place between the terminal Woodland period and the later Plaquemine culture period . The period is marked by the increased use of flat - topped platform mounds arranged around central plazas , more complex political institutions , and a subsistence strategy still grounded in the Eastern Agricultural Complex and hunting rather than on the maize plant as would happen in the succeeding Plaquemine Mississippian period . The culture was originally defined by the unique decoration on grog - tempered ceramic ware by James A. Ford after his investigations at the Mazique Archeological Site . He had studied both the Mazique and Coles Creek Sites , and almost went with the Mazique culture , but decided on the less historically involved sites name . It is ancestral to the Plaquemine culture . Hohokam
Columbian Exchange
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine , the first effective treatment for malaria . Europeans suffered from this disease , but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it . In Africa , resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants , which can cause sickle - cell disease .
Moai
Those moai that are less eroded typically have designs carved on their backs and posteriors . The Routledge expedition of 1914 established a cultural link between these designs and the island 's traditional tattooing , which had been repressed by missionaries a half - century earlier . Until modern DNA analysis of the islanders and their ancestors , this was key scientific evidence that the moai had been carved by the Rapa Nui and not by a separate group from South America .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
The U.K. has rejected India 's fresh demand to return its priceless artifacts like `` Kohinoor Diamond '' and `` Sultanganj Buddha '' that were stolen / looted / smuggled during British colonial rule citing a law ( The British Museum Act , 1963 ) that prevents it from giving back the items . ASI ( Archaeological Survey of India ) is planning to join a campaign with the support of UNESCO and other countries to regain the artifacts .
Olmec
Shortly after the conference , radiocarbon dating proved the antiquity of the Olmec civilization , although the `` mother culture '' question generated considerable debate even 60 years later .
Spice trade
People from the Neolithic period traded in spices , obsidian , sea shells , precious stones and other high - value materials as early as the 10th millennium BC . The first to mention the trade in historical periods are the Egyptians . In the 3rd millennium BC , they traded with the Land of Punt , which is believed to have been situated in an area encompassing northern Somalia , Djibouti , Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan .
Cradle of civilization
The Norte Chico civilization proper is understood to have emerged around 3200 BC , as it is at that point that large - scale human settlement and communal construction across multiple sites becomes clearly apparent . Since the early 21st century , it has been established as the oldest known civilization in the Americas . The civilization flourished at the confluence of three rivers , the Fortaleza , the Pativilca , and the Supe . These river valleys each have large clusters of sites . Further south , there are several associated sites along the Huaura River . Notable settlements include the cities of Caral , the largest and most complex Preceramic site , and Aspero .
Indo-Roman trade relations
At any rate , when Gallus was prefect of Egypt , I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Kingdom of Aksum ( Ethiopia ) , and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to the subcontinent , whereas formerly , under the Ptolemies , only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise . --
Amazon River
During what many archaeologists call the formative stage , Amazonian societies were deeply involved in the emergence of South America 's highland agrarian systems . The trade with Andean civilisations in the terrains of the headwaters in the Andes , formed an essential contribution to the social and religious development of the higher altitude civilisations of among others the Muisca and Incas . Early human settlements were typically based on low - lying hills or mounds .
Colonial history of the United States
The practical sciences were of great interest to colonial Americans , who were engaged in the process of taming and settling a wild frontier country . The mainstream of intellectual activity in the colonies was on technological and engineering developments rather than more abstract topics such as politics or metaphysics . American scientific activity was pursued by such people as :
South Africa
South African art includes the oldest art objects in the world , which were discovered in a South African cave , and dated from 75,000 years ago . The scattered tribes of Khoisan peoples moving into South Africa from around 10000 BC had their own fluent art styles seen today in a multitude of cave paintings . They were superseded by Bantu / Nguni peoples with their own vocabularies of art forms . New forms of art evolved in the mines and townships : a dynamic art using everything from plastic strips to bicycle spokes . The Dutch - influenced folk art of the Afrikaner Trekboers and the urban white artists earnestly following changing European traditions from the 1850s onwards also contributed to this eclectic mix , which continues to evolve today . Olive
European exploration of Africa
The Portuguese dealt with the other major state of Southern Africa , the Monomotapa ( in modern Zimbabwe ) , in a similar manner : Portugal intervened in a local war hoping to get abundant mineral riches , imposing a protectorate . But with the authority of the Monomotapa diminished by the foreign presence , anarchy took over . The local miners migrated and even buried the mines to prevent them from falling into Portuguese hands . When in 1693 the neighbouring Cangamires invaded the country , the Portuguese accepted their failure and retreated to the coast .
European colonization of the Americas
The European colonization of the Americas describes the history of the settlement and establishment of control of the continents of the Americas by most of the naval powers of Europe . Political
Terror management theory
Originally , the emergence of morality evolved to facilitate co-existence within groups . Together with language , morality served pragmatic functions that extended survival . The struggle to deny the finality of death co-opted and changed the function of these cultural inventions . For example , Neanderthals might have begun burying their dead as a means of avoiding unpleasant odors , disease - infested parasites , or dangerous scavengers . But during the Upper Paleolithic era , these pragmatic burial practices appear to have become imbued with layers of ritual performance and supernatural beliefs , suggested by the elaborate decoration of bodies with thousands of beads or other markers . Food and other necessities were also included within the burial chamber , indicating the potential for a belief system that included life after death . In many human cultures today , funerals are viewed primarily as cultural events , viewed through the lens of morality and language , with little thought given to the utilitarian origins of burying the dead .
Ancient Egypt
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying , surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids , temples , and obelisks ; a system of mathematics , a practical and effective system of medicine , irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques , the first known planked boats , Egyptian faience and glass technology , new forms of literature , and the earliest known peace treaty , made with the Hittites . Egypt left a lasting legacy . Its art and architecture were widely copied , and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world . Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries . A new - found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy .
New Spain
The Caribbean islands and early Spanish explorations around the circum - Caribbean region had not been of major political , strategic , or financial importance until the conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521 . However , important precedents of exploration , conquest , and settlement and crown rule had been initially worked out in the Caribbean , which long affected subsequent regions , including Mexico and Peru . The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity and wealth from what they had encountered in the Caribbean . This presented both an important opportunity and a potential threat to the power of the Crown of Castile , since the conquerors were acting independent of effective crown control . The societies could provide the conquistadors , especially Hernán Cortés , a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous , or even independent , of the Crown .
New Spain
Although colonial population decline affected the indigenous in Tehuantepec , their communities remained important in the colonial era and remain distinctly Indian to the current era . There were differences in the three distinct linguistic and ethnic groups in colonial Tehuantepec , the Zapotec , the Zoque , and the Huave . The Zapotecs concluded an alliance with the Spaniards at contact , and they had already expanded their territory into Zoque and Huave regions .
History of Manila
This article 's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out - of - date information . In particular : this article reflects historical paradigms about early Philippine history which have since been refined or disproven by critical historiographers and anthropologists . Most urgently , it needs to reflect current academic consensus on the indigenous Malayo - Polynesian roots of early Philippine cultures , and the structure of thassalocratic power relations in pre-16th century Maritime Southeast Asia . It needs to be updated to reflect current scholarly consensus , as reflected in relevant peer - reviewed academic journal articles . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( July 2017 )
European exploration of Africa
In the medieval period , the exploration of the interior of the Sahara and the Sahel as well as along the Swahili coast as far as Mozambique was the project of Muslim conquests and slave trade . It was at Mozambique that the Arab `` clockwise '' and the Portuguese `` counter-clockwise '' routes of exploration would meet at the end of the 15th century .
Relationship between religion and science
Events in Europe such as the Galileo affair , associated with the scientific revolution and the Age of Enlightenment , led scholars such as John William Draper to postulate a conflict thesis , holding that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically , factually and politically throughout history . This thesis is held by some contemporary scientists such as Richard Dawkins , Steven Weinberg and Carl Sagan , and some creationists . The conflict thesis has lost favor among most contemporary historians of science .
Jarmo
The site was originally discovered by the Iraqi Directorate of Antiquities in 1940 , and later became known to archaeologist Robert Braidwood from the University of Chicago Oriental Institute . At the time , he was looking for suitable places to research the origins of the Neolithic Revolution . Braidwood worked as part of the Iraq - Jarmo programme for three seasons , those of 1948 , 1950 -- 51 and 1954 -- 55 ; a fourth campaign , to be carried out in 1958 - 59 did not come about because of the 14 July Revolution . During the excavations in Jarmo in 1954 - 55 , Braidwood used a multidisciplinary approach for the first time , in an attempt to refine the research methods and clarify the origin of the domestication of plants and animals . Among his team were a geologist , Herbert Wright , a palaeo - botanist , Hans Helbaek , an expert in pottery and radio - carbon dating , Frederic Mason , and a zoologist , Charles Reed , as well as a number of archaeologists . The interdisciplinary method was subsequently used in all serious field work in archaeology .
History of West Africa
The Senegambian stone circles are megaliths found in Gambia north of Janjanbureh and in central Senegal . The megaliths found in Senegal and Gambia are sometimes divided into four large sites : Sine Ngayene and Wanar in Senegal , and Wassu and Kerbatch in the Central River Region in Gambia . Researchers are not certain when these monuments were built , but the generally accepted range is between the third century B.C. and the sixteenth century A.D. Archaeologists have also found pottery sherds , human burials , and some grave goods and metals . The monuments consist of what were originally upright blocks or pillars ( some have collapsed ) , made of mostly laterite with smooth surfaces .
Santería
Santería is a system of beliefs that merges aspects of Yoruba religion brought to the New World by enslaved Yoruba people along with Christianity and the religions of the indigenous peoples of the Americas . The Yoruba people carried with them various religious customs , including a trance and divination system for communicating with their ancestors and deities , animal sacrifice , and sacred drumming and dance . The need to preserve their traditions and belief systems in a hostile cultural environment prompted those enslaved in Cuba , starting from as early as 1515 , to merge their customs with aspects of Roman Catholicism .