vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Trail of Tears
Prior to 1838 , the fixed boundaries of these autonomous tribal nations , comprising large areas of the United States , were subject to continual cession and annexation , in part due to pressure from squatters and the threat of military force in the newly declared U.S. territories -- federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Native treaty claims . As these territories became U.S. states , state governments sought to dissolve the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders , which were independent of state jurisdiction , and to expropriate the land therein . These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of slavery in the South , with the rapid development of cotton cultivation in the uplands following the invention of the cotton gin .
Colonial history of the United States
Ethnicity made a difference in agricultural practice . As an example , German farmers generally preferred oxen rather than horses to pull their plows and Scots - Irish made a farming economy based on hogs and corn . Eventually cows were brought with the horses . They were more useful than horses for many reasons . Almost all the farms had cows on their land . In Ireland , people farmed intensively , working small pieces of land trying to get the largest possible production - rate from their crops . In the American colonies , settlers from northern Ireland focused on mixed - farming . Using this technique , they grew corn for human consumption and as feed for hogs and other livestock . Many improvement - minded farmers of all different backgrounds began using new agricultural practices to raise their output . During the 1750s , these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay , wheat , and barley with the cradle scythe , a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection . This tool was able to triple the amount of work done by farmers in one day . Farmers also began fertilizing their fields with dung and lime and rotating their crops to keep the soil fertile . By 1700 , Philadelphia was exporting 350,000 bushels of wheat and 18,000 tons of flour annually . The Southern colonies in particular relied on cash crops such as tobacco and cotton . South Carolina produced rice and indigo . North Carolina was somewhat less involved in the plantation economy , but because a major producer of naval stores . Virginia and Maryland came to be almost totally dependent on tobacco , which would ultimately prove fatal at the end of the 18th century thanks to exhausted soil and collapsing prices , but for most of the century , the soil remained good and a single - crop economy profitable .
Cherokee
In 1806 a Federal Road from Savannah , Georgia to Knoxville , Tennessee was built through Cherokee land . Chief James Vann opened a tavern , inn and ferry across the Chattahoochee and built a cotton - plantation on a spur of the road from Athens , Georgia to Nashville . His son ' Rich Joe ' Vann developed the plantation to 800 acres ( 3.2 km ) , cultivated by 150 slaves . He exported cotton to England , and owned a steamboat on the Tennessee River .
North Carolina
After 1800 , cotton and tobacco became important export crops . The eastern half of the state , especially the Tidewater region , developed a slave society based on a plantation system and slave labor . Many free people of color migrated to the frontier along with their European - American neighbors , where the social system was looser . By 1810 , nearly 3 percent of the free population consisted of free people of color , who numbered slightly more than 10,000 . The western areas were dominated by white families , especially Scots - Irish , who operated small subsistence farms . In the early national period , the state became a center of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy , with a strong Whig presence , especially in the West . After Nat Turner 's slave uprising in 1831 , North Carolina and other southern states reduced the rights of free blacks . In 1835 the legislature withdrew their right to vote .
Colonial history of the United States
These products were delivered to port towns such as Boston and Salem in Massachusetts , New Haven in Connecticut , and Newport and Providence in Rhode Island . Merchants then exported them to the West Indies , where they were traded for molasses , sugar , gold coins , and bills of exchange ( credit slips ) . They carried the West Indian products to New England factories , where the raw sugar was turned into granulated sugar and the molasses distilled into rum . The gold and credit slips were sent to England where they were exchanged for manufactures , which were shipped back to the colonies and sold along with the sugar and rum to farmers .
Candle
By the late 19th century , Price 's Candles , based in London , was the largest candle manufacturer in the world . Founded by William Wilson in 1830 , the company pioneered the implementation of the technique of steam distillation , and was thus able to manufacture candles from a wide range of raw materials , including skin fat , bone fat , fish oil and industrial greases .
Water buffalo
During the 1950s , buffalo were hunted for their skins and meat , which was exported and used in the local trade . In the late 1970s , live exports were made to Cuba and continued later into other countries . Buffalo are now crossed with riverine buffalo in artificial insemination programs , and may be found in many areas of Australia . Some of these crossbreds are used for milk production . Melville Island is a popular hunting location , where a steady population up to 4,000 individuals exists . Safari outfits are run from Darwin to Melville Island and other locations in the Top End , often with the use of bush pilots . The horns , which can measure up to a record of 3.1 m ( 10 ft ) tip - to - tip , are prized hunting trophies .
Mechanised agriculture
Since the beginning of agriculture threshing was done by hand with a flail , requiring a great deal of labour . The threshing machine , which was invented in 1794 but not widely used for several more decades , simplified the operation and allowed the use of animal power . Before the invention of the grain cradle ( ca . 1790 ) an able bodied labourer could reap about one quarter acre of wheat in a day using a sickle . It was estimated that for each of Cyrus McCormick 's horse - pulled reapers ( ca . 1830s ) freed up five men for military service in the US Civil War . Later innovations included raking and binding machines . By 1890 two men and two horses could cut , rake and bind 20 acres of wheat per day .
Drink can
Another variation on the drink can is the `` full aperture end '' , where the entire lid can be removed -- turning an aluminium can into a cup . Crown Holdings first designed the `` 360 End '' for use by SABMiller at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa . It has been used by Anheuser - Busch InBev in China and Brazil and by the Sly Fox Brewing Company in the United States .
British Empire
In 1578 , Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration . That year , Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America , but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic . In 1583 , he embarked on a second attempt , on this occasion to the island of Newfoundland whose harbour he formally claimed for England , although no settlers were left behind . Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England , and was succeeded by his half - brother , Walter Raleigh , who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584 . Later that year , Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present - day North Carolina , but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail .
History of Texas
Cotton , ranching , and farming dominated the economy , with railroad construction after 1870 a major factor in the development of new cities away from rivers and waterways . Toward the end of the 19th century , timber became an important industry in Texas as well . In 1901 a petroleum discovery at Spindletop Hill , near Beaumont , was developed as the most productive oil well the world had ever seen . The wave of oil speculation and discovery that followed came to be known as the `` Oil Boom '' , permanently transforming and enriching the economy of Texas . Agriculture and ranching gave way to a service - oriented society after the boom years of World War II . Segregation ended in the 1960s due to federal legislation . Politically , Texas changed from the virtually one - party Democratic state achieved following disenfranchisement , to a highly contested political scene , until 2000 when it was solidly Republican . The economy of Texas has continued to grow rapidly , becoming the second - largest state in population in 1994 , and became economically highly diversified , with a growing base in new technology .
Natural gas
Natural gas was discovered accidentally in ancient China , as it resulted from the drilling for brines . The natural gas was used to boil brine to make salt . Natural gas was first used by the Chinese in about 500 BC ( possibly even 1000 BC ) . They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt , in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan . The world 's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia , New York , United States , in 1825 . By 2009 , 66 000 km3 ( or 8 % ) had been used out of the total 850 000 km3 of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas . Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km3 of gas per year , the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates . An annual increase in usage of 2 -- 3 % could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less , perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years .
Factory Acts
The 1819 Cotton Mills and Factories Act ( 59 Geo . III c66 ) stated that no children under 9 were to be employed and that children aged 9 -- 16 years were limited to 12 hours ' work per day . It applied to the cotton industry only , but covered all children , whether apprentices or not . It was seen through Parliament by Sir Robert Peel ; it had its origins in a draft prepared by Robert Owen in 1815 but the Act that emerged in 1819 was much watered - down from Owen 's draft . It was also effectively unenforceable ; enforcement was left to local magistrates , but they could only inspect a mill if two witnesses had given sworn statements that the mill was breaking the Act . An amending Act ( 60 Geo . III. , c. 5 ) was passed in December 1819 . When any accident disabled a factory ( as had just happened at New Lanark ) , nightworking in the rest of the works by those who had previously worked in the affected factory was permitted until the accident was made good .
Columbus, Georgia
Founded in 1828 by an act of the Georgia Legislature , Columbus was situated at the beginning of the navigable portion of the Chattahoochee River and on the last stretch of the Federal Road before entering Alabama . The city was named for Christopher Columbus , its founders likely influenced by the writings of Washington Irving . The plan for the city was drawn up by Dr. Edwin L. DeGraffenried , who placed the town on a bluff overlooking the river . Across the river to the west , where Phenix City , Alabama is now located , Creek Indians still lived until they were forcibly removed in 1836 by the federal government to make way for European - American settlers .
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain . In many industries , this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places . Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities . By 1809 , part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called ' Miniature England ' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England . The German , Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries . In some cases ( such as iron ) , the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted . Belgium
Tea culture
The popularity of tea dates back to the 19th century when India was part of the British Empire , and British interests controlled tea production in the subcontinent . It was , however , first introduced in the UK by the Portuguese Catherine of Braganza , queen consort of Charles II in the 1660s and 1670s . As tea spread throughout the United Kingdom and through the social classes , tea gardens and tea dances developed . These would include watching fireworks or a dinner party and dance , concluding with an evening tea . The tea gardens lost value after World War II but tea dances are still held today in the UK .
History of Texas
By 1900 the Dallas population reached 38,000 as banking and insurance became major activities in the increasingly white - collar city , which was now the world 's leading cotton center . It was also the world 's center of harness making and leather goods . Businessmen took control of civic affairs ; with little municipal patronage , there was only a small role for the Democratic Party to play . The predominantly black Republican Party was essentially closed out of politics by the disenfranchisement in 1901 of most blacks through imposition of a poll tax ( see below ) .
Henry Clay
In 1804 , Clay purchased land outside of Lexington , with the dream of building a plantation called `` Ashland , '' named for the surrounding forest of ash trees . By 1812 , Clay owned a productive 600 - acre ( 240 ha ) plantation , with numerous slaves to working the land . He held 60 slaves at the peak of operations , and likely produced tobacco and hemp , the two chief commodity crops of the Bluegrass Region . Clay introduced the Hereford livestock breed to the United States .
History of coal mining
After the Romans left Britain , in AD 410 , there are no records of coal being used in the country until the end of the 12th century . Shortly after the signing of the Magna Carta , in 1215 , coal began to be traded in areas of Scotland and the north - east England , where the carboniferous strata were exposed on the sea shore , and thus became known as `` sea coal '' . This commodity , however , was not suitable for use in the type of domestic hearths then in use , and was mainly used by artisans for lime burning , metal working and smelting . As early as 1228 , sea coal from the north - east was being taken to London . During the 13th century , the trading of coal increased across Britain and by the end of the century most of the coalfields in England , Scotland and Wales were being worked on a small scale . As the use of coal amongst the artisans became more widespread , it became clear that coal smoke was detrimental to health and the increasing pollution in London led to much unrest and agitation . As a result of this , a Royal proclamation was issued in 1306 prohibiting artificers of London from using sea coal in their furnaces and commanding them to return to the traditional fuels of wood and charcoal . During the first half of the 14th century coal began to be used for domestic heating in coal producing areas of Britain , as improvements were made in the design of domestic hearths . Edward III was the first king to take an interest in the coal trade of the north east , issuing a number of writs to regulate the trade and allowing the export of coal to Calais . The demand for coal steadily increased in Britain during the 15th century , but it was still mainly being used in the mining districts , in coastal towns or being exported to continental Europe . However , by the middle of the 16th century supplies of wood were beginning to fail in Britain and the use of coal as a domestic fuel rapidly expanded .
History of Arkansas
The young state began to show its first signs of improving beyond a frontier wilderness in the 1850s . The growing need for cotton gave many Arkansans an avenue to become involved in market economy for the first time , a transition that made the state significantly more prosperous . At the time , the most efficient way to grow cotton was a plantation - style system , and this quickly became the norm in the southeast part of Arkansas . During the late antebellum period , most Arkansans were identified with farming and ranching . Fewer worked as carpenters , blacksmiths , gunsmiths , and wagon builders and fewer still as lawyers , doctors , and teachers . This economic shift also allowed some Arkansans to work outside the factory or field as artisans , including James Black who is credited with creating the first Bowie Knife in Arkansas during the period . Improving transportation also helped the state 's economy grow . The Southwest Trail and Butterfield Overland Mail were major roads in the state , and steamboats began using the state 's rivers for commerce . Arkansas increased its cotton production from 6,000,000 pounds ( 2,700,000 kg ) in 1840 to 26,000,000 pounds ( 12,000,000 kg ) in 1850 . Arkansas and the southeast grew rapidly due to cotton , but its use of the plantation system would ultimately set the state and region behind the rest of the nation for decades . Southeast Arkansas became significantly more prosperous than the northwestern highlands , causing a rift to form between the two regions .
Pub
The drunkenness and lawlessness created by gin was seen to lead to the ruination and degradation of the working classes . The different effects of beer and gin were illustrated by William Hogarth in his engravings Beer Street and Gin Lane . The Gin Act 1736 imposed high taxes on retailers and led to riots in the streets . The prohibitive duty was gradually reduced and finally abolished in 1742 . The Gin Act 1751 , however , was more successful . It forced distillers to sell only to licensed retailers and brought gin shops under the jurisdiction of local magistrates .
Coal
These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted ( or could not meet the growing demand ) by the 13th century , when underground extraction by shaft mining or adits was developed . The alternative name was `` pitcoal '' , because it came from mines . The development of the Industrial Revolution led to the large - scale use of coal , as the steam engine took over from the water wheel . In 1700 , five - sixths of the world 's coal was mined in Britain . Britain would have run out of suitable sites for watermills by the 1830s if coal had not been available as a source of energy . In 1947 , there were some 750,000 miners in Britain , but by 2004 , this had shrunk to some 5,000 miners working in around 20 collieries .
American ginseng
American Ginseng can be found in much of the eastern and central United States and in part of southeastern Canada . It is found primarily in deciduous forests of the Appalachian and Ozark regions of the United States . American ginseng is found in full shade environments in these deciduous forests underneath hardwoods . Due to this very specialized growing environment and its demand in the commercial market it has started to reach an endangered status in some areas . It can be found throughout eastern Canada and the northeastern United States .
History of New York (state)
In the following decades , New York strengthened its dominance of the financial and banking industries . Manufacturing continued to rise : Eastman Kodak founded in 1888 in Rochester , General Electric in Schenectady , and Endicott - Johnson Shoe Company in the Triple Cities are some of the well - known companies founded during this period . Buffalo and Niagara Falls attracted numerous factories following the advent of hydroelectric power in the area . With industry blooming , workers began to unite in New York as early as the 1820s . By 1882 , the Knights of Labor in New York City had 60,000 members . Trade unions used political influence to limit working hours as early as 1867 . At the same time , New York 's agricultural output peaked . Focus changed from crop - based to dairy - based agriculture . The cheese industry became established in the Mohawk Valley . By 1881 , the state had more than 241,000 farms . In the same period , the area around New York harbor became the world 's oyster capital , retaining that title into the early twentieth century . Play
History of New Mexico
While the Santa Fe , Atchison , and Topeka railroad was built in the 1890s , speculators known as the Santa Fe Ring , orchestrated schemes to dislodge natives from their lands . In response , Nuevomexicanos gathered to reclaim lands taken by Anglos . Hoping to scare off the new immigrants , they eventually used intimidation and raids to accomplish their goals . They sought to develop a class - based consciousness among local people through the everyday tactics of resistance to the economic and social order confronting common property land grant communities . They called themselves Las Gorras Blancas , a name referring to the white head coverings many wore . Gilded
Colonial history of the United States
Some immigrants who just arrived purchased farms and shared in this export wealth , but many poor German and Irish immigrants were forced to work as agricultural wage laborers . Merchants and artisans also hired these homeless workers for a domestic system for the manufacture of cloth and other goods . Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants , who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany , to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth . Large farmers and merchants became wealthy , while farmers with smaller farms and artisans only made enough for subsistence . The Mid-Atlantic region , by 1750 , was divided by both ethnic background and wealth . Seaports
Boston Tea Party
When new taxes were levied in the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767 , Whig colonists again responded with protests and boycotts . Merchants organized a non-importation agreement , and many colonists pledged to abstain from drinking British tea , with activists in New England promoting alternatives , such as domestic Labrador tea . Smuggling continued apace , especially in New York and Philadelphia , where tea smuggling had always been more extensive than in Boston . Dutied British tea continued to be imported into Boston , however , especially by Richard Clarke and the sons of Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson , until pressure from Massachusetts Whigs compelled them to abide by the non-importation agreement .
Cotton-Eyed Joe
The origins of this song are unclear , although it pre-dates the 1861 -- 1865 American Civil War . American folklorist Dorothy Scarborough ( 1878 -- 1935 ) noted in her 1925 book On the Trail of Negro Folk - songs , that several people remember hearing the song before the war . Scarborough 's account of the song came from her sister , Mrs. George Scarborough , who learned the song from `` the Negroes on a plantation in Texas , and other parts from a man in Louisiana . '' The man in Louisiana knew the song from his earliest childhood and heard slaves singing it on plantations . Both the dance and the song had many variants . American publishing house Harper and Brothers published a version in 1882 , heard by author Louise Clarke Pyrnelle ( born 1850 ) on the Alabama plantation of her father when she was a child , that was later republished in 1910 :