vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Israel
The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged during the Iron Age . The Neo-Assyrian Empire destroyed Israel around 720 BCE . Judah was later conquered by the Babylonian , Persian and Hellenistic empires and had existed as Jewish autonomous provinces . The successful Maccabean Revolt led to an independent Jewish kingdom in 110 BCE , which came to an end in 63 BCE when the Hasmonean kingdom became a client state of the Roman Republic that subsequently installed the Herodian dynasty in 37 BCE , and in 6 CE created the Roman province of Judea . Judea lasted as a Roman province until the failed Jewish revolts resulted in widespread destruction , expulsion of Jewish population and the renaming of the region from Iudaea to Syria Palaestina . Jewish presence in the region has persisted to a certain extent over the centuries . In the 7th century the Levant was taken from the Byzantine Empire by the Arabs and remained in Muslim control until the First Crusade of 1099 , followed by the Ayyubid conquest of 1187 . The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt extended its control over the Levant in the 13th century until its defeat by the Ottoman Empire in 1517 . During the 19th century , national awakening among Jews led to the establishment of the Zionist movement in the diaspora followed by waves of immigration to Ottoman and later British Palestine .
Modern history
Italian unification was the political and social movement that annexed different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of Italy in the 19th century . There is a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and the end of this period , but many scholars agree that the process began with the end of Napoleonic rule and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 , and approximately ended with the Franco - Prussian War in 1871 , though the last città irredente did not join the Kingdom of Italy until after World War I . End
Byzantine law
In 438 , Emperor Theodosius published the Codex Theodosianus , which consisted of 16 books , containing all standing laws from the age of Constantine I till then .
Timeline of the Ottoman Empire
Year Date Event 1830 Algeria is conquered by the French . 1832 July 21 Greek War of Independence : Greek sovereignty is formalized . 1831 -- 1833 Egyptian -- Ottoman War . 1853 October 4 Crimean War : The Crimean War with Russia begins , with Britain , France and Sardinia joining on the Ottoman side . 1860 October 21 First newspaper in Turkish published by Agah Efendi. ( Tercümen'ı Ahval ) . 1862 February 5 A united Romanian autonomous state is established . 1876 December 23 Opened the 1876 -- 1877 Constantinople Conference , which ends the Tanzimat reforms after they bankrupt the Empire . 1877 April 24 Russo - Turkish War ( 1877 -- 1878 ) : Another war with Russia , the Russo - Turkish War of 1877 -- 1878 , begins . 1878 March 3 Russo - Turkish War ( 1877 -- 1878 ) : The Treaty of San Stefano recognizes Romanian and Serbian independence , as well as the establishment of an autonomous Bulgarian principality under nominal Ottoman protection . Austria - Hungary occupies Bosnia by default . June 4 Cyprus is occupied by Britain . 1881 Tunisia becomes a French colony . 1882 Egypt goes under British protection . 1885 September 6 The province of Eastern Rumelia is transferred to Bulgarian jurisdiction .
Silk Road
Both the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang , covering the history of the Chinese Tang dynasty ( 618 -- 907 ) , record that a new state called Fu - lin ( 拂 菻 ; i.e. Byzantine Empire ) was virtually identical to the previous Daqin ( 大秦 ; i.e. Roman Empire ) . Several Fu - lin embassies were recorded for the Tang period , starting in 643 with an alleged embassy by Constans II ( transliterated as Bo duo li , 波多 力 , from his nickname `` Kōnstantinos Pogonatos '' ) to the court of Emperor Taizong of Tang . The History of Song describes the final embassy and its arrival in 1081 , apparently sent by Michael VII Doukas ( transliterated as Mie li sha ling kai sa , 滅 力 沙 靈 改 撒 , from his name and title Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar ) to the court of Emperor Shenzong of the Song dynasty ( 960 -- 1279 ) . However , the History of Yuan claims that a Byzantine man became a leading astronomer and physician in Khanbaliq , at the court of Kublai Khan , Mongol founder of the Yuan dynasty ( 1271 -- 1368 ) and was even granted the noble title ' Prince of Fu lin ' ( Chinese : 拂 菻 王 ; Fú lǐn wáng ) . The Uyghur Nestorian Christian diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma , who set out from his Chinese home in Khanbaliq ( Beijing ) and acted as a representative for Arghun ( a grandnephew of Kublai Khan ) , traveled throughout Europe and attempted to secure military alliances with Edward I of England , Philip IV of France , Pope Nicholas IV , as well as the Byzantine ruler Andronikos II Palaiologos . Andronikos II had two half - sisters who were married to great - grandsons of Genghis Khan , which made him an in - law with the Yuan - dynasty Mongol ruler in Beijing , Kublai Khan . The History of Ming preserves an account where the Hongwu Emperor , after founding the Ming dynasty ( 1368 -- 1644 ) , had a supposed Byzantine merchant named Nieh - ku - lun ( 捏 古 倫 ) deliver his proclamation about the establishment of a new dynasty to the Byzantine court of John V Palaiologos in September 1371 .
Third Rome
Byzantine recognition of Simeon 's imperial title was revoked by the succeeding Byzantine government . The decade 914 -- 924 was spent in destructive warfare between Byzantium and Bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict . The Bulgarian monarch , who had further irritated his Byzantine counterpart by claiming the title `` Emperor of the Romans '' ( basileus tōn Rōmaiōn ) , was eventually recognized , as `` Emperor of the Bulgarians '' ( basileus tōn Boulgarōn ) by the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lakapenos in 924 . Byzantine recognition of the imperial dignity of the Bulgarian monarch and the patriarchal dignity of the Bulgarian patriarch was again confirmed at the conclusion of permanent peace and a Bulgarian - Byzantine dynastic marriage in 927 . In the meantime , the Bulgarian imperial title may have been also confirmed by the pope . The Bulgarian imperial title `` tsar '' was adopted by all Bulgarian monarchs up to the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule . 14th - century Bulgarian literary compositions clearly denote the Bulgarian capital ( Tarnovo ) as a successor of Rome and Constantinople , in effect , the `` Third Rome '' .
Eastern Orthodox Church
In addition to these councils there have been a number of other significant councils meant to further define the Orthodox position . They are the Synods of Constantinople , in 1484 , 1583 , 1755 , 1819 , and 1872 , the Synod of Jassy ( Iași ) in 1642 , and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem in 1672 . Another council convened in June 2016 to discuss many modern phenomena including Modernism , other Christian confessions , Orthodoxy 's relation with other religions and fasting disciplines .
Byzantine law
Lokin argues that while later legal texts tended to rearrange or explain the 6th century work of Justinian , rather than create new law , they did alter the locus of authority for law ( legis vigor ) from the Emperor to God . In Justinian 's work , Mosaïc Law and God 's authority support the Emperor , and are consultative , but do not temper his absolute authority . This process has already begun in the Ecloga , which states law is God - given by way of Isiah 8 : 20 , and is made explicit first in the Prochiron . There was , however , ' legislative creep ' over this period , where the redaction of old laws and case law created new laws in effect , although not explicitly cited as such .
Western Roman Empire
When Julius Nepos was murdered in Dalmatia in 480 , Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule in Dalmatia at the same time . Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate , a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy . Indeed , the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer . For the first time since the mid-3rd century , copper coins were issued with the legend SC ( Senatus Consulto ) . These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform done by Emperor Anastasius in the East . Solidus
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Given Serbia 's preeminence in the Balkans under Tsar Stefan Dušan , its rapid dissolution following his death in 1355 was dramatic . The powerful regional Serb nobles demonstrated little respect for his successor , Stefan Uroš V. Young , weak Uroš was incapable of ruling as his father had . The separatist - minded bojars were quick to take advantage of the situation , and Serbia fragmented .
Western Roman Empire
Licinius was made Emperor of the Eastern Empire , and parts of the Western Empire , all of which was actually held by Maxentius , at the Council of Carnuntum , which was held in 308 in order to try and end the civil war in the Western Empire . Constantine invaded Licinius ' section of the Western Empire in 313 , and forced him to sign a treaty in which he forfeited his claim to the Western Empire , and only controlled the Eastern Empire .
Euphrates
Subsequent to this , the region came under the control of the Seleucid Empire ( 312 -- 150 BC ) , Parthian Empire ( 150 -- 226 AD ) ( during which several Neo-Assyrian states such as Adiabene came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates ) , and was fought over by the Roman Empire , its succeeding Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire ( 226 -- 638 AD ) , until the Islamic conquest of the mid 7th century AD .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Heraclianus was still in command in the diocese of Africa , the last of the clique that overthrew Stilicho to retain power . In 413 he led an invasion of Italy , lost to a subordinate of Constantius , and fled back to Africa where he was murdered by Constantius 's agents .
History of calendars
When in April of AD 224 the Parthian dynasty fell and was replaced by the Sasanid , the new king , Ardashir I , abolished the official Babylonian calendar and replaced it with the Zoroastrian . This involved a correction to the places of the gahanbar , which had slipped back in the seasons since they were fixed . These were placed eight months later , as were the epagemonai , the ' Gatha ' or ' Gah ' days after the ancient Zoroastrian hymns of the same name . Other countries , such as the Armenians and Choresmians , did not accept the change . The
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The LDS Church was formally organized by Joseph Smith on April 6 , 1830 , in western New York . Initial converts were drawn to the church in part because of the newly published Book of Mormon , a self - described chronicle of indigenous American prophets that Smith said he had translated from golden plates .
Lebanon
After the 7th - century Muslim conquest of the Levant , it was part of the Rashidun , Umyayad , Abbasid Seljuk and Fatimid empires . The crusader state of the County of Tripoli , founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse in 1102 , encompassed most of present - day Lebanon , falling to the Mamluk Sultanate in 1289 and finally to the Ottoman Empire in 1517 . With the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire , Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920 , and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943 . Lebanon 's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and prosperity based on Beirut 's position as a regional center for finance and trade , interspersed with political turmoil and armed conflict ( 1948 Arab -- Israeli War , Lebanese Civil War 1975 -- 1990 , 2005 Cedar Revolution , 2006 Lebanon War , 2007 Lebanon conflict , 2006 -- 08 Lebanese protests , 2008 conflict in Lebanon , and since 2011 Syrian Civil War spillover ) .
Third Rome
In 1345 , the Serbian King Stefan Uroš IV Dušan proclaimed himself Emperor ( Tsar ) and was crowned as such at Skopje on Easter 1346 by the newly created Serbian Patriarch , and by the Patriarch of Bulgaria and the autocephalous Archbishop of Ohrid . His imperial title was recognized by Bulgaria and various other neighbors and trading partners but not by the Byzantine Empire . In its final simplified form , the Serbian imperial title read `` Emperor of Serbs and Greeks '' ( цар Срба и Грка in modern Serbian ) . It was only employed by Stefan Uroš IV Dušan and his son Stefan Uroš V in Serbia ( until his death in 1371 ) , after which it became extinct . A half - brother of Dušan , Simeon Uroš , and then his son Jovan Uroš , claimed the same title , until the latter 's abdication in 1373 , while ruling as dynasts in Thessaly . The `` Greek '' component in the Serbian imperial title indicates both rulership over Greeks and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Murad was reinstated with the help of the Janissaries in 1446 . Another peace treaty was signed in 1448 giving the Empire Wallachia and Bulgaria and a part of Albania . After the Balkan front was secured , Murad turned east and defeated Timur Lenk 's son , Shah Rokh , and the emirates of Candar and Karaman in Anatolia . Kosovo
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Gibbon gave a classic formulation of reasons why the Fall happened . He began an ongoing controversy about the role of Christianity , but he gave great weight to other causes of internal decline and to attacks from outside the Empire .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire was the process of decline in the Western Roman Empire in which it failed to enforce its rule . The loss of centralized political control over the West , and the lessened power of the East , are universally agreed , but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376 . For Cassius Dio , the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 CE marked the descent `` from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron '' . Gibbon started his story in 98 and Theodor Mommsen regarded the whole of the imperial period as unworthy of inclusion in his Nobel Prize - winning History of Rome . Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke argue that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in republican times . As one convenient marker for the end , 476 has been used since Gibbon , but other markers include the Crisis of the Third Century , the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 ( or 405 ) , the sack of Rome in 410 , the death of Julius Nepos in 480 , all the way to the Fall of New Rome in 1453 .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Since 1776 , when Edward Gibbon published the first volume of his The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , Decline and Fall has been the theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured . `` From the eighteenth century onward , '' historian Glen Bowersock wrote , `` we have been obsessed with the fall : it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline , and , hence , as a symbol for our own fears . '' The Fall is not the only unifying concept for these events ; the period described as Late Antiquity emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Empire suffered from multiple , serious crises during the third century , including the rise of the Sassanid Empire , which inflicted three crushing defeats on Roman field armies and remained a potent threat for centuries . Other disasters included repeated civil wars , barbarian invasions , and more mass mortality in the Plague of Cyprian ( from 250 onwards ) . Rome abandoned the province of Dacia on the north of the Danube ( 271 ) , and for a short period the Empire split into a Gallic Empire in the West ( 260 -- 274 ) , a Palmyrene Empire in the East ( 260 -- 273 ) , and a central Roman rump state . The Rhine / Danube frontier also came under more effective threat from larger barbarian groupings , which had developed better agriculture and larger populations . The Empire survived the Crisis of the Third Century , directing its economy successfully towards defence , but survival came at the price of a more centralized and bureaucratic state . Under Gallienus the senatorial aristocracy ceased joining the ranks of the senior military commanders , its typical members lacking interest in military service and showing incompetence at command . The
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The story of its ruin is simple and obvious ; and , instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed , we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long . The victorious legions , who , in distant wars , acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries , first oppressed the freedom of the republic , and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple . The emperors , anxious for their personal safety and the public peace , were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy ; the vigour of the military government was relaxed , and finally dissolved , by the partial institutions of Constantine ; and the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians . --
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In 399 , Tribigild 's rebellion in Asia Minor allowed Gainas to accumulate a significant army ( mostly Goths ) , become supreme in the Eastern court , and execute Eutropius . He now felt that he could dispense with Alaric 's services and he nominally transferred Alaric 's province to the West . This administrative change removed Alaric 's Roman rank and his entitlement to legal provisioning for his men , leaving his army -- the only significant force in the ravaged Balkans -- as a problem for Stilicho . In 400 , the citizens of Constantinople revolted against Gainas and massacred as many of his people , soldiers and their families , as they could catch . Some Goths at least built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe ; the Roman navy slaughtered them . By the beginning of 401 , Gainas ' head rode a pike through Constantinople while another Gothic general became consul . Meanwhile , groups of Huns started a series of attacks across the Danube , and the Isaurians marauded far and wide in Anatolia .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In 409 Olympius fell to further intrigue , having his ears cut off before he was beaten to death . Alaric tried again to negotiate with Honorius , but his demands ( now even more moderate , only frontier land and food ) were inflated by the messenger and Honorius responded with insults , which were reported verbatim to Alaric . He broke off negotiations and the standoff continued . Honorius 's court made overtures to the usurper Constantine III in Gaul and arranged to bring Hunnic forces into Italy , Alaric ravaged Italy outside the fortified cities ( which he could not garrison ) , and the Romans refused open battle ( for which they had inadequate forces ) . Late in the year Alaric sent bishops to express his readiness to leave Italy if Honorius would only grant his people a supply of grain . Honorius , sensing weakness , flatly refused .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
From at least the time of Henri Pirenne scholars have described a continuity of Roman culture and political legitimacy long after 476 . Pirenne postponed the demise of classical civilization to the 8th century . He challenged the notion that Germanic barbarians had caused the Western Roman Empire to end , and he refused to equate the end of the Western Roman Empire with the end of the office of emperor in Italy . He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman Mediterranean even after the barbarian invasions , and suggested that only the Muslim conquests represented a decisive break with antiquity . The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as `` Late Antiquity '' emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity . In recent decades archaeologically - based argument even extends the continuity in material culture and in patterns of settlement as late as the eleventh century . Observing the political reality of lost control , but also the cultural and archaeological continuities , the process has been described as a complex cultural transformation , rather than a fall .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth , which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government . An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the `` super-rich '' , but in the later period , the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In January 414 Roman naval forces blockaded Ataulf in Narbo , where he married Galla Placidia . The choir at the wedding included Attalus , a puppet emperor without revenues or soldiers . Ataulf famously declared that he had abandoned his intention to set up a Gothic empire because of the irredeemable barbarity of his followers , and instead he sought to restore the Roman Empire . He handed Attalus over to Honorius 's regime for mutilation , humiliation , and exile , and abandoned Attalus 's supporters . ( One of them , Paulinus Pellaeus , recorded that the Goths considered themselves merciful for allowing him and his household to leave destitute , but alive , without being raped . ) Ataulf moved out of Gaul , to Barcelona . There his infant son by Galla Placidia was buried , and there Ataulf was assassinated by one of his household retainers , possibly a former follower of Sarus . His ultimate successor Wallia had no agreement with the Romans ; his people had to plunder in Hispania for food .
Western Roman Empire
The Western Empire 's resources were much limited , and the lack of available manpower forced the government to rely ever more on confederate barbarian troops operating under their own commanders , where the Western Empire would often have difficulties paying . In certain cases , deals were struck with the leaders of barbaric mercenaries rewarding them with land , which led to the Empire 's decline as less land meant there would be less tax revenue to support the military . As the central power weakened , the State gradually lost control of its borders and provinces , as well as control over the Mediterranean Sea . Roman Emperors tried to maintain control of the sea , but , once the Vandals conquered North Africa , imperial authorities had to cover too much ground with too few resources . The loss of the African provinces might have been the worse reversal on the West 's fortunes , since they were among its wealthiest territories and supplied the essential grain imports to Italy . In many places , the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability . In some regions , such as Gaul and Italy , the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption , with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Julian won victories against Germans who had invaded Gaul . He launched an expensive campaign against the Persians , which ended in defeat and his own death . He succeeded in marching to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , but lacked adequate supplies for an assault . He burned his boats and supplies to show resolve in continuing operations , but the Sassanids began a war of attrition by burning crops . Finding himself cut off in enemy territory , he began a land retreat during which he was mortally wounded . His successor Jovian , acclaimed by a demoralized army , began his brief reign ( 363 -- 364 ) trapped in Mesopotamia without supplies . To purchase safe passage home , he had to concede areas of northern Mesopotamia and Kurdistan , including the strategically important fortress of Nisibis , which had been Roman since before the Peace of Nisibis in 299 .