vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan aid was divided among the participant states on a roughly per capita basis . A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers , as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival . Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed towards the Allied nations , with less for those that had been part of the Axis or remained neutral . The exception was Iceland , which had been neutral during the war , but received far more on a per capita basis than the second highest recipient . The table below shows Marshall Plan aid by country and year ( in millions of dollars ) from The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later . There is no clear consensus on exact amounts , as different scholars differ on exactly what elements of American aid during this period were part of the Marshall Plan .
Orchestra
In the United States , the late 20th century saw a crisis of funding and support for orchestras . The size and cost of a symphony orchestra , compared to the size of the base of supporters , became an issue that struck at the core of the institution . Few orchestras could fill auditoriums , and the time - honored season - subscription system became increasingly anachronistic , as more and more listeners would buy tickets on an ad hoc basis for individual events . Orchestral endowments and -- more centrally to the daily operation of American orchestras -- orchestral donors have seen investment portfolios shrink or produce lower yields , reducing the ability of donors to contribute ; further , there has been a trend toward donors finding other social causes more compelling . Also , while government funding is less central to American than European orchestras , cuts in such funding are still significant for American ensembles . Finally , the drastic falling - off of revenues from recording , tied to no small extent to changes in the recording industry itself , began a period of change that has yet to reach its conclusion .
Kenya
The control of medical practice by laymen through limited liability companies , county governments and other artificial legal entities is widespread and largely tolerated unlike other countries where medical affairs are strictly handled by medically qualified administrators .
Central Intelligence Agency
Part of the contracting problem comes from Congressional restrictions on the number of employees in the IC . According to Hillhouse , this resulted in 70 % of the de facto workforce of the CIA 's National Clandestine Service being made up of contractors . `` After years of contributing to the increasing reliance upon contractors , Congress is now providing a framework for the conversion of contractors into federal government employees -- more or less . ''
Political action committee
Yet despite disclosure rules , it is possible to spend money without voters knowing the identities of donors before the election . In federal elections , for example , political action committees have the option to choose to file reports on a `` monthly '' or `` quarterly '' basis . This allows funds raised by PACs in the final days of the election to be spent and votes cast before the report is due .
Federal Reserve System
The Term Auction Facility is a program in which the Federal Reserve auctions term funds to depository institutions . The creation of this facility was announced by the Federal Reserve on December 12 , 2007 , and was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada , the Bank of England , the European Central Bank , and the Swiss National Bank to address elevated pressures in short - term funding markets . The reason it was created is that banks were not lending funds to one another and banks in need of funds were refusing to go to the discount window . Banks were not lending money to each other because there was a fear that the loans would not be paid back . Banks refused to go to the discount window because it is usually associated with the stigma of bank failure . Under the Term Auction Facility , the identity of the banks in need of funds is protected in order to avoid the stigma of bank failure . Foreign exchange swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were opened so the banks in Europe could have access to U.S. dollars . Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke briefly described this facility to the U.S. House of Representatives on January 17 , 2008 :
Chick-fil-A
In September 2012 , The Civil Rights Agenda ( TCRA ) announced that Chick - fil - A had `` ceased donating to organizations that promote discrimination , specifically against LGBT civil rights . '' Chick - fil - A officials did state in an internal document that they `` will treat every person equally , regardless of sexual orientation . '' In a letter from Chick - fil - A 's Senior Director of Real Estate , the company states , `` The WinShape Foundation is now taking a much closer look at the organizations it considers helping , and in that process will remain true to its stated philosophy of not supporting organizations with political agendas . ''
Serial killer
In the case of the investigation of Aileen Wournos , the Marion County Sheriff coordinated multiple agencies without any written or formal agreement . While not a specific strategy for a serial murder investigation , this is certainly a best practice in so far as the agencies were able to work easily together toward a common goal .
Lobbying in the United States
Lobbies which push for a single issue have grown in importance during the past twenty years , according to one source . Corporations generally would be considered as single issue lobbies . If a corporation wishes to change public policy , or to influence legislation which impacts its success as a business , it may use lobbying as a `` primary avenue '' for this purpose . One research study suggested that single issue lobbies often operate in different kinds of institutional venues , sometimes bringing the same message to different groups . Lobbies which represent groups such as labor unions , business organizations , trade associations and such are sometimes considered to be multiple issue lobbies , and to succeed they must be somewhat more flexible politically and be willing to accept compromise .
Model (person)
In the 1960s , the modelling world began to establish modelling agencies . Throughout Europe , secretarial services acted as models ' agents charging them weekly rates for their messages and bookings . For the most part , models were responsible for their own billing . In Germany , agents were not allowed to work for a percentage of a person 's earnings , so referred to themselves as secretaries . With the exception of a few models travelling to Paris or New York , travelling was relatively unheard of for a model . Most models only worked in one market due to different labor laws governing modelling in various countries . In the 1960s , Italy had many fashion houses and fashion magazines but was in dire need of models . Italian agencies would often coerce models to return to Italy without work visas by withholding their pay . They would also pay their models in cash , which models would have to hide from customs agents . It was not uncommon for models staying in hotels such as La Louisiana in Paris or the Arena in Milan to have their hotel rooms raided by the police looking for their work visas . It was rumoured that competing agencies were behind the raids . This led many agencies to form worldwide chains ; for example , the Marilyn Agency has branches in Paris and New York .
Kenya
Kenya 's irrigation sector is categorized into three organizational types : smallholder schemes , centrally - managed public schemes and private / commercial irrigation schemes .
Recycling
Free - market economist Julian Simon remarked `` There are three ways society can organize waste disposal : ( a ) commanding , ( b ) guiding by tax and subsidy , and ( c ) leaving it to the individual and the market '' . These principles appear to divide economic thinkers today .
United States presidential primary
If no single candidate has secured a majority of delegates ( including both pledged and unpledged ) during the first vote , then a `` brokered convention '' results . All pledged delegates are then `` released '' and are able to switch their allegiance to a different candidate . Thereafter , the nomination is decided through a process of alternating political horse trading , and additional rounds of re-votes .
Ellis Island
Eugenicists of the late 19th and early 20th century held the belief that reproductive selection should be carried out by the state as a collective decision . For many eugenicists , this was considered a patriotic duty as they held an interest in creating a greater national race . Henry Fairfield Osborn 's opening words to the New York Evening Journal in 1911 were , `` As a biologist as well as a patriot ... , '' on the subject on advocating for tighter inspections of immigrants of the United States .
Hurricane Harvey
The American Red Cross , Salvation Army , United Methodist Committee on Relief ( UMCOR ) United States Equestrian Federation , Humane Society of the United States , Knights of Columbus , Catholic Charities USA , AmeriCares , Operation BBQ relief , many celebrities , and many other charitable organizations provided help to the victims of the storm . Anarchists ( including Antifa ) also provided relief . Business aviation played a part in the rescue efforts , providing support during the storm as well as relief flights bringing in suppliers in the immediate aftermath .
Primary election
At times , party headquarters may overturn an association 's chosen candidate ; for example , if any scandalous information about the candidate comes to light after the nomination . A party headquarters may also `` parachute '' a prominent candidate into an easy - to - win riding , removing the need to have a nomination meeting . These situations only come up infrequently , as they tend to cause disillusionment among a party 's supporters .
Expenditures in the United States federal budget
Funding for science research and development is mainly funded through discretionary funding through agencies such as the National Institutes of Health , Department of Energy Office of Science , National Aeronautics and Space Administration , and National Science Foundation . Slightly more than half of federal research and development funds go to the Department of Defense and thus overlaps with military spending .
Law firm
Law firms operating in multiple countries often have complex structures involving multiple partnerships , particularly in jurisdictions such as Hong Kong and Japan which restrict partnerships between local and foreign lawyers . One structure largely unique to large multinational law firms is the Swiss Verein , pioneered by Baker & McKenzie in 2004 , in which multiple national or regional partnerships form an association in which they share branding , administrative functions and various operating costs , but maintain separate revenue pools and often separate partner compensation structures . Other multinational law firms operate as single worldwide partnerships , such as British or American limited liability partnerships , in which partners also participate in local operating entities in various countries as required by local regulations .
Birth control in the United States
In two major legal cases that were planned in 2014 , the attorneys made an issue of whether a for - profit corporation can be required to provide coverage for contraceptive services to its employees . As of 1 January 2016 , women in Oregon will be eligible to purchase a one - year supply of oral contraceptive ; this is the first such legislation in the United States and has attracted the attention of California , Washington state and New York . Possible
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The church receives significant funds from tithes and fast offerings . According to the church , tithing and fast offering money collected are devoted to ecclesiastical purposes and not used in for - profit ventures .
Survivor (U.S. TV series)
At the end of each U.S. Survivor season from Survivor : Africa onward , various Survivor props and memorabilia are auctioned online for charity . The most common recipient has been the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation . Most recently , proceeds have gone toward The Serpentine Project , a charity founded by Jeff Probst , dedicated to helping those transitioning out of foster care upon emancipation at 18 years of age . Items up for auction have included flags , mats , tree mails , contestant torches , contestant clothing , autographed items , immunity idols and the voting urn .
Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone , brick , tamped earth , wood , and other materials , generally built along an east - to - west line across the historical northern borders of China to protect the Chinese states and empires against the raids and invasions of the various nomadic groups of the Eurasian Steppe with an eye to expansion . Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC ; these , later joined together and made bigger and stronger , are collectively referred to as the Great Wall . Especially famous is the wall built in 220 -- 206 BC by Qin Shi Huang , the first Emperor of China . Little of that wall remains . The Great Wall has been rebuilt , maintained , and enhanced over various dynasties ; the majority of the existing wall is from the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 -- 1644 ) .
Great Wall of China
The frontier walls built by different dynasties have multiple courses . Collectively , they stretch from Dandong in the east to Lop Lake in the west , from present - day Sino - Russian border in the north to Qinghai in the south ; along an arc that roughly delineates the edge of Mongolian steppe . A comprehensive archaeological survey , using advanced technologies , has concluded that the walls built by the Ming dynasty measure 8,850 km ( 5,500 mi ) . This is made up of 6,259 km ( 3,889 mi ) sections of actual wall , 359 km ( 223 mi ) of trenches and 2,232 km ( 1,387 mi ) of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers . Another archaeological survey found that the entire wall with all of its branches measures out to be 21,196 km ( 13,171 mi ) . Today , the Great Wall is generally recognized as one of the most impressive architectural feats in history .
Great Wall of China
The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall - building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC . During this time and the subsequent Warring States period , the states of Qin , Wei , Zhao , Qi , Yan , and Zhongshan all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders . Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears , these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and gravel between board frames .
Great Wall of China
Under Qing rule , China 's borders extended beyond the walls and Mongolia was annexed into the empire , so constructions on the Great Wall were discontinued . On the other hand , the so - called Willow Palisade , following a line similar to that of the Ming Liaodong Wall , was constructed by the Qing rulers in Manchuria . Its purpose , however , was not defense but rather migration control .
Great Wall of China
Before the use of bricks , the Great Wall was mainly built from rammed earth , stones , and wood . During the Ming , however , bricks were heavily used in many areas of the wall , as were materials such as tiles , lime , and stone . The size and weight of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone , so construction quickened . Additionally , bricks could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth . Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick , but is more difficult to use . Consequently , stones cut in rectangular shapes were used for the foundation , inner and outer brims , and gateways of the wall . Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall , with defensive gaps a little over 30 cm ( 12 in ) tall , and about 23 cm ( 9.1 in ) wide . From the parapets , guards could survey the surrounding land . Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall , including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements , was of high importance . Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for their visibility . Wooden gates could be used as a trap against those going through . Barracks , stables , and armories were built near the wall 's inner surface .
History of the Great Wall of China
The walls , known as Changcheng ( 長城 ) -- literally `` long walls '' , but often translated as `` Great Wall '' -- were mostly constructed of tamped earth , with some parts built with stones . Where natural barriers like ravines and rivers sufficed for defence , the walls were erected sparingly , but long fortified lines were laid where such advantageous terrains did not exist . Often in addition to the wall , the defensive system included garrisons and beacon towers inside the wall , and watchtowers outside at regular intervals . In terms of defence , the walls were generally effective at countering cavalry shock tactics , but there are doubts as to whether these early walls were actually defensive in nature . Nicola Di Cosmo points out that the northern frontier walls were built far to the north and included traditionally nomadic lands , and so rather than being defensive , the walls indicate the northward expansions of the three northern states and their desire to safeguard their recent territorial acquisitions . This theory is supported by the archeological discovery of nomadic artifacts within the walls , suggesting the presence of pre-existing or conquered barbarian societies . It is entirely possible , as Western scholars like di Cosmo and Lattimore suggest , that nomadic aggression against the Chinese in the coming centuries was partly caused by Chinese expansionism during this period .
Great Wall of China
Great Wall of China 萬里 長城 The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling Map of all the wall constructions General information Type Fortification Country China Coordinates 40 ° 41 ′ N 117 ° 14 ′ E ﻿ / ﻿ 40.68 ° N 117.23 ° E ﻿ / 40.68 ; 117.23 Coordinates : 40 ° 41 ′ N 117 ° 14 ′ E ﻿ / ﻿ 40.68 ° N 117.23 ° E ﻿ / 40.68 ; 117.23 Technical details Size 21,196 km ( 13,171 mi ) UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name The Great Wall Type Cultural Criteria i , ii , iii , iv , vi Designated 1987 ( 11th session ) Reference no . 438 State Party China Region Asia - Pacific
History of the Great Wall of China
As Northern Wei became more economically dependent on agriculture , the Xianbei emperors made a conscious decision to adopt Chinese customs , including passive methods of frontier defence . In 423 , a defence line over 2,000 li ( 1,080 kilometres ( 670 mi ) ) long was built to resist the Rouran ; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County , Inner Mongolia . In 446 , 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing , passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng , and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River . The two walls formed the basis of the double - layered Xuanfu -- Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty .
History of the Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China visible today largely dates from the Ming dynasty , as they rebuilt much of the wall in stone and brick , often extending its line through challenging terrain . Some sections remain in relatively good condition or have been renovated , while others have been damaged or destroyed for ideological reasons , deconstructed for their building materials , or lost due to the ravages of time . For long an object of fascination for foreigners , the wall is now a revered national symbol and a popular tourist destination .
Great Wall of China
While portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even extensively renovated , in many other locations the Wall is in disrepair . Those parts might serve as a village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and roads . Sections of the Wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism , while inscribed bricks were pilfered and sold on the market for up to 50 renminbi . Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way of construction . A 2012 report by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage states that 22 % of the Ming Great Wall has disappeared , while 1,961 km ( 1,219 mi ) of wall have vanished . More than 60 km ( 37 mi ) of the wall in Gansu province may disappear in the next 20 years , due to erosion from sandstorms . In some places , the height of the wall has been reduced from more than 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) to less than 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) . Various square lookout towers that characterize the most famous images of the wall have disappeared . Many western sections of the wall are constructed from mud , rather than brick and stone , and thus are more susceptible to erosion . In 2014 a portion of the wall near the border of Liaoning and Hebei province was repaired with concrete . The work has been much criticized .
History of the Great Wall of China
In the west , the Tanguts took control of the Ordos region , where they established the Western Xia dynasty . Although the Xia were not traditionally known for building walls , in 2011 archeologists uncovered 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of walls at Ömnögovi Province in Mongolia in what had been Western Xia territory . Radiocarbon analysis showed that they were constructed from 1040 to 1160 . The walls were as tall as 2.75 metres ( 9 ft 0 in ) at places when they were discovered , and may have been around 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) taller originally . They were built with mud and saxaul ( a desert shrub ) in one section , and dark basalt blocks in another , suggesting that the rocks may have been quarried from nearby extinct volcanoes and transported to the construction site . Archaeologists have not yet found traces of human activity around this stretch of wall , which suggests that the Xia wall in this location may have been incomplete and not ready for use .
Great Wall of China
King Zheng of Qin conquered the last of his opponents and unified China as the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty ( `` Qin Shi Huang '' ) in 221 BC . Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords , he ordered the destruction of the sections of the walls that divided his empire among the former states . To position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north , however , he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire 's northern frontier . `` Build and move on '' was a central guiding principle in constructing the wall , implying that the Chinese were not erecting a permanently fixed border . Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult , so builders always tried to use local resources . Stones from the mountains were used over mountain ranges , while rammed earth was used for construction in the plains . There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin walls . Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries , and very few sections remain today . The human cost of the construction is unknown , but it has been estimated by some authors that hundreds of thousands , if not up to a million , workers died building the Qin wall . Later , the Han , the Sui , and the Northern dynasties all repaired , rebuilt , or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders . The Tang and Song dynasties did not undertake any significant effort in the region . The Liao , Jin , and Yuan dynasties , who ruled Northern China throughout most of the 10th -- 13th centuries , constructed defensive walls in the 12th century but those were located much to the north of the Great Wall as we know it , within China 's province of Inner Mongolia and in Mongolia itself .