vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Battle of the Hornburg
The attackers quickly scaled over the first defence , Helm 's Dike , forcing the defenders there to fall back to the fortress . When the Orcs were close , the defenders drove them back with arrows and stones , but they managed to get close to the wall after multiple charges . They attempted to break down the gate with a battering ram , but a sortie led by Aragorn and Éomer scattered the forces .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Republic of China was founded in 1912 , following the Xinhai Revolution which overthrew the last imperial dynasty of China , the Qing dynasty ( 1644 -- 1911 ) . However , central authority disintegrated and the Republic 's authority succumbed to that of regional warlords , mostly from the former Beiyang Army . Unifying the nation and repelling imperialism seemed a very remote possibility . Some warlords even aligned themselves with various foreign powers in their battles with each other . For example , the warlord Zhang Zuolin of Manchuria from the Zhili clique openly cooperated with the Japanese for military and economic assistance .
Silk Road
The Han army regularly policed the trade route against nomadic bandit forces generally identified as Xiongnu . Han general Ban Chao led an army of 70,000 mounted infantry and light cavalry troops in the 1st century CE to secure the trade routes , reaching far west to the Tarim basin . Ban Chao expanded his conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea and the borders of Parthia . It was from here that the Han general dispatched envoy Gan Ying to Daqin ( Rome ) . The Silk Road essentially came into being from the 1st century BCE , following these efforts by China to consolidate a road to the Western world and India , both through direct settlements in the area of the Tarim Basin and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Dayuan , Parthians and Bactrians further west . The Silk Roads were a `` complex network of trade routes '' that gave people the chance to exchange goods and culture .
Korean War
The Chinese government have encouraged the point of view that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea , though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Joseph Stalin to enter the war . In Chinese media , the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China 's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under - equipped army , forcing it to retreat , and fighting it to a military stalemate . These successes were contrasted with China 's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years , highlighting the abilities of the People 's Liberation Army and the Chinese Communist Party . The most significant negative long - term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai - shek 's regime in Taiwan , effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day . Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large - scale mass movements in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC . Finally , anti-U.S. sentiments , which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War , was ingrained into Chinese culture during the Communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War .
Japanese invasion of Manchuria
The Manchurian Crisis had a significant negative impact on the moral strength and influence of the League of Nations . As critics had predicted , the League was powerless if a strong nation decided to pursue an aggressive policy against other countries , allowing a country such as Japan to commit blatant aggression without serious consequences . Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini were also aware of this , and within three years would both follow Japan 's example in aggrandization against their neighbors : in the case of Italy , against Abyssinia ; and Germany , against Czechoslovakia and Poland .
Allies of World War II
The US strongly supported the Nationalist Government in China in its war with Japan , and provided military equipment , supplies , and volunteers to the Nationalist Government of China to assist in its war effort . In December 1941 Japan opened the war with its attack on Pearl Harbor , the US declared war on Japan , and Japan 's allies Germany and Italy declared war on the US , bringing the US into World War II . History
Second Sino-Japanese War
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , the United States declared war against Japan , and within days China joined the Allies in formal declaration of war against Japan , Germany and Italy . As the Western Allies entered the war against Japan , the Sino - Japanese War would become part of a greater conflict , the Pacific theatre of World War II . Almost immediately , Chinese troops achieved another decisive victory in the Battle of Changsha , which earned the Chinese government much prestige from the Western Allies . President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the United States , United Kingdom , Soviet Union and China as the world 's `` Four Policemen '' , elevating the international status of China to an unprecedented height after the century of humiliation at the hands of various imperialist powers .
World War II
The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia . In March 1944 , the Japanese launched the first of two invasions , an operation against British positions in Assam , India , and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . In May 1944 , British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma , and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China 's main fighting forces , secure railways between Japanese - held territory and capture Allied airfields . By June , the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha in the Hunan province .
World War II
By the start of July 1944 , Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina . In September 1944 , Chinese force captured the Mount Song to reopen the Burma Road . In China , the Japanese had more successes , having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August . Soon after , they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December .
Second Sino-Japanese War
This Japanese policy was most effective in the area of what is now Inner Mongolia and Hebei . In 1935 , under Japanese pressure , China signed the He -- Umezu Agreement , which forbade the KMT from conducting party operations in Hebei . In the same year , the Chin -- Doihara Agreement was signed expelling the KMT from Chahar . Thus , by the end of 1935 the Chinese government had essentially abandoned northern China . In its place , the Japanese - backed East Hebei Autonomous Council and the Hebei -- Chahar Political Council were established . There in the empty space of Chahar the Mongol Military Government was formed on May 12 , 1936 . Japan provided all the necessary military and economic aid . Afterwards Chinese volunteer forces continued to resist Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan .
Allies of World War II
The Nationalist Government held close relations with the United States . The United States opposed Japan 's invasion of China in 1937 that it considered an illegal violation of China 's sovereignty , and offered the Nationalist Government diplomatic , economic , and military assistance during its war against Japan . In particular , the United States sought to bring the Japanese war effort to a complete halt by imposing a full embargo on all trade between the United States to Japan , Japan was dependent on the United States for 80 percent of its petroleum , resulting in an economic and military crisis for Japan that could not continue its war effort with China without access to petroleum . In November 1940 , American military aviator Claire Lee Chennault upon observing the dire situation in the air war between China and Japan , set out to organize a volunteer squadron of American fighter pilots to fight alongside the Chinese against Japan , known as the Flying Tigers . US President Franklin D. Roosevelt accepted dispatching them to China in early 1941 . However , they only became operational shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor .
Chinese Tributary System
The Ming dynasty declined to intervene under the isolationist and anti-interventionist Hongwu Emperor when the Vietnamese attacked Champa , giving only a rebuke . The Chinese again did not intervene in the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa , when Vietnam destroyed Champa . Both Vietnam and Champa were tributary states .
Second Sino-Japanese War
From the beginning of 1939 , the war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Battle of Suixian -- Zaoyang , 1st Battle of Changsha , Battle of South Guangxi and Battle of Zaoyi . These outcomes encouraged the Chinese to launch their first large - scale counter-offensive against the IJA in early 1940 ; however , due to its low military - industrial capacity and limited experience in modern warfare , this offensive was defeated . Afterwards Chiang could not risk any more all - out offensive campaigns given the poorly trained , under - equipped , and disorganized state of his armies and opposition to his leadership both within the Kuomintang and in China in general . He had lost a substantial portion of his best trained and equipped troops in the Battle of Shanghai and was at times at the mercy of his generals , who maintained a high degree of autonomy from the central KMT government .
Battle of the Hornburg
However , the enemies re-entered the culvert and blasted a wide hole in the wall using an ambiguous explosive device invented by Saruman , a `` blasting - fire '' . Some defenders then retreated to the Glittering Caves , Éomer , Gamling and Gimli among them , while others including Aragorn and Legolas retreated to the burg itself .
Samurai
In 1592 , and again in 1597 , Toyotomi Hideyoshi , aiming to invade China ( 唐 入り ) through Korea , mobilized an army of 160,000 peasants and samurai and deployed them to Korea . ( See Hideyoshi 's invasions of Korea , Chōsen - seibatsu ( 朝鮮 征伐 ) ) . Taking advantage of arquebus mastery and extensive wartime experience from the Sengoku period , Japanese samurai armies made major gains in most of Korea . A few of the more famous samurai generals of this war were Katō Kiyomasa , Konishi Yukinaga , and Shimazu Yoshihiro . Katō Kiyomasa advanced to Orangkai territory ( present - day Manchuria ) bordering Korea to the northeast and crossed the border into Manchuria , but withdrew after retaliatory attacks from the Jurchens there , as it was clear he had outpaced the rest of the Japanese invasion force . Shimazu Yoshihiro led some 7,000 samurai and , despite being heavily outnumbered , defeated a host of allied Ming and Korean forces at the Battle of Sacheon in 1598 , near the conclusion of the campaigns . Yoshihiro was feared as Oni - Shimazu ( `` Shimazu ogre '' ) and his nickname spread across not only Korea but to Ming Dynasty China . Joint
Second Sino-Japanese War
Ethnic Mongolian guerrilla units were created by the Kuomintang Nationalists to fight against the Japanese during the war in the late 30s and early 40s . These Mongol militias were created by the Ejine and Alashaa based commissioner 's offices created by the Kuomintang . Prince Demchugdongrob 's Mongols were targeted by Kuomintang Mongols to defect to the Republic of China . The Nationalists recruited 1,700 ethnic minority fighters in Inner Mongolia and created war zones in the Tumet Banner , Ulanchab League , and Ordos Yekejuu League .
Korean War
China justified its entry into the war as a response to `` American aggression in the guise of the UN '' . Later , the Chinese claimed that U.S. bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened .
Axis powers
On 9 September 1945 , following the defeat of Japan , the area was surrendered to General He Yingqin , a nationalist general loyal to Chiang Kai - shek . The Nanking Army generals quickly declared their alliance to the Generalissimo , and were subsequently ordered to resist Communist attempts to fill the vacuum left by the Japanese surrender . Chen Gongbo was tried and executed in 1946 . India
World War II
Chinese nationalist forces launched a large - scale counter-offensive in early 1940 . In August , Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; in retaliation , Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists . Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation . In March , the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao . In September , Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces . Mitsubishi
Second Sino-Japanese War
The question as to which political group directed the Chinese war effort and exerted most of the effort to resist the Japanese remains a controversial issue .
Korean War
On 30 September , Zhou Enlai warned the United States that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the United States crossed the 38th parallel . Zhou attempted to advise North Korean commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics which allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai - shek 's Encirclement Campaigns in the 1930s , but by some accounts North Korean commanders did not use these tactics effectively . Historian Bruce Cumings argues , however , the KPA 's rapid withdrawal was strategic , with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts .
Second Sino-Japanese War
On June 22 , 1941 , Germany attacked the Soviet Union . In spite of non-aggression pacts or trade connections , Hitler 's assault threw the world into a frenzy of re-aligning political outlooks and strategic prospects .
Battle of the Hornburg
The Orcs and Dunlendings then raised hundreds of ladders to scale the wall . Aragorn and Éomer repeatedly motivated the tired defenders to repel the Orcs coming up the ladders . However , some Orcs had crept in through a culvert which let a stream out of Helm 's Deep , and while the defenders were busy with the assault on the wall , they were suddenly attacked from behind . This was repulsed and the culvert was blocked up under Gimli 's supervision .
Second Sino-Japanese War
In Japanese propaganda , the invasion of China became a `` holy war '' ( Japanese : 聖戦 , Hepburn : seisen ) , the first step of the Hakkō ichiu ( 八紘 一 宇 , `` eight corners of the world under one roof '' slogan ) . In 1940 , Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe launched the Taisei Yokusankai . When both sides formally declared war in December 1941 , the name was replaced by `` Greater East Asia War '' ( Japanese : 大 東亞 戰爭 , Hepburn : Daitōa Sensō ) .
Second Sino-Japanese War
During the offensive , Hui forces in Suiyuan under generals Ma Hongbin and Ma Buqing routed the Imperial Japanese Army and their puppet Inner Mongol forces and prevented the planned Japanese advance into northwest China . Ma Hongbin 's father Ma Fulu had fought against Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion . General Ma Biao led Hui , Salar and Dongxiang cavalry to defeat the Japanese at the Battle of Huaiyang . Ma Biao fought against the Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion . Map
Allies of World War II
On 20 August 1939 , forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics under General Georgy Zhukov , together with the People 's Republic of Mongolia eliminated the threat of conflict in the east with a decisive victory over Japan at the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in eastern Mongolia .
Axis powers
Japan identified the American Pacific fleet based in Pearl Harbor as the principal threat to its designs to invade and capture Southeast Asia . Thus Japan initiated the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 as a means to inhibit an American response to the invasion of Southeast Asia , and buy time to allow Japan to consolidate itself with these resources to engage in a total war against the United States , and force the United States to accept Japan 's acquisitions . On 7 December 1941 Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire . History
Military history of the United States during World War II
The established grand strategy of the Allies was to defeat Germany and its allies in Europe first , and then focus could shift towards Japan in the Pacific . This was because two of the Allied capitals ( London and Moscow ) could be directly threatened by Germany , but none of the major Allied capitals were threatened by Japan . Germany was the United Kingdom 's primary threat , especially after the Fall of France in 1940 , which saw Germany overrun most of the countries of Western Europe , leaving the United Kingdom alone to combat Germany . Germany 's planned invasion of the UK , Operation Sea Lion , was averted by its failure to establish air superiority in the Battle of Britain . At the same time , war with Japan in East Asia seemed increasingly likely . Although the U.S. was not yet at war with either Germany or Japan , it met with the UK on several occasions to formulate joint strategies .
World War II
The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937 , but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 , the day of the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and the subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom . From late 1939 to early 1941 , in a series of campaigns and treaties , Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe , and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan . Under the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours , Poland , Finland , Romania and the Baltic states . The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth , with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns , the aerial Battle of Britain , the Blitz bombing campaign , and the Balkan Campaign , as well as the long - running Battle of the Atlantic . On 22 June 1941 , the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union , opening the largest land theatre of war in history , which trapped the major part of the Axis military forces into a war of attrition . In December 1941 , Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean , and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific .
Second Sino-Japanese War
On August 13 , 1937 , Kuomintang soldiers and warplanes attacked Japanese Marine positions in Shanghai , leading to the Battle of Shanghai . On August 14 , Kuomintang planes accidentally bombed the Shanghai International Settlement , which led to more than 3,000 civilian deaths . In the three days from August 14 through 16 , 1937 , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) sent many sorties of the then - advanced long - ranged G3M medium - heavy land - based bombers and assorted carrier - based aircraft with the expectation of destroying the Chinese Air Force . However , the Imperial Japanese Navy encountered unexpected resistance from the defending Chinese Hawk III and P - 26 / 281 Peashooter fighter squadrons ; suffering heavy ( 50 % ) losses from the defending Chinese pilots ( August 14 was subsequently commemorated by the KMT as China 's Air Force Day ) .
Berlin Wall
The East German government issued shooting orders ( Schießbefehl ) to border guards dealing with defectors , though such orders are not the same as `` shoot to kill '' orders . GDR officials denied issuing the latter . In an October 1973 order later discovered by researchers , guards were instructed that people attempting to cross the Wall were criminals and needed to be shot : `` Do not hesitate to use your firearm , not even when the border is breached in the company of women and children , which is a tactic the traitors have often used '' .
Qing dynasty
The Qing showed that the Manchus valued military skills in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military to get them to defect to the Qing , since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military . The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a massive role in the conquest of southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi , Geng Zhongming , and Kong Youde and they governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after their conquests . Normally the Manchu Bannermen acted only as reserve forces or in the rear and were used predominantly for quick strikes with maximum impact , so as to minimize ethnic Manchu losses ; instead , the Qing used defected Han Chinese troops to fight as the vanguard during the entire conquest of China .
Axis powers
In order to maintain its military campaign in China with the major loss of petroleum trade with the United States , Japan saw the best means to secure an alternative source of petroleum in the petroleum - rich and natural - resources - rich Southeast Asia . This threat of retaliation by Japan to the total trade embargo by the United States was known by the American government , including American Secretary of State Cordell Hull who was negotiating with the Japanese to avoid a war , fearing that the total embargo would pre-empt a Japanese attack on the Dutch East Indies .
Allies of World War II
Mongolia fought against Japan during Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and the Soviet -- Japanese War in August 1945 to protect its independence and to liberate Southern Mongolia from Japan and China . Mongolia had been a Soviet sphere of influence since the 1920s . Poland
Korean War
Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea . An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China . The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential U.S. use of nuclear weapons , but whether they learned about the B - 29 deployment is unclear and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea . The B - 29s returned to the United States in June .
Siege
In the Middle Ages , the Mongol Empire 's campaign against China ( then comprising the Western Xia Dynasty , Jin Dynasty , and Southern Song dynasty ) by Genghis Khan until Kublai Khan , who eventually established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271 , with their armies was extremely effective , allowing the Mongols to sweep through large areas . Even if they could not enter some of the more well - fortified cities , they used innovative battle tactics to grab hold of the land and the people :
Second Sino-Japanese War
Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident . In 1932 , Chinese and Japanese troops fought the January 28 Incident battle . This resulted in the demilitarisation of Shanghai , which forbade the Chinese from deploying troops in their own city . In Manchukuo there was an ongoing campaign to defeat the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies that arose from widespread outrage over the policy of non-resistance to Japan .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Both Nationalist and Communist Chinese sources report that their respective forces were responsible for the deaths of over 1.7 million Japanese soldiers . Nationalist War Minister He Yingqin himself contested the Communist 's claim , finding it impossible for a force of `` untrained , undisciplined , poorly equipped '' guerrillas of Communist forces to have killed so many enemy soldiers .