vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Alan Shepard
This was the first mission to broadcast extensive color television coverage from the lunar surface , using the Westinghouse Lunar Color Camera . ( The same color camera model was used on Apollo 12 and provided about 30 minutes of color telecasting before it was inadvertently pointed at the Sun , ending its usefulness . ) While on the Moon , Shepard used a Wilson six - iron head attached to a lunar sample scoop handle to drive golf balls . Despite thick gloves and a stiff spacesuit , which forced him to swing the club with one hand , Shepard struck two golf balls , driving the second , as he jokingly put it , `` miles and miles and miles '' . Shepard
Exploration of Mars
Flood erosion at Dromore crater . Tear - drop shaped islands at Oxia Palus . Streamlined islands in Lunae Palus . Scour patterns located in Lunae Palus .
Jupiter
Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium , though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules . It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements , but like the other giant planets , Jupiter lacks a well - defined solid surface . Because of its rapid rotation , the planet 's shape is that of an oblate spheroid ( it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator ) . The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes , resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries . A prominent result is the Great Red Spot , a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope . Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere . Jupiter has at least 69 moons , including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 . Ganymede , the largest of these , has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury .
Constellation
Colloquial usage does not draw any sharp distinction between `` constellations '' or the many smaller `` asterisms '' ( pattern of stars ) , yet the modern accepted astronomical constellations employ such a distinction . E.g. , the Pleiades and the Hyades are both asterisms , and each lie within the boundaries of the constellation of Taurus . Another example is the popular northern asterism known as the Big Dipper ( US ) or the Plough ( UK ) , composed of the seven brightest stars within the area of the IAU - defined constellation of Ursa Major . The southern False Cross asterism includes portions of the constellations Carina and Vela .
River delta
Delta in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle , as seen by THEMIS . Delta in Lunae Palus quadrangle , as seen by THEMIS . Delta in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle as seen by THEMIS . Probable delta in Eberswalde crater , as seen by Mars Global Surveyor . Image in Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle .
Magnetosphere of Jupiter
When flux tubes loaded with the cold Ionian plasma reach the outer magnetosphere , they go through a reconnection process , which separates the magnetic field from the plasma . The former returns to the inner magnetosphere in the form of flux tubes filled with hot and less dense plasma , while the latter are probably ejected down the magnetotail in the form of plasmoids -- large blobs of plasma . The reconnection processes may correspond to the global reconfiguration events also observed by the Galileo spacecraft , which occurred regularly every 2 -- 3 days . The reconfiguration events usually included rapid and chaotic variation of the magnetic field strength and direction , as well as abrupt changes in the motion of the plasma , which often stopped co-rotating and began flowing outward . They were mainly observed in the dawn sector of the night magnetosphere . The plasma flowing down the tail along the open field lines is called the planetary wind .
Polygon
Regular hexagons can occur when the cooling of lava forms areas of tightly packed columns of basalt , which may be seen at the Giant 's Causeway in Northern Ireland , or at the Devil 's Postpile in California .
Conic section
There are three types of conics , the ellipse , parabola , and hyperbola . The circle is a special kind of ellipse , although historically it had been considered as a fourth type ( as it was by Apollonius ) . The circle and the ellipse arise when the intersection of the cone and plane is a closed curve . The circle is obtained when the cutting plane is parallel to the plane of the generating circle of the cone -- for a right cone , see diagram , this means that the cutting plane is perpendicular to the symmetry axis of the cone . If the cutting plane is parallel to exactly one generating line of the cone , then the conic is unbounded and is called a parabola . In the remaining case , the figure is a hyperbola . In this case , the plane will intersect both halves of the cone , producing two separate unbounded curves .
Sundial
The cylindrical shepherd 's dial can be unrolled into a flat plate . In one simple version , the front and back of the plate each have three columns , corresponding to pairs of months with roughly the same solar declination ( June -- July , May -- August , April -- September , March -- October , February -- November , and January -- December ) . The top of each column has a hole for inserting the shadow - casting gnomon , a peg . Often only two times are marked on the column below , one for noon and the other for mid-morning / mid-afternoon .
Magnetosphere of Jupiter
Whereas the dynamics of Jovian magnetosphere mainly depend on internal sources of energy , the solar wind probably has a role as well , particularly as a source of high - energy protons . The structure of the outer magnetosphere shows some features of a solar wind - driven magnetosphere , including a significant dawn -- dusk asymmetry . In particular , magnetic field lines in the dusk sector are bent in the opposite direction to those in the dawn sector . In addition , the dawn magnetosphere contains open field lines connecting to the magnetotail , whereas in the dusk magnetosphere , the field lines are closed . All these observations indicate that a solar wind driven reconnection process , known on Earth as the Dungey cycle , may also be taking place in the Jovian magnetosphere .
Season
Smaller irregularities in the times are caused by perturbations of the Moon and the other planets .
Lunar eclipse
Every year , there are at least two lunar eclipses and as many as five , although total lunar eclipses are significantly less common . If one knows the date and time of an eclipse , it is possible to predict the occurrence of other eclipses using an eclipse cycle like the saros .
Venus
The absence of evidence of lava flow accompanying any of the visible calderas remains an enigma . The planet has few impact craters , demonstrating that the surface is relatively young , approximately 300 -- 600 million years old . Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters , mountains , and valleys commonly found on rocky planets . Among these are flat - topped volcanic features called `` farra '' , which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km ( 12 to 31 mi ) across , and from 100 to 1,000 m ( 330 to 3,280 ft ) high ; radial , star - like fracture systems called `` novae '' ; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs , known as `` arachnoids '' ; and `` coronae '' , circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression . These features are volcanic in origin .
Moon landing
More recently , other nations have crashed spacecraft on the surface of the Moon at speeds of around 8,000 kilometres per hour ( 5,000 mph ) , often at precise , planned locations . These have generally been end - of - life lunar orbiters that , because of system degradations , could no longer overcome perturbations from lunar mass concentrations ( `` masscons '' ) to maintain their orbit . Japan 's lunar orbiter Hiten impacted the Moon 's surface on 10 April 1993 . The European Space Agency performed a controlled crash impact with their orbiter SMART - 1 on 3 September 2006 .
Earth
Earth 's mechanically rigid outer layer , the lithosphere , is divided into tectonic plates . These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types : At convergent boundaries , two plates come together ; at divergent boundaries , two plates are pulled apart ; and at transform boundaries , two plates slide past one another laterally . Along these plate boundaries , earthquakes , volcanic activity , mountain - building , and oceanic trench formation can occur . The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere , the solid but less - viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates . Mountains
Constellation
Another type of smaller popular patterns or groupings of stars are called asterisms , and differ from the modern or former constellations by being areas with identifiable shapes or features that can be used by novice observers learning to navigate the night sky . Such asterisms often refer to several stars within a constellation or may share boundaries with several constellations . Examples of asterisms include : The Pleiades and The Hyades within the constellation of Taurus , the False Cross crossing the southern constellations of both Carina and Vela , or Venus ' Mirror in the constellation of Orion .
Moon landing
However , the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) - per - hour ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) - per - hour impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar - controlled , adjustable - thrust retrorocket . While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national accomplishments , only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a manned flight . Thus as of mid-1966 , the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so - called Space Race to land a man on the Moon . A
Copper in architecture
Special shapes . Special shaped façades are available to impart desired visual effects . Perforated metal sheets are available with a variety of shapes ( round , square , oblong , etc . ) and arrangements ( rectangular , diagonal , parallel width , staggered , etc . ) . They can be designed to create subtle patterns , ' super graphics , ' and text . Mesh and textile structures are also available . Links to photographs of special - shaped cladded buildings are available .
Venus
The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind is interacting directly with its outer atmosphere . Here , ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of neutral molecules from ultraviolet radiation . The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient velocity to escape Venus 's gravity field . This erosion process results in a steady loss of low - mass hydrogen , helium , and oxygen ions , whereas higher - mass molecules , such as carbon dioxide , are more likely to be retained . Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind probably led to the loss of most of Venus 's water during the first billion years after it formed . The erosion has increased the ratio of higher - mass deuterium to lower - mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system .
Magnetosphere of Jupiter
Although overall the shape of Jupiter 's magnetosphere resembles that of the Earth 's , closer to the planet its structure is very different . Jupiter 's volcanically active moon Io is a strong source of plasma in its own right , and loads Jupiter 's magnetosphere with as much as 1,000 kg of new material every second . Strong volcanic eruptions on Io emit huge amounts of sulfur dioxide , a major part of which is dissociated into atoms and ionized by the solar ultraviolet radiation , producing ions of sulfur and oxygen : S , O , S and O. These ions escape from the satellite 's atmosphere and form the Io plasma torus : a thick and relatively cool ring of plasma encircling Jupiter , located near Io 's orbit . The plasma temperature within the torus is 10 -- 100 eV ( 100,000 -- 1,000,000 K ) , which is much lower than that of the particles in the radiation belts -- 10 keV ( 100 million K ) . The plasma in the torus is forced into co-rotation with Jupiter , meaning both share the same period of rotation . The Io torus fundamentally alters the dynamics of the Jovian magnetosphere .
Jupiter
Regular moons Inner group The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km , orbit at radii less than 200,000 km , and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree . Galilean moons These four moons , discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel , orbit between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km , and are some of the largest moons in the Solar System . Irregular moons Themisto This is a single moon belonging to a group of its own , orbiting halfway between the Galilean moons and the Himalia group . Himalia group A tightly clustered group of moons with orbits around 11,000,000 -- 12,000,000 km from Jupiter . Carpo Another isolated case ; at the inner edge of the Ananke group , it orbits Jupiter in prograde direction . Ananke group This retrograde orbit group has rather indistinct borders , averaging 21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees . Carme group A fairly distinct retrograde group that averages 23,404,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees . Pasiphae group A dispersed and only vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost moons .
Rainbow
The rainbow effect is also commonly seen near waterfalls or fountains . In addition , the effect can be artificially created by dispersing water droplets into the air during a sunny day . Rarely , a moonbow , lunar rainbow or nighttime rainbow , can be seen on strongly moonlit nights . As human visual perception for colour is poor in low light , moonbows are often perceived to be white .
One Thousand and One Nights
In 1982 , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) began naming features on Saturn 's moon Enceladus after characters and places in Burton 's translation because `` its surface is so strange and mysterious that it was given the Arabian Nights as a name bank , linking fantasy landscape with a literary fantasy ''. ( 2 )
Mars
From the surface of Mars , the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear different from that of the Moon . Phobos rises in the west , sets in the east , and rises again in just 11 hours . Deimos , being only just outside synchronous orbit -- where the orbital period would match the planet 's period of rotation -- rises as expected in the east but slowly . Despite the 30 - hour orbit of Deimos , 2.7 days elapse between its rise and set for an equatorial observer , as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars . Orbits
Mars
Mars is a terrestrial planet that consists of minerals containing silicon and oxygen , metals , and other elements that typically make up rock . The surface of Mars is primarily composed of tholeiitic basalt , although parts are more silica - rich than typical basalt and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth or silica glass . Regions of low albedo suggest concentrations of plagioclase feldspar , with northern low albedo regions displaying higher than normal concentrations of sheet silicates and high - silicon glass . Parts of the southern highlands include detectable amounts of high - calcium pyroxenes . Localized concentrations of hematite and olivine have been found . Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron ( III ) oxide dust . Geologic
Lunar eclipse
A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a portion of the moon enters the umbra . When the moon travels completely into the Earth 's umbra , one observes a total lunar eclipse . The moon 's speed through the shadow is about one kilometer per second ( 2,300 mph ) , and totality may last up to nearly 107 minutes . Nevertheless , the total time between the moon 's first and last contact with the shadow is much longer and could last up to four hours . The relative distance of the moon from the Earth at the time of an eclipse can affect the eclipse 's duration . In particular , when the moon is near its apogee , the farthest point from the Earth in its orbit , its orbital speed is the slowest . The diameter of the umbra does not decrease appreciably within the changes in the orbital distance of the moon . Thus , a totally eclipsed moon occurring near apogee will lengthen the duration of totality .
Yosemite National Park
Pillars and columns , such as Washington Column and Lost Arrow , are created by cross joints . Erosion acting on master joints is responsible for creating valleys and later canyons . The single most erosive force over the last few million years has been large alpine glaciers , which have turned the previously V - shaped river - cut valleys into U-shaped glacial - cut canyons ( such as Yosemite Valley and Hetch Hetchy Valley ) . Exfoliation ( caused by the tendency of crystals in plutonic rocks to expand at the surface ) acting on granitic rock with widely spaced joints is responsible for creating domes such as Half Dome and North Dome and inset arches like Royal Arches .
Speed of light
Ole Christensen Rømer used an astronomical measurement to make the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light . When measured from Earth , the periods of moons orbiting a distant planet are shorter when the Earth is approaching the planet than when the Earth is receding from it . The distance travelled by light from the planet ( or its moon ) to Earth is shorter when the Earth is at the point in its orbit that is closest to its planet than when the Earth is at the farthest point in its orbit , the difference in distance being the diameter of the Earth 's orbit around the Sun . The observed change in the moon 's orbital period is caused by the difference in the time it takes light to traverse the shorter or longer distance . Rømer observed this effect for Jupiter 's innermost moon Io and deduced that light takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth 's orbit . Aberration
Roman calendar
These are thought to reflect a prehistoric lunar calendar , with the kalends proclaimed after the sighting of the first sliver of the new crescent moon a day or two after the new moon , the nones occurring on the day of the first - quarter moon , and the ides on the day of the full moon . The kalends of each month were sacred to Juno and the ides to Jupiter . The day before each was known as its eve ( pridie ) ; the day after each ( postridie ) was considered particularly unlucky .
Sundial
There are several different types of sundials . Some sundials use a shadow or the edge of a shadow while others use a line or spot of light to indicate the time .
Maya calendar
The Maya counted the number of days in the current lunation . They used two systems for the zero date of the lunar cycle : either the first night they could see the thin crescent moon or the first morning when they could not see the waning moon . The age of the moon was depicted by a set of glyphs that mayanists coined glyphs D and E :
Ancient Egyptian deities
The basic anthropomorphic form varies . Child deities are depicted nude , as are some adult deities when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow -- the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women -- some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god Hapi alludes to the Nile flood he represents and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , have a `` mummiform '' appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth - wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead , hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities . Some
Triangle
Every acute triangle has three inscribed squares ( squares in its interior such that all four of a square 's vertices lie on a side of the triangle , so two of them lie on the same side and hence one side of the square coincides with part of a side of the triangle ) . In a right triangle two of the squares coincide and have a vertex at the triangle 's right angle , so a right triangle has only two distinct inscribed squares . An obtuse triangle has only one inscribed square , with a side coinciding with part of the triangle 's longest side . Within a given triangle , a longer common side is associated with a smaller inscribed square . If an inscribed square has side of length q and the triangle has a side of length a , part of which side coincides with a side of the square , then q , a , the altitude h from the side a , and the triangle 's area T are related according to
Mesopotamia
The Lunar phase ( a waxing moon meant abundance and growth , while a waning moon was associated with decline , conservation , and festivals of the Underworld ) The phase of the annual agricultural cycle Equinoxes and solstices The local mythos and its divine Patrons The success of the reigning Monarch The Akitu , or New Year Festival ( First full moon after spring equinox ) Commemoration of specific historical events ( founding , military victories , temple holidays , etc . )
Rainbow
A circular rainbow should not be confused with the glory , which is much smaller in diameter and is created by different optical processes . In the right circumstances , a glory and a ( circular ) rainbow or fog bow can occur together . Another atmospheric phenomenon that may be mistaken for a `` circular rainbow '' is the 22 ° halo , which is caused by ice crystals rather than liquid water droplets , and is located around the sun ( or moon ) , not opposite it .
Magnetosphere of Jupiter
The icy Galilean moons , Europa , Ganymede and Callisto , all generate induced magnetic moments in response to changes in Jupiter 's magnetic field . These varying magnetic moments create dipole magnetic fields around them , which act to compensate for changes in the ambient field . The induction is thought to take place in subsurface layers of salty water , which are likely to exist in all of Jupiter 's large icy moons . These underground oceans can potentially harbor life , and evidence for their presence was one of the most important discoveries made in the 1990s by spacecraft .
Maya calendar
A new moon glyph was used for day zero in the lunar cycle . D glyphs were used for lunar ages for days 1 through 19 , with the number of days that had passed from the new moon . For lunar ages 20 to 30 , an E glyph was used , with the number of days from 20 . Count
Easter Island
Two types of houses are known from the past : hare paenga , a house with an elliptical foundation , made with basalt slabs and covered with a thatched roof that resembled an overturned boat , and hare oka , a round stone structure . Related stone structures called Tupa look very similar to the hare oka , except that the Tupa were inhabited by astronomer - priests and located near the coast , where the movements of the stars could be easily observed . Settlements also contain hare moa ( `` chicken house '' ) , oblong stone structures that housed chickens . The houses at the ceremonial village of Orongo are unique in that they are shaped like hare paenga but are made entirely of flat basalt slabs found inside Rano Kao crater . The entrances to all the houses are very low , and entry requires crawling .