vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Space Race
The first landing was followed by another , precision landing on Apollo 12 in November 1969 . NASA had achieved its first landing goal with enough Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launchers left for eight follow - on lunar landings through Apollo 20 , conducting extended - endurance missions and transporting the landing crews in Lunar Roving Vehicles on the last five . They also planned an Apollo Applications Program to develop a longer - duration Earth orbital workshop ( later named Skylab ) to be constructed in orbit from a spent S - IVB upper stage , using several launches of the smaller Saturn IB launch vehicle . But planners soon decided this could be done more efficiently by using the two live stages of a Saturn V to launch the workshop pre-fabricated from an S - IVB ( which was also the Saturn V third stage ) , which immediately removed Apollo 20 . Belt - tightening budget cuts soon led NASA to cut Apollo 18 and 19 as well , but keep three extended / Lunar Rover missions . Apollo 13 encountered an in - flight spacecraft failure and had to abort its lunar landing in April 1970 , returning its crew safely but temporarily grounding the program again . It resumed with four successful landings on Apollo 14 ( February 1971 ) , Apollo 15 ( July 1971 ) , Apollo 16 ( April 1972 ) , and Apollo 17 ( December 1972 ) .
Julian calendar
The octaeteris , a cycle of 8 lunar years popularised by Cleostratus ( and also commonly attributed to Eudoxus ) which was used in some early Greek calendars , notably in Athens , is 1.53 days longer than eight Julian years . The length of nineteen years in the cycle of Meton was 6,940 days , six hours longer than the mean Julian year . The mean Julian year was the basis of the 76 - year cycle devised by Callippus ( a student under Eudoxus ) to improve the Metonic cycle .
Space Race
On Gemini 3 ( March 1965 ) , astronauts Virgil `` Gus '' Grissom and John W. Young became the first to demonstrate their ability to change their craft 's orbit . On Gemini 5 ( August 1965 ) , astronauts L. Gordon Cooper and Charles `` Pete '' Conrad set a record of almost eight days in space , long enough for a piloted lunar mission . On Gemini 6A ( December 1965 ) , Command Pilot Wally Schirra achieved the first space rendezvous with Gemini 7 , accurately matching his orbit to that of the other craft , station - keeping for three consecutive orbits at distances as close as 1 foot ( 0.30 m ) . Gemini 7 also set a human spaceflight endurance record of fourteen days for Frank Borman and James A. Lovell , which stood until both nations started launching space laboratories in the early 1970s . On Gemini 8 ( March 1966 ) , Command Pilot Neil Armstrong achieved the first docking between two spacecraft , his Gemini craft and an Agena target vehicle . Gemini 11 ( September 1966 ) , commanded by Conrad , achieved the first direct - ascent rendezvous with its Agena target on the first orbit , and used the Agena 's rocket to achieve an apogee of 742 nautical miles ( 1,374 km ) , the crewed Earth orbit record still current as of 2015 . On Gemini 12 ( November 1966 ) , Edwin E. `` Buzz '' Aldrin spent over five hours working comfortably during three ( EVA ) sessions , finally proving that humans could perform productive tasks outside their spacecraft . This proved to be the most difficult goal to achieve .
Kīlauea
The second method of recovering older rock is through the drilling of deep core samples ; however , the cores have proved difficult to date , and several samples from depths of around 1,700 m ( 5,600 ft ) that suggested dates as old as 450,000 years have since been found erroneous . More reliable paleomagnetic dating , limited to rocks dating from after Kīlauea 's emergence from the sea , has suggested ages of around 50,000 years . Exposed flows above sea level have proved far younger . Some of the oldest reliably dated rock , 43,000 years old , comes from charcoal sandwiched beneath an ash layer on a fault scarp known as Hilina Pali ; however , sampled dated from higher up the scarp indicate ash deposition at an average rate of 6 m ( 20 ft ) per thousand years , indicating the oldest exposed flows , from the base of the feature , could date back as far as 70,000 years . This date is similar to that of the oldest dated extant lava flow , a southwestern rift zone flow with an uncorrected radiocarbon dating of approximately 4650 BC .
Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States
In 2008 , McCardell and the presidents of over 100 U.S. colleges and universities launched the Amethyst Initiative , a campaign to debate the effectiveness of present alcohol laws . In 2008 , Gallup reported that 77 % of the population over 21 supported the 21 - year drinking age . As it stands , any state that lowers its alcohol purchase or possession age would lose ten percent of its federal highway funding . This could range from a $6 million -- 150 million loss for any single state .
Sputnik crisis
Less than a year after the Sputnik launch , Congress passed the National Defense Education Act ( NDEA ) . The act was a four - year program that poured billions of dollars into the US education system . In 1953 the government spent $153 million , and colleges took $10 million of that funding ; however , by 1960 the combined funding grew almost six-fold because of the NDEA . After the initial public shock , the Space Race began , leading to the first human launched into space , Project Apollo and the first humans to land on the Moon in 1969 .
Space Race
The Space Race began on August 2 , 1955 , when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year , by declaring they would also launch a satellite `` in the near future '' . The Soviet Union beat the US to this , with the October 4 , 1957 , orbiting of Sputnik 1 , and later beat the US to the first human in space , Yuri Gagarin , on April 12 , 1961 . The `` race '' peaked with the July 20 , 1969 , US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11 . The USSR tried but failed crewed lunar missions , and eventually canceled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations .
Legal working age
The legal working age is the minimum age required by law for a person to work , in each country or jurisdiction .
Ryukyuan religion
On smaller islands , idiosyncratic noro traditions persist . On Kudaka , for instance , people believe in a `` priesthood of all women '' , and all women serve the gods from age 31 to age 70 . Their initiation rites , Izaiho , was held every twelve years , and women were initiated between ages 31 and 40 . Due to the absence of women of the representing age the last Izaiho was held in 1978 .
Testosterone
Total testosterone levels in males throughout life show Life stage Tanner stage Age range Mean age Levels range Mean levels Child Stage I < 10 years -- < 30 ng / dL 5.8 ng / dL Puberty Stage II 10 -- 14 years 12 years < 167 ng / dL 40 ng / dL Stage III 12 -- 16 years 13 -- 14 years 21 -- 719 ng / dL 190 ng / dL Stage IV 13 -- 17 years 14 -- 15 years 25 -- 912 ng / dL 370 ng / dL Stage V 13 -- 17 years 15 years 110 -- 975 ng / dL 550 ng / dL Adult -- ≥ 18 years -- 250 -- 1,100 ng / dL 630 ng / dL Reference
Time
Among the 41 nations represented at the conference , the advanced time - technologies that had already come into use in Britain were fundamental components of the agreed upon method of arriving at a universal and agreed upon international time . In 1928 Greenwich Mean Time was rebranded for scientific purposes by the International Astronomical Union as Universal Time ( UT ) . This was to avoid confusion with the previous system where the day had begun at noon . As the general public had always begun the day at midnight the timescale continued to be presented to them as Greenwich Mean Time . By 1956 , universal time had been split into various versions -- UT2 , which smoothed for polar motion and seasonal effects , was presented to the public as Greenwich Mean Time . Later , UT1 ( which smooths only for polar motion ) became the default form of UT used by astronomers and hence the form used in navigation , sunrise and sunset and moonrise and moonset tables where the name Greenwich Mean Time continues to be employed . Greenwich Mean Time is also the preferred method of describing the timescale used by legislators . Even to the present day , UT is still based on an international telescopic system . Observations at the Greenwich Observatory itself ceased in 1954 , though the location is still used as the basis for the coordinate system . Because the rotational period of Earth is not perfectly constant , the duration of a second would vary if calibrated to a telescope - based standard like GMT , where the second is defined as 1 / 86 400 of the mean solar day .
History of the telescope
Although optical telescopes can image the near ultraviolet , the ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation shorter than 300 nm so most ultra-violet astronomy is conducted with satellites . Ultraviolet telescopes resemble optical telescopes , but conventional aluminium - coated mirrors can not be used and alternative coatings such as magnesium fluoride or lithium fluoride are used instead . The Orbiting Solar Observatory satellite carried out observations in the ultra-violet as early as 1962 . The International Ultraviolet Explorer ( 1978 ) systematically surveyed the sky for eighteen years , using a 45 - centimetre ( 18 in ) aperture telescope with two spectroscopes . Extreme - ultraviolet astronomy ( 10 -- 100 nm ) is a discipline in its own right and involves many of the techniques of X-ray astronomy ; the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer ( 1992 ) was a satellite operating at these wavelengths .
Seafloor spreading
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Satellite
The United States Space Surveillance Network ( SSN ) , a division of the United States Strategic Command , has been tracking objects in Earth 's orbit since 1957 when the Soviet Union opened the Space Age with the launch of Sputnik I. Since then , the SSN has tracked more than 26,000 objects . The SSN currently tracks more than 8,000 man - made orbiting objects . The rest have re-entered Earth 's atmosphere and disintegrated , or survived re-entry and impacted the Earth . The SSN tracks objects that are 10 centimeters in diameter or larger ; those now orbiting Earth range from satellites weighing several tons to pieces of spent rocket bodies weighing only 10 pounds . About seven percent are operational satellites ( i.e. ~ 560 satellites ) , the rest are space debris . The United States Strategic Command is primarily interested in the active satellites , but also tracks space debris which upon reentry might otherwise be mistaken for incoming missiles .
International System of Units
This section is missing information about a period of ~ 35 - 40 years between early 20th century and end of WW2 covering most of the industrial revolution . Please expand the section to include this information . Further details may exist on the talk page . ( December 2017 )
Kuiper belt
On August 26 , 2015 , the first target , 2014 MU 69 , was chosen . Course adjustment took place in late October and early November 2015 , leading to a flyby in January 2019 . On July 1 , 2016 , NASA approved additional funding for New Horizons to visit the object .
Midnight sun
As an example , at the North Cape of Norway at midnight on June 21 / 22 , the longitude of 25.9 degrees east makes the moment 103.2 minutes earlier by clock time ; but the local time , 2 hours ahead of GMT in the summer , makes it 120 minutes later by clock time . The equation of time at that date is - 2.0 minutes . Therefore , the sun 's lowest elevation occurs 120 - 103.2 + 2.0 minutes after midnight : at 00.19 Central European Summer time . On other nearby dates the only thing different is the equation of time , so this remains a reasonable estimate for a considerable period . The sun 's altitude remains within half a degree of the minimum of about 5 degrees for about 45 minutes either side of this time .
Elections in Iran
Until January 2007 , when it was raised to 18 , the voting age was 15 years , the lowest globally at the time .
Moon landing
Initial manned spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the Soviet Vostok and U.S. Mercury programs . A two - flight extension of the Vostok program known as Voskhod effectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965 . These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in ten Gemini low Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966 , using a totally new second - generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury . These Gemini missions went on to prove critical techniques for orbital rendezvous and docking that were crucial to a manned lunar landing mission profile .
Satellite
When satellites reach the end of their mission ( this normally occurs within 3 or 4 years after launch ) , satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite , leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit . Historically , due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions , satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited . One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1 . Launched in 1958 , Vanguard 1 , the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit , was still in orbit as of March 2015 , as well as the upper stage of its launch rocket .
Time
In 1874 the British Association for the Advancement of Science introduced the CGS ( centimetre / gramme / second system ) combining fundamental units of length , mass and time . The second is `` elastic '' , because tidal friction is slowing the earth 's rotation rate . For use in calculating ephemerides of celestial motion , therefore , in 1952 astronomers introduced the `` ephemeris second '' , currently defined as
We Didn't Start the Fire
Moonshot : Apollo 11 , the first manned lunar landing , successfully lands on the moon . Woodstock : Famous rock and roll festival of 1969 that came to be the epitome of the counterculture movement .
Time
Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists , and was a prime motivation in navigation and astronomy . Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time . Examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky , the phases of the moon , the swing of a pendulum , and the beat of a heart . Currently , the international unit of time , the second , is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms ( see below ) . Time is also of significant social importance , having economic value ( `` time is money '' ) as well as personal value , due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in human life spans .
Earth
Above the Arctic Circle , an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year , up to six months at the North Pole itself , a polar night . In the Southern Hemisphere , the situation is exactly reversed , with the South Pole oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole . Six months later , this pole will experience a midnight sun , a day of 24 hours , again reversing with the South Pole .
Bone age
An advanced or delayed bone age does not always indicate disease or `` pathologic '' growth . Conversely , the bone age may be normal in some conditions of abnormal growth . Children do not mature at exactly the same time . Just as there is wide variation among the normal population in age of losing teeth or experiencing the first menstrual period , the bone age of a healthy child may be a year or two advanced or delayed . Those with an advanced bone age typically hit a growth spurt early on but stop growing at an earlier age . Consequently , when a naturally short child has an advanced bone age , it stunts their growth at an early age leaving them even shorter than they would have been . Because of this , those who are short with an advanced bone age , need medical attention before their bones fully fuse .
Bone age
Bone age rating is a procedure well - suited for automation by computer . The main advantage is the elimination of the variability of rating between different human raters . The BoneXpert method is the most prominent example of a completely automated method .
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
Urge to Organize or Demonstrate Yes % No % U.S. adults 10 90 21 to 29 years old 15 85 30 to 49 years 12 88 50 and older 6 94 College graduates 21 79 High school graduates 9 91 High school nongraduates 5 95 GALLUP , OCT. 29 - NOV. 2 , 1965
A Boy's Best Friend
This story is set far in the future when habitation of the Moon has already taken place . Jimmy Anderson is a Moon - born ten - year - old , and he owns a robotic dog named Robutt , whom he comes to love . He can go on the moon freely and securely as he is moon born and has Robutt with him . However , his parents want him to have a real dog , a Scottish Terrier . Since Moon - borns can not visit Earth , his parents bring the dog to the Moon . Jimmy does n't want to part away from Robutt . But since the relationship between Jimmy and Robutt is so close , Jimmy decides not to have the ' living ' dog and keep the ' fake ' dog Robutt instead .
Helium
The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of helium with a process known as helium dating .
Adolescence
In most democratic countries , a citizen is eligible to vote at age 18 . In a minority of countries , the voting age is as low as 16 ( for example , Brazil ) , and at one time was as high as 25 in Uzbekistan .
U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state
From 1976 to 1983 , several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 ( or , less commonly , 20 or 21 ) , in part to combat drunk driving fatalities . In 1984 , Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act , which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10 % of their federal highway funds . By mid-1988 , all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 ( but not Puerto Rico , Guam , or the Virgin Islands , see Additional Notes below ) . South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate . The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans , because of it being higher than the age of majority ( 18 in most states ) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries . The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment . Although debates have not been highly publicized , a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age , while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010 .
Time
An invariable second ( the `` ephemeris second '' ) had been defined , use of which removed the errors in ephemerides resulting from the use of the variable mean solar second as the time argument . In 1960 this ephemeris second was made the basis of the `` coordinated universal time '' which was being derived from atomic clocks . It is a specified fraction of the mean tropical year as at 1900 and , being based on historical telescope observations , corresponds roughly to the mean solar second of the early nineteenth century . The
Star formation
In February 2018 , astronomers reported , for the first time , a signal of the reionization epoch , an indirect detection of light from the earliest stars formed - about 180 million years after the Big Bang .
Moon landing
U.S.S.R mission Mass ( kg ) Booster Launched Mission goal Payload Mission result Cosmos - 146 5,400 Proton 10 March 1967 High Earth Orbit unmanned Partial success -- Successfully reached high Earth orbit , but became stranded and was unable to initiate controlled high speed atmospheric reentry test Cosmos - 154 5,400 Proton 8 April 1967 High Earth Orbit unmanned Partial success -- Successfully reached high Earth orbit , but became stranded and was unable to initiate controlled high speed atmospheric reentry test Proton 28 September 1967 High Earth Orbit unmanned Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Proton 22 November 1967 High Earth Orbit unmanned Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Zond - 4 5,140 Proton 2 March 1968 High Earth Orbit unmanned Partial success -- launched successfully to 300,000 km high Earth orbit , high speed reentry test guidance malfunction , intentional self - destruct to prevent landfall outside Soviet Union Proton 23 April 1968 Circumlunar Loop non-human biological payload Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit ; launch preparation tank explosion kills three in pad crew Zond - 5 5,375 Proton 15 September 1968 Circumlunar Loop non-human biological payload Success -- looped around Moon , returned live biological payload safely to Earth despite landing off - target outside the Soviet Union in the Indian Ocean Zond - 6 5,375 Proton 10 November 1968 Circumlunar Loop non-human biological payload Partial success -- looped around Moon , successful reentry , but loss of cabin air pressure caused biological payload death , parachute system malfunction and severe vehicle damage upon landing Proton 20 January 1969 Circumlunar Loop non-human biological payload Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Zond - 7 5,979 Proton 8 August 1969 Circumlunar Loop non-human biological payload Success -- looped around Moon , returned biological payload safely to Earth and landed on - target inside Soviet Union . Only Zond mission whose reentry G - forces would have been survivable by human crew had they been aboard . Zond - 8 5,375 Proton 20 October 1970 Circumlunar Loop non-human biological payload Success -- looped around Moon , returned biological payload safely to Earth despite landing off - target outside Soviet Union in the Indian Ocean
Mount St. Helens
St. Helens started its growth in the Pleistocene 37,600 years ago , during the Ape Canyon stage , with dacite and andesite eruptions of hot pumice and ash . Thirty - six thousand years ago a large mudflow cascaded down the volcano ; mudflows were significant forces in all of St. Helens ' eruptive cycles . The Ape Canyon eruptive period ended around 35,000 years ago and was followed by 17,000 years of relative quiet . Parts of this ancestral cone were fragmented and transported by glaciers 14,000 to 18,000 years ago during the last glacial period of the current ice age .
Earth
Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people 's view of the planet . Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of spherical Earth , which was attributed to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides . By the end of the 5th century BC , the sphericity of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals . Earth was generally believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century , when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was a moving object , comparable to the other planets in the Solar System . Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as James Ussher , who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture , Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most . It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth 's age was at least many millions of years .
History of calendars
A mesolithic arrangement of twelve pits and an arc found in Warren Field , Aberdeenshire , Scotland , dated to roughly 10,000 years ago , has been described as a lunar calendar and was dubbed the `` world 's oldest known calendar '' in 2013 .