vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Maya civilization
Supernatural forces pervaded Maya life , and influenced every aspect of it from the simplest day - to - day activities such as food preparation , to trade , politics , and elite activities . Maya deities governed all aspects of the world , both visible and invisible . The Maya priesthood was a closed group , drawing its members from the established elite ; by the Early Classic they were recording increasingly complex ritual information in their hieroglyphic books , including astronomical observations , calendrical cycles , history and mythology . The priests performed public ceremonies that incorporated feasting , bloodletting , incense burning , music , ritual dance , and , on certain occasions , human sacrifice . During the Classic period , the Maya ruler was the high priest , and the direct conduit between mortals and the gods . It is highly likely that , among commoners , shamanism continued in parallel to state religion . By the Postclassic , religious emphasis had changed ; there was an increase in worship of the images of deities , and more frequent recourse to human sacrifice .
Evidence of common descent
When organisms die , they often decompose rapidly or are consumed by scavengers , leaving no permanent evidences of their existence . However , occasionally , some organisms are preserved . The remains or traces of organisms from a past geologic age embedded in rocks by natural processes are called fossils . They are extremely important for understanding the evolutionary history of life on Earth , as they provide direct evidence of evolution and detailed information on the ancestry of organisms . Paleontology is the study of past life based on fossil records and their relations to different geologic time periods .
History of the Latin script
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Iliad
In describing infantry combat , Homer names the phalanx formation , but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought . In the Bronze Age , the chariot was the main battle transport - weapon ( e.g. the Battle of Kadesh ) . The available evidence , from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings , indicate the Mycenaeans used two - man chariots , with a long - spear - armed principal rider , unlike the three - man Hittite chariots with short - spear - armed riders , and unlike the arrow - armed Egyptian and Assyrian two - man chariots . Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots ; he advises them :
Neolithic Revolution
The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from 10,000 to 8,000 BC in the Fertile Crescent and perhaps 8000 BC in the Kuk Early Agricultural Site of Melanesia . This transition everywhere seems associated with a change from a largely nomadic hunter - gatherer way of life to a more settled , agrarian - based one , with the inception of the domestication of various plant and animal species -- depending on the species locally available , and probably also influenced by local culture . Recent archaeological research suggests that in some regions such as the Southeast Asian peninsula , the transition from hunter - gatherer to agriculturalist was not linear , but region - specific .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
A citation , also called a reference , uniquely identifies a source of information , e.g. : Ritter
New Amsterdam
Major recent historical research has been based on a set of documents that have survived from that period , untranslated . They are the administrative records of the colony , unreadable by most scholars . Since the 1970s , a professor named Charles Gehring has made it his life 's work to translate this first - hand history of the Colony of New Netherland .
Alaska
The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey ( AHRS ) is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the state of Alaska ; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology . The survey 's inventory of cultural resources includes objects , structures , buildings , sites , districts , and travel ways , with a general provision that they are over 50 years old . As of January 31 , 2012 , over 35,000 sites have been reported .
Comparative mythology
Comparative mythologists come from various fields , including folklore , anthropology , history , linguistics , and religious studies , and they have used a variety of methods to compare myths . These are some important approaches to comparative mythology .
Celts
Classical writers did not apply the terms Κελτοί or `` Celtae '' to the inhabitants of Britain or Ireland , leading a number of scholars to question the use of the term Celt to describe the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands . The first historical account of the islands of Britain and Ireland was by Pytheas , a Greek from the city of Massalia , who around 310 - 306 BC , sailed around what he called the `` Pretannikai nesoi '' , which can be translated as the `` Pretannic Isles '' . In general , classical writers referred to the inhabitants of Britain as Pretannoi or Britanni . Strabo , writing in the Roman era , clearly distinguished between the Celts and Britons .
Cradle of civilization
The earliest proto - urban settlements with several thousand inhabitants emerged in the Neolithic . The first cities to house several tens of thousands were Memphis and Uruk , by the 31st century BC ( see Historical urban community sizes ) .
Cradle of civilization
The Coxcatlan caves in the Valley of Tehuacán provide evidence for agriculture in components dated between 5000 and 3400 BC . Similarly , sites such as Sipacate in Guatemala provide maize pollen samples dating to 3500 BC . It is estimated that fully domesticated maize developed in Mesoamerica around 2700 BC . Mesoamericans during this period likely divided their time between small hunting encampments and large temporary villages . What would become the Olmec civilization had its roots in early farming cultures of Tabasco , which began around 5100 to 4600 BC .
Ancient Egypt
Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC , and is composed of hundreds of symbols . A hieroglyph can represent a word , a sound , or a silent determinative ; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts . Hieroglyphs were a formal script , used on stone monuments and in tombs , that could be as detailed as individual works of art . In day - to - day writing , scribes used a cursive form of writing , called hieratic , which was quicker and easier . While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction ( though typically written from right to left ) , hieratic was always written from right to left , usually in horizontal rows . A new form of writing , Demotic , became the prevalent writing style , and it is this form of writing -- along with formal hieroglyphs -- that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone .
Aihole
The archaeological significance of the Ambigergudi temple is from the results of limited excavation near the rear wall of the sanctum foundation . This yielded red - ware bowls dated to the 1st and 3rd century CE , as well as an outline of a single cell more ancient brick temple , which probably the stone temple replaced . According to the hypothesis of Rao , the excavating archaeologist , the 3rd century CE brick temple served as a model and sanctum ground on which a more lasting stone was built . This hypothesis , however , remains tentative as additional evidence to refute or support it has not been found . According to Hemanth Kamdambi , Chalukyan temple inscriptions from the 6th to 8th century are silent about the existence of prior temples .
Agatha Christie
Christie had a lifelong interest in archaeology . She met her second husband , Sir Max Mallowan , a distinguished archaeologist , on a trip to the excavation site at Ur in 1930 . But her fame as an author far surpassed his fame in archaeology . Prior to meeting Mallowan , Christie had not had any extensive brushes with archaeology , but once the two married , they made sure to only go to sites where they could work together . Christie accompanied Mallowan on countless archaeological trips , spending 3 -- 4 months at a time in Syria and Iraq at excavation sites at Ur , Nineveh , Tell Arpachiyah , Chagar Bazar , Tell Brak , and Nimrud . She wrote novels and short stories , but also contributed work to the archaeological sites , more specifically to the archaeological restoration and labelling of ancient exhibits , including tasks such as cleaning and conserving delicate ivory pieces , reconstructing pottery , developing photos from early excavations which later led to taking photographs of the site and its findings , and taking field notes .
Cradle of civilization
The earliest signs of a process leading to sedentary culture can be seen in the Levant to as early as 12,000 BC , when the Natufian culture became sedentary ; it evolved into an agricultural society by 10,000 BC . The importance of water to safeguard an abundant and stable food supply , due to favourable conditions for hunting , fishing and gathering resources including cereals , provided an initial wide spectrum economy that triggered the creation of permanent villages .
Pre-Columbian era
A 2007 paper published in PNAS put forward DNA and archaeological evidence that domesticated chickens had been introduced into South America via Polynesia by late pre-Columbian times . These findings were challenged by a later study published in the same journal , that cast doubt on the dating calibration used and presented alternative mtDNA analyses that disagreed with a Polynesian genetic origin . The origin and dating remains an open issue . Whether or not early Polynesian -- American exchanges occurred , no compelling human - genetic , archaeological , cultural or linguistic legacy of such contact has turned up . Norte
Wikipedia:Citing sources
This page explains how to place and format both parts of the citation . Each article should use one citation method or style throughout . If an article already has citations , preserve consistency by using that method or seek consensus on the talk page before changing it ( the principle is reviewed at § Variation in citation methods ) . While you should try to write citations correctly , what matters most is that you provide enough information to identify the source . Others will improve the formatting if needed . Help : Referencing for beginners provides a brief introduction on how to reference Wikipedia articles .
Celts
Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies . While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest , the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals , for economic advantage , and in some instances to conquer territory .
Cradle of civilization
Human history and prehistory ↑ before Homo ( Pliocene epoch ) Prehistory ( three - age system ) Stone Age Lower Paleolithic Homo Homo erectus Middle Paleolithic Early Homo sapiens Upper Paleolithic Behavioral modernity Neolithic Cradle of civilization Bronze Age China Europe India Near East Iron Age Bronze Age collapse China Europe India Japan Korea Near East Nigeria Recorded history Ancient history Earliest records Post-classical history Modern history Early Later Contemporary ↓ Future
Olmec
In addition to their influence with contemporaneous Mesoamerican cultures , as the first civilization in Mesoamerica , the Olmecs are credited , or speculatively credited , with many `` firsts '' , including the bloodletting and perhaps human sacrifice , writing and epigraphy , and the invention of popcorn , zero and the Mesoamerican calendar , and the Mesoamerican ballgame , as well as perhaps the compass . Some researchers , including artist and art historian Miguel Covarrubias , even postulate that the Olmecs formulated the forerunners of many of the later Mesoamerican deities .
Habeas corpus
The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs , also named habeas corpus . These include :
Halley's Comet
The first certain appearance of Halley 's Comet in the historical record is a description from 240 BC , in the Chinese chronicle Records of the Grand Historian or Shiji , which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north . The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets , now owned by the British Museum .
History of Native Americans in the United States
Native American cultures are not included in characterizations of advanced stone age cultures as `` Neolithic , '' which is a category that more often includes only the cultures in Eurasia , Africa , and other regions . The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips ' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology . They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases ; see Archaeology of the Americas .
Hellenistic period
Other sources include Justin 's ( 2nd century AD ) epitome of Pompeius Trogus ' Historiae Philipicae and a summary of Arrian 's Events after Alexander , by Photios I of Constantinople . Lesser supplementary sources include Curtius Rufus , Pausanias , Pliny , and the Byzantine encyclopedia the Suda . In the field of philosophy , Diogenes Laertius ' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is the main source ; works such as Cicero 's De Natura Deorum also provide some further detail of philosophical schools in the Hellenistic period .
Founding Fathers of the United States
Articles and books by twenty - first century historians combined with the digitization of primary sources like handwritten letters continue to contribute to an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the Founding Fathers . Historians
Colonial history of the United States
The primary political cultures of the United States had their origins in the colonial period . Most theories of political culture identify New England , the Mid-Atlantic , and the South as having formed separate and distinct political cultures .
Theses on the Philosophy of History
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Hellenistic period
The most important source after Polybius is Diodorus Siculus who wrote his Bibliotheca historica between 60 and 30 BC and reproduced some important earlier sources such as Hieronymus , but his account of the Hellenistic period breaks off after the battle of Ipsus ( 301 ) . Another important source , Plutarch 's ( c. 50 -- c. 120 ) Parallel Lives although more preoccupied with issues of personal character and morality , outlines the history of important Hellenistic figures . Appian of Alexandria ( late 1st century AD - before 165 ) wrote a history of the Roman empire that includes information of some Hellenistic kingdoms .
History of childhood
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Historian
At the same time , philosopher David Hume was having a similar impact on history in Great Britain . In 1754 , he published the History of England , a six - volume work that extended from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688 . Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history ; as well as the history of Kings , Parliaments , and armies , he examined the history of culture , including literature and science , as well . William Robertson , a Scottish historian , and the Historiographer Royal published the History of Scotland 1542 - 1603 , in 1759 and his most famous work , The history of the reign of Charles V in 1769 . His scholarship was painstaking for the time and he was able to access a large number of documentary sources that had previously been unstudied . He was also one of the first historians who understood the importance of general and universally applicable ideas in the shaping of historical events .
Primary election
This section should include only a brief summary of Primary elections in the United States . See Wikipedia : Summary style for information on how to properly incorporate it into this article 's main text . ( September 2016 )
English Reformation
Revisionists comprise a third school , led by Christopher Haigh , Jack Scarisbrick and numerous other scholars . Their main achievement was the discovery of an entirely new corpus of primary sources at the local level , leading them to the emphasis on Reformation as it played out on a daily and local basis , with much less emphasis on the control from the top they emphasize turning away from elite sources they emphasize local parish records , diocesan files , guild records , data from boroughs , the courts , and especially telltale individual wills .
History of education in the United States
Education in the United States By state and in insular areas By subject area History of Issues : Finance -- Law -- Literacy -- Reform Levels : Pre-kindergarten -- Primary -- Secondary -- Higher Organizations Education portal United States portal
Primary election
Primaries are used in various countries throughout the world . Its origins can be traced to the progressive movement in the United States , which aimed to take the power of candidate nomination from party leaders to the people . Political parties control the method of nomination of candidates for office in the name of the party .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
When citing lengthy sources , you should identify which part of a source is being cited . Books
History of education in the United States
Most histories of education deal with institutions or focus on the ideas histories of major reformers , but a new social history has recently emerged , focused on who were the students in terms of social background and social mobility . Attention has often focused on minority , and ethnic students . The social history of teachers has also been studied in depth .
History of Mexico
Accounts written by the Spanish at the time of their conquest ( the conquistadores ) and by indigenous chroniclers of the post-conquest period constitute the principal source of information regarding Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest .
Historian
The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon 's , monumental six - volume work , The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , published on 17 February 1776 . Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources , at the time its methodology became a model for later historians . This has led to Gibbon being called the first `` modern historian '' . The book sold impressively , earning its author a total of about £ 9000 . Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter , `` His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting . ''
Historian
One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art , was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt Burckhardt 's best - known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy ( 1860 ) . According to John Lukacs , he was the first master of cultural history , which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age , a particular people , or a particular place . By the mid-19th century , scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change , particularly the development of constitutional government . William Stubbs 's Constitutional History of England ( 3 vols. , 1874 -- 78 ) was an important influence on this developing field . The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485 , and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning .
Industrial Revolution
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History of India
Historiography is the study of the history and methodology of the discipline of history . The term historiography also denotes a body of historical work on a specialised topic . In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography regarding India : Cambridge , Nationalist , Marxist , and subaltern . The once common `` Orientalist '' approach , with its image of a sensuous , inscrutable , and wholly spiritual India , has died out in serious scholarship .
Ancient Greece
Herodotus is widely known as the `` father of history '' : his Histories are eponymous of the entire field . Written between the 450s and 420s BC , Herodotus ' work reaches about a century into the past , discussing 6th century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia , Cambyses II and Psamtik III , and alluding to some 8th century ones such as Candaules .
Historian
The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century . Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
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Cherokee
Another major source of early cultural history comes from materials written in the 19th century by the didanvwisgi ( ᏗᏓᏅᏫᏍᎩ ) , Cherokee medicine men , after Sequoyah 's creation of the Cherokee syllabary in the 1820s . Initially only the didanvwisgi learned to write and read such materials , which were considered extremely powerful in a spiritual sense . Later , the syllabary and writings were widely adopted by the Cherokee people .
Two-party system
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History of childhood
During this period children 's education became more common and institutionalized , in order to supply the church and state with the functionaries to serve as their future administrators . Small local schools where poor children learned to read and write were established by philanthropists , while the sons and daughters of the noble and bourgeois elites were given distinct educations at the grammar school and university .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
^ Miller , Edward . The Sun . Academic Press , 2005 , p. 1 .
French Revolution
Globally , the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies . It became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies , leading to the spread of liberalism , radicalism , nationalism , and secularism , among many others . The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France and the lives of its citizens towards the objective of military conquest . Some of its central documents , such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , continued to inspire movements for abolitionism and universal suffrage in the next century .
Indian Rebellion of 1857
Adas ( 1971 ) examines the historiography with emphasis on the four major approaches : the Indian nationalist view ; the Marxist analysis ; the view of the Rebellion as a traditionalist rebellion ; and intensive studies of local uprisings . Many of the key primary and secondary sources appear in Biswamoy Pati , ed. 1857 Rebellion . Sepoy
Qing dynasty
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