vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Health care in the United States
The top three causes of death among both sexes and all ages in the U.S. have consistently remained cardiovascular diseases ( ranked 1st ) , neoplasms ( 2nd ) and neurological disorders ( 3rd ) , since the 1990s . In 2015 , 267.18 per 100,000 deaths were caused by cardiovascular diseases , 204.63 by neoplasms and 100.66 by neurological disorders . Diarrhea , lower respiratory and other common infections were ranked 6th overall , but had the highest rate of infectious disease mortality in the U.S. at 31.65 deaths per 100,000 . There is evidence , however , that a large proportion of health outcomes and early mortality can be attributed to factors other than communicable or non-communicable disease . As a 2013 National Research Council study concluded , more than half the men who die before 50 die due to murder ( 19 % ) , traffic accidents ( 18 % ) , and other accidents ( 16 % ) . For women , the percentages are different . 53 % of women who die before 50 die due to disease , whereas 38 % die due to accidents , homicide , and suicide .
Nosebleed
Although the sight of large amounts of blood can be alarming and may warrant medical attention , nosebleeds are rarely fatal , accounting for only 4 of the 2.4 million deaths in the U.S. in 1999 . About 60 % of people have a nosebleed at some point in their life . About 10 % of nosebleeds are serious .
Amniotic fluid
A rare but very often fatal condition ( fatal for both mother and child ) connected with amniotic fluid is amniotic fluid embolism .
Atlantic slave trade
Despite the vast profits of slavery , the ordinary sailors on slave ships were badly paid and subject to harsh discipline . Mortality of around 20 % was expected in a ship 's crew during the course of a voyage ; this was due to disease , flogging , overwork or slave uprisings . Disease ( malaria or yellow fever ) was the most common cause of death among sailors . A high crew mortality rate on the return voyage was in the captain 's interests as it reduced the number of sailors who had to be paid on reaching the home port .
Diphtheria
Diphtheria is fatal in between 5 % and 10 % of cases . In children under five years and adults over 40 years , the fatality rate may be as much as 20 % . In 2013 , it resulted in 3,300 deaths , down from 8,000 deaths in 1990 .
Huntington's disease
Life expectancy in HD is generally around 20 years following the onset of visible symptoms . Most life - threatening complications result from muscle coordination and , to a lesser extent , behavioral changes induced by declining cognitive function . The largest risk is pneumonia , which causes death in one third of those with HD . As the ability to synchronize movements deteriorates , difficulty clearing the lungs and an increased risk of aspirating food or drink both increase the risk of contracting pneumonia . The second greatest risk is heart disease , which causes almost a quarter of fatalities of those with HD . Suicide is the third greatest cause of fatalities , with 7.3 % of those with HD taking their own lives and up to 27 % attempting to do so . It is unclear to what extent suicidal thoughts are influenced by behavioral symptoms , as they signify sufferers ' desires to avoid the later stages of the disease . Other associated risks include choking , physical injury from falls , and malnutrition .
Colonial history of the United States
Mortality was very high for new arrivals , and high for children in the colonial era . Malaria was deadly to many new arrivals in the Southern colonies . For an example of newly arrived able - bodied young men , over one - fourth of the Anglican missionaries died within five years of their arrival in the Carolinas .
Non-communicable disease
If present growth trends are maintained , by 2020 , NCDs will attribute to 7 out of every 10 deaths in developing countries , killing 52 million people annually worldwide by 2030 . With statistics such as these , it comes as no surprise that international entities such as the World Health Organization & World Bank Human Development Network have identified the prevention and control of NCDs as an increasingly important discussion item on the global health agenda .
English Civil War
As usual in wars of this era , disease caused more deaths than combat . There are no accurate figures for these periods , and it is not possible to give a precise overall figure for those killed in battle , as opposed to those who died from disease , or even from a natural decline in population .
American Civil War
Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll , they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle . Losses among African Americans were high , in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties , approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War . Notably , their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers :
Non-communicable disease
NCDs are the leading cause of death globally . In 2012 , they caused 68 % of all deaths ( 38 million ) up from 60 % in 2000 . About half were under age 70 and half were women . Risk factors such as a person 's background , lifestyle and environment increase the likelihood of certain NCDs . Every year , at least 5 million people die because of tobacco use and about 2.8 million die from being overweight . High cholesterol accounts for roughly 2.6 million deaths and 7.5 million die because of high blood pressure .
Apoptosis
Cells may also die as direct consequences of viral infections . HIV - 1 expression induces tubular cell G2 / M arrest and apoptosis . The progression from HIV to AIDS is not immediate or even necessarily rapid ; HIV 's cytotoxic activity toward CD4+ lymphocytes is classified as AIDS once a given patient 's CD4+ cell count falls below 200 .
Germ theory of disease
The third postulate specifies `` should '' , not `` must '' , because as Koch himself proved in regard to both tuberculosis and cholera , not all organisms exposed to an infectious agent will acquire the infection . Noninfection may be due to such factors as general health and proper immune functioning ; acquired immunity from previous exposure or vaccination ; or genetic immunity , as with the resistance to malaria conferred by possessing at least one sickle cell allele .
Correlation does not imply causation
As ice cream sales increase , the rate of drowning deaths increases sharply . Therefore , ice cream consumption causes drowning .
Non-communicable disease
Referred to as a `` lifestyle '' disease , because the majority of these diseases are preventable illnesses , the most common causes for non-communicable diseases ( NCD ) include tobacco use ( smoking ) , alcohol abuse , poor diets ( high consumption of sugar , salt , saturated fats , and trans fatty acids ) and physical inactivity . Currently , NCD kills 36 million people a year , a number that by some estimates is expected to rise by 17 -- 24 % within the next decade .
Air pollution in the United States
Diabetes mellitus is a disease that is characterized by the body 's inability to properly regulate blood glucose ( or blood sugar ) levels . Prolonged levels of high blood sugar may lead to severe health complications such as heart disease , nerve damage , kidney failure , blindness , or even early death . As diabetes becomes a rising epidemic , the Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that up to nearly 8 million U.S. citizens may have undiagnosed diabetes or its precursor . Conventional medical findings suggest that unhealthy or calorie - dense diets , lack of physical activity , and family history are risk factors for developing the disease ; however , recent studies are beginning to trace a connection between Type 2 diabetes and the external factor of air pollution . Because socioeconomic status , race , and exposure to air pollution are frequently correlated , the CDC acknowledges certain socioeconomic conditions or races as pre-existing risk factors for Type 2 diabetes , in addition to those previously listed . Statistics suggest that Hispanic people are 50 % more likely to die from diabetes than whites , and studies focusing on issues of environmental injustice are able to demonstrate possible reasons for this disparity . Proximity
Human rights and development
Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia accounted for 5.3 million 81 % of the 6.6 million deaths The main killers are pneumonia , prenatal and intrapartum complications , diarrhoea and malaria . The first month , particularly the first 24 hours , are the most dangerous in a child 's life . Newborns now account for almost half 44 % of under - five deaths and undernutrition contributes to 45 % of all under - five deaths . Over the past two decades in Bangladesh UNICEF has supported local efforts training community health - care workers leading to a decline in maternal and child mortality . Infant mortality declined from 100 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990 to 33 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2012 . In the same period under five mortality dropped by 72 % from 144 deaths per 1,000 births in 1990 to 41 deaths per 1000 births in 2012 .
Thalidomide
As of 2013 eighteen cases of overdoses had been reported with doses of up to 14.4 g , none of them fatal . No specific antidote for overdoses exists and treatment is purely supportive .
X chromosome
Adrenoleukodystrophy , a rare and fatal disorder that is carried by the mother on the x-cell . It affects only boys between the ages of 5 and 10 and destroys the protective cell surrounding the nerves , myelin , in the brain . The female carrier hardly shows any symptoms because females have a copy of the x-cell . This disorder causes a once healthy boy to lose all abilities to walk , talk , see , hear , and even swallow . Within 2 years after diagnosis , most boys with Adrenoleukodystrophy die . Role
West African Ebola virus epidemic
Ebola virus disease has a high case fatality rate ( CFR ) , which in past outbreaks varied between 25 % and 90 % , with an average of about 50 % . However , it is known that the Zaire species , which was responsible for the West African outbreak , carries a higher death rate ; the epidemic caused significant mortality , with reported CFRs of up to 70 % . Care settings that have access to medical expertise may increase survival by providing good maintenance of hydration , circulatory volume , and blood pressure .
Myocardial infarction
In contrast , IHD is becoming a more common cause of death in the developing world . For example , in India , IHD had become the leading cause of death by 2004 , accounting for 1.46 million deaths ( 14 % of total deaths ) and deaths due to IHD were expected to double during 1985 -- 2015 . Globally , disability adjusted life years ( DALYs ) lost to ischemic heart disease are predicted to account for 5.5 % of total DALYs in 2030 , making it the second-most - important cause of disability ( after unipolar depressive disorder ) , as well as the leading cause of death by this date .
Substantia nigra
The cause of death of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta is unknown . However , some contributions to the unique susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta have been identified . For one , dopaminergic neurons show abnormalities in mitochondrial complex 1 , causing aggregation of alpha - synuclein ; this can result in abnormal protein handling and neuron death . Secondly , dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta contain less calbindin than other dopaminergic neurons . Calbindin is a protein involved in calcium ion transport within cells , and excess calcium in cells is toxic . The calbindin theory would explain the high cytotoxicity of Parkinson 's in the substantia nigra compared to the ventral tegmental area . Regardless of the cause of neuronal death , the plasticity of the pars compacta is very robust ; Parkinsonian symptoms do not appear until up to 50 - 80 % of pars compacta dopaminergic neurons have died . Most of this plasticity occurs at the neurochemical level ; dopamine transport systems are slowed , allowing dopamine to linger for longer periods of time in the chemical synapses in the striatum .
Democratic Republic of the Congo
In 2012 , it was estimated that about 1.1 % of adults aged 15 -- 49 were living with HIV / AIDS . Malaria is also a problem . Yellow fever also affects DRC .
Coffee
In 2012 , the National Institutes of Health -- AARP Diet and Health Study analysed the relationship between coffee drinking and mortality . They found that higher coffee consumption was associated with lower risk of death , and that those who drank any coffee lived longer than those who did not . However the authors noted , `` whether this was a causal or associational finding can not be determined from our data . '' A 2014 meta - analysis found that coffee consumption ( 4 cups / day ) was inversely associated with all - cause mortality ( a 16 % lower risk ) , as well as cardiovascular disease mortality specifically ( a 21 % lower risk from drinking 3 cups / day ) , but not with cancer mortality . Additional meta - analysis studies corroborated these findings , showing that higher coffee consumption ( 2 -- 4 cups per day ) was associated with a reduced risk of death by all disease causes . Cardiovascular
Heart
Cardiovascular diseases ( CVD ) are the most common cause of death globally as of 2008 , accounting for 30 % of deaths . Of these more than three quarters are a result of coronary artery disease and stroke . Risk factors include : smoking , being overweight , little exercise , high cholesterol , high blood pressure , and poorly controlled diabetes , among others . Cardiovascular diseases frequently do not have symptoms or may cause chest pain or shortness of breath . Diagnosis of heart disease is often done by the taking of a medical history , listening to the heart - sounds with a stethoscope , ECG , and ultrasound . Specialists who focus on diseases of the heart are called cardiologists , although many specialties of medicine may be involved in treatment .
1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
It will be observed that the deaths either very much diminished , or ceased altogether , at every point where it becomes decidedly nearer to send to another pump than to the one in Broad street . It may also be noticed that the deaths are most numerous near to the pump where the water could be more readily obtained .
Mount Everest
An example of a death in which Dex was implicated was Dr. Eberhard Schaaf in 2012 on Everest . Schaaf died on descent at the south summit from altitude sickness . It has a good reputation as a life saver , and is commonly given to Everest climbers for its ability to intervene in last desperate moments when altitude sickness sets in . For example , in the 2016 season Robert Gropel said he gave Dex to his wife ( as reported by the Daily Telegraph ) in attempt to save her as they tried to descend Everest . Dex is just the tip of the iceberg , with the UIAA noting the aforementioned dexamethasone , but also acetazolamide ( aka Diamox ) , amphetamine , and alcohol use ; and another noted Diamox ( acetazolamide ) use among trekkers . It is not really a matter of some authorities being for or against medications , but awareness , as misuse can cause drug interactions and various side effects . In particular it was noted that supplementary oxygen significantly lowers death rate on ultra-high altitude mountain climbing , and is generally not regulated as a drug , whereas the safe use of medications is less understood or even acknowledged in many cases . ( see also : Effects of high altitude on humans )
Boxer (dog)
About 22 % of puppies die before reaching 7 weeks of age . Stillbirth is the most frequent cause of death , followed by infection . Mortality due to infection increases significantly with increases in inbreeding .
Air pollution in the United States
The prevalence of the bacterial infections is not equally distributed in terms race of and socioeconomic status . In the United States , bacterial pneumonia , caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria ( pneumococcus ) which enters human body usually via inhalation , is significantly associated with morbidity and mortality among adults . The risk of being diagnosed with bacterial pneumonia is more than double in African American people compared to white people ( RR = 2.40 ) . Also the prevalence of bacterial pneumonia in most impoverished African American census area , 20 % or more people in the area live below the federal poverty level , is 4.44 times higher than the least impoverished white census area , less than 5 % of the population in the area live below the federal poverty level , and 2.12 time higher than most impoverished white census area . Cancer
Natural selection
Some forms of balancing selection do not result in fixation , but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population . This can occur in diploid species ( with pairs of chromosomes ) when heterozygous individuals ( with just one copy of the allele ) have a higher fitness than homozygous individuals ( with two copies ) . This is called heterozygote advantage or over-dominance , of which the best - known example is the resistance to malaria in humans heterozygous for sickle - cell anaemia . Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection , which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction ( that is , the opposite of over-dominance ) , and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values . Finally , balancing selection can occur through frequency - dependent selection , where the fitness of one particular phenotype depends on the distribution of other phenotypes in the population . The principles of game theory have been applied to understand the fitness distributions in these situations , particularly in the study of kin selection and the evolution of reciprocal altruism .
Apoptosis
Because apoptosis can not stop once it has begun , it is a highly regulated process . Apoptosis can be initiated through one of two pathways . In the intrinsic pathway the cell kills itself because it senses cell stress , while in the extrinsic pathway the cell kills itself because of signals from other cells . Both pathways induce cell death by activating caspases , which are proteases , or enzymes that degrade proteins . The two pathways both activate initiator caspases , which then activate executioner caspases , which then kill the cell by degrading proteins indiscriminately .
Atlantic slave trade
Meltzer also states that 33 % of Africans would have died in the first year at the seasoning camps found throughout the Caribbean . Jamaica held one of the most notorious of these camps . Dysentery was the leading cause of death . Around 5 million Africans died in these camps , reducing the number of survivors to about 10 million .
Non-communicable disease
Previously , chronic NCDs were considered a problem limited mostly to high income countries , while infectious diseases seemed to affect low income countries . The burden of disease attributed to NCDs has been estimated at 85 % in industrialized nations , 70 % in middle income nations , and nearly 50 % in countries with the lowest national incomes . In 2008 , chronic NCDs accounted for more than 60 % ( over 35 million ) of the 57 million deaths worldwide . Given the global population distribution , almost 80 % of deaths due to chronic NCDs worldwide now occur in low and middle income countries , while only 20 % occur in higher income countries .
1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
Snow 's analysis of cholera and cholera outbreaks extended past the closure of the Broad Street pump . He concluded that cholera was transmitted through and affected the alimentary canal within the human body . Cholera did not affect either the circulatory or the nervous system and there was no `` poison in the blood ... in the consecutive fever ... the blood became poisoned from urea getting into the circulation '' . According to Snow , this `` urea '' would entered the blood through kidney failure . ( Acute renal failure is a complication of cholera . )
Autophagy
One of the mechanisms of programmed cell death ( PCD ) is associated with the appearance of autophagosomes and depends on autophagy proteins . This form of cell death most likely corresponds to a process that has been morphologically defined as autophagic PCD . One question that constantly arises , however , is whether autophagic activity in dying cells is the cause of death or is actually an attempt to prevent it . Morphological and histochemical studies so far did not prove a causative relationship between the autophagic process and cell death . In fact , there have recently been strong arguments that autophagic activity in dying cells might actually be a survival mechanism . Studies of the metamorphosis of insects have shown cells undergoing a form of PCD that appears distinct from other forms ; these have been proposed as examples of autophagic cell death . Recent pharmacological and biochemical studies have proposed that survival and lethal autophagy can be distinguished by the type and degree of regulatory signaling during stress particularly after viral infection . Although promising , these findings have not been examined in non-viral systems .
Correlation does not imply causation
This example fails to recognize the importance of time of year and temperature to ice cream sales . Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater rate than during colder times , and it is during these hot summer months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving water , such as swimming . The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more exposure to water - based activities , not ice cream . The stated conclusion is false .
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Carbon monoxide poisoning is relatively common , resulting in more than 20,000 emergency room visits a year in the United States . It is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries . In the United States non-fire related cases results in more than 400 deaths a year . Poisonings occur more often in the winter , particularly from the use of portable generators during power outages . The toxic effects of CO have been known since ancient history . The realization that hemoglobin was affected by CO was determined in 1857 .
Geography and wealth
Ticks , mosquitos , and rats , which continue to be important disease vectors , benefit from warmer temperatures and higher humidities . There has long been a malarial belt spanning the equatorial portions of the globe ; the disease is especially deadly to children under the age of five . Notably it has been almost impossible for most forms of northern livestock to thrive due to the endemic presence of the tsetse fly .
United States
In 2010 , coronary artery disease , lung cancer , stroke , chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases , and traffic accidents caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. Low back pain , depression , musculoskeletal disorders , neck pain , and anxiety caused the most years lost to disability . The most deleterious risk factors were poor diet , tobacco smoking , obesity , high blood pressure , high blood sugar , physical inactivity , and alcohol use . Alzheimer 's disease , drug abuse , kidney disease , cancer , and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age - adjusted 1990 per - capita rates . U.S. teenage pregnancy and abortion rates are substantially higher than in other Western nations , especially among blacks and Hispanics . Suicide rates have increased in nearly every state from 1999 through 2016 , and is a leading cause of death in the United States . Drug overdoses , two - thirds of which are from opioids , are the leading cause of death for those under the age of 50 .