vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Columbian Exchange
Similarly , yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade . Because it was endemic in Africa , many people there had acquired immunity . Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African - descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas , where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century . The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave - based sugar plantation . The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural predators . Yet , the means of the transmission was unknown until 1881 , when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes , now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti .
First Fleet
Other historians have disputed the idea that there was a deliberate release of smallpox virus and / or suggest that it arrived with visitors to Australia other than the First Fleet . In 2002 , historian Judy Campbell suggested that smallpox had arrived in Australia through contact with fishermen from Makassar in Indonesia , where smallpox was endemic . In 2011 , Macknight stated : `` The overwhelming probability must be that it ( smallpox ) was introduced , like the later epidemics , by ( Indonesian ) trepangers ... and spread across the continent to arrive in Sydney quite independently of the new settlement there . ''
Christianity in Africa
Christianity in Africa began in Egypt in the middle of the 1st century . By the end of the 2nd century it had reached the region around Carthage . Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian , Perpetua , Felicity , Clement of Alexandria , Origen of Alexandria , Cyprian , Athanasius and Augustine of Hippo .
Vitiligo
Descriptions of a disease believed to be vitiligo date back to a passage in the medical text Ebers Papyrus circa 1500 BC in ancient Egypt . Mentions of whitening of the skin were also present circa 1400 BC in sacred Indian texts such as Atharvaveda as well as Shinto prayers in East Asia circa 1200 BC . The Hebrew word `` Tzaraath '' from the Old Testament book of Leviticus dating to 1280 BCE ( or 1312 BCE ) described a group of skin disease associated with white spots , and a subsequent translation to Greek led to continued conflation of those with vitiligo with leprosy and spiritual uncleanliness . Medical sources in the ancient world such as Hippocrates often did not differentiate between vitiligo and leprosy , often grouping these diseases together . In Arabic literature , the word `` alabras '' has been associated with vitiligo , with this word found in the Quran . The name `` vitiligo '' was first used by the Roman physician Aulus Cornelius Celsus in his classic medical text De Medicina .
West African Ebola virus epidemic
The first case in Nigeria was a Liberian - American , who flew from Liberia to Nigeria 's most populated city of Lagos on 20 July 2014 . On 6 August 2014 , the Nigerian health minister told reporters that one of the nurses that attended to the Liberian had died from the disease . 5 newly confirmed cases were being treated at an isolation ward .
History of West Africa
Studies of human mitochondrial DNA suggest that all humans share common ancestors from Africa , originated in the southwestern regions near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola at the approximate coordinates 12.5 ° E , 17.5 ° S with a divergence in the migration path around 37.5 ° E , 22.5 ° N near the Red Sea .
Free clinic
The modern notion of a free clinic began in the 1960s in San Francisco when Dr. David Smith founded the Haight Ashbury Free Clinics in 1967 during the summer of love in the Haight Ashbury district . Free clinics quickly spread to other California cities and the rest of the United States . In 1972 a meeting was held in Washington DC where clinic staff from around the country gathered and listened to speakers including Dr. Smith . At this meeting the slogan `` Health Care is a Right Not a Privilege '' emerged as a theme .
Hawaii
Historical records indicated the earliest Chinese immigrants to Hawaii originated from Guangdong Province ; a few sailors arrived in 1778 with Captain Cook 's journey and more arrived in 1789 with an American trader , who settled in Hawaii in the late 18th century . It appears that leprosy was introduced by Chinese workers by 1830 ; as with the other new infectious diseases , it proved damaging to the Hawaiians .
Scabies
The Roman encyclopedist and medical writer Aulus Cornelius Celsus ( c. 25 BC -- 50 AD ) is credited with naming the disease `` scabies '' and describing its characteristic features . The parasitic etiology of scabies was documented by the Italian physician Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo ( 1663 -- 1696 ) in his 1687 letter , `` Observations concerning the fleshworms of the human body '' . Bonomo 's description established scabies as one of the first human diseases with a well - understood cause .
Germ theory of disease
Microorganisms are said to have been first directly observed in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek , an early pioneer in microbiology . Yet Athanasius Kircher may have done so prior . When Rome was struck by the bubonic plague in 1656 , Kircher spent days on end caring for the sick . Searching for a cure , Kircher observed microorganisms under the microscope and invented the germ theory of disease , which he outlined in his Scrutinium pestis physico - medicum ( Rome 1658 ) . Building on Leeuwenhoek 's work , physician Nicolas Andry argued in 1700 that microorganisms he called `` worms '' were responsible for smallpox and other diseases .
Oncogene
The first confirmed oncogene was discovered in 1970 and was termed src ( pronounced sarc as in sarcoma ) . Src was in fact first discovered as an oncogene in a chicken retrovirus . Experiments performed by Dr. G. Steve Martin of the University of California , Berkeley demonstrated that the Src was indeed the oncogene of the virus . The first nucleotide sequence of v - src was sequenced in 1980 by A.P. Czernilofsky et al .
History of Kenya
The first Christian mission was founded on 25 August 1846 , by Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf , a German sponsored by the Church Missionary Society of England . He established a station among the Mijikenda on the coast . He later translated the Bible into Swahili .
Avocado
The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martín Fernández de Enciso ( circa 1470 -- 1528 ) in 1519 in his book , Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo . The first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in his work Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias ( es ) in 1526 . The first written record in English of the use of the word ' avocado ' was by Hans Sloane , who coined the term in 1669 , in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants . The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601 , Indonesia around 1750 , Mauritius in 1780 , Brazil in 1809 , the United States mainland in 1825 , South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century , and Israel in 1908 . In the United States , the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856 .
Primate
Apes and monkeys spread from Africa into Europe and Asia starting in the Miocene . Soon after , the lorises and tarsiers made the same journey . The first hominin fossils were discovered in northern Africa and date back 5 -- 8 mya. Old World monkeys disappeared from Europe about 1.8 mya . Molecular and fossil studies generally show that modern humans originated in Africa 100,000 -- 200,000 years ago .
Oncogene
In 1976 Drs . Dominique Stehelin , J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus of the University of California , San Francisco demonstrated that oncogenes were activated proto - oncogenes , found in many organisms including humans . Bishop and Varmus were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1989 for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes .
Lyme disease
Perhaps the first detailed description of what is now known as Lyme disease appeared in the writings of Reverend Dr. John Walker after a visit to the Island of Jura ( Deer Island ) off the west coast of Scotland in 1764 . He gives a good description both of the symptoms of Lyme disease ( with `` exquisite pain ( in ) the interior parts of the limbs '' ) and of the tick vector itself , which he describes as a `` worm '' with a body which is `` of a reddish colour and of a compressed shape with a row of feet on each side '' that `` penetrates the skin '' . Many people from this area of Great Britain emigrated to North America between 1717 and the end of the 18th century .
Herpes simplex
In the UK , the Herpes Association ( now the Herpes Viruses Association ) was started in 1982 , becoming a registered charity with a Dept of Health grant in 1985 . The charity started as a string of local group meetings before acquiring an office and a national spread .
Medical diagnosis
The first recorded examples of medical diagnosis are found in the writings of Imhotep ( 2630 -- 2611 BC ) in ancient Egypt ( the Edwin Smith Papyrus ) . A Babylonian medical textbook , the Diagnostic Handbook written by Esagil - kin - apli ( fl. 1069 -- 1046 BC ) , introduced the use of empiricism , logic and rationality in the diagnosis of an illness or disease . Traditional Chinese Medicine , as described in the Yellow Emperor 's Inner Canon or Huangdi Neijing , specified four diagnostic methods : inspection , auscultation - olfaction , interrogation , and palpation . Hippocrates was known to make diagnoses by tasting his patients ' urine and smelling their sweat .
Herpes simplex
Herpes has been known for at least 2,000 years . Emperor Tiberius is said to have banned kissing in Rome for a time due to so many people having cold sores . In the 16th - century Romeo and Juliet , blisters `` o'er ladies ' lips '' are mentioned . In the 18th century , it was so common among prostitutes that it was called `` a vocational disease of women '' . The term ' herpes simplex ' appeared in Richard Boulton 's A System of Rational and Practical Chirurgery in 1713 , where the terms ' herpes miliaris ' and ' herpes exedens ' also appeared . Herpes was not found to be a virus until the 1940s .
Christianity in Africa
The early 4th century in Egypt began with renewed persecution under the Emperor Diocletian . In the Ethiopian / Eritrean Kingdom of Aksum , King Ezana declared Christianity the official religion after having been converted by Frumentius , resulting in the foundation of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church .
Samoa
The origins of the Samoans are closely studied in modern research about Polynesia in various scientific disciplines such as genetics , linguistics and anthropology . Scientific research is ongoing , although a number of different theories exist ; including one proposing that the Samoans originated from Austronesian predecessors during the terminal eastward Lapita expansion period from Southeast Asia and Melanesia between 2,500 and 1,500 BCE .
New Spain
Spanish settlers brought to the American continent smallpox , typhoid fever , and other diseases . Most of the Spanish settlers had developed an immunity to these diseases from childhood , but the indigenous peoples lacked the needed antibodies since these diseases were totally alien to the native population at the time . There were at least three , separate , major epidemics that decimated the population : smallpox ( 1520 to 1521 ) , measles ( 1545 to 1548 ) and typhus ( 1576 to 1581 ) . In the course of the 16th century , the native population in Mexico went from an estimated pre-Columbian population of 8 to 20 million to less than two million . Therefore , at the start of the 17th century , continental New Spain was a depopulated country with abandoned cities and maize fields . These diseases would not affect the Philippines in the same way because the diseases were already present in the country ; Pre-Hispanic Filipinos had contact with other foreign nationalities before the arrival of the Spaniards .
West African Ebola virus epidemic
The initial infection is believed to occur after an Ebola virus is transmitted to a human by contact with an infected animal 's body fluids . Evidence strongly implicates bats as the reservoir hosts for ebolaviruses ( however , despite considerable research , infectious ebolaviruses have never been recovered from bats ) . Bats drop partially eaten fruit and pulp , then land mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fallen fruit . This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations . As primates in the area were not found to be infected and fruit bats do not live near the location of the initial zoonotic transmission event in Meliandou , Guinea , it is suspected that the index case occurred after a child had contact with an insectivorous bat from a colony of Angolan free - tailed bats near the village .
Virus
The first images of viruses were obtained upon the invention of electron microscopy in 1931 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll . In 1935 , American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein . A short time later , this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts . The tobacco mosaic virus was the first to be crystallised and its structure could therefore be elucidated in detail . The first X-ray diffraction pictures of the crystallised virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941 . On the basis of her pictures , Rosalind Franklin discovered the full structure of the virus in 1955 . In the same year , Heinz Fraenkel - Conrat and Robley Williams showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its protein coat can assemble by themselves to form functional viruses , suggesting that this simple mechanism was probably the means through which viruses were created within their host cells .
Silk Road
Some studies indicate that the Black Death , which devastated Europe starting in the late 1340s , may have reached Europe from Central Asia ( or China ) along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire . One theory holds that Genoese traders coming from the entrepot of Trebizond in northern Turkey carried the disease to Western Europe ; like many other outbreaks of plague , there is strong evidence that it originated in marmots in Central Asia and was carried westwards to the Black Sea by Silk Road traders .
CCR5
The CCR5 Δ32 allele is notable for its recent origin , unexpectedly high frequency , and distinct geographic distribution , which together suggest that ( a ) it arose from a single mutation , and ( b ) it was historically subject to positive selection .
Maldives
The earliest written history of the Maldives was marked by the arrival of Sinhalese people in Sri Lanka and the Maldives ( Mahiladvipika ) circa 543 to 483 BC , as reported in the Mahavansa . Their settlement marks a significant change in demographics and the development of the Indo - Aryan language Dhivehi language .
Virus
Classification seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities . In 1962 , André Lwoff , Robert Horne , and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification , based on the Linnaean hierarchical system . This system based classification on phylum , class , order , family , genus , and species . Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties ( not those of their hosts ) and the type of nucleic acid forming their genomes . In 1966 , the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses ( ICTV ) was formed . The system proposed by Lwoff , Horne and Tournier was never fully accepted by the ICTV because small genome size viruses and their high rate of mutation makes it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order . As such , the Baltimore classification is used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy .
History of West Africa
African Americans in several major US cities who took part in a generic research study , concluded that their common ancestry originated most prominently in western Africa which is consistent with prior genetic studies and the history of slave trade .
Non-communicable disease
The first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in 1949 by Jerry Morris using occupational health data and were published in 1958 . The causes , prevention , and / or treatment of all forms of cardiovascular disease remain active fields of biomedical research , with hundreds of scientific studies being published on a weekly basis . A trend has emerged , particularly in the early 2000s , in which numerous studies have revealed a link between fast food and an increase in heart disease . These studies include those conducted by the Ryan Mackey Memorial Research Institute , Harvard University and the Sydney Center for Cardiovascular Health . Many major fast food chains , particularly McDonald 's , have protested the methods used in these studies and have responded with healthier menu options .
History of West Africa
A particular haplogroup of DNA , halpogroup L2 , evolved between 87,000 and 107,000 years ago or approx . 90,000 YBP . Its age and widespread distribution and diversity across the continent makes its exact origin point within Africa difficult to trace with any confidence , however an origin for several L2 groups in West or Central Africa seems likely , with the highest diversity in West Africa . Most of its subclades are largely confined to West and western - Central Africa .
History of West Africa
The history of West Africa began with the first human settlements around 4,000 BCE . It has been commonly divided into its prehistory , the Iron Age in Africa , the major polities flourishing , the colonial period , and finally the post-independence era , in which the current nations were formed . West Africa is west of an imagined north - south axis lying close to 10 ° east longitude , bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and Sahara Desert .
Lyme disease
In 1970 , a dermatologist in Wisconsin named Rudolph Scrimenti recognized an EM lesion in a patient after recalling a paper by Hellerström that had been reprinted in an American science journal in 1950 . This was the first documented case of EM in the United States . Based on the European literature , he treated the patient with penicillin .
Herpes simplex
An important source of support is the National Herpes Resource Center which arose from the work of the American Social Health Association ( ASHA ) . The ASHA was created in 1914 to in response to the increase in social diseases that had spread during World War 1 . During the 1970s , there was an increase in sexually transmitted diseases . One of the diseases that increased dramatically was genital herpes . In response , ASHA created the National Herpes Resource Center in 1979 . The HRC was designed to meet the growing need for education and awareness about the virus . One of the projects of The Herpes Resource Center ( HRC ) was to create a network of local support ( HELP ) groups . The goal of these HELP groups was to provide a safe , confidential environment where participants can get accurate information and share experiences , fears , and feelings with others who are concerned about herpes . UK
New World
The term `` New World '' ( `` Mundus Novus '' ) was first coined by the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci , in a letter written to his friend and former patron Lorenzo di Pier Francesco de ' Medici in the Spring of 1503 , and published ( in Latin ) in 1503 -- 04 under the title Mundus Novus . Vespucci 's letter contains arguably the first explicit articulation in print of the hypothesis that the lands discovered by European navigators to the west were not the edges of Asia , as asserted by Christopher Columbus , but rather an entirely different continent , a `` New World '' .
Conquistador
When Francisco Coronado and the Spaniards first explored the Rio Grande Valley in 1540 , in modern New Mexico , some of the chieftains complained of new diseases that affected their tribes . Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528 , when the Spanish landed in Texas , `` half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us . '' When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Incan empire , a large portion of the population had already died in a smallpox epidemic . The first epidemic was recorded in 1529 and killed the emperor Huayna Capac , the father of Atahualpa . Further epidemics of smallpox broke out in 1533 , 1535 , 1558 and 1565 , as well as typhus in 1546 , influenza in 1558 , diphtheria in 1614 and measles in 1618 .
CCR5
Two studies have used linkage analysis to estimate the age of the CCR5 Δ32 deletion , assuming that the amount of recombination and mutation observed on genomic regions surrounding the CCR5 Δ32 deletion would be proportional to the age of the deletion . Using a sample of 4000 individuals from 38 ethnic populations , Stephens et al. estimated that the CCR5 - Δ32 deletion occurred 700 years ago ( 275 - 1875 , 95 % confidence interval ) . Another group , Libert et al. ( 1998 ) , estimated the age of the CCR5 Δ32 mutation is based on the microsatellite mutations to be 2100 years ( 700 - 4800 , 95 % confidence interval ) . On the basis of observed recombination events , they estimated the age of the mutation to be 2250 years ( 900 - 4700 , 95 % confidence interval ) . A third hypothesis relies on the north - to - south gradient of allele frequency in Europe which shows that the highest allele frequency occurred in Nordic regions such as Iceland , Norway and Sweden and lowest allele frequency in the south . Because the Vikings historically occupied these countries , it may be possible that the allele spread throughout Europe was due to the Viking dispersal in the 8th to 10th century . Vikings were later replaced by the Varangians in Russia , which migrated East which may have contributed to the observed east - to - west cline of allele frequency .
History of Kenya
In 1929 , the first evidence , called Bennett Kamm , of the presence of ancient early human ancestors in Kenya was discovered when Louis Leakey unearthed 1 million year old Acheulian hand axes at Kariandusi in south west Kenya . Subsequently , many species of early hominid have been discovered in Kenya . The oldest was found by Martin Pickford in the year 2000 and is the 6 million years old Orrorin tugenensis , named after the Tugen Hills where it was unearthed . It is the second oldest fossil hominid in the world after Sahelanthropus tchadensis .