vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Sundial
Sundials which are designed to be used with their plates horizontal in one hemisphere can be used with their plates vertical at the complementary latitude in the other hemisphere . For example , the illustrated sundial in Perth , Australia , which is at latitude 32 degrees South , would function properly if it were mounted on a south - facing vertical wall at latitude 58 ( i.e. 90 -- 32 ) degrees North , which is slightly further North than Perth , Scotland . The surface of the wall in Scotland would be parallel with the horizontal ground in Australia ( ignoring the difference of longitude ) , so the sundial would work identically on both surfaces . Correspondingly , the hour marks , which run counterclockwise on a horizontal sundial in the southern hemisphere , also do so on a vertical sundial in the northern hemisphere . ( See the first two illustrations at the top of this article . ) On horizontal northern - hemisphere sundials , and on vertical southern - hemisphere ones , the hour marks run clockwise .
Soil erosion
Wind erosion is of two primary varieties : deflation , where the wind picks up and carries away loose particles ; and abrasion , where surfaces are worn down as they are struck by airborne particles carried by wind . Deflation is divided into three categories : ( 1 ) surface creep , where larger , heavier particles slide or roll along the ground ; ( 2 ) saltation , where particles are lifted a short height into the air , and bounce and saltate across the surface of the soil ; and ( 3 ) suspension , where very small and light particles are lifted into the air by the wind , and are often carried for long distances . Saltation is responsible for the majority ( 50 -- 70 % ) of wind erosion , followed by suspension ( 30 -- 40 % ) , and then surface creep ( 5 -- 25 % ) . Silty soils tend to be the most affected by wind erosion ; silt particles are relatively easily detached and carried away .
Geography and wealth
Diamond notes that modern technologies and institutions were designed primarily in a small area of northwestern Europe . After the Scientific Revolution in Europe in the 16th century , the quality of life increased and wealth began to spread to the middle class . This included agricultural techniques , machines , and medicines . These technologies and models readily spread to areas colonized by Europe which happened to be of similar climate , such as North America and Australia . As these areas also became centres of innovation , this bias was further enhanced . Technologies from automobiles to power lines are more often designed for colder and drier regions , since most of their customers are from these regions .
Trade winds
During mid-summer in the Northern Hemisphere ( July ) , the westward - moving trade winds south of the northward - moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward from the Caribbean sea into southeastern North America ( Florida and Gulf Coast ) . When dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge travels over land , rainfall is suppressed and the sky changes from a blue to a white appearance which leads to an increase in red sunsets . Its presence negatively impacts air quality by adding to the count of airborne particulates . Although the Southeast USA has some of the cleanest air in North America , much of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida . Since 1970 , dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa . There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year . Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida , primarily since the 1970s .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
Nuclear power station operators around the world began to install Passive Autocatalytic hydrogen Recombiners ( `` PARs '' ) , which do not require electricity to operate . PARs work much like the catalytic converter on the exhaust of a car to turn potentially explosive gases such as hydrogen into water . Had such devices been positioned at the top of Fukushima I 's reactor buildings , where hydrogen gas collected , the explosions would not have occurred and the releases of radioactive isotopes would arguably have been much less .
Cape Agulhas
South of Cape Agulhas the warm Agulhas Current that flows south along the east coast of Africa retroflects back into the Indian Ocean . While retroflecting , it pinches off large ocean eddies ( Agulhas rings ) that drift into the South Atlantic Ocean and take enormous amounts of heat and salt into the neighbouring ocean . This mechanism constitutes one of the key elements in the global conveyor belt circulation of heat and salt .
Wetland
The amount of rainfall a wetland receives varies widely according to its area . Wetlands in Wales , Scotland , and western Ireland typically receive about 1,500 mm ( 59 in ) per year . In some places in Southeast Asia , where heavy rains occur , they can receive up to 10,000 mm ( 390 in ) . In the northern areas of North America , wetlands exist where as little as 180 mm ( 7.1 in ) of rain falls each year .
Tropical cyclone
A tropical cyclone 's primary energy source is heat from the evaporation of water from the ocean surface , which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when the warm moist air rises and cools to saturation . The energetics of the system may be idealized as an atmospheric Carnot heat engine . First , inflowing air near the surface acquires heat primarily via evaporation of water ( i.e. latent heat ) at the temperature of the warm ocean surface ( during evaporation , the ocean cools and the air warms ) . Second , the warmed air rises and cools within the eyewall while conserving total heat content ( latent heat is simply converted to sensible heat during condensation ) . Third , air outflows and loses heat via infrared radiation to space at the temperature of the cold tropopause . Finally , air subsides and warms at the outer edge of the storm while conserving total heat content . The first and third legs are nearly isothermal , while the second and fourth legs are nearly isentropic . This in - up - out - down overturning flow is known as the secondary circulation . The Carnot perspective provides an upper bound on the maximum wind speed that a storm can attain .
Environmental issues in the Philippines
Agriculture is one of the Philippines ' largest sectors and will continue to be adversely impacted by the effects of climate change . The agriculture sector employs 35 % of the working population and generated 13 % of the country 's GDP in 2009 . The two most important crops , rice and corn , account for 67 % of the land under cultivation and stand to see reduced yields from heat and water stress . Rice , wheat , and corn crops are expected to see a 10 % decrease in yield for every 1degree C increase over a 30dC average annual temperature . Increases in extreme weather events will have devastating affects on agriculture . Typhoons ( high winds ) and heavy rainfall contribute to the destruction of crops , reduced soil fertility , altered agricultural productivity through severe flooding , increased runoff , and soil erosion . Droughts and reduced rainfall leads to increased pest infestations that damage crops as well as an increased need for irrigation . Rising sea levels increases salinity which leads to a loss of arable land and irrigation water . All of these factors contribute to higher prices of food and an increased demand for imports , which hurts the general economy as well as individual livelihoods . From 2006 to 2013 , the Philippines experienced a total of 75 disasters that cost the agricultural sector $3.8 billion in loss and damages . Typhoon Haiyan alone cost the Philippines ' agricultural sector an estimated US $724 million after causing 1.1 million tonnes of crop loss and destroying 600,000 ha of farmland . The agricultural sector is expected to see an estimated annual GDP loss of 2.2 % by 2100 due to climate impacts on agriculture . Agricultural
Mexico City
Originally much of the valley laid beneath the waters of Lake Texcoco , a system of interconnected salt and freshwater lakes . The Aztecs built dikes to separate the fresh water used to raise crops in chinampas and to prevent recurrent floods . These dikes were destroyed during the siege of Tenochtitlan , and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods . Only a small section of the original lake remains , located outside Mexico City , in the municipality of Atenco , State of Mexico .
Climate of the United States
In the central and upper eastern United States , precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year , although summer rainfall increases as one moves southeastward . Lake - effect snows add to precipitation potential downwind of the Great Lakes , as well as Great Salt Lake and the Finger Lakes during the cold season . The average snow to liquid ratio across the contiguous United States is 13 : 1 , meaning 13 inches ( 330 mm ) of snow melts down to 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of water . The El Niño - Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution , by altering rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics .
Environmental issues in the Philippines
Rising sea levels , heavy rainfall and flooding , and strong typhoons pose an enormous risk to the Philippines ' infrastructure . 45 % of Philippines ' urban population lives in informal settlements with already weak infrastructure and are extremely vulnerable to flooding and typhoons . A giant storm would wreak havoc on these informal settlements and cause the deaths and displacement of millions of people who inhabit 25 different coastline cities . These natural disasters will also cause millions of dollars in damages to urban infrastructure like bridges and roads . In 2009 , Tropical Storm Ketsana cost the Philippines $33 million to repair damaged roads and bridges . Risk
Tropical cyclone
A tropical cyclone can cease to have tropical characteristics in several different ways . One such way is if it moves over land , thus depriving it of the warm water it needs to power itself , quickly losing strength . Most strong storms lose their strength very rapidly after landfall and become disorganized areas of low pressure within a day or two , or evolve into extratropical cyclones . There is a chance a tropical cyclone could regenerate if it managed to get back over open warm water , such as with Hurricane Ivan . If it remains over mountains for even a short time , weakening will accelerate . Many storm fatalities occur in mountainous terrain , when diminishing cyclones unleash their moisture as torrential rainfall . This rainfall may lead to deadly floods and mudslides , as was the case with Hurricane Mitch around Honduras in October 1998 . Without warm surface water , the storm can not survive .
Climate of the United States
In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland . In the Atlantic Ocean , the `` Bermuda High '' creates a south - southwest flow of warm , humid air over the eastern , southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures , high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity . In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny , dry , and stable weather conditions along the West Coast .
Great Lakes
The most well - known winter effect of the Great Lakes on regional weather is the lake effect in snowfall , which is sometimes very localized . Even late in winter , the lakes often have no icepack in the middle . The prevailing winds from the west pick up the air and moisture from the lake surface , which is slightly warmer in relation to the cold surface winds above . As the slightly warmer , moist air passes over the colder land surface , the moisture often produces concentrated , heavy snowfall that sets up in bands or `` streamers '' . This is similar to the effect of warmer air dropping snow as it passes over mountain ranges . During freezing weather with high winds , the `` snow belts '' receive regular snow fall from this localized weather pattern , especially along the eastern shores of the lakes . Snow belts are found in Wisconsin , Michigan , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York , United States ; and Ontario , Canada .
Water in California
Rivers of the Lahontan watersheds in eastern California are part of the high desert Great Basin and do not drain to the Pacific . Most of the water is used locally in eastern California and western Nevada for irrigation . The Owens River of the South Lahontan region , however , is a principal source of water for Los Angeles .
Geography of Asia
To the ancient navigators of Our Sea , the continents were separated by seas . The canal extended the southern shore into the Red Sea . The symmetry of the scheme was too geometric for the Greeks to resist , as they represented all geographic masses by regular figures if they could . A triangle prevailed in the Greek imagination with points at the Pillars , the Tanais and the Red Sea . As the sides were three shores , the continents were three . Further
Sundarbans
In many of the Bangladesh 's mangrove wetlands , freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring India through the use of the Farakka Barrage bordering Rajshahi , Bangladesh . Also , the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east because of neo-tectonic movement , forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans . As a result , the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side . A 1990 study noted that there `` is no evidence that environmental degradation in the Himalayas or a ' greenhouse ' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh '' ; however , a 2007 report by UNESCO , `` Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage '' has stated that an anthropogenic 45 - centimetre ( 18 in ) rise in sea level ( likely by the end of the 21st century , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans , could lead to the destruction of 75 percent of the Sundarbans mangroves . Already , Lohachara Island and New Moore Island / South Talpatti Island have disappeared under the sea , and Ghoramara Island is half submerged .
Hurricane Katrina
Katrina also produced massive tree loss along the Gulf Coast , particularly in Louisiana'a Pearl River Basin and among bottomland hardwood forests . Before the storm the standard mortality rate for the area 's trees was 1.9 % , but this interval increased to 20.5 % by the end of 2006 . Delayed mortality as an effect of the storm continued with rates up to 5 % until 2011 . This significant loss in biomass caused greater decay and an increase in carbon emissions . For example , by 2006 the decreased biomass in bottomland hardwood forests contributed an amount of carbon which equated to roughly 140 % of the net annual U.S. carbon sink in forest trees . The
Nile
The flow rate of the Bahr al Jabal at Mongalla , South Sudan is almost constant throughout the year and averages 1,048 m / s ( 37,000 cu ft / s ) . After Mongalla , the Bahr Al Jabal enters the enormous swamps of the Sudd region of South Sudan . More than half of the Nile 's water is lost in this swamp to evaporation and transpiration . The average flow rate of the White Nile at the tails of the swamps is about 510 m / s ( 18,000 cu ft / s ) . From here it soon meets with the Sobat River at Malakal . On an annual basis , the White Nile upstream of Malakal contributes about fifteen percent of the total outflow of the Nile River .
Stratovolcano
Mudflows ( also called debris flows or lahars , a Javanese term for volcanic mudflows ) are mixtures of volcanic debris and water . The water usually comes from two sources : rainfall or the melting of snow and ice by hot volcanic debris , such as lava . Depending on the proportion and temperature of water to volcanic material , mudflows can range from fast - flowing , soupy floods to thick , gooey flows that have the consistency of wet concrete . As mudflows sweep down the steep sides of stratovolcanoes , they have the strength and speed to flatten or bury everything in their paths . Hot ash , lava flows and pyroclastic surges from the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia melted snow and ice atop the 5,321 meter - high Andean volcano . The ensuing mudflows buried the nearby city of Armero , killing 25,000 people .
Geography of China
Owing to tremendous differences in latitude , longitude , and altitude , the climate of China is extremely diverse , ranging from tropical in the far south to subarctic in the far north and alpine in the higher elevations of the Tibetan Plateau . Monsoon winds , caused by differences in the heat - absorbing capacity of the continent and the ocean , dominate the climate . During the summer , the East Asian Monsoon carries warm and moist air from the south and delivers the vast majority of the annual precipitation in much of the country . Conversely , the Siberian anticyclone dominates during winter , bringing cold and comparatively dry conditions . The advance and retreat of the monsoons account in large degree for the timing of the rainy season throughout the country . Although most of the country lies in the temperate belt , its climatic patterns are complex .
Atlantic Ocean
The high surface salinity in the Atlantic , on which the Atlantic thermohaline circulation is dependent , is maintained by two processes : the Agulhas Leakage / Rings , which brings salty Indian Ocean waters into the South Atlantic , and the `` Atmospheric Bridge '' , which evaporates subtropical Atlantic waters and exports it to the Pacific .
Siberia
Siberian agriculture is severely restricted by the short growing season of most of the region . However , in the southwest where soils are exceedingly fertile black earths and the climate is a little more moderate , there is extensive cropping of wheat , barley , rye and potatoes , along with the grazing of large numbers of sheep and cattle . Elsewhere food production , owing to the poor fertility of the podzolic soils and the extremely short growing seasons , is restricted to the herding of reindeer in the tundra -- which has been practiced by natives for over 10,000 years . Siberia has the world 's largest forests . Timber remains an important source of revenue , even though many forests in the east have been logged much more rapidly than they are able to recover . The Sea of Okhotsk is one of the two or three richest fisheries in the world owing to its cold currents and very large tidal ranges , and thus Siberia produces over 10 % of the world 's annual fish catch , although fishing has declined somewhat since the collapse of the USSR .
Amazon River
The Atlantic has sufficient wave and tidal energy to carry most of the Amazon 's sediments out to sea , thus the Amazon does not form a true delta . The great deltas of the world are all in relatively protected bodies of water , while the Amazon empties directly into the turbulent Atlantic .
Trafficking of children
According to the World Bank forced begging is most commonly found in the Middle East and countries of West Africa , where laws prohibiting begging are scarce and heavy regulation of trafficking absent . In Zimbabwe , where child begging is especially prominent , the United Nations has indicated many contradictions between the Labour Act of Zimbabwe and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child . Many nations , such as Indonesia , have laws against begging on the books , but the repercussions for such entail temporary detainment and eventual release back onto the streets , which does little to combat the issue . Cultural
La Niña
La Niña impacts the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns , which as a result can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others .
Negative number
Temperatures which are colder than 0 ° C or 0 ° F . Latitudes south of the equator and longitudes west of the prime meridian . Topographical features of the earth 's surface are given a height above sea level , which can be negative ( e.g. The surface elevation of The Dead Sea or Death Valley ) . Electrical circuits . When a battery is connected in reverse polarity , the voltage applied is said to be the opposite of its rated voltage . For example , a 6 ( V ) battery connected in reverse applies a voltage of − 6 ( V ) . Ions have a positive or negative electrical charge . Impedance of an AM broadcast tower used in multi-tower directional antenna arrays can have a positive or negative impedance .
Earth
Large areas of Earth 's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical cyclones , hurricanes , or typhoons that dominate life in those areas . From 1980 to 2000 , these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year . Many places are subject to earthquakes , landslides , tsunamis , volcanic eruptions , tornadoes , sinkholes , blizzards , floods , droughts , wildfires , and other calamities and disasters .
Tropical cyclone
While the number of storms in the Atlantic has increased since 1995 , there is no obvious global trend ; the annual number of tropical cyclones worldwide remains about 87 ± 10 ( Between 77 and 97 tropical cyclones annually ) . However , the ability of climatologists to make long - term data analysis in certain basins is limited by the lack of reliable historical data in some basins , primarily in the Southern Hemisphere , while noting that a significant downward trend in tropical cyclone numbers has been identified for the region near Australia ( based on high quality data and accounting for the influence of the El Niño - Southern Oscillation ) . In spite of that , there is some evidence that the intensity of hurricanes is increasing . Kerry Emanuel stated , `` Records of hurricane activity worldwide show an upswing of both the maximum wind speed in and the duration of hurricanes . The energy released by the average hurricane ( again considering all hurricanes worldwide ) seems to have increased by around 70 % in the past 30 years or so , corresponding to about a 15 % increase in the maximum wind speed and a 60 % increase in storm lifetime . ''
Hurricane Gloria
In North Carolina , high waves damaged many homes along the Outer Banks and caused heavy beach erosion . High waves also damaged piers , boats , and docks throughout the Mid-Atlantic states . Flooding forced several highways to close , and in Pennsylvania , thousands were forced to evacuate their homes . The storm surge destroyed 48 homes on Long Island , while the winds damaged the roofs of many more . Widespread crop damage occurred , amounting to about $20 million ( 1985 USD ) . Overall damage in the United States was estimated at $900 million , which was less than expected . In neighboring Canada , the remnants of Gloria caused minor power outages in New Brunswick , although confusion related to the storm 's arrival led to the creation of the Canadian Hurricane Centre .
Climate of India
Thick haze and smoke originating from burning biomass in northwestern India and air pollution from large industrial cities in northern India often concentrate over the Ganges Basin . Prevailing westerlies carry aerosols along the southern margins of the sheer - faced Tibetan Plateau towards eastern India and the Bay of Bengal . Dust and black carbon , which are blown towards higher altitudes by winds at the southern margins of the Himalayas , can absorb shortwave radiation and heat the air over the Tibetan Plateau . The net atmospheric heating due to aerosol absorption causes the air to warm and convect upwards , increasing the concentration of moisture in the mid-troposphere and providing positive feedback that stimulates further heating of aerosols .