vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
CCR5
To test this hypothesis , Galvani and Slatkin ( 2003 ) modeled the historical selection pressures produced by plague and smallpox . Plague was modeled according to historical accounts , while age - specific smallpox mortality was gleaned from the age distribution of smallpox burials in York ( England ) between 1770 and 1812 . Smallpox preferentially infects young , pre-reproductive members of the population since they are the only individuals who are not immunized or dead from past infection . Because smallpox preferentially kills pre-reproductive members of a population , it generates stronger selective pressure than plague . Unlike plague , smallpox does not have an animal reservoir and is only transmitted from human to human . The authors calculated that if plague were selecting for CCR5 Δ32 , the frequency of the allele would still be less than 1 % , while smallpox has exerted a selective force sufficient to reach 10 % .
History of West Africa
The Mali Empire began in the 13th century CE , eventually creating a centralised state including most of West Africa . It originated when a Mande ( Mandingo ) leader , Sundiata ( Lord Lion ) of the Keita clan , defeated Soumaoro Kanté , king of the Sosso or southern Soninke , at the Battle of Kirina in c. 1235 . Sundiata continued his conquest from the fertile forests and Niger Valley , east to the Niger Bend , north into the Sahara , and west to the Atlantic Ocean , absorbing the remains of the Ghana Empire . Sundiata took on the title of mansa . He established the capital of his empire at Niani .
History of Mexico
Smallpox ( Variola major and Variola minor ) began to spread in Mesoamerica immediately after the arrival of Europeans . The indigenous peoples , who had no immunity to it , eventually died in the millions . A third of all the natives of the Valley of Mexico succumbed to it within six months of Spaniards arrival .
Smallpox vaccine
During the earlier days of empirical experimentation in 1758 , American Calvinist Jonathan Edwards died from a smallpox inoculation . Some of the earliest statistical and epidemiological studies were performed by James Jurin in 1727 and Daniel Bernoulli in 1766 . In 1768 Dr John Fewster reported that variolation induced no reaction in persons who had had cowpox . Fewster was a contemporary and friend of Jenner . Dr. Rolph , another Gloucestershire physician , stated that all experienced physicians of the time were aware of this . An
History of West Africa
By 400 BCE , contact had been made with the Mediterranean civilisations , including that of Carthage , and a regular trade in gold being conducted with the Sahara Berbers , as noted by Herodotus . The trade was fairly small until the camel was introduced , with Mediterranean goods being found in pits as far south as Northern Nigeria . A profitable trade had developed by which West Africans exported gold , cotton cloth , metal ornaments , and leather goods north across the trans - Saharan trade routes , in exchange for copper , horses , salt , textiles , and beads . Later , ivory , slaves , and kola nuts were also traded . Djenné
Diphtheria
Friedrich Loeffler was the first person to cultivate C. diphtheriae in 1884 . He used Koch 's postulates to prove association between C. diphtheriae and diphtheria . He also showed that the bacillus produces an exotoxin . A
Sinoatrial node
The sinoatrial node was first discovered by a young medical student , Martin Flack , in the heart of a mole , whilst his mentor , Sir Arthur Keith , was on a bicycle ride with his wife . They made the discovery in a makeshift laboratory set up in a picturesque farmhouse in Kent , England , called Mann 's Place . Their discovery was published in 1907 .
Coffee
The earliest credible evidence of coffee - drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century in the accounts of Ahmed al - Ghaffar in Yemen . It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed , in a similar way to how it is now prepared . Coffee was used by Sufi circles to stay awake for their religious rituals . Accounts differ on the origin of coffee ( seeds ) prior to its appearance in Yemen . One account credits Muhammad ben Said for bringing the beverage to Aden from the African coast . Other early accounts say Ali ben Omar of the Shadhili Sufi order was the first to introduce coffee to Arabia . According to al Shardi , Ali ben Omar may have encountered coffee during his stay with the Adal king Sadadin 's companions in 1401 . Famous 16th century Islamic scholar Ibn Hajar al - Haytami notes in his writings of a beverage called qahwa developed from a tree in the Zeila region . Over
Ribosome
The ribosome may have first originated in an RNA world , appearing as a self - replicating complex that only later evolved the ability to synthesize proteins when amino acids began to appear . Studies suggest that ancient ribosomes constructed solely of rRNA could have developed the ability to synthesize peptide bonds . In addition , evidence strongly points to ancient ribosomes as self - replicating complexes , where the rRNA in the ribosomes had informational , structural , and catalytic purposes because it could have coded for tRNAs and proteins needed for ribosomal self - replication . Hypothetical cellular organisms with self - replicating RNA but without DNA are called ribocytes ( or ribocells ) .
Atlantic slave trade
The first slaves to arrive as part of a labour force in the New World reached the island of Hispaniola ( now Haiti and the Dominican Republic ) in 1502 . Cuba received its first four slaves in 1513 . Jamaica received its first shipment of 4000 slaves in 1518 . Slave exports to Honduras and Guatemala started in 1526 .
Virus
The evidence for an ancestral world of RNA cells and computer analysis of viral and host DNA sequences are giving a better understanding of the evolutionary relationships between different viruses and may help identify the ancestors of modern viruses . To date , such analyses have not proved which of these hypotheses is correct . It seems unlikely that all currently known viruses have a common ancestor , and viruses have probably arisen numerous times in the past by one or more mechanisms .
History of Manila
Manila 's history begins around 65,000 BC the time the Callao Man first settled in the Philippines , predating the arrival of the Negritos and the Malayo - Polynesians . The nearby Angono Petroglyphs , are then dated to be around 3,000 BC and the earliest recorded history of Manila , the capital of the Philippines , dates back to the year 900 AD as recorded in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription . By the thirteenth century , the city consisted of a fortified settlement and trading quarter near the mouth of the Pasig River , the river that bisects the city into north and south .
Toxic shock syndrome
In January 1980 , epidemiologists in Wisconsin and Minnesota reported the appearance of TSS , mostly in those menstruating , to the CDC . S. aureus was successfully cultured from most of the subjects . The Toxic Shock Syndrome Task Force was created and investigated the epidemic as the number of reported cases rose throughout the summer of 1980 . In September 1980 , CDC reported users of Rely were at increased risk for developing TSS .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Y The discovery of the new tissue type was first published by researchers in 2012 .
Diphtheria
Before 1826 , diphtheria was known by different names across the world . In England , it was known as Boulogne sore throat , as it spread from France . In 1826 , Pierre Bretonneau gave the disease the name diphthérite ( from Greek diphthera `` leather '' ) describing the appearance of pseudomembrane in the throat .
First Shearith Israel Graveyard
Reverend Gershom Mendes Seixas ( 1745 -- 1816 ) , the first American born Jewish spiritual leader Dr. Walter Jonas Judah , the second Jew known to attend an American medical school ( King 's College , now Columbia University ) and the first native - born Jew to do so ; he died at age 20 of yellow fever
Shoplifting
Shoplifting , originally called `` lifting , '' is as old as shopping . The first documented shoplifting started to take place in 16th - century London , and was carried out by groups of men called lifters . In 1591 , playwright Robert Greene published a pamphlet titled The Second Part of Cony Catching , in which he described how three men could conspire to shoplift clothes and fabric from London merchants . When it was first documented , shoplifting was characterized as an underworld practice : shoplifters were also con artists , pickpockets , pimps , or prostitutes .
Virus
By the end of the 19th century , viruses were defined in terms of their infectivity , their ability to be filtered , and their requirement for living hosts . Viruses had been grown only in plants and animals . In 1906 , Ross Granville Harrison invented a method for growing tissue in lymph , and , in 1913 , E. Steinhardt , C. Israeli , and R.A. Lambert used this method to grow vaccinia virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue . In 1928 , H.B. Maitland and M.C. Maitland grew vaccinia virus in suspensions of minced hens ' kidneys . Their method was not widely adopted until the 1950s , when poliovirus was grown on a large scale for vaccine production .
TRIPS Agreement
The most visible conflict has been over AIDS drugs in Africa . Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa , this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS . Instead , an interpretive statement , the Doha Declaration , was issued in November 2001 , which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises . After Doha , PhRMA , the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration .
European exploration of Africa
Along the western and eastern coasts of Africa , progress was also steady ; Portuguese sailors reached Cape Bojador in 1434 and Cape Blanco in 1441 . In 1443 , they built a fortress on the island of Arguin , in modern - day Mauritania , trading European wheat and cloth for African gold and slaves . It was the first time that the semi-mythic gold of the Sudan reached Europe without Muslim mediation . Most of the slaves were sent to Madeira , which became , after thorough deforestation , the first European plantation colony . Between 1444 and 1447 , the Portuguese explored the coasts of Senegal , Gambia , and Guinea . In 1456 , the Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto , under Portuguese command , explored the islands of Cape Verde . In 1462 , two years after Prince Henry 's death , Portuguese sailors explored the Bissau islands and named Serra Leoa ( Lioness Mountains ) . Map
Smallpox vaccine
Smallpox vaccine , the first successful vaccine to be developed , was introduced by Edward Jenner in 1796 . He followed up his observation that milkmaids who had previously caught cowpox did not later catch smallpox by showing that inoculated cowpox protected against inoculated smallpox . The word `` vaccine '' is derived from Variolae vaccinae ( i.e. smallpox of the cow ) , the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox and used in the long title of his An enquiry into the causes and effects of Variolae vaccinae , known by the name of cow pox . Vaccination , the term which soon replaced cowpox inoculation and vaccine inoculation , was first used in print by Jenner 's friend , Richard Dunning in 1800 . Initially , the terms vaccine / vaccination referred only to smallpox , but in 1881 Louis Pasteur proposed that to honour Jenner the terms be widened to cover the new protective inoculations being introduced .
History of evolutionary thought
Following the establishment of evolutionary biology , studies of mutation and genetic diversity in natural populations , combined with biogeography and systematics , led to sophisticated mathematical and causal models of evolution . Paleontology and comparative anatomy allowed more detailed reconstructions of the evolutionary history of life . After the rise of molecular genetics in the 1950s , the field of molecular evolution developed , based on protein sequences and immunological tests , and later incorporating RNA and DNA studies . The gene - centered view of evolution rose to prominence in the 1960s , followed by the neutral theory of molecular evolution , sparking debates over adaptationism , the unit of selection , and the relative importance of genetic drift versus natural selection as causes of evolution . In the late 20th - century , DNA sequencing led to molecular phylogenetics and the reorganization of the tree of life into the three - domain system by Carl Woese . In addition , the newly recognized factors of symbiogenesis and horizontal gene transfer introduced yet more complexity into evolutionary theory . Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just within the traditional branches of biology , but also in other academic disciplines ( for example : anthropology and psychology ) and on society at large .
Bible citation
`` In the beginning , God created the heaven and the earth '' ( Gen. 1 : 1 ) .
Germ theory of disease
In Antiquity , the Greek historian Thucydides ( c. 460 -- c. 400 BC ) was the first person to state , in his account of the plague of Athens , that diseases could spread from an infected person to others because of miasma theory . One theory of the spread of contagious diseases that were not spread by direct contact was that they were spread by `` seeds '' ( Latin : semina ) that were present in the air . In his poem , De rerum natura ( On the Nature of Things , ca . 56 BC ) , the Roman poet Lucretius ( ca . 99 BC -- ca . 55 BC ) stated that the world contained various `` seeds '' , some of which could sicken a person if they were inhaled or if they contaminated his food . The Roman statesman Marcus Terentius Varro ( 116 -- 27 BC ) wrote , in his Rerum rusticarum libri III ( Three Books on Agriculture , 36 BC ) : `` Precautions must also be taken in the neighborhood of swamps ( ... ) because there are bred certain minute creatures which can not be seen by the eyes , which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases . '' The Greek physician Galen ( AD 129 -- ca . 200 / ca . 216 ) speculated in his On Initial Causes ( ca . AD 175 ) that some patients might have `` seeds of fever '' . In his On the Different Types of Fever ( ca . AD 175 ) , Galen speculated that plagues were spread by `` certain seeds of plague '' , which were present in the air . And in his Epidemics ( ca . AD 176 -- 178 ) , Galen explained that patients might relapse during recovery from a fever because some `` seed of the disease '' lurked in their bodies , which would cause a recurrence of the disease if the patients did n't follow a physician 's therapeutic regimen .
Public administration
The field of management may well be said to have originated in ancient China , including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state , and the earliest ( by the second century BC ) example of an administration based on merit through testing . Far in advance of the rest of the world until almost the end of the 18th century , Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century , for example , in Fredrick II 's promulgations , characterized as the `` birth certificate of modern bureaucracy '' .
Germ theory of disease
The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted by Louis Pasteur between 1860 and 1864 . He discovered the pathology of the puerperal fever and the pyogenic vibrio in the blood , and suggested using boric acid to kill these microorganisms before and after confinement .
Origin of replication
In humans an origin of replication has been originally identified near the Lamin B2 gene on chromosome 19 and the ORC binding to it has extensively been studied .
Germ theory of disease
John Snow was a skeptic of the then - dominant miasma theory . Even though the germ theory of disease pioneered by Girolamo Fracastoro had not yet achieved full development or widespread currency , Snow demonstrated a clear understanding of germ theory in his writings . He first published his theory in an 1849 essay On the Mode of Communication of Cholera , in which he correctly suggested that the fecal - oral route was the mode of communication , and that the disease replicated itself in the lower intestines . He even proposed in his 1855 edition of the work , that the structure of cholera was that of a cell .
We Didn't Start the Fire
Sally Ride : On June 18 , she became the first American woman in space by flying aboard Challenger on the STS - 7 shuttle mission . Heavy metal suicide : In the 1970s and 1980s , heavy metal bands became popular . Ozzy Osbourne and Judas Priest in particular were sued for fans ' suicides after listening to their songs `` Suicide Solution '' and `` Better By You , Better Than Me '' , respectively . Foreign debts : Persistent U.S. trade and budget deficits Homeless vets : Veterans of the Vietnam War , including many disabled ex-military , are reported to be left homeless and impoverished . AIDS : A collection of symptoms and infections in humans resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) . It is first detected and recognized in the 1980s , and was on its way to becoming a pandemic . Crack cocaine use surged in the mid-to - late 1980s . 1984
Kenya
The African Great Lakes region , which Kenya is a part of , has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic period . By the first millennium AD , the Bantu expansion had reached the area from West - Central Africa . The borders of the modern state consequently comprise the crossroads of the Niger - Congo , Nilo - Saharan and Afroasiatic areas of the continent , representing most major ethnolinguistic groups found in Africa . Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 97 % of the nation 's residents . European and Arab presence in coastal Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period ; European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century . The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895 , which starting in 1920 gave way to the Kenya Colony . Kenya obtained independence in December 1963 , but remained a member of the Commonwealth of Nations . Following a referendum in August 2010 and adoption of a new constitution , Kenya is now divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties , governed by elected governors .
Virus
Regressive hypothesis Viruses may have once been small cells that parasitised larger cells . Over time , genes not required by their parasitism were lost . The bacteria rickettsia and chlamydia are living cells that , like viruses , can reproduce only inside host cells . They lend support to this hypothesis , as their dependence on parasitism is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a cell . This is also called the degeneracy hypothesis , or reduction hypothesis . Cellular origin hypothesis Some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that `` escaped '' from the genes of a larger organism . The escaped DNA could have come from plasmids ( pieces of naked DNA that can move between cells ) or transposons ( molecules of DNA that replicate and move around to different positions within the genes of the cell ) . Once called `` jumping genes '' , transposons are examples of mobile genetic elements and could be the origin of some viruses . They were discovered in maize by Barbara McClintock in 1950 . This is sometimes called the vagrancy hypothesis , or the escape hypothesis .
History of immigration to the United States
In 1607 the first successful English colony settled in Jamestown , Virginia . Once tobacco was found to be a profitable cash crop , many plantations were established along the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Maryland .
History of Colombia
The territory that became Colombia was first visited by Europeans when the first expedition of Alonso de Ojeda arrived at the Cabo de la Vela in 1499 . The Spanish made several attempts to settle along the north coast of today 's Colombia in the early 16th century , but their first permanent settlement , at Santa Marta , was not established until 1525 . Cartagena was founded on June 1 , 1533 by Spanish commander Pedro de Heredia , in the former location of the indigenous Caribbean Calamarí village . Cartagena grew rapidly , fueled first by the gold in the tombs of the Sinú Culture , and later by trade . The thirst for gold and land resulted in Spanish explorers to visit Chibchan speaking areas ; resulting in the Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations refers to the conquest by the Spanish monarchy of the Chibcha language - speaking nations , mainly the Muisca and Tairona that inhabited present - day Colombia , beginning the Spanish colonization of the Americas . Quemuenchatocha
Sociology
Sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline . Social analysis has origins in the common stock of Western knowledge and philosophy , and has been carried out from as far back as the time of ancient Greek philosopher Plato , if not before . The origin of the survey , i.e. , the collection of information from a sample of individuals , can be traced back to at least the Domesday Book in 1086 , while ancient philosophers such as Confucius wrote on the importance of social roles . There is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings . Some sources consider Ibn Khaldun , a 14th - century Arab Islamic scholar from North Africa ( Tunisia ) , to have been the first sociologist and father of sociology ( see Branches of the early Islamic philosophy ) ; his Muqaddimah was perhaps the first work to advance social - scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict .
West African Ebola virus epidemic
Prior to this outbreak , it was believed that human - to - human transmission occurred only via direct contact with blood or bodily fluids from an infected person who is showing signs of infection , by contact with the body of a person who had died of Ebola , or by contact with objects recently contaminated with the body fluids of an actively ill infected person . It is now known that the Ebola virus can be transmitted sexually . Over time , studies have suggested that the virus can persist in seminal fluid , with a study released in September 2016 suggesting that the virus may survive more than 530 days after infection .
Spice trade
The first country to attempt to circumnavigate Africa was Portugal , which had , since the early 15th century , begun to explore northern Africa under Henry the Navigator . Emboldened by these early successes and eyeing a lucrative monopoly on a possible sea route to the Indies the Portuguese first crossed the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 on an expedition led by Bartolomeu Dias . Just nine years later in 1497 on the orders of Manuel I of Portugal , four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope , continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi to sail across the Indian Ocean to Calicut , on the Malabar Coast . in south India -- the capital of the local Zamorin rulers . The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore ; the Portuguese Empire was the earliest European seaborne empire to grow from the spice trade . Dutch
Cigarette
Some countries require cigarette packs to contain warnings about health hazards . The United States was the first , later followed by other countries including Canada , most of Europe , Australia , Pakistan , India , Hong Kong , and Singapore . In 1985 , Iceland became the first country to enforce graphic warnings on cigarette packaging . At the end of December 2010 , new regulations from Ottawa increased the size of tobacco warnings to cover three - quarters of the cigarette package in Canada . As of November 2010 , 39 countries have adopted similar legislation .