vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Historian
A historian is a person who researches , studies , and writes about the past , and is regarded as an authority on it . Historians are concerned with the continuous , methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race ; as well as the study of all history in time . If the individual is concerned with events preceding written history , the individual is an historian of prehistory . Although `` historian '' can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike , it is reserved more recently for those who have acquired graduate degrees in the discipline . Some historians , though , are recognized by publications or training and experience . `` Historian '' became a professional occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany and elsewhere .
Ancient Greece
Ancient history Preceded by Prehistory Ancient Near East Old Kingdom Sumer Uruk Ur Ebla Mari Minoan Crete Akkadian Empire Gutian dynasty Neo-Sumerian Empire Middle Kingdom Yamhad First Dynasty of Isin Old Assyrian Empire Old Babylonian Empire New Kingdom Hittite Empire Kassite Babylon Mitanni Empire Mycenaean Greece Middle Assyrian Empire Second Dynasty of Isin Elam Phrygia Lydia Canaan Tyre Phoenicia Israel and Judah Arzawa Neo-Assyrian Empire Kushite Empire Syro - Hittite states Hayasa - Azzi Georgia Etruscan League Roman Kingdom Urartu Neo-Babylonian Empire Median Empire Classical antiquity Carthaginian Empire Achaemenid Empire Delian League Peloponnesian League Magna Graecia Kingdom of Armenia Macedonian Empire Seleucid Empire Ptolemaic Kingdom Roman Republic Parthian Empire Roman Empire Sassanid Empire East Asia Erlitou Shang dynasty Zhou dynasty Spring and Autumn period Warring States period Qin dynasty Gojoseon Jin ( Korean state ) Nanyue Han dynasty Three Kingdoms of Korea Silla Three Kingdoms of China Jin dynasty Northern and Southern dynasties Sui dynasty Japan South Asia Indus Valley Vedic period Kuru Kingdom Mahajanapada Magadha Kingdom Nanda Empire Maurya Empire Satavahana Indo - Greek Kingdom Indo - Scythian Kingdom Early Cholas Kushan Empire Vakataka Pallava Gupta Empire Mesoamerica Olmec Epi - Olmec culture Zapotec civilization Maya civilization Teotihuacan Toltec Empire League of Mayapan Mixtec Tepanec Aztec Empire Andean civilizations Norte Chico civilization Chavín culture Moche Tiwanaku Empire Wari Empire Chimú culture Chachapoya culture Muisca Confederation Inca Empire See also History of the world Ancient maritime history Protohistory Axial Age Iron Age Historiography Ancient literature Ancient warfare Cradle of civilization Followed by the Postclassical Era
Comparative mythology
A new approach , which is both historical and comparative , has recently been proposed by E.J. Michael Witzel . He compares collections of mythologies of various cultures , from Iceland and Egypt to the Mayas , and reconstructs increasingly older levels , parallel to but not necessarily dependent on language families ( see above ) . The most prominent common feature is a story line that extends from the creation of the world and of humans to their end . This feature is found in the northern mythologies of Eurasia and the Americas ( `` Laurasia '' ) while it is missing in the southern mythologies of Subsaharan Africa , New Guinea and Australia ( `` Gondwanaland '' ) . The latter is the older one , going back to the dispersal of Homo sapiens out of Africa , some 65,000 years ago . Based on these two reconstructions he offers some suggestions about the tales of the ( genetic ) `` African Eve '' . Close attention is paid to the largely parallel developments in archaeology , paleontology , genetics and linguistics . He also makes some suggestions about the persistence of these Stone Age myths in current religions .
Cradle of civilization
Sumerian civilization coalesces in the subsequent Uruk period ( 4000 to 3100 BC ) . Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk , this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and , during its later phase , the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script . Proto - writing in the region dates to around 3500 BC , with the earliest texts dating to 3300 BC ; early cuneiform writing emerged in 3000 BC . It was also during this period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular , along with cylinder seals . Uruk trade networks started to expand to other parts of Mesopotamia and as far as North Caucasus , and strong signs of governmental organization and social stratification began to emerge leading to the Early Dynastic Period ( c. 2900 BC ) . The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period , although architectural precursors in the form of raised platforms date back to the Ubaid period , and the second phase of the Early Dynastic Period ( c. 2700 BC ) is also when the legendary king Gilgamesh is believed to have reigned .
New Testament
It will vary slightly depending on whether the focus is on the Old Testament , the letters of the New Testament , or the Canonical Gospels . It also plays an important role in the quest for the historical Jesus . It also addresses the physical text , including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used , its preservation , history , and integrity . Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology , anthropology , folklore , linguistics , Oral Tradition studies , history , and religious studies .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
Some scholars argue that archaeology can be a positive source of pride in cultural traditions , but can also be abused to justify cultural or racial superiority as the Nazis argued that Germanic people of Northern Europe was a distinct race and cradle of Western civilization that was superior to Jewish race . In some conflicts that involve land ownership , archaeology is used to encourage confrontation by means of constructing of national myth as seen with the ancient fortress of Masada in Israel . In other cases , archaeology allows rulers to justify the domination of neighboring peoples as Saddam Hussein used Mesopotamia 's magnificent past to justify his invasion of Kuwait in 1990 .
History of Mexico
Although many indigenous manuscripts have been lost or destroyed , texts known Aztec codices , Mayan codices , and Mixtec codices still survive and are of intense interest to scholars of the prehispanic era .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Specify the time at which the event or other point of interest occurs . Be as precise as possible about the version of the source that you are citing ; for example , movies are often released in different editions or `` cuts '' . Due to variations between formats and playback equipment , precision may not be accurate in some cases . However , many government agencies do not publish minutes and transcripts but do post video of official meetings online ; generally the subcontractors who handle audio - visual are quite precise .
Greco-Persian Wars
More detail for the whole period is provided by Plutarch , in his biographies of Themistocles , Aristides and especially Cimon . Plutarch was writing some 600 years after the events in question , and is therefore a secondary source , but he often names his sources , which allows some degree of verification of his statements . In his biographies , he draws directly from many ancient histories that have not survived , and thus often preserves details of the period that are omitted in Herodotus and Thucydides 's accounts . The final major existing source for the period is the universal history ( Bibliotheca historica ) of the 1st century BC Sicilian , Diodorus Siculus . Much of Diodorus 's writing about this period is drawn from the much earlier Greek historian Ephorus , who also wrote a universal history . Diodorus is also a secondary source and often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies , but he preserves many details of the ancient period found nowhere else .
Mesopotamia
The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC , temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar , the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur ( Sanctuary of Enlil ) and Ur ( Sanctuary of Nanna ) , Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian - Turkish sites of Ebla , Mari , Alalakh , Aleppo and Kultepe , Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy ( Hattusha ) , Ugarit , Ashur and Nuzi , Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian ( Kalhu / Nimrud , Khorsabad , Nineveh ) , Babylonian ( Babylon ) , Urartian ( Tushpa / Van , Kalesi , Cavustepe , Ayanis , Armavir , Erebuni , Bastam ) and Neo-Hittite sites ( Karkamis , Tell Halaf , Karatepe ) . Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur . Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea 's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable , as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age .
Easter Island
According to Diamond , the oral traditions ( the veracity of which has been questioned by Routledge , Lavachery , Mètraux , Peiser and others ) of the current islanders seem obsessed with cannibalism , which he offers as evidence supporting a rapid collapse . For example , he states , to severely insult an enemy one would say , `` The flesh of your mother sticks between my teeth . '' This , Diamond asserts , means the food supply of the people ultimately ran out . Cannibalism , however , was widespread across Polynesian cultures . Human bones have not been found in earth ovens other than those behind the religious platforms , indicating that cannibalism in Easter Island was a ritualistic practice . Contemporary ethnographic research has proven there is scarcely any tangible evidence for widespread cannibalism anywhere and at any time on the Island . The first scientific exploration of Easter Island ( 1914 ) recorded that the indigenous population strongly rejected allegations that they or their ancestors had been cannibals .
Maya civilization
In common with the rest of Mesoamerica , the Maya believed in a supernatural realm inhabited by an array of powerful deities . These deities needed to be placated with ceremonial offerings and ritual practices . At the core of Maya religious practice was the worship of deceased ancestors , who would act as go - betweens for their living descendants in dealings with the denizens of the supernatural realm . The earliest intermediaries between humans and the supernatural realm were shamans . Maya ritual included the use of hallucinogens for chilan ( oracular ) priests . Visions for the chilan were likely facilitated by consumption of water lilies , which are hallucinogenic in high doses . As the Maya civilization developed , the ruling elite codified the general concepts held by Maya society , and developed them into religious cults that justified their right to rule . In the Late Preclassic , the pinnacle of this process was the combination of ultimate political and religious power in the divine king , the k'uhul ajaw . Although it is difficult to reconstruct the belief system through archaeology , some indicators of ritual practice do leave physical traces . These include dedicatory caches and other ritual deposits , shrines , and burials and their associated funerary offerings . In addition , Maya art , architecture , and writing all assist in the reconstruction of ancient Maya beliefs ; these can be combined with ethnographic sources , including records of Maya religious practices made by the Spanish during the conquest .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
In some works , such as plays and ancient works , there are standard methods of referring to sections , such as `` Act 1 , scene 2 '' for plays and Bekker numbers for Aristotle 's works . Use these methods whenever appropriate . Audio
Pottery of ancient Greece
Some vase shapes were especially associated with rituals , others with athletics and the gymnasium . Within each category the forms are roughly the same in scale and whether open or closed , where there is uncertainty we can make good proximate guesses of what use a piece would have served . Some have a purely ritual function , for example white ground lekythoi contained the oil used as funerary offerings and appear to have been made solely with that object in mind . Many examples have a concealed second cup inside them to give the impression of being full of oil , as such they would have served no other useful gain . Some vessels were designed as grave markers .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
When the page number is a Roman numeral , commonly seen at the beginning of books , the URL looks like this for page xvii ( Roman numeral 17 ) of the same book : https://books.google.com/books?id=kvpby7HtAe0C&pg=PR17 The &pg = PR17 indicates `` page , Roman , 17 '' , in contrast to the &pg = PA18 , `` page , Arabic , 18 '' the URL given earlier .
Dance
Archeological evidence for early dance includes 9,000 - year - old paintings in India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka , and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing figures , dated c. 3300 BC . It has been proposed that before the invention of written languages , dance was an important part of the oral and performance methods of passing stories down from generation to generation . The use of dance in ecstatic trance states and healing rituals ( as observed today in many contemporary `` primitive '' cultures , from the Brazilian rainforest to the Kalahari Desert ) is thought to have been another early factor in the social development of dance . Greek
Pre-Columbian era
Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica have been the subject of considerable research . There is evidence of trade routes starting as far north as the Mexico Central Plateau , and going down to the Pacific coast . These trade routes and cultural contacts then went on as far as Central America . These networks operated with various interruptions from pre-Olmec times and up to the Late Classical Period ( 600 -- 900 CE ) . Olmec
Education in ancient Rome
This illustrates one of the central differences between the two cultures and their view on education : that to the Greeks beauty or an activity could be an end in itself , and the practice of that activity was beneficial accordingly . The Romans , on the other hand , tended to be more practically minded when it came to what they taught their children . To them , it would appear , an area of study was good only as far as it served a better purpose or end determined outside of itself . Also , prior to the war , they had focused more on government and politics rather than army and military .
Human sacrifice in Aztec culture
Ortiz 's argument helps to frame and evaluate the gaps within Harner 's argument . Part of the issue with Harner 's reasoning for Aztec use of cannibalism was the lack of reliability of his sources . Harner recognized the numbers he used may be contradicting or conflicting with other sources , yet he continued to use these sources and claimed them as reliable . Ortiz qualifies Harner 's sources as Spanish propaganda , and states the need to critique primary sources of interactions with the Aztecs . By dehumanizing and villainizing Aztec culture , the Spaniards were able to justify their own actions for conquest . Therefore , encounters with sacrificial cannibalism were grossly exaggerated and Harner used the sources to aid his argument . Overall , ecological factors alone are not sufficient to account for human sacrifice and , more recently , it is posited that religious beliefs have a significant effect on motivation .
Siege
Although there are depictions of sieges from the ancient Near East in historical sources and in art , there are very few examples of siege systems that have been found archaeologically . Of the few examples , several are noteworthy :
Pre-Columbian era
Contemporary with Teotihuacan 's greatness was that of the Maya civilization . The period between 250 CE and 650 CE was a time of intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments . While the many Maya city - states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations , they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico and Central America . The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent , and made innovations in mathematics , astronomy , and calendrics . The Mayans also evolved the only true writing system native to the Americas using pictographs and syllabic elements in the form of texts and codices inscribed on stone , pottery , wood , or highly perishable books made from bark paper . Aztec
Mesopotamia
In the early period down to Ur III temples owned up to one third of the available land , declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency . The word Ensi was used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture . Villeins are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture , especially in the grounds of temples or palaces .
Cradle of civilization
The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately followed the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt . It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties , lasting from the Naqada III archaeological period until about the beginning of the Old Kingdom , c. 2686 BC . With the First Dynasty , the capital moved from Thinis to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by a god - king . The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization , such as art , architecture and many aspects of religion , took shape during the Early Dynastic period . The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land , labour , and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization . Major advances in architecture , art , and technology were made during the subsequent Old Kingdom , fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population , made possible by a well - developed central administration . Some of ancient Egypt 's crowning achievements , the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx , were constructed during the Old Kingdom . Under the direction of the vizier , state officials collected taxes , coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield , drafted peasants to work on construction projects , and established a justice system to maintain peace and order . Along with the rising importance of a central administration there arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services . Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples , to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death . Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh , and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration . As the power of the pharaoh diminished , regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh . This , coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC , is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140 - year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period .
Analects
Very few reliable sources about Confucius exist besides that of the Analects . The principal biography available to historians is included in Sima Qian 's Shiji , but , because the Shiji contains a large amount of ( possibly legendary ) material not confirmed by extant sources , the biographical material on Confucius found in the Analects makes the Analects arguably the most reliable source of biographical information about Confucius . Confucius viewed himself as a `` transmitter '' of social and political traditions originating in the early Zhou dynasty ( c. 1000 -- 800 BC ) , and claimed not to have originated anything ( Analects 7.1 ) , but Confucius 's social and political ideals were not popular in his time .
Grand Canyon
Archaeologists still debate when this distinct culture emerged . The current consensus , based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification , suggests their emergence was around 1200 BCE during the Basketmaker II Era . Beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations , researchers have believed that the Ancient Puebloans are ancestors of the modern Pueblo peoples .
Cradle of civilization
Egyptian civilization begins during the second phase of the Naqda culture , known as the Gerzeh period , around 3500 BC and coalesces with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3150 BC . Farming produced the vast majority of food ; with increased food supplies , the populace adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle , and the larger settlements grew to cities of about 5,000 residents . It was in this time that the city dwellers started using mud brick to build their cities , and the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect became popular . Copper instead of stone was increasingly used to make tools and weaponry . Symbols on Gerzean pottery also resemble nascent Egyptian hieroglyphs . Early evidence also exists of contact with the Near East , particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast , during this time . Concurrent with these cultural advances , a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River , or Upper Egypt , occurred . At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta , or Lower Egypt , also underwent a unification process . During his reign in Upper Egypt , King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta and merged both the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt under his single rule .
Mycenaean Greece
The usual form of burial during this period was inhumation . The earliest Mycenaean burials were mostly in individual graves in the form of a pit or a stone - lined cist and offerings were limited to pottery and occasional items of jewellery . Groups of pit or cist graves containing elite members of the community were sometimes covered by a tumulus ( mound ) in the manner established since the Middle Helladic . It has been argued that this form dates back to the Kurgan culture ; however , Mycenaean burials are in actuality an indigenous development of mainland Greece with the Shaft Graves housing native rulers . Pit and cist graves remained in use for single burials throughout the Mycenaean period alongside more elaborate family graves . The shaft graves at Mycenae within Grave Circles A and B belonging to the same period represent an alternative manner of grouping elite burials . Next to the deceased were found full sets of weapons , ornate staffs as well as gold and silver cups and other valuable objects which point to their social rank . Treasury