vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Virus
As an example of viral classification , the chicken pox virus , varicella zoster ( VZV ) , belongs to the order Herpesvirales , family Herpesviridae , subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae , and genus Varicellovirus . VZV is in Group I of the Baltimore Classification because it is a dsDNA virus that does not use reverse transcriptase .
Water fluoridation
Other public - health strategies to control tooth decay , such as education to change behavior and diet , have lacked impressive results . Although fluoride is the only well - documented agent which controls the rate at which cavities develop , it has been suggested that adding calcium to the water would reduce cavities further . Other agents to prevent tooth decay include antibacterials such as chlorhexidine and sugar substitutes such as xylitol . Xylitol - sweetened chewing gum has been recommended as a supplement to fluoride and other conventional treatments if the gum is not too costly . Two proposed approaches , bacteria replacement therapy ( probiotics ) and caries vaccine , would share water fluoridation 's advantage of requiring only minimal patient compliance , but have not been proven safe and effective . Other experimental approaches include fluoridated sugar , polyphenols , and casein phosphopeptide -- amorphous calcium phosphate nanocomplexes .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Efforts to prevent the disease include not having sex or having few sexual partners and using condoms . Screening women at risk for chlamydial infection followed by treatment decreases the risk of PID . If the diagnosis is suspected , treatment is typically advised . Treating a woman 's sexual partners should also occur . In those with mild or moderate symptoms a single injection of the antibiotic ceftriaxone along with two weeks of doxycycline and possibly metronidazole by mouth is recommended . For those who do not improve after three days or who have severe disease intravenous antibiotics should be used .
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
A protein found in cardiac muscle , called phospholamban ( PLB ) has been shown to prevent SERCA from working . It does this by binding to the SERCA and decreasing its attraction ( affinity ) to calcium , therefore preventing calcium uptake into the SR . Failure to remove Ca from the cytosol , prevents muscle relaxation and therefore means that there is a decrease in muscle contraction too . However , molecules such as adrenaline and noradrenaline , can prevent PLB from inhibiting SERCA . When these hormones bind to a receptor , called a beta 1 adrenoceptor , located on the cell membrane , they produce a series of reactions ( known as a cyclic AMP pathway ) that produces an enzyme called protein kinase A ( PKA ) . PKA can add a phosphate to PLB ( this is known as phosphorylation ) , preventing it from inhibiting SERCA and allowing for muscle relaxation .
Origin of replication
A variety of proteins have been described as being involved in viral replication . For instance , Polyoma viruses utilize host cell DNA polymerases , which attach to a viral origin of replication if the T antigen is present .
Diphtheria
Diphtheria Diphtheria can cause a swollen neck , sometimes referred to as a bull neck . Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Sore throat , fever , barky cough Usual onset 2 -- 5 days post-exposure Causes Corynebacterium diphtheriae ( spread by direct contact and through the air ) Diagnostic method Throat appearance , culture Prevention Diphtheria vaccine Treatment Antibiotics , tracheostomy Frequency 4,500 ( reported 2015 ) Deaths 2,100 ( 2015 )
Smallpox vaccine
Variolation was also practiced throughout the latter half of the 17th century by physicians in Turkey , Persia , and Africa . In 1714 and 1716 , two reports of the Ottoman Empire Turkish method of inoculation were made to the Royal Society in England , by Emmanuel Timoni , a doctor affiliated with the British Embassy in Constantinople , and Giacomo Pylarini . Lady Mary Wortley Montagu , wife of the British ambassador to Ottoman Constantinople , is widely credited with introducing the process to Great Britain in 1721 . Source material tells us on Montagu ; `` When Lady Mary was in the Ottoman Empire , she discovered the local practice of inoculation against smallpox called variolation . '' In 1718 she had her son , aged five variolated . He recovered quickly . She returned to London and had her daughter variolated in 1721 by Charles Maitland , during an epidemic of smallpox . This encouraged the British Royal Family to take an interest and a trial of variolation was carried out on prisoners in Newgate Prison . This was successful and in 1722 Princess Augusta , the Princess of Wales , allowed Maitland to vaccinate her children . The success of these variolations assured the British people that the procedure was safe .
Magic bullet (medicine)
In 1906 Ehrlich developed a new derivative of arsenic compound , which he code - named Compound 606 ( the number representing the series of all his tested compounds ) . The compound was effective against malaria infection in experimental animals . In 1905 , Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann identified a spirochaete bacterium ( Treponema pallidum ) as the causative organism of syphilis . With this new knowledge , Ehrlich tested Compound 606 ( chemically arsphenamine ) on a syphilis - infected rabbit . He did not recognise its effectiveness . Sahachiro Hata went over Ehrlich 's work and found on 31 August 1909 he found that the rabbit , which had been injected with Salvarsan 606 was cured using only a single dose , the rabbit showed no adverse effect . ( The normal treatment procedure of syphilis at the time involved two to four years routine injection with mercury . ) Ehrlich , after receiving this information , performed experiments on human patients with the same success . After convincing clinical trials , the compound number 606 was given a trade name `` Salvarsan '' , a portmanteau for `` saving arsenic '' . Salvarsan was commercially introduced in 1910 , and in 1913 , a less toxic form `` Neosalvarsan '' ( Compound 914 ) was released in the market . These drugs became the principal treatments of syphilis until the arrival of penicillin and other novel antibiotics towards the middle of the 20th century . Ehrlich 's research on the magic bullet was the foundation of pharmaceutical research .
Ultraviolet
Sunscreen reduces the direct DNA damage that causes sunburn , by blocking UVB , and the usual SPF rating indicates how effectively this radiation is blocked . SPF is , therefore , also called UVB - PF , for `` UVB protection factor '' . This rating , however , offers no data about important protection against UVA , which does not primarily cause sunburn but is still harmful , since it causes indirect DNA damage and is also considered carcinogenic . Several studies suggest that the absence of UVA filters may be the cause of the higher incidence of melanoma found in sunscreen users compared to non-users . Some sunscreen lotions now contain compounds including titanium dioxide , zinc oxide and avobenzone which helps protect against UVA rays .
Smallpox vaccine
In a letter about landmarks in the history of smallpox vaccine , written to and quoted from by Derrick Baxby , Donald Henderson , chief of the Smallpox Eradication Unit from 1967 -- 77 wrote ; `` Copeman and Collier made an enormous contribution for which neither , in my opinion ever received due credit '' .
Water fluoridation
The views on the most effective method for community prevention of tooth decay are mixed . The Australian government review states that water fluoridation is the most effective means of achieving fluoride exposure that is community - wide . The European Commission review states `` No obvious advantage appears in favour of water fluoridation compared with topical prevention '' . Other fluoride therapies are also effective in preventing tooth decay ; they include fluoride toothpaste , mouthwash , gel , and varnish , and fluoridation of salt and milk . Dental sealants are effective as well , with estimates of prevented cavities ranging from 33 % to 86 % , depending on age of sealant and type of study .
Virus
Helical These viruses are composed of a single type of capsomere stacked around a central axis to form a helical structure , which may have a central cavity , or tube . This arrangement results in rod - shaped or filamentous virions : These can be short and highly rigid , or long and very flexible . The genetic material , in general , single - stranded RNA , but ssDNA in some cases , is bound into the protein helix by interactions between the negatively charged nucleic acid and positive charges on the protein . Overall , the length of a helical capsid is related to the length of the nucleic acid contained within it and the diameter is dependent on the size and arrangement of capsomeres . The well - studied tobacco mosaic virus is an example of a helical virus .
Hormonal contraception
High dose progestogen - only contraceptives , such as the injectables Depo - Provera and Noristerat , completely inhibit follicular development and ovulation . The same cervical mucus changes occur as with very low dose and intermediate dose progestogens .
Virus
Some viruses replicate within archaea : these are double - stranded DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes . These viruses have been studied in most detail in the thermophilic archaea , particularly the orders Sulfolobales and Thermoproteales . Defences against these viruses involve RNA interference from repetitive DNA sequences within archaean genomes that are related to the genes of the viruses . Most archaea have CRISPR -- Cas systems as an adaptive defence against viruses . These enable archaea to retain sections of viral DNA , which are then used to target and eliminate subsequent infections by the virus using a process similar to RNA interference .
Lead poisoning
In most cases , lead poisoning is preventable by avoiding exposure to lead . Prevention strategies can be divided into individual ( measures taken by a family ) , preventive medicine ( identifying and intervening with high - risk individuals ) , and public health ( reducing risk on a population level ) .
Myocardial infarction
A number of acute and chronic infections including Chlamydophila pneumoniae , influenza , Helicobacter pylori , and Porphyromonas gingivalis among others have been linked to atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction . As of 2013 , there is no evidence of benefit from antibiotics or vaccination , however , calling the association into question . Myocardial infarction can also occur as a late consequence of Kawasaki disease .
Dental anesthesia
Such reactions can be minimized via practicing safe injection methods using an aspirating syringe to prevent injecting in blood vessels , slow administration of drug , and avoid overprescribing LA , keeping in mind the patient 's weight , age and medical history .
Virus
Because of their size , shape , and well - defined chemical structures , viruses have been used as templates for organising materials on the nanoscale . Recent examples include work at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington , D.C. , using Cowpea mosaic virus ( CPMV ) particles to amplify signals in DNA microarray based sensors . In this application , the virus particles separate the fluorescent dyes used for signalling to prevent the formation of non-fluorescent dimers that act as quenchers . Another example is the use of CPMV as a nanoscale breadboard for molecular electronics .
Rabbit
Rabbits have been a source of environmental problems when introduced into the wild by humans . As a result of their appetites , and the rate at which they breed , feral rabbit depredation can be problematic for agriculture . Gassing , barriers ( fences ) , shooting , snaring , and ferreting have been used to control rabbit populations , but the most effective measures are diseases such as myxomatosis ( myxo or mixi , colloquially ) and calicivirus . In Europe , where rabbits are farmed on a large scale , they are protected against myxomatosis and calicivirus with a genetically modified virus . The virus was developed in Spain , and is beneficial to rabbit farmers . If it were to make its way into wild populations in areas such as Australia , it could create a population boom , as those diseases are the most serious threats to rabbit survival . Rabbits in Australia and New Zealand are considered to be such a pest that land owners are legally obliged to control them .
Water fluoridation
Fluoride may also prevent cavities in adults of all ages . A 2007 meta - analysis by CDC researchers found that water fluoridation prevented an estimated 27 % of cavities in adults , about the same fraction as prevented by exposure to any delivery method of fluoride ( 29 % average ) . A 2011 European Commission review found that the benefits of water fluoridation for adult in terms of reductions in decay are limited . A 2015 Cochrane review found no conclusive research regarding the effectiveness of water fluoridation in adults . A 2016 review found variable quality evidence that , overall , stopping of community water fluoridation programs was typically followed by an increase in cavities .
Smallpox vaccine
The small - pox so fatal and so general amongst us is here entirely harmless by the invention of ingrafting ( which is the term they give it ) . There is a set of old women who make it their business to perform the operation . Every autumn in the month of September , when the great heat is abated , people send to one another to know if any of their family has a mind to have the small - pox . They make parties for this purpose , and when they are met ( commonly fifteen or sixteen together ) the old woman comes with a nutshell full of the matter of the best sort of small - pox and asks what veins you please to have opened . She immediately rips open that you offer to her with a large needle ( which gives you no more pain than a common scratch ) and puts into the vein as much venom as can lye upon the head of her needle , and after binds up the little wound with a hollow bit of shell , and in this manner opens four or five veins ... The children or young patients play together all the rest of the day and are in perfect health till the eighth . Then the fever begins to seize them and they keep their beds two days , very seldom three . They have very rarely above twenty or thirty in their faces , which never mark , and in eight days time they are as well as before the illness ... There is no example of any one that has died in it , and you may believe I am very well satisfied of the safety of the experiment since I intend to try it on my dear little son . I am patriot enough to take pains to bring this useful invention into fashion in England , and I should not fail to write to some of our doctors very particularly about it if I knew any one of them that I thought had virtue enough to destroy such a considerable branch of their revenue for the good of mankind , but that distemper is too beneficial to them not to expose to all their resentment the hardy wight that should undertake to put an end to it . Perhaps if I live to return I may , however , have courage to war with them .
Provisions of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
Religious organizations that were given an extra year to implement the contraceptive mandate are no longer exempt . Certain non-exempt , non-grandfathered group health plans established and maintained by non-profit organizations with religious objections to covering contraceptive services may take advantage of a one - year enforcement safe harbor ( i.e. , until the first plan year beginning on or after August 1 , 2013 ) by timely satisfying certain requirements set forth by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services .
Chickenpox
Primary varicella occurs in all countries worldwide . In 2013 the disease resulted in 7,000 deaths -- down from 8,900 in 1990 .
History of Native Americans in the United States
Smallpox epidemics in 1780 -- 1782 and 1837 -- 1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians . By 1832 , the federal government established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans ( The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832 ) . It was the first federal program created to address a health problem of Native Americans .
Genetic recombination
Recombination can be artificially induced in laboratory ( in vitro ) settings , producing recombinant DNA for purposes including vaccine development .
Hormonal contraception
Depo Provera is an injection that provides three months of contraceptive protection . Noristerat is another injection ; it is given every two months .
Angular cheilitis
Secondly , there may be a need to increase the vertical dimension of the lower face to prevent overclosure of the mouth and formation of deep skin folds . This may require the construction of a new denture with an adjusted bite . Rarely , in cases resistant to normal treatments , surgical procedures such as collagen injections ( or other facial fillers such as autologous fat or crosslinked hyaluronic acid ) are used in an attempt to restore the normal facial contour . Other measures which seek to reverse the local factors that may be contributing to the condition include improving oral hygiene , stopping smoking or other tobacco habits and use of a barrier cream ( e.g. zinc oxide paste ) at night .
Radioactive decay
Only a year after Röntgen 's discovery of X rays , the American engineer Wolfram Fuchs ( 1896 ) gave what is probably the first protection advice , but it was not until 1925 that the first International Congress of Radiology ( ICR ) was held and considered establishing international protection standards . The effects of radiation on genes , including the effect of cancer risk , were recognized much later . In 1927 , Hermann Joseph Muller published research showing genetic effects and , in 1946 , was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his findings .
Chickenpox
Shingles affects one in five adults infected with chickenpox as children , especially those who are immune - suppressed , particularly from cancer , HIV , or other conditions . Stress can bring on shingles as well , although scientists are still researching the connection . Shingles are most commonly found in adults over the age of 60 who were diagnosed with chickenpox when they were under the age of 1 .
Virus
Icosahedral Most animal viruses are icosahedral or near - spherical with chiral icosahedral symmetry . A regular icosahedron is the optimum way of forming a closed shell from identical sub-units . The minimum number of identical capsomeres required for each triangular face is 3 , which gives 60 for the icosahedron . Many viruses , such as rotavirus , have more than 60 capsomers and appear spherical but they retain this symmetry . To achieve this , the capsomeres at the apices are surrounded by five other capsomeres and are called pentons . Capsomeres on the triangular faces are surrounded by six others and are called hexons . Hexons are in essence flat and pentons , which form the 12 vertices , are curved . The same protein may act as the subunit of both the pentamers and hexamers or they may be composed of different proteins .
Candle
Production methods utilize extrusion moulding . More traditional production methods entail melting the solid fuel by the controlled application of heat . The liquid is then poured into a mould or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped tapered candle . Often fragrance oils , essential oils or aniline - based dye is added .
Nutella
Nutella is a chocolate and hazelnut spread . The manufacturing process for this food item is very similar to a generic production of chocolate spread . Nutella is made from sugar , modified palm oil , hazelnuts , cocoa powder , skimmed milk powder , whey powder , soy lecithin , and vanillin .
Vector (molecular biology)
Expression vectors produce proteins through the transcription of the vector 's insert followed by translation of the mRNA produced , they therefore require more components than the simpler transcription - only vectors . Expression in different host organism would require different elements , although they share similar requirements , for example a promoter for initiation of transcription , a ribosomal binding site for translation initiation , and termination signals .
Diphtheria
In 1895 , H.K. Mulford Company of Philadelphia started production and testing of diphtheria antitoxin in the United States . Park and Biggs described the method for producing serum from horses for use in diphtheria treatment .
Candle
For most of recorded history candles were tallow ( a by - product of beef - fat rendering ) and beeswax until the mid 1800s at which point they were made mainly from spermaceti ( spurring larger demand for whale oil ) , and stearin ( initially manufactured from animal fats but now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes ) . Today , most candles are made from paraffin wax , a product of petroleum refining .
Burping
Many other mammals , such as cows , dogs , and sheep also burp . In the case of ruminants , much of the gas ( wind ) expelled is produced as a byproduct of the animal 's digestive process . These gasses notably include a large volume of methane , produced exclusively by a narrow cohort of methanogenic archaea in the animal 's gut ; Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) and other bacteria lack the enzymes and cofactors required for methane production . A lactating cow produces about 322g of methane per day , i.e. more than 117kg per year through burping and exhalation , making commercially farmed cows a major ( 37 % ) contributor to anthropogenic methane emissions , and hence to the greenhouse effect . 95 % of this gas ( wind ) is emitted through burping . This has led scientists at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation of Perth , Australia , to develop an anti-methanogen vaccine to minimize methane in cow burps .
Diphtheria
Diphtheria toxin is produced by C. diphtheriae only when infected with a bacteriophage that integrates the toxin - encoding genetic elements into the bacteria .
Supersaturation
Certain candies are made by crystallizing supersaturated solutions of sugar . To make rock candy , manufacturers can raise a solvent to a high temperature , add sugar to reach a high concentration , and then lower the temperature . If a string or stick is present in the solution as it cools , the crystallization will occur on that solid and create a candy . This is the same principle that leads maple syrup to crystallize .
Rabbit
Hard pellets are made up of hay - like fragments of plant cuticle and stalk , being the final waste product after redigestion of soft pellets . These are only released outside the burrow and are not reingested . Soft pellets are usually produced several hours after grazing , after the hard pellets have all been excreted . They are made up of micro-organisms and undigested plant cell walls .
Tapioca balls
In order to produce first - rate products , the starch beads are poured onto plates in a thick layer , and the plates is slowly drawn through a tunnel charged with steam . In this way , uniform gelatinization is ensured .
Gingerbread house
A gingerbread house is a novelty confectionery shaped like a building that is made of cookie dough , cut and baked into appropriate components like walls and roofing . The usual material is crisp ginger biscuit made of gingerbread -- the ginger nut . Another type of model - making with gingerbread uses a boiled dough that can be moulded like clay to form edible statuettes or other decorations . These houses , covered with a variety of candies and icing , are popular Christmas decorations , often built by children with the help of their parents .