vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Macedonia (terminology)
Under Diocletian , Thessaly , including parts of West Macedonia , was split off to form a new province , and the central and southern Balkan provinces were grouped into the Diocese of Moesia . At some point in the 4th century ( first securely attested in 370 ) this was divided into two new dioceses , the mostly Latin - speaking Diocese of Dacia in the north and the mostly Greek - speaking Diocese of Macedonia in the south . Under Constantine the Great , the western part of the province of Macedonia was also split off to form the new province of Epirus nova . After Constantine 's death , the western Balkans , Macedonia included , became part of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum .
Byzantine Empire
During his twenty - five year reign , John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia . He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s , and in 1130 he allied himself with the German emperor Lothair III against the Norman king Roger II of Sicily .
Ancient Greece
Initially many Greek city - states seem to have been petty kingdoms ; there was often a city official carrying some residual , ceremonial functions of the king ( basileus ) , e.g. , the archon basileus in Athens . However , by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness , most had already become aristocratic oligarchies . It is unclear exactly how this change occurred . For instance , in Athens , the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary , lifelong chief magistracy ( archon ) by c. 1050 BC ; by 753 BC this had become a decennial , elected archonship ; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship . Through each stage more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole , and away from a single individual .
Western Roman Empire
Constantine I was proclaimed caesar of the Western Empire on 25 July 306 . After 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western Emperor , in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius . He was the sole Western Emperor from 312 -- 324 , when he became both Western Emperor and Eastern Emperor .
Golden Horde
Uzbeg , whose total army exceeded 300,000 , repeatedly raided Thrace , partly in service of Bulgaria 's war against Byzantium and Serbia beginning in 1319 . The Byzantine Empire under Andronikos II Palaiologos and Andronikos III Palaiologos was raided by the Golden Horde between 1320 and 1341 , until the Byzantine port of Vicina Macaria was occupied . Some sources report that Uzbeg also married Andronikos III 's illegitimate daughter , who had taken the name Bayalun , and who later , after relations between the Horde and the Byzantines deteriorated , fled back to the Byzantine Empire , apparently fearing her forced conversion to Islam . His armies pillaged Thrace for forty days in 1324 and for fifteen days in 1337 , taking 300,000 captives . However , his attempt to reassert Mongol control over Serbia in 1330 was unsuccessful . Backed by Uzbeg , Basarab I of Wallachia declared an independent state from the Hungarian crown in 1330 .
Soviet Union in World War II
Within a year after Barbarossa , Stalin reopened the churches in the Soviet Union . He may have wanted to motivate the majority of the population who had Christian beliefs . By changing the official policy of the party and the state towards religion , he could engage the Church and its clergy in mobilising the war effort . On 4 September 1943 , Stalin invited the metropolitans Sergius , Alexy and Nikolay to the Kremlin . He proposed to reestablish the Moscow Patriarchate , which had been suspended since 1925 , and elect the Patriarch . On 8 September 1943 , Metropolitan Sergius was elected Patriarch . One account said that Stalin 's reversal followed a sign that he supposedly received from heaven .
Western Roman Empire
The authority of Julius Nepos as Emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy , but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul ( who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus ) . Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480 , a plot some attribute to Odoacer himself or potentially the previous deposed emperor Glycerius , and the Eastern Emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new western emperor . Zeno , recognizing that no true direct Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court , instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of Emperor , declaring himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire . Zeno became the first sole Roman Emperor since the division after Theodosius I , 95 years prior , and the position would never again be divided . As such , the ( eastern ) Roman emperors after 480 are the successors of the western ones , albeit only in a juridical sense . These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 , nearly a thousand years later . As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two separate imperial courts , some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire .
New Year
After the sack of Rome in 410 , communications and travel between east and west deteriorated . Liturgical developments in Rome and Constantinople did not always match , although a rigid adherence to form was never mandated in the church . Nevertheless , the principal points of development were maintained between east and west . The Roman and Constantinopolitan liturgical calendars remained compatible even after the East - West Schism in 1054 . Separations between the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical year and Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar grew only over several centuries ' time .
Senate
603 Roman Republic / Empire 1204 Byzantine Empire 1865 Confederate States of America 1831 - 1879 Montenegro 1931 - 1941 Yugoslavia 1939 Czechoslovakia 1947 British Burma 1952 Egypt 1958 Cuba 1959 Iraq 1961 South Korea 1969 Libya 1972 Northern Ireland 1972 Philippines ( restored in 1987 ) 1974 Ethiopia 1975 South Vietnam New
Balkan Wars
On 15 August 1909 , the Military League , a group of Greek officers , took action against the government to reform their country 's national government and reorganize the army . The Military League found itself unable to create a new political system , until the League summoned the Cretan politician Eleutherios Venizelos to Athens as its political adviser . Venizelos persuaded king George I to revise the constitution and asked the League to disband in favor of a National Assembly . In March 1910 , the Military League dissolved itself .
Julian calendar
Most western European countries shifted the first day of their numbered year to 1 January while they were still using the Julian calendar , before they adopted the Gregorian calendar , many during the 16th century . The following table shows the years in which various countries adopted 1 January as the start of the year . Eastern European countries , with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church , began the year on 1 September from about 988 . The Rumi calendar used in the Ottoman Empire began the civil year on 1 March until 1918 .
History of the Roman Empire
The role of choosing a new Augustus fell again to army officers . On February 28 , 364 , Pannonian officer Valentinian I was elected Augustus in Nicaea , Bithynia . The army had been left leaderless twice in less than a year , and the officers demanded Valentinian choose a co-ruler . On March 28 Valentinian chose his own younger brother Valens and the two new Augusti parted the Empire in the pattern established by Diocletian : Valentinian would administer the Western Roman Empire , while Valens took control over the Eastern Roman Empire .
Sahara
The Byzantine Empire ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries . After the Muslim conquest of Arabia , specifically the Arabian peninsula , the Muslim conquest of North Africa began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries and Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara . By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands . Trade across the desert intensified , and a significant slave trade crossed the desert . It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year . The
Western Roman Empire
Libius Severus was proclaimed Western Emperor on 19 November 461 . His rule , even as a puppet emperor , extended little beyond Italy , with Aegidius splitting off from the Western Empire , and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons . Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals , who invaded Italy and Sicily . During these events , Libius Severus died on 14 November 465 , possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer .
Russian Orthodox Church
Patriarch Kirill implemented reforms in the administrative structure of the Moscow Patriarchate : on 27 July 2011 the Holy Synod established the Central Asian Metropolitan District , reorganizing the structure of the Church in Tajikistan , Uzbekistan , Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan . In addition , on 6 October 2011 , at the request of the Patriarch , the Holy Synod introduced the metropoly ( Russian : митрополия , mitropoliya ) , administrative structure bringing together neighboring eparchies .
Russian Orthodox Church
In 1700 , after Patriarch Adrian 's death , Peter the Great prevented a successor from being named , and in 1721 , following the advice of Feofan Prokopovich , Archbishop of Pskov , the Holy and Supreme Synod was established under Archbishop Stephen Yavorsky to govern the church instead of a single primate . This was the situation until shortly after the Russian Revolution of 1917 , at which time the Local Council ( more than half of its members being lay persons ) adopted the decision to restore the Patriarchy . On November 5 ( according to the Julian calendar ) a new patriarch , Tikhon , was named through casting lots .
Western Roman Empire
Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman Emperor on 17 March 455 , after assassinating Valentinian III . During his short reign , he provoked Genseric , the Vandal king , into invading the Western Empire and sacking Rome , by way of violating a marriage agreement made between Genseric and Valentinian III . Maximus and his son Palladius attempted to flee on 31 May 455 , however they were apprehended by a group of peasants , and either killed by them , or by palace servants wishing to curry favor with them .
Mali Empire
The Gbara or Great Assembly would serve as the Mandinka deliberative body until the collapse of the Manden Kurufa in 1645 . Its first meeting , at the famous Kouroukan Fouga ( Division of the World ) , had 29 clan delegates presided over by a belen - tigui ( master of ceremony ) . The final incarnation of the Gbara , according to the surviving traditions of northern Guinea , held 32 positions occupied by 28 clans . Social
Eastern Orthodox Church
In 2017 , Patriarch Theodoros II and the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate of Alexandria decided to reinstate the order of deaconesses in the Greek Orthodox Church . In February , he appointed six nuns to be subdeacons within the church . ( Catherine Clark ( 2017 ) . `` National Catholic Reporter . '' March - April 6 , 2017 . p. 7 )
Western Roman Empire
By convention , the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476 , when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus , but the historical record calls this determination into question . Indeed , the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times . Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the more or less entirely intact Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy , with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire in Dalmatia . Furthermore , the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades , with most of its legal territory being under control of various barbarian kingdoms . With Odoacer recognising Julius Nepos , and later the Eastern Emperor Zeno , as his sovereign , nominal Roman control continued in Italy . Syagrius , who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an exclave in northern Gaul ( a realm today known as the Domain of Soissons ) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western Emperor .
Emperor of Japan
In 1868 , imperial `` restoration '' was declared , and the Shogunate was dissolved . A new constitution described the Emperor as `` the head of the Empire , combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty '' , whose rights included to sanction and promulgate laws , to execute them and to exercise `` supreme command of the Army and the Navy '' . The liaison conference created in 1893 also made the Emperor the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters .
Julian calendar
The three most important of these calendars are the Alexandrian calendar , the Asian calendar and the Syro - Macedonian calendar . Other reformed calendars are known from Cappadocia , Cyprus and the cities of Syria and Palestine . Most reformed calendars were adopted under Augustus , though the calendar of Nabatea was reformed after the kingdom became the Roman province of Arabia in AD 106 . There is no evidence that local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar in the western empire . Unreformed calendars continued to be used in Gaul , Greece , Macedon , the Balkans and parts of Palestine , most notably in Judea .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Reunion was attempted twice , at the 1274 Second Council of Lyon and the 1439 Council of Florence . The Council of Florence briefly reestablished communion between East and West , which lasted until after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 . In each case , however , the councils were rejected by the Orthodox people as a whole , and the union of Florence also became very politically difficult after Constantinople came under Ottoman rule . Some local Eastern Churches have , however , renewed union with Rome in time since ( see Eastern Catholic Churches ) . Recent decades have seen a renewal of ecumenical spirit and dialogue between the Churches .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In 474 Julius Nepos , nephew and successor of the general Marcellinus , arrived in Rome with soldiers and authority from the eastern emperor Leo I. Gundobad had already left to contest the Burgundian throne in Gaul and Glycerius gave up without a fight , retiring to become bishop of Salona in Dalmatia .
Qing dynasty
After agreeing to sign the Boxer Protocol , the government then initiated unprecedented fiscal and administrative reforms including elections , a new legal code and abolition of the examination system . Sun Yat - sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao to transform the Qing empire into a modern nation . After the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908 , the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike by obstructing social reform . The Wuchang Uprising on October 11 , 1911 , led to the Xinhai Revolution . General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi , the last emperor , on February 12 , 1912 . The Qing empire was briefly restored on July 1 , 1917 , before it was once again overthrown 12 days later .
Western Roman Empire
The Vandal Kingdom was founded through Vandalic conquests in the provinces of Roman Africa , culminating in a siege and subsequent conquest of Carthage in 439 . The Vandals continually used an impressive fleet to loot the coasts of both the Western and Eastern halves of the Empire , becoming an increasingly strong naval power . After the death of Attila , the Romans made repeated efforts at recapturing Africa and destroying the Vandals , since they were in control of some of the richest imperial lands . With several planned campaigns never being carried out or being destroyed in naval battles , the Vandals remained a power and even sacked Rome in 455 . Unlike the Visigoths , the Vandals minted their own coinage and were both de facto and de jure independent . Like the Ostrogoths of Italy , the Vandalic Kingdom would come to be reconquered under the western campaigns of Emperor Justinian I .
Julian calendar
The Julian calendar , proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC ( 708 AUC ) , was a reform of the Roman calendar . It took effect on 1 January 45 BC ( AUC 709 ) , by edict . It was the predominant calendar in the Roman world , most of Europe , and in European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere , until it was refined and gradually replaced by the Gregorian calendar , promulgated in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII . The Julian calendar gains against the mean tropical year at the rate of one day in 128 years . For the Gregorian calendar , the figure is one day in 3,030 years . The difference in the average length of the year between Julian ( 365.25 days ) and Gregorian ( 365.2425 days ) is 0.002 % , being 10.8 minutes longer .
Western Roman Empire
Constantine I : 309 -- 337 ( Sole Emperor : 324 -- 337 ) .
Pope
From 1863 until 2005 , the Annuario Pontificio also included the title `` Patriarch of the West '' . This title was first used by Pope Theodore I in 642 , and was only used occasionally . Indeed , it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863 . On 22 March 2006 , the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a `` historical and theological reality '' and of `` being useful to ecumenical dialogue '' . The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the pope 's special relationship with , and jurisdiction over , the Latin Church -- and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship , nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the Eastern Churches , as solemnly proclaimed by the Second Vatican Council .
Western Roman Empire
Honorius was convinced by the minister Olympius that Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him , and thus arrested and executed Stilicho in 408 . Olympius headed a conspiracy that successfully orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the regime of Stilicho , including his son and the families of many of his federated troops . This led many of the soldiers to instead join with Alaric , who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition . Despite attempts by Honorius to a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him , the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric sacked the city of Rome . Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital of even the Western Empire , the event shocked people across both halves of the Empire as this was the first time Rome ( viewed at least as the symbolic heart of the Empire ) had fallen to a foreign enemy since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC . The Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II , the successor of Arcadius , declared three days of mourning in Constantinople .
Russian Orthodox Church
A group of bishops who had left Russia in the wake of the Russian Civil War gathered in Sremski - Karlovci , which has been traditionally known as the seat of Serbian Orthodox Church in the Habsburg Monarchy , and in 1918 became part of Kingdom of Serbia , subsequently , in 1918 , Yugoslavia , and adopted a pro-monarchist stand . The group further claimed to speak as a synod for the entire `` free '' Russian church . This group , which to this day includes a sizable portion of the Russian emigration , was formally dissolved in 1922 by Patriarch Tikhon , who then appointed metropolitans Platon and Evlogy as ruling bishops in America and Europe , respectively . Both of these metropolitans continued to entertain relations intermittently with the synod in Karlovci .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Following the capture of Constantinople , Mehmed built the Topkapı Palace in 1462 and moved the Ottoman capital there from Adrianople . Mehmed had himself titled `` Kaiser - i - Rum '' , or `` Roman Caesar '' , and modelled the state after the old Byzantine Empire , thinking of himself as the successor to the Roman throne . Later , when he invaded Otranto , his goal was to capture Rome and reunite the Roman Empire for the first time since 751 . Justinian 's cathedral of Hagia Sophia was converted into an imperial mosque , as eventually were numerous other churches and monasteries . The rights of non-Muslim inhabitants were protected to ensure continuity and stability for commercial activities . Never fully recovered from the sack of 1204 , and suffering from Byzantium 's two centuries of near poverty , Constantinople by the time of Mehmed 's conquest was but a hollow shell of its former self . Its population had dwindled , and much property was either abandoned or in a state of disrepair . The sultan immediately began to repopulate the city . Civic and private properties were offered to the public to entice much - needed skilled artisans , craftsmen , and traders of all religions and ethnicities back to the city . Newly conquered Constantinople rapidly grew into a multiethnic , multicultured , and bustling economic , political , and cultural center for the Ottoman state , whose distant frontiers guaranteed it peace , security , and prosperity .
Byzantine Empire
To fend off the Huns , Theodosius had to pay an enormous annual tribute to Attila . His successor , Marcian , refused to continue to pay the tribute , but Attila had already diverted his attention to the West . After Attila 's death in 453 , the Hunnic Empire collapsed , and many of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries by Constantinople .
Byzantine law
In accordance with the model of the secular legal associations , the canons of the ecclesiastic councils concerned ecclesiastic issues and regulated the conduct of the clergy , as well as of the secular as concerned matters of belief . The `` In Trullo '' or `` Fifth - Sixth Council '' , known for its canons , was convened in the years of Justinian II ( 691 - 692 ) and occupied itself exclusively with matters of discipline . The aim of the synod was to cover the gaps left in canon law by the previous Fifth ( 553 ) and Sixth Ecumenical Councils .
Russian Orthodox Church
The Russian Orthodox church was drastically weakened in May 1922 , when the Renovated ( Living ) Church , a reformist movement backed by the Soviet secret police , broke away from Patriarch Tikhon ( also see the Josephites and the Russian True Orthodox Church ) , a move that caused division among clergy and faithful that persisted until 1946 .
Julian calendar
The Julian calendar has been replaced as the civil calendar by the Gregorian calendar in all countries which officially used it . An analog , the Alexandrian calendar , is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar , which is the civil calendar of Ethiopia . Egypt converted on 20 December 1874 / 1 January 1875 . Turkey switched ( for fiscal purposes ) on 16 February / 1 March 1917 . Russia changed on 1 / 14 February 1918 . Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February / 1 March 1923 , but the next national day ( 25 March ) -- a religious holiday -- took place as if on the old calendar . Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have made the same change for their liturgical calendars .
Western Roman Empire
Under Odoacer , Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court , the first of these were Caecina Decius Maximus Basilus in 480 . Basilus was later also made the Praetorian Prefect of Italy in 483 , a position that continued to exist under Odoacer. 11 further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer during his reign from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed , Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius ( 486 - 493 ) .