vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Russian culture
Russian culture grew from that of the East Slavs , with their pagan beliefs and specific way of life in the wooded areas of far Eastern Europe . Early Russian culture was much influenced by neighbouring Finno - Ugric tribes and by the nomadic peoples of the Pontic steppe ( mainly of Kipchak and Iranic origin ) . In the late 1st millennium AD the Varangians ( supposedly Scandinavian Vikings ) , also took part in the forming of Russian identity and the Kievan Rus ' state . Orthodox Christian missionaries began arriving from the Eastern Roman Empire in the 9th century , and Kievan Rus ' converted to Orthodox Christianity in 988 . This largely defined the Russian culture of the next millennium as the synthesis of Slavic and Byzantine cultures . After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 , Russia remained the largest Orthodox nation in the world and claimed succession to the Byzantine legacy in the form of the Third Rome idea . At different points in its history , the country was also strongly influenced by the culture of Western Europe . Since the reforms of Peter the Great , for two centuries Russian culture largely developed in the general context of European culture rather than pursuing its own unique ways . The situation changed in the 20th century , when the Communist ideology became a major factor in the culture of the Soviet Union , where Russia , in the form of the Russian SFSR , was the largest and leading part .
History of the Roman Empire
Julian himself was not a traditional pagan . His personal beliefs were largely influenced by Neoplatonism and Theurgy ; he reputedly believed he was the reincarnation of Alexander the Great . He produced works of philosophy arguing his beliefs . His brief renaissance of paganism would , however , end with his death . Julian eventually resumed the war against Shapur II of Persia . He received a mortal wound in battle and died on June 26 , 363 . According to Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , upon being mortally wounded by a dart , he was carried back to his camp . He gave a farewell speech , in which he refused to name a successor . He then proceeded to debate the philosophical nature of the soul with his generals . He then requested water and , shortly after drinking it , died . He was considered a hero by pagan sources of his time and a villain by Christian ones . Gibbon wrote quite favourably about Julian . Contemporary historians have treated him as a controversial figure .
Byzantine Empire
In 1198 , Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new crusade through legates and encyclical letters . The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt , now the centre of Muslim power in the Levant . The crusader army that arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 was somewhat smaller than had been anticipated , and there were not sufficient funds to pay the Venetians , whose fleet was hired by the crusaders to take them to Egypt . Venetian policy under the ageing and blind but still ambitious Doge Enrico Dandolo was potentially at variance with that of the Pope and the crusaders , because Venice was closely related commercially with Egypt . The crusaders accepted the suggestion that in lieu of payment they assist the Venetians in the capture of the ( Christian ) port of Zara in Dalmatia ( vassal city of Venice , which had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary 's protection in 1186 ) . The city fell in November 1202 after a brief siege . Innocent tried to forbid this political attack on a Christian city , but was ignored . Reluctant to jeopardise his own agenda for the Crusade , he gave conditional absolution to the crusaders -- not , however , to the Venetians .
Crusades
Modern historians hold widely varying opinions of the Crusaders . To some , their conduct was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy , as evidenced by the fact that on occasion the Pope excommunicated Crusaders . Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled , and their leaders generally retained control of captured territory instead of returning it to the Byzantines . During the People 's Crusade , thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres . Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade . However , the Crusades had a profound impact on Western civilisation : they reopened the Mediterranean to commerce and travel ( enabling Genoa and Venice to flourish ) ; they consolidated the collective identity of the Latin Church under papal leadership ; and they constituted a wellspring for accounts of heroism , chivalry , and piety that galvanised medieval romance , philosophy , and literature . The Crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom , feudalism , and militarism .
Byzantine Empire
The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates , and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations , in which it had a special interest . The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital , and to keep down the price of cereals . Finally , the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation , and put it back into circulation , through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials , or in the form of investment in public works .
The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
This forms a sharp contrast with medieval Europe , where the Church was often able to superimpose its will over those of secular rulers , and where the same , singular religion was the religion of rulers , nobility and the common folk .
Parthenon
The Parthenon became the fourth most important Christian pilgrimage destination in the Eastern Roman Empire after Constantinople , Ephesos , and Thessalonica . In 1018 , the emperor Basil II went on a pilgrimage to Athens directly after his final victory over the Bulgarians for the sole purpose of worshipping at the Parthenon . In medieval Greek accounts it is called the Temple of Theotokos Atheniotissa and often indirectly referred to as famous without explaining exactly which temple they were referring to , thus establishing that it was indeed well known .
Islamic architecture
The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in Turkey , which obtained influence from Byzantine , Persian and Syrian - Arab designs . Turkish architects implemented their own style of cupola domes . For almost 500 years Byzantine architecture such as the church of Hagia Sophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque , the Suleiman Mosque , and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque .
Eastern Orthodox Church
The religious authority for Eastern Orthodoxy is not a Patriarch or the Pope as in Catholicism , nor the Bible as in Protestantism , but the scriptures as interpreted by the seven ecumenical councils of the Church . The Orthodox Church is a fellowship of `` autocephalous '' ( Greek for self - headed ) Churches , with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople being the only autocephalous head who holds the title primus inter pares , meaning `` first among equals '' in Latin . The Patriarch of Constantinople has the honor of primacy , but his title is only first among equals and has no real authority over Churches other than the Constantinopolitan . The Orthodox Church considers Jesus Christ to be the head of the Church and the Church to be his body . It is believed that authority and the grace of God is directly passed down to Orthodox bishops and clergy through the laying on of hands -- a practice started by the apostles , and that this unbroken historical and physical link is an essential element of the true Church ( Acts 8 : 17 , 1 Tim 4 : 14 , Heb 6 : 2 ) . However , the Church asserts that Apostolic Succession also requires Apostolic Faith , and bishops without Apostolic Faith , who are in heresy , forfeit their claim to Apostolic Succession .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Most members today are concentrated in Eastern Europe and Asian Russia , in addition to significant minorities in Central Asia and the Levant , although Eastern Orthodoxy has spread into a global religion towards Western Europe and the New World , with churches in most countries and major cities . The adherents constitute the largest single religious faith in the world 's largest country -- Russia , where roughly half of Eastern Orthodox Christians live . They are the majority religion in Ukraine , Romania , Belarus , Greece , Serbia , Bulgaria , Moldova , Georgia , Macedonia , Cyprus , Montenegro , they also dominate in the disputed territories Abkhazia , South Ossetia and Transnistria . Significant minorities of Eastern Orthodox are present in Bosnia and Herzegovina , Latvia , Estonia , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Lebanon , Albania , Syria , and many other countries .
Lebanon
The region that is now Lebanon , as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia , became a major center of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the early spread of the religion . During the late 4th and early 5th century , a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition , focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism , near the Mediterranean mountain range known as Mount Lebanon . The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among Lebanese in the region . These Christians came to be known as Maronites and moved into mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities . During the frequent Roman - Persian Wars that lasted for many centuries , the Sassanid Persians occupied what is now Lebanon from 619 till 629 .
Pope
Part of a series on the Catholic Church St. Peter 's Basilica , Vatican City Overview Pope : Francis Hierarchy History ( Timeline ) Theology Liturgy Sacraments Mary Background ( show ) Jesus Crucifixion Resurrection Ascension Early Christianity History of the Catholic Church History of the papacy Ecumenical Councils Four Marks of the Church One true church Apostolic succession Organisation ( show ) Holy See College of Cardinals Ecumenical Councils Episcopal polity Latin Church Eastern Churches Canon law Theology ( show ) Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Ten Commandments Three States of the Church Purgatory Paschal Mystery Passion Crucifixion Harrowing of Hell Resurrection Ascension Mary Mariology Veneration Immaculate Conception Theotokos Perpetual virginity Assumption Titles Morality Body Lectures Sexuality Apologetics Divine grace Salvation Original sin Saints Dogma Catechism Philosophy ( show ) Natural law Catholic ethics Personalism Social teaching Philosophers Worship ( show ) Liturgy Mass Divine Office Liturgical year Sacraments Baptism Penance Eucharist Confirmation Anointing of the Sick Matrimony Holy Orders Prayer Devotions Bible Biblical canon Rites ( show ) Latin Roman Ordinary form Tridentine Anglican Use Zaire Use Gallican Ambrosian Braga Mozarabic Eastern Antiochian Maronite West Syrian Syro - Malankara Chaldean East Syrian Syro - Malabar Byzantine Armenian Alexandrian Ethiopic Controversies ( show ) Antipopes Anti-Catholicism Criticism Sex and gender roles Homosexuality Sexual abuse cases Other topics ( show ) Art Ecumenism Evolution Health care Monasticism Music Science Role in civilization Links and resources ( show ) Index Outline Glossary Category Media Templates WikiProject Book Pope portal Vatican City portal Catholicism portal Main
Byzantine law
Though during and after the European Renaissance Western legal practices were heavily influenced by Justinian 's Code ( the Corpus Juris Civilis ) and Roman law during classical times , Byzantine law nevertheless had substantial influence on Western traditions during the Middle Ages and after .
Libya
Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age . The Phoenicians established trading posts in western Libya , and ancient Greek colonists established city - states in eastern Libya . Libya was variously ruled by Carthaginians , Persians , Egyptians and Greeks before becoming a part of the Roman Empire . Libya was an early centre of Christianity . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century , when invasions brought Islam . In the 16th century , the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli , until Ottoman rule began in 1551 . Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries . Ottoman rule continued until the Italian occupation of Libya resulted in the temporary Italian Libya colony from 1911 to 1943 . During the Second World War Libya was an important area of warfare in the North African Campaign . The Italian population then went into decline .
Alaşehir
Philadelphia was a prosperous Byzantine city , called the `` little Athens '' in the 6th century AD because of its festivals and temples . Presumably this indicates that the city was n't entirely converted to Christianity . Ammia , the Christian prophetess , was from Philadelphia , however . In about the year 600 the domed Basilica of St. John was built , remains of which are the main archaeological attraction in the modern city . The Byzantine walls that once surrounded the city have all but crumbled away . A few remnants are still visible at the northeast edge of town , near the bus stand . The city was taken by the Seljuk Turks in 1074 and 1093 -- 94 . In 1098 , during the First Crusade , it was recovered by Byzantine Emperor Alexios I. In the 11th to 15th centuries AD , it was the seat of the doux ( governor ) and stratopedarches ( military commander ) of the Thrakesion theme .
Eastern Orthodox Church
In the 530s the Church of the Holy Wisdom ( Hagia Sophia ) was built in Constantinople under Emperor Justinian I .
Byzantine Empire
One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade , fostered by the maritime character of the Empire . Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export ; silks were certainly imported into Egypt , and appeared also in Bulgaria , and the West . The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade , and retained the monopoly of issuing coinage , maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to trade needs .
Russian culture
Russian architecture began with the woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs . Since the Christianization of Kievan Rus ' , for several centuries Russian architecture was influenced predominantly by the Byzantine architecture , until the Fall of Constantinople . Apart from fortifications ( kremlins ) , the main stone buildings of ancient Rus ' were Orthodox churches , with their many domes , often gilded or brightly painted . Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends into Russia . The 16th century saw the development of unique tent - like churches culminating in Saint Basil 's Cathedral . By that time the onion dome design was also fully developed . In the 17th century , the `` fiery style '' of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl , gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1690s . After Peter the Great reforms had made Russia much closer to Western culture , the change of the architectural styles in the country generally followed that of Western Europe .
Liturgical colours
The Byzantine Rite , which is used by all the member churches of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches of Byzantine Rite , does not have a universal system of colours , with the service - books of the Byzantine tradition only specifying `` light '' or `` dark '' vestments in the service books . In the Greek tradition , maroon or burgundy are common for solemn feast days , and a wide variety of colours are used at other times , the most common of which are gold and white .
Middle Ages
In the 11th century , the Seljuk Turks took over much of the Middle East , occupying Persia during the 1040s , Armenia in the 1060s , and Jerusalem in 1070 . In 1071 , the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert and captured the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV ( r . 1068 -- 71 ) . The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor , which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland . Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat , they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive . The Turks also had difficulties , losing control of Jerusalem to the Fatimids of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars . The Byzantines also faced a revived Bulgaria , which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans .
Byzantine Empire
John and Manuel pursued active military policies , and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and on city defences ; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies . Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon , the policies of Alexios , John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains , increased frontier stability in Asia Minor , and secured the stabilisation of the Empire 's European frontiers . From c. 1081 to c. 1180 , the Komnenian army assured the Empire 's security , enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish .
Crusades
The military orders such as the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar provided Latin Christendom 's first professional armies in support of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states . The Poor Knights of Christ ( Templars ) and their Temple of Solomon were founded around 1119 by a small band of knights who dedicated themselves to protecting pilgrims en route to Jerusalem . The Hospitallers and the Templars became supranational organisations as Papal support led to rich donations of land and revenue across Europe . This in turn led to a steady flow of new recruits and the wealth to maintain multiple fortifications across the Outremer . In time , this developed into autonomous power in the region . After the fall of Acre the Hospitallers first relocated to Cyprus , then conquered and ruled Rhodes ( 1309 -- 1522 ) and Malta ( 1530 -- 1798 ) , and continue in existence to the present day . Philip IV of France probably had financial and political reasons to oppose the Knights Templar , which led to him exerting pressure on Pope Clement V . The Pope responded in 1312 , with a series of papal bulls including Vox in excelso and Ad providam that dissolved the order on the alleged and probably false grounds of sodomy , magic , and heresy .
History of the Catholic Church
Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas . The empire 's well - defined network of roads and waterways allowed easier travel , while the Pax Romana made it safe to travel from one region to another . The government had encouraged inhabitants , especially those in urban areas , to learn Greek , and the common language allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood . Jesus 's apostles gained converts in Jewish communities around the Mediterranean Sea , and over 40 Christian communities had been established by 100 . Although most of these were in the Roman Empire , notable Christian communities were also established in Armenia , Iran and along the Indian Malabar Coast . The new religion was most successful in urban areas , spreading first among slaves and people of low social standing , and then among aristocratic women .
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church is a communion of 14 autocephalous ( that is , administratively completely independent ) regional churches , plus the Orthodox Church in America , which is recognised as autocephalous only by the Russian , Bulgarian , Georgian , Polish , the Czech - Slovak churches . Each has defined geographical boundaries of its jurisdiction and is ruled by its Council of Bishops or Synod presided by a senior bishop -- its Primate ( or First Hierarch ) . The Primate may carry the honorary title of Patriarch , Metropolitan ( in the Slavic tradition ) or Archbishop ( in the Greek tradition ) .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
At the beginning of the thirteenth century Anatolia was divided between two relatively powerful states : the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Anatolian Seljuks in the central plateau . Equilibrium between them was disrupted by the Mongol invasion and conquest of the Seljuks following the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 , and the reconquest of Constantinople by the Byzantine Palaeologos dynasty in 1261 , which shifted Byzantine attention away from the Anatolian frontier . Mongol pressure pushed nomadic Turkish tribes to migrate westward , into the now poorly - defended Byzantine territory . From the 1260s onward Anatolia increasingly began to slip from Byzantine control , as Turkish Anatolian beyliks were established both in formerly Byzantine lands and in the territory of the fragmenting Seljuk Sultanate .
History of the Catholic Church
Decisions made at the Council of Nicea ( 325 ) about the divinity of Christ led to a schism ; the new religion , Arianism flourished outside the Roman Empire . Partially to distinguish themselves from Arians , Catholic devotion to Mary became more prominent . This led to further schisms .
The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
Chinese civilization had no religious prophecy nor a powerful priesthood social class . The emperor was the high priest of the state religion and the supreme ruler . Weber emphasized that Confucianism tolerated the simultaneous existence of many popular cults and made no effort to organize them as part of a religious doctrine , while nonetheless curtailing the political ambitions of their priests . Instead it taught adjustment to the world .
Ancient Roman architecture
Some remains of many Roman temples survive , above all in Rome itself , but the relatively few near - complete examples were nearly all converted to Christian churches ( and sometimes subsequently to mosques ) , usually a considerable time after the initial triumph of Christianity under Constantine . The decline of Roman religion was relatively slow , and the temples themselves were not appropriated by the government until a decree of the Emperor Honorius in 415 . Some of the oldest surviving temples include the Temple of Hercules Victor ( mid 2nd century BC ) and Temple of Portunus ( 120 - 80 BC ) , both standing within the Forum Boarium .
Islamic architecture
The Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century availed the Muslims with the vast wealth of architectural innovation developed over the centuries , from the great roads , aqueducts and arches of the Roman Empire , to the Byzantine basilicas and Persian horseshoe and pointed arches , and the Sassanian and Byzantine mosaics . The Islamic architects first utilized these native architects to build mosques , and eventually developed their own adaptations . Islamic architecture thus is directly related to Persian and Byzantine architecture .
Byzantine Empire
The death of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon I in 927 severely weakened the Bulgarians , allowing the Byzantines to concentrate on the eastern front . Melitene was permanently recaptured in 934 , and in 943 the famous general John Kourkouas continued the offensive in Mesopotamia with some noteworthy victories , culminating in the reconquest of Edessa . Kourkouas was especially celebrated for returning to Constantinople the venerated Mandylion , a relic purportedly imprinted with a portrait of Christ .
Parthenon
The Parthenon itself replaced an older temple of Athena , which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon , that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC . The temple is archaeoastronomically aligned to the Hyades . Like most Greek temples , the Parthenon served a practical purpose as the city treasury . For a time , it served as the treasury of the Delian League , which later became the Athenian Empire . In the final decade of the sixth century AD , the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary .