vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
The information available about the people of the Copper Age has not substantially increased along with the number of archaeological sites . Several ideas have been proffered , one of the most followed is that the metal itself did not bring abrupt transformation into the people 's life ( Cunliffe 1998 ) or even more that ' early copper does not produce anything useful at all ' ( Renfrew 1986 , 146 ) , meaning with this that with the copper , they produced mainly jewellery and , overall , weapons that obviously were not within reach of the majority of the population but only to privileged individuals . In other words , the real importance of the metal is not utilitarian but social . This is a suitable explanation about the rising of Great Cultures of Metal such as Vinča culture ( Ex-Yugoslavia ) Tiszapolgar and Unetice culture ( Central Europe ) , Remedello and Rinaldone ( Italy ) , Montagne Noire ( France ) , El Argar and Targas ( Spain ) , etc . Male
Celtic Britons
Similarly , the Brittonic colony of Britonia in north western Spain appears to have disappeared soon after 900 AD .
Wales
Many works of Celtic art have been found in Wales . In the Early Medieval period , the Celtic Christianity of Wales was part of the Insular art of the British Isles . A number of illuminated manuscripts from Wales survive , of which the 8th century Hereford Gospels and Lichfield Gospels are the most notable . The 11th century Ricemarch Psalter ( now in Dublin ) is certainly Welsh , made in St David 's , and shows a late Insular style with unusual Viking influence .
Church of Ireland
The Church of Ireland claimed that in breaking with Rome the reformed established church was reverting to a condition that had obtained in the church in Ireland prior to the 12th century -- the independent character of Celtic Christianity . Modern scholarship , however , sees the early Irish church as different to but still a part of Roman Christianity , with the result that the Church of Ireland and the Irish Roman Catholic church can both claim descent from St Patrick .
Wales
Early historians , including the 6th century cleric Gildas , have noted 383 as a significant point in Welsh history , as it is stated in literature as the foundation point of several medieval royal dynasties . In that year the Roman general Magnus Maximus , or Macsen Wledig , stripped all of western and northern Britain of troops and senior administrators , to launch a successful bid for imperial power ; continuing to rule Britain from Gaul as emperor . Gildas , writing in about 540 , says that Maximus departed Britain , taking with him all of its Roman troops , armed bands , governors and the flower of its youth , never to return . Having left with the troops and Roman administrators , and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future , his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers . The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus the role of founding father for several royal dynasties , including those of Powys and Gwent . It was this transfer of power that has given rise to the belief that he was the father of the Welsh Nation . He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of Eliseg , erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain , and he figures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales .
United Kingdom
The early modern period saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country . Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England , and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown . In what was to become Northern Ireland , the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland .
Middle Ages
The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine , plague , and war , which significantly diminished the population of Europe ; between 1347 and 1350 , the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans . Controversy , heresy , and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict , civil strife , and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms . Cultural and technological developments transformed European society , concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period .
History of the United Kingdom
made a greater impact on British public life than any other 20th - century leader , thanks to his pre-war introduction of Britain 's social welfare system ( especially medical insurance , unemployment insurance , and old - age pensions , largely paid for by taxes on high incomes and on the land ) . Furthermore , in foreign affairs he played a leading role in winning the First World War , redrawing the map of Europe at the peace conference , and partitioning Ireland .
Third Rome
Since 2008 , the European Parliament , together with the city of Aachen ( which was Charlemagne 's capital city ) , hands out Charlemagne 's Youth Price to a young European who has done a great service to European Unity . This is a recognition of Charlemagne 's contribution to resurrecting European civilisation in Western Europe and his ambition for European unity . Perhaps it is also a recognition of the fact that the Holy Roman Empire laid the institutional groundwork for the Union , as it too was an entity above nation states that provided politically alignment and collective protection for a range of different European peoples .
Minority rights
The direct role of the European Union ( and also the law of the EU / EC ) in the area of protection of national minorities is still very limited ( likewise the general protection of human rights ) . The EU has relied on general international law and a European regional system of international law ( based on the Council of Europe , Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , etc . ) and in a case of necessity accepted their norms . But the `` de-economisation of European integration '' , which started in the 1990s , is changing this situation . The political relevance of national minorities ' protection is very high .
Flag of Ireland
The green pale of the flag symbolises Roman Catholics , the orange represents the minority Protestants who were supporters of William of Orange , who had defeated King James II and his predominantly Irish Catholic army at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 . His title came from the Principality of Orange in the south of France that had been a Protestant bastion from the 16th century . It was included in the Irish flag in an attempt to reconcile the Orange Order in Ireland with the Irish independence movement . The white in the centre signifies a lasting peace and hope for union between Protestants and Catholics in Ireland . The flag , as a whole , is intended to symbolise the inclusion and hoped - for union of the people of different traditions on the island of Ireland , which is expressed in the Constitution as the entitlement of every person born in Ireland to be part of the independent Irish nation , regardless of ethnic origin , religion or political conviction . There are exceptions to the general beneficent theory . Green was also used as the colour of such Irish bodies as the mainly - Protestant and non-sectarian Friendly Brothers of St. Patrick , established in 1751 .
Wales
The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry , and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales . These words ( both of which are pronounced ( ˈkəm. rɨ ) ) are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi , meaning `` fellow - countrymen '' . The use of the word Cymry as a self - designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era ( after the arrival of the Anglo - Saxons ) of the Welsh ( Brythonic - speaking ) people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland ( `` Yr Hen Ogledd '' ) ( English : The Old North ) . It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people , different from other peoples . In particular , the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples , who are of similar heritage , culture , and language to the Welsh . The word came into use as a self - description probably before the 7th century . It is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan ( Moliant Cadwallon , by Afan Ferddig ) c. 633 . In Welsh literature , the word Cymry was used throughout the Middle Ages to describe the Welsh , though the older , more generic term Brythoniaid continued to be used to describe any of the Britonnic peoples ( including the Welsh ) and was the more common literary term until c. 1100 . Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh . Until c. 1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry , regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland .
History of the Roman Empire
Germanic tribes and other people launched many raids along the long north European border , particularly into Gaul and across the Danube -- Germans , in turn , may have been under attack from more warlike tribes farther east , driving them into the empire . His campaigns against them are commemorated on the Column of Marcus Aurelius .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
This interpretation points out that the bow was preeminently a weapon of the inhabitants of the island of Crete and not of the Roman Empire in general . The Cretans were renowned for their archery skills . The significance of the rider of the white horse holding a bow indicates the place of origin of the line of emperors ruling during this time . This group of emperors can be classed together under one and the same head and family whose origins were from Crete .
France–United Kingdom relations
In 1798 French forces invaded Ireland to assist the United Irishmen who had launched a rebellion , where they were joined by thousands of rebels but defeated by British and Irish loyalist forces . The fear of further attempts to create a French satellite in Ireland led to the Act of Union , merging the Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom in 1801 . Ireland now lost its last vestiges of independence . British
Carthage
Both the Phoenicians and the Cathaginians were well known in antiquity for their secrecy in general , and especially pertaining to commercial contacts and trade routes . Both cultures excelled in commercial dealings . Strabo ( 63BC - AD21 ) the Greek geographer wrote that before its fall ( in 146 BC ) Carthage enjoyed a population of 700,000 , and directed an alliance of 300 cities . The Greek historian Polybius ( c. 203 -- 120 ) referred to Carthage as `` the wealthiest city in the world '' .
Church of Ireland
that part of the Irish Church which was influenced by the Reformation , and has its origins in the early Celtic Church of St Patrick .
Iliad
These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances , most notably those of Benoit de Sainte - Maure and Guido delle Colonne . These in turn spawned many others in various European languages , such as the first printed English book , the 1473 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye . Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the Excidium Troiae and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga . Even without Homer , the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity . Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War . Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus , for instance .
Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
Chalcolithic Eneolithic , Aeneolithic or Copper Age ↑ Stone Age ↑ Neolithic Near East Ghassulian culture , Naqada culture , Uruk period Europe Yamna culture , Corded Ware Cernavodă culture , Decea Mureşului culture , Gorneşti culture , Gumelniţa -- Karanovo culture , Petreşti culture , Coțofeni culture Remedello culture , Gaudo culture , Monte Claro culture Central Asia Yamna culture , Botai culture , BMAC culture , Afanasevo culture South Asia Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation , Bhirrana culture , Hakra Ware culture , Kaytha culture , Ahar - Banas culture Savalda Culture , Malwa culture , Jorwe culture China Mesoamerica Metallurgy , Wheel , Domestication of the horse ↓ Bronze Age Reconstruction
Middle Ages
In military affairs , the use of infantry with specialised roles increased . Along with the still - dominant heavy cavalry , armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen , as well as sappers and engineers . Crossbows , which had been known in Late Antiquity , increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries . The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed - face helmets , heavy body armour , as well as horse armour . Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304 , although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon . Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s , and hand - held guns were in use by the 1360s .
Lithuania
By the end of the 14th century , Lithuania was one of the largest countries in Europe and included present - day Belarus , Ukraine , and parts of Poland and Russia . The geopolitical situation between the west and the east determined the multicultural and multi-confessional character of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The ruling elite practised religious tolerance and Chancery Slavonic language was used as an auxiliary language to the Latin for official documents .
Ranger's Apprentice
The inspiration for the series comes from many sources , including family , friends , and European times . Rangers are based on two groups of people , the Texas Rangers and the US Army Rangers of World War II . Although the US Rangers were based on British Commandos , Flanagan felt it would be better to use Rangers because of the medieval setting of the book . The mythical world of the story is based on England , Europe , and Scandinavia because Flanagan was inspired by `` English and European culture and history '' . Besides this , John Flanagan is also interested in military subjects , which helped him write the battle scenes . Celtica 's mining culture is like Wales while Gallica takes its name and language from medieval France in its chivalric age around the year 1300 .
Welsh language
Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic , the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons . Classified as Insular Celtic , the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was probably spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth . During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation , evolving into Welsh and the other Brittonic languages . It is not clear when Welsh became distinct .
Warsaw
The history of contemporary civilisation knows no event of greater importance than the Battle of Warsaw , 1920 , and none of which the significance is less appreciated ... yet never had Poland 's services been greater , never had the danger been more imminent . --
Nine Years' War
The European war was reflected in North America , where it was known as King William 's War , though the North American contest was very different in meaning and scale . The European war declaration arrived amid long - running tensions over control of the fur trade , economically vital to both French and English colonies , and influence over the Iroquois , who controlled much of that trade . The French were determined to hold the St. Lawrence country and to extend their power over the vast basin of the Mississippi . Moreover , Hudson Bay was a focal point of dispute between the Protestant English and Catholic French colonists , both of whom claimed a share of its occupation and trade . Although important to the colonists , the North American theatre of the Nine Years ' War was of secondary importance to European statesmen . Despite numerical superiority , the English colonists suffered repeated defeats as New France effectively organised its French troops , local militia and Indian allies ( notably the Algonquins and Abenakis ) , to attack frontier settlements . Almost all resources sent to the colonies by England were to defend the English West Indies , the crown jewels of the empire .
Wales
Although Wales closely shares its political and social history with the rest of Great Britain , and a majority of the population speaks English , the country has retained a distinct cultural identity and is officially bilingual . Over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales , and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west . From the late 19th century onwards , Wales acquired its popular image as the `` land of song '' , in part due to the eisteddfod tradition . At many international sporting events , such as the FIFA World Cup , Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games , Wales has its own national teams , though at the Olympic Games , Welsh athletes compete as part of a Great Britain team . Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness .
History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
In the decades following the passage of the Licinio - Sextian law of 367 BC , which required the election of at least one Plebeian Consul each year , a series of laws were passed which ultimately granted Plebeians political equality with Patricians . The Patrician era came to a complete end in 287 BC , with the passage of the Hortensian law . This era was also marked with significant external developments . Up until 295 BC , the Samnites and the Kelts had been Rome 's chief rivals , but that year , at the Battle of Sentinum , the Romans defeated the combined armies of the Samnites and the Kelts . This battle was followed by the complete submission of both the Samnites and the Kelts to the Romans , and the emergence of Rome as the unchallenged mistress of Italy .
Celtic music
Modern music may also be termed `` Celtic '' because it is written and recorded in a Celtic language , regardless of musical style . Many of the Celtic languages have experienced resurgences in modern years , spurred on partly by the action of artists and musicians who have embraced them as hallmarks of identity and distinctness . In 1971 , the Irish band Skara Brae recorded its only LP ( simply called Skara Brae ) , all songs in Irish . In 1978 Runrig recorded an album in Scottish Gaelic . In 1992 Capercaillie recorded `` A Prince Among Islands '' , the first Scottish Gaelic language record to reach the UK top 40 . In 1996 , a song in Breton represented France in the 41st Eurovision Song Contest , the first time in history that France had a song without a word in French . Since about 2005 , Oi Polloi ( from Scotland ) have recorded in Scottish Gaelic . Mill a h - Uile Rud ( a Scottish Gaelic punk band from Seattle ) recorded in the language in 2004 .
Welsh language
The next main period is Old Welsh ( Hen Gymraeg , 9th to 11th centuries ) ; poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language . As Germanic and Gaelic colonisation of Britain proceeded , the Brittonic speakers in Wales were split off from those in northern England , speaking Cumbric , and those in the southwest , speaking what would become Cornish , and so the languages diverged . Both the works of Aneirin ( Canu Aneirin , c. 600 ) and the Book of Taliesin ( Canu Taliesin ) were in this era .
History of calendars
Rival calendar eras to Anno Domini remained in use in Christian Europe . In Spain , the `` Era of the Caesars '' was dated from Octavian 's conquest of Iberia in 39 BC . It was adopted by the Visigoths and remained in use in Catalonia until 1180 , Castille until 1382 and Portugal until 1415 .
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
Starting in the 1990s tourism was promoted by many local development , heritage and archaeological organisations as a way of restoring the economic base of many outports and villages . Limited , short - term funding for some tourism - related projects came from government programs designed to maintain morale and find a new economic role .
Welsh language
The Welsh language originated from the Britons at the end of the 6th century . Prior to this , three distinct languages were spoken by the Britons during the 5th and 6th centuries : Latin , Irish , and British . According to T.M. Charles - Edwards , the emergence of Welsh as a distinct language occurred towards the end of this period . The emergence of Welsh was not instantaneous and clearly identifiable ; the shift occurred over a long period of time , some claiming to extend as late as the 9th century . Kenneth H. Jackson proposed a more general time period for the emergence , specifically after the Battle of Dyrham , a military battle between the West Saxons and the Britons in 577 AD .
Edward Augustus Freeman
Freeman 's range included Greek , Roman and the earlier part of English history , together with some portions of foreign medieval history , and he had a scholarly though general knowledge of the rest of the history of the European world . Freeman regarded Rome as `` the central truth of European history , '' the bond of its unity , and he undertook his History of Sicily ( 1891 -- 1894 ) partly to illustrate this unity . He believed that all historical study is valueless unless based on a knowledge of original authorities , and explained how they should be weighed and used . He did not use manuscript authorities , however , and maintained he had no need to do so for most of his work , as the authorities he needed were already in print .
Catalonia
The name Catalunya ( Catalonia ) -- spelled Cathalonia , or Cathalaunia , in Mediaeval Latin -- began to be used for the homeland of the Catalans ( Cathalanenses ) in the late 11th century and was probably used before as a territorial reference to the group of counties that comprised part of the March of Gothia and March of Hispania under the control of the Count of Barcelona and his relatives . The origin of the name Catalunya is subject to diverse interpretations because of a lack of evidence .
Republic of Ireland
Before the arrival of the first settlers in Ireland about 9,000 years ago , the land was largely covered by forests of oak , ash , elm , hazel , yew , and other native trees . The growth of blanket bog and the extensive clearing of woodland to facilitate farming are believed to be the main causes of deforestation during the following centuries . Today , about 12 % of Ireland is forested , of which a significant majority is composed of mainly non-native coniferous plantations for commercial use . Ideal soil conditions , high rainfall and a mild climate give Ireland the highest growth rates for forests in Europe . Hedgerows , which are traditionally used to define land boundaries , are an important substitute for woodland habitat , providing refuge for native wild flora and a wide range of insect , bird and mammal species . Glendalough
Silk Road
The expansion of Scythian cultures , stretching from the Hungarian plain and the Carpathian Mountains to the Chinese Kansu Corridor , and linking the Middle East with Northern India and the Punjab , undoubtedly played an important role in the development of the Silk Road . Scythians accompanied the Assyrian Esarhaddon on his invasion of Egypt , and their distinctive triangular arrowheads have been found as far south as Aswan . These nomadic peoples were dependent upon neighbouring settled populations for a number of important technologies , and in addition to raiding vulnerable settlements for these commodities , they also encouraged long - distance merchants as a source of income through the enforced payment of tariffs . Sogdians played a major role in facilitating trade between China and Central Asia along the Silk Roads as late as the 10th century , their language serving as a lingua franca for Asian trade as far back as the 4th century . Persian