vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Virus
Viruses are an established cause of cancer in humans and other species . Viral cancers occur only in a minority of infected persons ( or animals ) . Cancer viruses come from a range of virus families , including both RNA and DNA viruses , and so there is no single type of `` oncovirus '' ( an obsolete term originally used for acutely transforming retroviruses ) . The development of cancer is determined by a variety of factors such as host immunity and mutations in the host . Viruses accepted to cause human cancers include some genotypes of human papillomavirus , hepatitis B virus , hepatitis C virus , Epstein -- Barr virus , Kaposi 's sarcoma - associated herpesvirus and human T - lymphotropic virus . The most recently discovered human cancer virus is a polyomavirus ( Merkel cell polyomavirus ) that causes most cases of a rare form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma . Hepatitis viruses can develop into a chronic viral infection that leads to liver cancer . Infection by human T - lymphotropic virus can lead to tropical spastic paraparesis and adult T - cell leukaemia . Human papillomaviruses are an established cause of cancers of cervix , skin , anus , and penis . Within the Herpesviridae , Kaposi 's sarcoma - associated herpesvirus causes Kaposi 's sarcoma and body - cavity lymphoma , and Epstein -- Barr virus causes Burkitt 's lymphoma , Hodgkin 's lymphoma , B lymphoproliferative disorder , and nasopharyngeal carcinoma . Merkel cell polyomavirus closely related to SV40 and mouse polyomaviruses that have been used as animal models for cancer viruses for over 50 years .
Origin of language
History contains a number of anecdotes about people who attempted to discover the origin of language by experiment . The first such tale was told by Herodotus ( Histories 2.2 ) . He relates that Pharaoh Psammetichus ( probably Psammetichus I , 7th century BC ) had two children raised by a shepherd , with the instructions that no one should speak to them , but that the shepherd should feed and care for them while listening to determine their first words . When one of the children cried `` bekos '' with outstretched arms the shepherd concluded that the word was Phrygian , because that was the sound of the Phrygian word for `` bread '' . From this , Psammetichus concluded that the first language was Phrygian . King James V of Scotland is said to have tried a similar experiment ; his children were supposed to have spoken Hebrew .
Coffee
According to legend , ancestors of today 's Oromo people in a region of Kaffa in Ethiopia were believed to have been the first to recognize the energizing effect of the coffee plant , though no direct evidence has been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the native populations might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it , earlier than the 17th century . The story of Kaldi , the 9th - century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee when he noticed how excited his goats became after eating the beans from a coffee plant , did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal .
Virus
Louis Pasteur was unable to find a causative agent for rabies and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected using a microscope . In 1884 , the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented a filter ( known today as the Chamberland filter or the Pasteur - Chamberland filter ) with pores smaller than bacteria . Thus , he could pass a solution containing bacteria through the filter and completely remove them . In 1892 , the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what is now known as the tobacco mosaic virus . His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration . Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a toxin produced by bacteria , but did not pursue the idea . At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium -- this was part of the germ theory of disease . In 1898 , the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent . He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing , but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles , he called it a contagium vivum fluidum ( soluble living germ ) and re-introduced the word virus . Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature , a theory later discredited by Wendell Stanley , who proved they were particulate . In the same year Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch passed the first animal virus -- agent of foot - and - mouth disease ( aphthovirus ) -- through a similar filter .
Nile
Europeans began to learn about the origins of the Nile in the 15th and 16th centuries , when travelers to Ethiopia visited Lake Tana and the source of the Blue Nile in the mountains south of the lake . Although James Bruce claimed to be the first European to have visited the headwaters , modern writers give the credit to the Jesuit Pedro Páez . Páez 's account of the source of the Nile is a long and vivid account of Ethiopia . It was published in full only in the early 20th century , although it was featured in works of Páez 's contemporaries , including Baltazar Téllez , Athanasius Kircher and by Johann Michael Vansleb .
Smallpox vaccine
Recent studies suggest the smallpox vaccine provides some level of defense against HIV . Both the smallpox vaccine and HIV exploit a receptor called CCR5 , which is expressed on the surface of white blood cells . Researchers theorize that one factor in the sudden spread of HIV in the early 1980s was the result of successful eradication of smallpox in the late 1970s followed by an abrupt decline in smallpox vaccinations worldwide . The smallpox vaccine appeared to have been reducing HIV replication five-fold .
Christianity in Africa
Mark the Evangelist became the first bishop of the Orthodox Church of Alexandria in about the year 43 . At first the church in Alexandria was mainly Greek - speaking . By the end of the 2nd century the scriptures and liturgy had been translated into three local languages . Christianity in Sudan also spread in the early 1st century , and the Nubian churches there were linked to those of Egypt .
Lion
Various species of tick commonly infest the ears , neck and groin regions of most lions . Adult forms of several species of the tapeworm genus Taenia have been isolated from intestines , the lions having ingested larval forms from antelope meat . Lions in the Ngorongoro Crater were afflicted by an outbreak of stable fly ( Stomoxys calcitrans ) in 1962 ; this resulted in lions becoming covered in bloody bare patches and emaciated . Lions sought unsuccessfully to evade the biting flies by climbing trees or crawling into hyena burrows ; many perished or emigrated as the population dropped from 70 to 15 individuals . A more recent outbreak in 2001 killed six lions . Lions , especially in captivity , are vulnerable to the canine distemper virus ( CDV ) , feline immunodeficiency virus ( FIV ) , and feline infectious peritonitis ( FIP ) . CDV is spread through domestic dogs and other carnivores ; a 1994 outbreak in Serengeti National Park resulted in many lions developing neurological symptoms such as seizures . During the outbreak , several lions died from pneumonia and encephalitis . FIV , which is similar to HIV while not known to adversely affect lions , is worrisome enough in its effect in domestic cats that the Species Survival Plan recommends systematic testing in captive lions . It occurs with high to endemic frequency in several wild lion populations , but is mostly absent from Asiatic and Namibian lions .
Atlantic slave trade
The trade of enslaved Africans in the Atlantic has its origins in the explorations of Portuguese mariners down the coast of West Africa in the 15th century . Before that , contact with African slave markets was made to ransom Portuguese who had been captured by the intense North African Barbary pirate attacks on Portuguese ships and coastal villages , frequently leaving them depopulated . The first Europeans to use enslaved Africans in the New World were the Spaniards , who sought auxiliaries for their conquest expeditions and labourers on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola . The alarming decline in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting them ( Laws of Burgos , 1512 -- 13 ) . The first enslaved Africans arrived in Hispaniola in 1501 . After Portugal had succeeded in establishing sugar plantations ( engenhos ) in northern Brazil ca . 1545 , Portuguese merchants on the West African coast began to supply enslaved Africans to the sugar planters . While at first these planters had relied almost exclusively on the native Tupani for slave labour , after 1570 they began importing Africans , as a series of epidemics had decimated the already destabilized Tupani communities . By 1630 , Africans had replaced the Tupani as the largest contingent of labour on Brazilian sugar plantations . This ended the European medieval household tradition of slavery , resulted in Brazil 's receiving the most enslaved Africans , and revealed sugar cultivation and processing as the reason that roughly 84 % of these Africans were shipped to the New World . Punishing
Lyme disease
Carl Lennhoff , who worked at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden , believed many skin conditions were caused by spirochetes . In 1948 , he used a special stain to microscopically observe what he believed were spirochetes in various types of skin lesions , including EM . Although his conclusions were later shown to be erroneous , interest in the study of spirochetes was sparked . In 1949 , Nils Thyresson , who also worked at the Karolinska Institute , was the first to treat ACA with penicillin . In the 1950s , the relationship among tick bite , lymphocytoma , EM and Bannwarth 's syndrome was recognized throughout Europe leading to the widespread use of penicillin for treatment in Europe .
Tree of life
In Eden in the East ( 1998 ) , Stephen Oppenheimer suggests that a tree - worshipping culture arose in Indonesia and was diffused by the so - called `` Younger Dryas '' event of c. 8000 BCE , when the sea level rose . This culture reached China ( Szechuan ) , then India and the Middle East . Finally the Finno - Ugaritic strand of this diffusion spread through Russia to Finland where the Norse myth of Yggdrasil took root .
History of Native Americans in the United States
Chicken pox and measles , endemic but rarely fatal among Europeans ( long after being introduced from Asia ) , often proved deadly to Native Americans . Smallpox epidemics often immediately followed European exploration and sometimes destroyed entire village populations . While precise figures are difficult to determine , some historians estimate that at least 30 % ( and sometimes 50 % to 70 % ) of some Native populations died after first contact due to Eurasian smallpox . One element of the Columbian exchange suggests explorers from the Christopher Columbus expedition contracted syphilis from indigenous peoples and carried it back to Europe , where it spread widely . Other researchers believe that the disease existed in Europe and Asia before Columbus and his men returned from exposure to indigenous peoples of the Americas , but that they brought back a more virulent form .
Virus
In the early 20th century , the English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovered a group of viruses that infect bacteria , now called bacteriophages ( or commonly phages ) , and the French - Canadian microbiologist Félix d'Herelle described viruses that , when added to bacteria on an agar plate , would produce areas of dead bacteria . He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions ( lowest virus concentrations ) , rather than killing all the bacteria , formed discrete areas of dead organisms . Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension . Phages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as typhoid and cholera , but their promise was forgotten with the development of penicillin . The study of phages provided insights into the switching on and off of genes , and a useful mechanism for introducing foreign genes into bacteria .
Origin of language
Using statistical methods to estimate the time required to achieve the current spread and diversity in modern languages , Johanna Nichols -- a linguist at the University of California , Berkeley -- argued in 1998 that vocal languages must have begun diversifying in our species at least 100,000 years ago . A further study by Q.D. Atkinson suggests that successive population bottlenecks occurred as our African ancestors migrated to other areas , leading to a decrease in genetic and phenotypic diversity . Atkinson argues that these bottlenecks also affected culture and language , suggesting that the further away a particular language is from Africa , the fewer phonemes it contains . By way of evidence , Atkinson claims that today 's African languages tend to have relatively large numbers of phonemes , whereas languages from areas in Oceania ( the last place to which humans migrated ) , have relatively few . Relying heavily on Atkinson 's work , a subsequent study has explored the rate at which phonemes develop naturally , comparing this rate to some of Africa 's oldest languages . The results suggest that language first evolved around 350,000 -- 150,000 years ago , which is around the time when modern Homo sapiens evolved . Estimates of this kind are not universally accepted , but jointly considering genetic , archaeological , palaeontological and much other evidence indicates that language probably emerged somewhere in sub-Saharan Africa during the Middle Stone Age , roughly contemporaneous with the speciation of Homo sapiens .
Virus
Another breakthrough came in 1931 , when the American pathologist Ernest William Goodpasture and Alice Miles Woodruff grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chickens ' eggs . In 1949 , John Franklin Enders , Thomas Weller , and Frederick Robbins grew polio virus in cultured human embryo cells , the first virus to be grown without using solid animal tissue or eggs . This work enabled Jonas Salk to make an effective polio vaccine .
West African Ebola virus epidemic
The WHO based their new recommendations on a March 2015 case , in which a Liberian woman who had no contact with the disease other than having had unprotected sex with a man who had had the disease in October 2014 , was diagnosed with Ebola . While no evidence of the virus was found in his blood , his semen revealed Ebola virus RNA closely matching the strain that infected the woman . However , `` doctors do n't know if there was any fully formed ( and therefore infectious ) virus in the guy 's semen . '' It is known that a male 's testes are protected from the body 's immune system to protect the developing sperm , and it is thought that this same protection may allow the virus to survive in the testes for an unknown time .
Bubonic plague
The plague resurfaced for a third time in the mid-19th century . Like the two previous outbreaks , this one also originated in Eastern Asia , most likely in Yunnan Province of China , where there are several natural plague foci . The initial outbreaks occurred in the second half of the eighteenth century . The disease remained localized in Southwest China for several years before spreading . In the city of Canton , beginning in January 1894 , the disease killed 80,000 people by June . Daily water - traffic with the nearby city of Hong Kong rapidly spread the plague there , killing over 2,400 within two months .
History of West Africa
Following the collapse of the Songhai Empire , a number of smaller states arose across West Africa , including the Bambara Empire of Ségou , the lesser Bambara kingdom of Kaarta , the Fula / Malinké kingdom of Khasso ( in present - day Mali 's Kayes Region ) , and the Kénédougou Empire of Sikasso . European traders first became a force in the region in the 15th century . The transatlantic African slave trade resumed , with the Portuguese taking hundreds of captives back to their country for use as slaves ; however , it would not begin on a grand scale until Christopher Columbus 's voyage to the Americas and the subsequent demand for cheap colonial labour . As the demand for slaves increased , some African rulers sought to supply the demand by constant war against their neighbours , resulting in fresh captives . European , American and Haitian governments passed legislation prohibiting the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century , though the last country to abolish the institution was Brazil in 1888 .
Bay of Plenty
The first recorded European contact came when James Cook sailed through the Bay of Plenty in 1769 . Cook noted the abundance of food supplies , in comparison to Poverty Bay further back along the eastern coast of the North Island . Further reports of European contact are scarce prior to the arrival of missionary Samuel Marsden to the Tauranga area in 1820 . During the 1820s and 1830s , northern iwi including Ngā Puhi invaded the Bay of Plenty during their campaign throughout the North Island , fighting local Māori tribes in what became known as the Musket Wars . However , the 1830s and 1840s saw increased contact between Bay of Plenty Māori and Europeans through trade , although few Europeans settled in the region . Missionary activity in the region also increased during this time . In 1853 , New Zealand was subdivided into provinces , with the Bay of Plenty incorporated into Auckland Province .
Birth control in the United States
Birth control practices were generally adopted earlier in Europe than in the United States . Knowlton 's book was reprinted in 1877 in England by Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant , with the goal of challenging Britain 's obscenity laws . They were arrested ( and later acquitted ) but the publicity of their trial contributed to the formation , in 1877 , of the Malthusian League -- the world 's first birth control advocacy group -- which sought to limit population growth to avoid Thomas Malthus ' dire predictions of exponential population growth leading to worldwide poverty and famine . By 1930 , similar societies had been established in nearly all European countries , and birth control began to find acceptance in most Western European countries , except Catholic Ireland , Spain , and France . As the birth control societies spread across Europe , so did birth control clinics . The first birth control clinic in the world was established in the Netherlands in 1882 , run by the Netherlands ' first female physician , Aletta Jacobs . The first birth control clinic in England was established in 1921 by Marie Stopes , in London .
Virus
Since Dmitri Ivanovsky 's 1892 article describing a non-bacterial pathogen infecting tobacco plants , and the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898 , about 5,000 virus species have been described in detail , although there are millions of types . Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity . The study of viruses is known as virology , a sub-speciality of microbiology .
Lyme disease
The early European studies of what is now known as Lyme disease described its skin manifestations . The first study dates to 1883 in Breslau , Germany ( now Wrocław , Poland ) , where physician Alfred Buchwald described a man who had suffered for 16 years with a degenerative skin disorder now known as acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans .
Fermentation
The first solid evidence of the living nature of yeast appeared between 1837 and 1838 when three publications appeared by C. Cagniard de la Tour , T. Swann , and F. Kuetzing , each of whom independently concluded as a result of microscopic investigations that yeast is a living organism that reproduces by budding . It is perhaps because wine , beer , and bread were each basic foods in Europe that most of the early studies on fermentation were done on yeasts , with which they were made . Soon , bacteria were also discovered ; the term was first used in English in the late 1840s , but it did not come into general use until the 1870s , and then largely in connection with the new germ theory of disease . Louis
Lion
The modern lion probably originated in East and Southern Africa about 100,000 years ago . During the last glacial maximum until about 20,000 years ago , it was likely distributed throughout most of Southern and Central Africa , and expanded its range northwards during the early Holocene about 10,000 to 4,000 years ago .
Germ theory of disease
The germ theory was proposed by Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546 , and expanded upon by Marcus von Plenciz in 1762 . Such views were held in disdain , however , and Galen 's miasma theory remained dominant among scientists and doctors . The nature of this doctrine prevented them from understanding how diseases actually progressed , with predictable consequences . By the early nineteenth century , smallpox vaccination was commonplace in Europe , though doctors were unaware of how it worked or how to extend the principle to other diseases . Similar treatments had been prevalent in India from just before AD 1000 . A transitional period began in the late 1850s with the work of Louis Pasteur . This work was later extended by Robert Koch in the 1880s . By the end of the 1880s the miasma theory was struggling to compete with the germ theory of disease . Eventually , a `` golden era '' of bacteriology ensued , during which the theory quickly led to the identification of the actual organisms that cause many diseases . Viruses were discovered in the 1890s .
West African Ebola virus epidemic
In Liberia , the disease was reported in four counties by mid-April 2014 and cases in Liberia 's capital Monrovia were reported in mid-June . The outbreak then spread to Sierra Leone and progressed rapidly . By 17 July , the total number of suspected cases in the country stood at 442 , surpassing those in Guinea and Liberia . By 20 July , additional cases of the disease had been reported in the Bo District , while the first case in Freetown , Sierra Leone 's capital , was reported in late July .
Tooth decay
A Sumerian text from 5000 BC describes a `` tooth worm '' as the cause of caries . Evidence of this belief has also been found in India , Egypt , Japan , and China . Unearthed ancient skulls show evidence of primitive dental work . In Pakistan , teeth dating from around 5500 BC to 7000 BC show nearly perfect holes from primitive dental drills . The Ebers Papyrus , an Egyptian text from 1550 BC , mentions diseases of teeth . During the Sargonid dynasty of Assyria during 668 to 626 BC , writings from the king 's physician specify the need to extract a tooth due to spreading inflammation . In the Roman Empire , wider consumption of cooked foods led to a small increase in caries prevalence . The Greco - Roman civilization , in addition to the Egyptian , had treatments for pain resulting from caries .
Dutch elm disease
Dutch elm disease was first noticed in continental Europe in 1910 , and spread slowly and eventually extending to all other countries except Greece and Finland . In Britain , the disease was first identified in 1927 by TR Peace on English elm in Hertfordshire . This first strain was a relatively mild one , which killed only a small proportion of elms , more often just killing a few branches , and had largely died out by 1940 owing to its susceptibility to viruses . The disease was isolated in The Netherlands in 1921 by Bea Schwarz , a pioneering Dutch phytopathologist , and this discovery would lend the disease its name . Salisbury