vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
White blood cell
The number of leukocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease , and thus the WBC count is an important subset of the complete blood count . The normal white cell count is usually between 4 × 10 / L and 11 × 10 / L. In the US this is usually expressed as 4,000 to 11,000 white blood cells per microliter of blood . They make up approximately 1 % of the total blood volume in a healthy adult , making them substantially less numerous than the RBCs at 40 % to 45 % . However , this 1 % of the blood makes a large difference to health , because immunity depends on it . An increase in the number of leukocytes over the upper limits is called leukocytosis . It is normal when it is part of healthy immune responses , which happen frequently . It is occasionally abnormal , when it is neoplastic or autoimmune in origin . A decrease below the lower limit is called leukopenia . This indicates a weakened immune system .
Lead poisoning
Blood lead levels are an indicator mainly of recent or current lead exposure , not of total body burden . Lead in bones can be measured noninvasively by X-ray fluorescence ; this may be the best measure of cumulative exposure and total body burden . However this method is not widely available and is mainly used for research rather than routine diagnosis . Another radiographic sign of elevated lead levels is the presence of radiodense lines called lead lines at the metaphysis in the long bones of growing children , especially around the knees . These lead lines , caused by increased calcification due to disrupted metabolism in the growing bones , become wider as the duration of lead exposure increases . X-rays may also reveal lead - containing foreign materials such as paint chips in the gastrointestinal tract .
Human musculoskeletal system
A bursa is a small fluid - filled sac made of white fibrous tissue and lined with synovial membrane . Bursa may also be formed by a synovial membrane that extends outside of the joint capsule . It provides a cushion between bones and tendons and / or muscles around a joint ; bursa are filled with synovial fluid and are found around almost every major joint of the body .
Thalidomide
Judah Folkman pioneered studies into the role of angiogenesis ( the proliferation and growth of blood vessels ) in the development of cancer , and in the early 1970s had shown that solid tumors could not expand without it . In 1993 he surprised the scientific world by hypothesizing the same was true of blood cancers , and the next year he published work showing that a biomarker of angiogenesis was higher in all people with cancer , but especially high in people with blood cancers , and other evidence emerged as well . Meanwhile , a member of his lab , Robert D'Amato , was looking for angiogenesis inhibitors , and discovered in 1994 that thalidomide inhibited angiogenesis . Around that time , the wife of a man who was dying of multiple myeloma and whom standard treatments had failed , called Folkman asking him about his anti-angiogenesis ideas . Folkman persuaded the patient 's doctor to try thalidomide , and that doctor conducted a clinical trial of thalidomide for people with multiple myeloma in which about a third of the subjects responded to the treatment . The results of that trial were published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1999 .
Spinal cord
Spinal tumours can occur in the spinal cord and these can be either inside ( intradural ) or outside ( extradural ) the dura mater .
Bone age
As a child grows the epiphyses become calcified and appear on the x-rays , as do the carpal and tarsal bones of the hands and feet , separated on the x-rays by a layer of invisible cartilage where most of the growth is occurring . As sex steroid levels rise during puberty , bone maturation accelerates . As growth nears conclusion and attainment of adult height , bones begin to approach the size and shape of adult bones . The remaining cartilaginous portions of the epiphyses become thinner . As these cartilaginous zones become obliterated , the epiphyses are said to be `` closed '' and no further lengthening of the bones will occur . A small amount of spinal growth concludes an adolescent 's growth .
Sensory memory
Haptic memory represents SM for the tactile sense of touch . Sensory receptors all over the body detect sensations such as pressure , itching , and pain . Information from receptors travel through afferent neurons in the spinal cord to the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe in the brain . This pathway comprises the somatosensory system . Evidence for haptic memory has only recently been identified resulting in a small body of research regarding its role , capacity , and duration . Already however , fMRI studies have revealed that specific neurons in the prefrontal cortex are involved in both SM , and motor preparation which provides a crucial link to haptic memory and its role in motor responses .
Karachi
Karachi is a centre of research in biomedicine with at least 30 public hospitals , 80 registered private hospitals and 12 recognized medical colleges , including the Indus Hospital , Karachi Institute of Heart Diseases , National Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases , Civil Hospital , Combined Military Hospital , PNS Rahat , PNS Shifa , Aga Khan University Hospital , Liaquat National Hospital , Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Centre , Holy Family Hospital and Ziauddin Hospital . In 1995 , Ziauddin Hospital was the site of Pakistan 's first bone marrow transplant .
Active transport
An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1 , which co-transports one glucose ( or galactose ) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell . This symporter is located in the small intestines , heart , and brain . It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys . Its mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy This mechanism uses the absorption of sugar through the walls of the intestine to pull water in along with it . Defects in SGLT2 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose , causing familial renal glucosuria .
Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
The physics of magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) involves the interaction of biological tissue with electromagnetic fields . MRI is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to investigate the anatomy and physiology of the body . The human body is largely composed of water molecules , each containing two hydrogen nuclei , or protons . When inside the magnetic field ( B ) of the scanner , the magnetic moments of these protons align with the direction of the field .
Nervous system
The ( CNS ) is the major division , and consists of the brain and the spinal cord . The spinal canal contains the spinal cord , while the cranial cavity contains the brain . The CNS is enclosed and protected by the meninges , a three - layered system of membranes , including a tough , leathery outer layer called the dura mater . The brain is also protected by the skull , and the spinal cord by the vertebrae .
Germ cell
The second way is found in birds and mammals , where germ cells are not specified by such determinants but by signals controlled by zygotic genes . In mammals , a few cells of the early embryo are induced by signals of neighboring cells to become primordial germ cells . Mammalian eggs are somewhat symmetrical and after the first divisions of the fertilized egg , the produced cells are all totipotent . This means that they can differentiate in any cell type in the body and thus germ cells . Specification of primordial germ cells in the laboratory mouse is initiated by high levels of bone morphogenetic protein ( BMP ) signaling , which activates expression of the transcription factors Blimp - 1 / Prdm1 and Prdm14 .
Interphase
Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life . During this phase , the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis . Interphase is the ' daily living ' or metabolic phase of the cell , in which the cell obtains nutrients and metabolizes them , grows , reads its DNA , and conducts other `` normal '' cell functions . The majority of eukaryotic cells spend most of their time in interphase . This phase was formerly called the resting phase . However , interphase does not describe a cell that is merely resting ; rather , the cell is living , and preparing for later cell division , so the name was changed . A common misconception is that interphase is the first stage of mitosis . However , since mitosis is the division of the nucleus , prophase is actually the first stage .
Mitochondrion
Signaling through mitochondrial reactive oxygen species Regulation of the membrane potential Apoptosis - programmed cell death Calcium signaling ( including calcium - evoked apoptosis ) Regulation of cellular metabolism Certain heme synthesis reactions ( see also : porphyrin ) Steroid synthesis . Hormonal signaling Mitochondria are sensitive and responsive to hormones , in part by the action of mitochondrial estrogen receptors ( mtERs ) . These receptors have been found in various tissues and cell types , including brain and heart
Anemia
The roots of the words anemia and ischemia both refer to the basic idea of `` lack of blood '' , but anemia and ischemia are not the same thing in modern medical terminology . The word anemia used alone implies widespread effects from blood that either is too scarce ( e.g. , blood loss ) or is dysfunctional in its oxygen - supplying ability ( due to whatever type of hemoglobin or erythrocyte problem ) . In contrast , the word ischemia refers solely to the lack of blood ( poor perfusion ) . Thus ischemia in a body part can cause localized anemic effects within those tissues .
Nephron
The glomerulus is the network known as a tuft , of filtering capillaries located at the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle in Bowman 's capsule . Each glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation . The glomerular blood pressure provides the driving force for water and solutes to be filtered out of the blood plasma , and into the space in Bowman 's capsule called Bowman 's space .
Phosphorus deficiency
Phosphorus deficiency is a plant disorder associated with insufficient supply of phosphorus . Phosphorus refers here to salts of phosphates ( PO ) , monohydrogen phosphate ( HPO ) , and dihydrogen phosphate ( H PO ) . These anions readily interconvert , and the predominant species is determined by the pH of the solution or soil . Phosphates are required for the biosynthesis of genetic material as well as ATP , essential for life . Phosphorus deficiency can be controlled by applying sources of phosphorus such as bone meal , rock phosphate , manure , and phosphate - fertilizers . Phosphorus
Axial skeleton
Humans are born with separate plates which later fuse to allow flexibility as the skull passes through the pelvis and birth canal during birth . During development the eight separate plates of the immature bones fuse together into one single structure known as the Skull . The only bone that remains separate from the rest of the skull is the mandible .
Cell nucleus
In order to control which genes are being transcribed , the cell separates some transcription factor proteins responsible for regulating gene expression from physical access to the DNA until they are activated by other signaling pathways . This prevents even low levels of inappropriate gene expression . For example , in the case of NF - κB - controlled genes , which are involved in most inflammatory responses , transcription is induced in response to a signal pathway such as that initiated by the signaling molecule TNF - α , binds to a cell membrane receptor , resulting in the recruitment of signalling proteins , and eventually activating the transcription factor NF - κB . A nuclear localisation signal on the NF - κB protein allows it to be transported through the nuclear pore and into the nucleus , where it stimulates the transcription of the target genes .
Autophagy
Autophagy is essential for basal homeostasis ; it is also extremely important in maintaining muscle homeostasis during physical exercise . Autophagy at the molecular level is only partially understood . A study of mice shows that autophagy is important for the ever - changing demands of their nutritional and energy needs , particularly through the metabolic pathways of protein catabolism . In a 2012 study conducted by the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas , mutant mice ( with a knock - in mutation of BCL2 phosphorylation sites to produce progeny that showed normal levels of basal autophagy yet were deficient in stress - induced autophagy ) were tested to challenge this theory . Results showed that when compared to a control group , these mice illustrated a decrease in endurance and an altered glucose metabolism during acute exercise .
Cell theory
The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing , it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying . Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life , but were unsure what this was . It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants . This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet . Besides stating `` the cell is the fundamental element of organization '' , Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit , but also a physiological unit .
White blood cell
All white blood cells have nuclei , which distinguishes them from the other blood cells , the anucleated red blood cells ( RBCs ) and platelets . Types of white blood cells can be classified in standard ways . Two pairs of broadest categories classify them either by structure ( granulocytes or agranulocytes ) or by cell division lineage ( myeloid cells or lymphoid cells ) . These broadest categories can be further divided into the five main types : neutrophils , eosinophils ( acidophilus ) , basophils , lymphocytes , and monocytes . These types are distinguished by their physical and functional characteristics . Monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytic . Further subtypes can be classified ; for example , among lymphocytes , there are B cells , T cells , and NK cells .
Femur
The femur is categorised as a long bone and comprises a diaphysis ( shaft or body ) and two epiphyses ( extremities ) that articulate with adjacent bones in the hip and knee .
Anemia
Normocytic anemia occurs when the overall hemoglobin levels are decreased , but the red blood cell size ( mean corpuscular volume ) remains normal . Causes include :
Cell cycle
The cell cycle or cell - division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA ( DNA replication ) to produce two daughter cells . In bacteria , which lack a cell nucleus , the cell cycle is divided into the B , C , and D periods . The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication . DNA replication occurs during the C period . The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells . In cells with a nucleus , as in eukaryotes , the cell cycle is also divided into three periods : interphase , the mitotic ( M ) phase , and cytokinesis . During interphase , the cell grows , accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis , preparing it for a big cell division and duplicating its DNA . During the mitotic phase , the chromosomes separate . During the final stage , cytokinesis , the chromosomes and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells . To ensure the proper division of the cell , there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints. This helps the cell produce even more
Cytokinesis
Particular functions demand various deviations from the process of symmetrical cytokinesis ; for example in oogenesis in animals the ovum takes almost all the cytoplasm and organelles . This leaves very little for the resulting polar bodies , which in most species die without function , though they do take on various special functions in other species . Another form of mitosis occurs in tissues such as liver and skeletal muscle ; it omits cytokinesis , thereby yielding multinucleate cells .
Homologous chromosome
While the main function of homologous chromosomes is their use in nuclear division , they are also used in repairing double - strand breaks of DNA . These double - stranded breaks may occur in replicating DNA and are most often the result of interaction of DNA with naturally occurring damaging molecules such as reactive oxygen species . Homologous chromosomes can repair this damage by aligning themselves with chromosomes of the same genetic sequence . Once the base pairs have been matched and oriented correctly between the two strands , the homologous chromosomes perform a process that is very similar to recombination , or crossing over as seen in meiosis . Part of the intact DNA sequence overlaps with that of the damaged chromosome 's sequence . Replication proteins and complexes are then recruited to the site of damage , allowing for repair and proper replication to occur . Through this functioning , double - strand breaks can be repaired and DNA can function normally .
Homologous chromosome
There are severe repercussions when chromosomes do not segregate properly . Faulty segregation can lead to fertility problems , embryo death , birth defects , and cancer . Though the mechanisms for pairing and adhering homologous chromosomes vary among organisms , proper functioning of those mechanisms is imperative in order for the final genetic material to be sorted correctly .
Nutrition and cognition
Differences lie in the presentation of megaloblastic anemia induced by either folate or B deficiency . Megaloblastic anemia related to deficiency in B generally results in peripheral neuropathy , whereas folate - related anemia often results in affective , or mood disorders . Neurological effects are not often associated with folate - related megaloblastic anemia , although demyelinating disorders may eventually present . In one study , mood disturbances were recorded for the majority of patients presenting with megaloblastic anemia in the absence of B deficiency . In addition , folate concentrations within blood plasma have been found to be lower in patients with both unipolar and bipolar depressive disorders when compared with control groups . In addition , depressive groups with low folate concentrations responded less well to standard antidepressant therapy than did those with normal levels within plasma . However , replication of these findings are less robust .
Anemia
Refractory anemia , an anemia which does not respond to treatment , is often seen secondary to myelodysplastic syndromes . Iron deficiency anemia may also be refractory as a clinical manifestation of gastrointestinal problems which disrupt iron absorption or cause occult bleeding .
Sickle cell disease
Aplastic crises are acute worsenings of the patient 's baseline anaemia , producing pale appearance , fast heart rate , and fatigue . This crisis is normally triggered by parvovirus B19 , which directly affects production of red blood cells by invading the red cell precursors and multiplying in and destroying them . Parvovirus infection almost completely prevents red blood cell production for two to three days . In normal individuals , this is of little consequence , but the shortened red cell life of SCD patients results in an abrupt , life - threatening situation . Reticulocyte counts drop dramatically during the disease ( causing reticulocytopenia ) , and the rapid turnover of red cells leads to the drop in haemoglobin . This crisis takes 4 days to one week to disappear . Most patients can be managed supportively ; some need blood transfusion .
Anemia
* For instance , sickle cell anemia with superimposed iron deficiency ; chronic gastric bleeding with B and folate deficiency ; and other instances of anemia with more than one cause . * * Confirm by repeating reticulocyte count : ongoing combination of low reticulocyte production index , normal MCV and hemolysis or loss may be seen in bone marrow failure or anemia of chronic disease , with superimposed or related hemolysis or blood loss . Here is a schematic representation of how to consider anemia with MCV as the starting point :
Thalidomide
There is a high risk that thalidomide can cause excessive blood clots . There is also a high risk that thalidomide can interfere with formation of various kinds of new blood cells , creating a risk of infection via neutropenia , leukopenia , and lymphopenia , and risks that blood will not clot via thrombocytopenia . There is also a risk of anemia via lack of red blood cells . The drug can also damage nerves , causing peripheral neuropathy that may be irreversible .
Anemia
Acute blood loss Anemia of chronic disease Aplastic anemia ( bone marrow failure ) Hemolytic anemia Dimorphic
Sickle cell disease
Splenic sequestration crises are acute , painful enlargements of the spleen , caused by intrasplenic trapping of red cells and resulting in a precipitous fall in haemoglobin levels with the potential for hypovolemic shock . Sequestration crises are considered an emergency . If not treated , patients may die within 1 -- 2 hours due to circulatory failure . Management is supportive , sometimes with blood transfusion . These crises are transient , they continue for 3 -- 4 hours and may last for one day .
White blood cell
Neutropenia can be acquired or intrinsic . A decrease in levels of neutrophils on lab tests is due to either decreased production of neutrophils or increased removal from the blood . The following list of causes is not complete .
Sickle cell disease
The actual anaemia of the illness is caused by haemolysis , the destruction of the red cells , because of their shape . Although the bone marrow attempts to compensate by creating new red cells , it does not match the rate of destruction . Healthy red blood cells typically function for 90 -- 120 days , but sickled cells only last 10 -- 20 days .
Anemia
Microcytic anemia is primarily a result of hemoglobin synthesis failure / insufficiency , which could be caused by several etiologies :
White blood cell
Symptoms of neutropenia are associated with the underlying cause of the decrease in neutrophils . For example , the most common cause of acquired neutropenia is drug - induced , so an individual may have symptoms of medication overdose or toxicity . Treatment is also aimed at the underlying cause of the neutropenia . One severe consequence of neutropenia is that it can increase the risk of infection . Lymphocytopenia
Sickle cell disease
The malaria parasite has a complex lifecycle and spends part of it in red blood cells . In a carrier , the presence of the malaria parasite causes the red blood cells with defective haemoglobin to rupture prematurely , making the Plasmodium parasite unable to reproduce . Further , the polymerization of Hb affects the ability of the parasite to digest Hb in the first place . Therefore , in areas where malaria is a problem , people 's chances of survival actually increase if they carry sickle cell trait ( selection for the heterozygote ) .
Megaloblastic anemia
Megaloblastic anemia not due to hypovitaminosis may be caused by antimetabolites that poison DNA production directly , such as some chemotherapeutic or antimicrobial agents ( for example azathioprine or trimethoprim ) .