vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Early skyscrapers
New environmental technologies in heating , lighting , ventilation and sanitation were also critical to creating taller buildings that were attractive to work in . Central heating could not be easily extended to serve larger buildings ; in the 1850s , a system using low - pressure steam and steam - operated fans became adopted in the construction of the later skyscrapers . Many U.S. buildings were lit by gas , but this carried safety risks and was difficult to install in taller buildings . As an alternative , electric lights were installed from 1878 onwards , powered by basement generators . Ventilation was also a challenge , as smoke drifting into offices from the streets and the fumes from the gas lighting made air quality a major health issue . A steam - driven , forced - draft ventilation system was invented in 1860 and became widely used in taller buildings by the 1870s , overcoming much of the problem . Improvements in iron piping permitted running hot and cold water and sanitation facilities to be installed throughout taller buildings for the first time .
Río de la Plata
The first European colony was the city of Buenos Aires , founded by Pedro de Mendoza on 2 February 1536 . This settlement , however , was quickly abandoned ; the failure to establish a settlement on the estuary led to explorations upriver and the founding of Asunción in 1537 . Buenos Aires was subsequently refounded by Juan de Garay on 11 June 1580 .
Colony of Virginia
In 1630 , under the governorship of John Harvey , the first settlement on the York River was founded . In 1632 , the Virginia legislature voted to build a fort to link Jamestown and the York River settlement of Chiskiack and protect the colony from Indian attacks . In 1634 , a palisade was built near Middle Plantation . This wall stretched across the peninsula between the York and James rivers and protected the settlements on the eastern side of the lower Peninsula from Indians . The wall also served to contain cattle .
Lake of the Ozarks
A hydro - electric power plant on the Osage River was first pursued by Kansas City developer Ralph Street in 1912 . He put together the initial funding and began building roads , railroads , and infrastructure necessary to begin construction of the dam , with a plan to impound a much smaller lake . In the mid-1920s , Street 's funding dried up , and he abandoned the effort .
Ottawa
Starting in the 1850s , entrepreneurs known as lumber barons began to build large sawmills , which became some of the largest mills in the world . Rail lines built in 1854 connected Ottawa to areas south and to the transcontinental rail network via Hull and Lachute , Quebec in 1886 . The original Parliament buildings which included the Centre , East and West Blocks were constructed between 1859 and 1866 in the Gothic Revival style . At the time , this was the largest North American construction project ever attempted and Public Works Canada and its architects were not initially well prepared . The Library of Parliament and Parliament Hill landscaping would not be completed until 1876 . By 1885 Ottawa was the only city in Canada whose downtown street lights were powered entirely by electricity . In 1889 the Government developed and distributed 60 ' water leases ' ( still currently in use ) to mainly local industrialists which gave them permission to generate electricity and operate hydroelectric generators at Chaudière Falls . Public transportation began in 1870 with a horsecar system , overtaken in the 1890s by a vast electric streetcar system that lasted until 1959 . Lebreton
History of the Isle of Wight
During her reign , the world 's first radio station was set up by Marconi in 1897 at the Needles Battery , at the western tip of the island . In 1898 the first paid telegram ( called a ' Marconigram ' at the time ) was sent from this station , and the island is now the home of the National Wireless Museum , near Ryde .
Urban renewal
State intervention was first achieved with the passage of the Public Health Act of 1875 through Parliament . The Act focused on combating filthy urban living conditions that were the cause of disease outbreaks . It required all new residential construction to include running water and an internal drainage system and also prohibited the construction of shoddy housing by building contractors . ``
Agriculture in Sudan
The multipurpose Roseires Dam was built in 1966 and power - generating facilities were installed in 1971 . Both the water and the power were needed to implement the Rahad River irrigation project located east of the Rahad River , a tributary of the Blue Nile . The Rahad entered the Blue Nile downstream from the dam and during the dry season had an insufficient flow for irrigation purposes . Work on the initial 63,000 hectares ( 160,000 acres ) of the project began in the early 1970s , the first irrigation water was received in 1977 , and by 1981 about 80 percent of the prepared area was reported to be irrigated . ( In May 1988 , the World Bank agreed to provide additional funding for this and other irrigation projects ) . Water for the project was pumped from the Blue Nile , using electric power from the Roseires plant , and was transported by an eighty - kilometer - long canal to the Rahad River ( en route underpassing the Dindar River , another Blue Nile tributary ) . The canal then emptied into the Rahad above a new barrage that diverted the combined flow from the two sources into the project 's main irrigation canal . Irrigation was by gravity flow , but instead of flat field flooding , furrow irrigation was used , because it permitted more effective use of machinery .
Wellington
Wellington 's first piped water supply came from a spring in 1867 . Greater Wellington Regional Council now supplies Lower Hutt , Porirua , Upper Hutt and Wellington with up to 220 million litres a day . The water comes from Wainuiomata River ( since 1884 ) , Hutt River ( 1914 ) , Orongorongo River ( 1926 ) and the Lower Hutt aquifer .
Wind turbine
Wind power first appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages . The first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their windmill - making skills to Syria around 1190 . By the 14th century , Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine delta . Advanced wind turbines were described by Croatian inventor Fausto Veranzio . In his book Machinae Novae ( 1595 ) he described vertical axis wind turbines with curved or V - shaped blades .
Euphrates
The Hindiya Barrage on the Iraqi Euphrates , based on plans by British civil engineer William Willcocks and finished in 1913 , was the first modern water diversion structure built in the Tigris -- Euphrates river system . The Hindiya Barrage was followed in the 1950s by the Ramadi Barrage and the nearby Abu Dibbis Regulator , which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge excess flood water into the depression that is now Lake Habbaniyah . Iraq 's largest dam on the Euphrates is the Haditha Dam ; a 9 - kilometre - long ( 5.6 mi ) earth - fill dam creating Lake Qadisiyah . Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the Euphrates in the 1970s . The Tabqa Dam in Syria was completed in 1973 while Turkey finished the Keban Dam , a prelude to the immense Southeastern Anatolia Project , in 1974 . Since then , Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates , the Baath Dam and the Tishrin Dam , and plans to build a fourth dam -- the Halabiye Dam -- between Raqqa and Deir ez - Zor . The Tabqa Dam is Syria 's largest dam and its reservoir ( Lake Assad ) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water . It was planned that 640,000 hectares ( 2,500 sq mi ) should be irrigated from Lake Assad , but in 2000 only 100,000 -- 124,000 hectares ( 390 -- 480 sq mi ) had been realized . Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries .
1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
It was discovered later that this public well had been dug 3 feet ( 0.9 m ) from an old cesspit that had begun to leak faecal bacteria . Waste water from washing nappies , used by a baby who had contracted cholera from another source , drained into this cesspit . Its opening was under a nearby house that had been rebuilt further away after a fire and a street widening . At the time there were cesspits under most homes . Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil .
Prague
He ordered the building of the New Town ( Nové Město ) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself . The Charles Bridge , replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign , was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area . On 9 July 1357 at 5 : 31 am , Charles IV personally laid the first foundation stone for the Charles Bridge . The exact time of laying the first foundation stone is known because the palindromic number 135797531 was carved into the Old Town bridge tower having been chosen by the royal astrologists and numerologists as the best time for starting the bridge construction . In 1347 , he founded Charles University , which remains the oldest university in Central Europe . St.
Ancient Roman architecture
The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the 2nd century BC , with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill - fated tribune , Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC . The word came to be applied to any place designated for the preservation of goods ; thus it was often used refer to cellars ( horrea subterranea ) , but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored , or even to a library . Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks , where valuables could be stored , but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state .
Hoover Dam
In the latter half of 1936 , water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation , and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine - generators , all on the Nevada side , began operating . In March 1937 , one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August . By September 1939 , four more generators were operating , and the dam 's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world . The final generator was not placed in service until 1961 , bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1,345 megawatts at the time . Original plans called for 16 large generators , eight on each side of the river , but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17 . The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality , before the dam 's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable .
Illinois
Illinois had a prominent role in the emergence of the nuclear age . In 1942 , as part of the Manhattan Project , the University of Chicago conducted the first sustained nuclear chain reaction . In 1957 , Argonne National Laboratory , near Chicago , activated the first experimental nuclear power generating system in the United States . By 1960 , the first privately financed nuclear plant in the United States , Dresden 1 , was dedicated near Morris . In 1967 , Fermilab , a national nuclear research facility near Batavia , opened a particle accelerator , which was the world 's largest for over 40 years . With eleven plants currently operating , Illinois leads all states in the amount of electricity generated from nuclear power .
Industrial Revolution
Building of canals dates to ancient times . The Grand Canal in China , `` the world 's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence , '' parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC , is 1,121 miles ( 1,804 km ) long and links Hangzhou with Beijing .
Hoover Dam
The first concrete was poured into the dam on June 6 , 1933 , 18 months ahead of schedule . Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures , the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem . Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam was built in a single continuous pour , the concrete would take 125 years to cool , and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble . Instead , the ground where the dam would rise was marked with rectangles , and concrete blocks in columns were poured , some as large as 50 ft square ( 15 m ) and 5 feet ( 1.5 m ) high . Each five - foot form contained a series of 1 - inch ( 25 mm ) steel pipes ; cool riverwater would be poured through the pipes , followed by ice - cold water from a refrigeration plant . When an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting , the pipes were filled with grout . Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns , which were grooved to increase the strength of the joins .
Manhattan Project
In January 1943 , Grafton 's successor , Major Arthur V. Peterson , ordered Chicago Pile - 1 dismantled and reassembled at Red Gate Woods , as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area . At the Argonne site , Chicago Pile - 3 , the first heavy water reactor , went critical on 15 May 1944 . After the war , the operations that remained at Red Gate moved to the new site of the Argonne National Laboratory about 6 miles ( 9.7 km ) away .
History of Maryland
The city had a deepwater port . In the early 19th century , many business leaders in Maryland were looking inland , toward the western frontier , for economic growth potential . The challenge was to devise a reliable means to transport goods and people . The National Road and private turnpikes were being completed throughout the state , but additional routes and capacity were needed . Following the success of the Erie Canal ( constructed 1817 -- 25 ) and similar canals in the northeastern states , leaders in Maryland were also developing plans for canals . After several failed canal projects in the Washington , D.C. area , the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal ( C&O ) began construction there in 1828 . The Baltimore business community viewed this project as a competitive threat . The geography of the Baltimore area made building a similar canal to the west impractical , but the idea of constructing railroads was beginning to gather support in the 1820s .
Early skyscrapers
The development of the elevator was also essential to the emergence of the early skyscrapers , as office buildings taller than around six stories would have been impractical without them . Powered elevators were first installed in England during the 1830s and spread to U.S. factories and hotels by the 1840s . Elevators using hoist ropes , however , could only function effectively in low - rise buildings , and this limitation encouraged the introduction of the hydraulic elevator in 1870 , even though early models contained dangerous design flaws . By 1876 these problems had been resolved , providing a solution for servicing the early skyscrapers .
History of United States prison systems
Beginning in 1790 , Pennsylvania became the first of the United States to institute solitary confinement for incarcerated convicts . After 1790 , those sentenced to hard labor in Pennsylvania were moved indoors to an inner block of solitary cells in Philadelphia 's Walnut Street Jail . New York began implementing solitary living quarters at New York City 's Newgate Prison in 1796 .
History of childhood
Education in the sense of training was the exclusive function of families for the vast majority of children until the 19th century . In the Middle Ages the major cathedrals operated education programs for small numbers of teenage boys designed to produce priests . Universities started to appear to train physicians , lawyers , and government officials , and ( mostly ) priests . The first universities appeared around 1100 : the University of Bologna in 1088 , the University of Paris in 1150 , and the Oxford in 1167 . Students entered as young as 13 and stayed for 6 to 12 years .
Modern history
The modern petroleum industry started in 1846 with the discovery of the process of refining kerosene from coal by Nova Scotian Abraham Pineo Gesner . Ignacy Łukasiewicz improved Gesner 's method to develop a means of refining kerosene from the more readily available `` rock oil '' ( `` petr - oleum '' ) seeps in 1852 and the first rock oil mine was built in Bóbrka , near Krosno in Galicia in the following year . In 1854 , Benjamin Silliman , a science professor at Yale University in New Haven , was the first to fractionate petroleum by distillation . These discoveries rapidly spread around the world . Notable
Colosseum
During the 16th and 17th century , Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum . Pope Sixtus V ( 1585 -- 1590 ) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome 's prostitutes , though this proposal fell through with his premature death . In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights ; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned . Allied
Industrial Revolution
Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage , hygiene and home construction . In the introduction of his 1892 edition , Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved . For example , the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house . Clothing
Construction of the World Trade Center
Groundbreaking was on August 5 , 1966 , marking the beginning of construction of the World Trade Center 's foundations . The site of the World Trade Center was located on landfill , with the bedrock located 65 feet ( 20 m ) below grade . In order to construct the World Trade Center , it was necessary to build `` The Bathtub '' , with the slurry wall along the West Street side of the site , to keep water from the Hudson River out . This method was used in place of conventional dewatering methods because lowering the groundwater table would cause large settlements of nearby buildings not built on deep foundations .
Hoover Dam
Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments . A U-shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam , its excavation was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933 . Filling of Lake Mead began February 1 , 1935 , even before the last of the concrete was poured that May . The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30 , 1935 -- a crew of 500 men remained to finish it and other structures . To make the powerhouse roof bombproof , it was constructed of layers of concrete , rock , and steel with a total thickness of about 3.5 feet ( 1.1 m ) , topped with layers of sand and tar .
Psychiatric hospital
Western Europe would adopt these views later on with the advances of physicians like Philippe Pinel at the Bicêtre Hospital in France and William Tuke at the York Retreat in England . They advocated the viewing of mental illness as a disorder that required compassionate treatment that would aid in the rehabilitation of the victim . The arrival in the Western world of institutionalisation as a solution to the problem of madness was very much an event of the nineteenth century . The first public mental asylums were established in Britain ; the passing of the County Asylums Act 1808 empowered magistrates to build rate - supported asylums in every county to house the many ' pauper lunatics ' . Nine counties first applied , the first public asylum opening in 1812 in Nottinghamshire . In 1828 , the newly appointed Commissioners in Lunacy were empowered to license and supervise private asylums . The Lunacy Act 1845 made the construction of asylums in every country compulsory with regular inspections on behalf of the Home Secretary . The Act required asylums to have written regulations and to have a resident physician .
River Thames
The first commission concerned with the management of the river was the Oxford - Burcot Commission , formed in 1605 to make the river navigable between Burcot and Oxford .
Wind turbine
The first utility grid - connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by John Brown & Company in 1951 in the Orkney Islands .
Hoover Dam
Since about 1900 , the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods , provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power . In 1928 , Congress authorized the project . The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies , Inc. , which began construction on the dam in early 1931 . Such a large concrete structure had never been built before , and some of the techniques were unproven . The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties . Nevertheless , Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on March 1 , 1936 , more than two years ahead of schedule .
Environmental issues in India
British rule of India saw several laws related to environment . Amongst the earliest ones were Shore Nuisance ( Bombay and Kolaba ) Act of 1853 and the Oriental Gas Company Act of 1857 . The Indian Penal Code of 1860 , imposed a fine on anyone who voluntarily fouls the water of any public spring or reservoir . In addition , the Code penalised negligent acts . British India also enacted laws aimed at controlling air pollution . Prominent amongst these were the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act of 1905 and the Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act of 1912 . Whilst these laws failed in having the intended effect , British - enacted legislations pioneered the growth of environmental regulations in India .
The Bronx
In 2006 , a five - year , $220 - million program of capital improvements and natural restoration in 70 Bronx parks was begun ( financed by water and sewer revenues ) as part of an agreement that allowed a water filtration plant under Mosholu Golf Course in Van Cortlandt Park . One major focus is on opening more of the Bronx River 's banks and restoring them to a natural state .
Mains electricity
The world 's first large scale central plant -- Thomas Edison 's steam powered station at Holborn Viaduct in London -- started operation in January 1882 , providing direct current ( DC ) at 110 V . The Holborn Viaduct station was used as a proof of concept for the construction of the much larger Pearl Street Station in Manhattan , the world 's first permanent commercial central power plant . The Pearl Street Station also provided DC at 110 V , considered to be a `` safe '' voltage for consumers , beginning September 4 , 1882 .
Bradford
The Bradford Canal , built in 1774 , linking the city to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal took its water from Bradford Beck and its tributaries . The supply was often inadequate to feed the locks , and the polluted state of the canal led to its temporary closure in 1866 : the canal was closed in the early 20th century as uneconomic .
History of United States prison systems
Unfortunately for its inhabitants , the site at Richmond where Virginia 's first penitentiary was built bordered a stagnant pool , in which sewage collected . The prison 's cells had no heating system and water oozed from its walls , leading inmates ' extremities to freeze during the winter months . Prisoners could perform no work during the solitary portion of their sentence , which they served completely isolated in near - total darkness , and many went mad during this portion of their sentence . Those prisoners who survived the isolation period joined other inmates in the prison workshop to make goods for the state militia . The workshop never turned a profit . Escapes were common .