vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Climate of the United Kingdom
Many places had heavy snowfall and extreme cold , temperatures regularly fell below − 10.0 ° C ( 14.0 ° F ) ) across many areas . However , the cold subsided after Christmas Day , 2010 . November 2010 saw an extremely severe cold snap , with lows of − 18.0 ° C ( − 0.4 ° F ) ) in Llysdinam on 28 November . The month saw temperatures below average , despite what was actually a very mild first half . Spring 2013 was also notoriously cold : March 2013 was the coldest month of the winter ( and indeed 2013 as a whole ) , which is quite striking given that December 2012 , January and February 2013 were all also below average in terms of temperature . The following winter was the opposite - in many places , only on 11 and 12 January was any snow recorded ( some places having no snow at all ) , and the entire country was battered by a series of severe depressions and storms . The St Jude 's Day storm first affected the UK on 26 October 2013 , and many places saw no respite until a high swept across the country on 2 March 2014 . Parts of the Somerset levels remained under water for most of the winter and well into spring . Record - equalling gusts of 142 mph were recorded off the north coast of Scotland on 5 December 2013 , with notably severe storms also recorded on 2 November 2013 , 24 December 2013 , 3 January 2014 and 14 February 2014 .
Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least 93 kilometres per hour ( 58 mph ) , hail is 25 millimetres ( 1 in ) in diameter or larger , or if funnel clouds or tornadoes are reported . Although a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm , a tornado warning is issued in place of a severe thunderstorm warning . A severe thunderstorm warning is issued if a thunderstorm becomes severe , or will soon turn severe . In Canada , a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres ( 2 in ) in one hour , or 75 millimetres ( 3 in ) in three hours , is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms . Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell . However , multicell , supercell , and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather .
Air mass
A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities , and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena . In surface weather analyses , fronts are depicted using various colored lines and symbols , depending on the type of front . The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity . Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . The weather usually clears quickly after a front 's passage . Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness , although there is invariably a wind shift .
White Christmas (weather)
White Christmases in Romania have been rare in recent times , and they will likely continue so , due to the geographic position of Romania and climate change . In recent years , blizzard and snow falls usually start in January and they usually end at the beginning of March . However , at high altitudes , white Christmases are very common .
Climate of the United Kingdom
Gales -- which are defined as winds with speeds of 51 to 101 km / h ( 32 to 63 mph ) -- are strongly associated with the passage of deep depressions across the country . The Hebrides experience on average 35 days of gale a year ( a day where there are gale - force winds ) while inland areas in England and Wales receive fewer than 5 days of gale a year . Areas of high elevation tend to have higher wind speeds than low elevations , and Great Dun Fell in Cumbria ( at 857 m or 2,812 ft ) averaged 114 days of gale a year during the period 1963 to 1976 . The highest gust recorded at a low level in England was 191 km / h ( 119 mph ) at Gwennap Head in Cornwall on 15 December 1979 , and a 115 mph gust was also recorded at Shoreham - By - Sea on 16 October 1987 . A disputed 122 mph gust was recorded on 16 October 1987 at Gorleston in Norfolk during the Great Storm of 1987 . In Scotland , Fraserburgh in Aberdeenshire recorded 229 km / h ( 142 mph ) on 13 February 1989 , which was equalled during Cyclone Xaver on 5 December 2013 . Wales ' highest wind speed gust of 200 km / h ( 124 mph ) was set at Rhoose , Vale of Glamorgan on 28 October 1989 . Especially potent storm systems typically affect the UK during autumn and winter , with the winters of 1989 / 1990 and 2013 / 2014 particularly notable for the frequency and potency of storm systems .
Dubuque, Iowa
Dubuque has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfa ) , which gives it four distinct seasons . However , local weather is often not as extreme as that found in other parts of the Midwest , such as Minnesota or Wisconsin . Spring is usually wet and rainy , summers are sunny and warm , autumn is mild , and winters are typically cloudy and snowy .
White Christmas (weather)
Although the term ' White Christmas ' usually refers to snow , if a significant hail accumulation occurs in an area on Christmas Day , as happened in parts of Melbourne on 25 December 2011 , this can also be described as a White Christmas , due to the resulting white appearance of the landscape resembling snow cover .
Thunderstorm
There are four types of thunderstorms : single - cell , multi-cell cluster , multi-cell lines , and supercells . Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and most severe . Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes . Dry thunderstorms , with no precipitation , can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the cloud - to - ground lightning that accompanies them . Several means are used to study thunderstorms : weather radar , weather stations , and video photography . Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century . Beyond the Earth 's atmosphere , thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of Jupiter , Saturn , Neptune , and , probably , Venus .
Thunderstorm
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused . An EF0 tornado , the weakest category , damages trees but not substantial structures . An EF5 tornado , the strongest category , rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers . The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes . Doppler radar data , photogrammetry , and ground swirl patterns ( cycloidal marks ) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating . Formation
Water in California
Rain typically falls in California only during the winter and spring months , from October through May , with more rain falling on the northern half of the state than the southern . Approximately 75 percent of the total precipitation volume occurs north of Sacramento , while 75 percent of the total water demand is in the south . With very rare exceptions , summers are dry throughout the state . Precipitation falling as snow in the Sierra and other mountain ranges feeds the network of reservoirs and surface water sources that supply the state ; a low rainfall or light snowfall year can result in drought .
Thunderstorm
Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully ; however , any thunderstorm can become severe , and all thunderstorms , by definition , present the danger of lightning . Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before , during , and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage .
Southwestern United States
During El Niño , winters and springs are generally colder and wetter across southern portions of the region , while the northern portion stays warmer and drier due to a southern jet stream . Under La Niña , the opposite happens , meaning the cool and wet weather tends to stay further north .
Thunderstorm
Hail can cause serious damage , notably to automobiles , aircraft , skylights , glass - roofed structures , livestock , and most commonly , farmers ' crops . Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft . When hail stones exceed 13 millimetres ( 0.5 in ) in diameter , planes can be seriously damaged within seconds . The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft . Wheat , corn , soybeans , and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage . Hail is one of Canada 's most costly hazards . Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history . One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund , Uttarakhand , India . The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in Aurora , Nebraska , United States .
Denver
Tornadoes are rare west of the I - 25 corridor ; however , one notable exception was an F3 tornado that struck 4.4 miles south of downtown on June 15 , 1988 . On the other hand , the suburbs east of Denver and the city 's east - northeastern extension ( Denver International Airport ) can see a few tornadoes , often weak landspout tornadoes , each spring and summer -- especially during June with the enhancement of the Denver Convergence Vorticity Zone ( DCVZ ) . The DCVZ , also known as the Denver Cyclone , is a variable vortex of storm - forming air flow usually found north and east of downtown , and which often includes the airport . Heavy weather from the DCVZ can disrupt airport operations . In a study looking at hail events in areas with a population of at least 50,000 , Denver was found to be ranked 10th most prone to hail storms in the continental United States . In fact , Denver has received three of the top 10 costliest hailstorms in United States history which occurred on July 11 , 1990 ; July 20 , 2009 ; and May 8 , 2017 respectively .
Climate of North Dakota
As of September 2017 , the United States Drought Monitor recorded abnormally dryweather conditions across the entire state . The drought is considered severe and unprecedented , and because of its nature as a `` unpredictable , sudden event brought on by sustained high temperatures and little rain '' , it is considered a `` flash drought '' . North Dakota Agriculture Commissioner Doug Goehring announced that predicted economic losses as a consequence from the drought could amount to as much as $4 billion or $5 billion .
Thunderstorm
Cloud - to - ground lightning frequently occurs within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations . One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting . Under a regime of low precipitation ( LP ) thunderstorms , where little precipitation is present , rainfall can not prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat . Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion . In areas with a high frequency for cloud - to - ground lightning , like Florida , lightning causes several fatalities per year , most commonly to people working outside .
La Niña
A new La Niña episode developed quite quickly in the eastern and central tropical Pacific in mid-2010 , and lasted until early 2011 . It intensified again in mid-2011 and lasted until early 2012 . This La Niña , combined with record - high ocean temperatures in the north - eastern Indian Ocean , was a large factor in the 2010 -- 2011 Queensland floods , and the quartet of recent heavy snowstorms in North America starting with the December 2010 North American blizzard . The same La Niña event was also a likely cause of a series of tornadoes of above - average severity that struck the Midwestern and Southern United States in the spring of 2011 , and drought conditions in the South Central states including Texas , Oklahoma and Arkansas . Meanwhile , a series of major storms caused extensive flooding in California in December 2010 , with seven consecutive days of non-stop rainfall , leading to one of the wettest Decembers in over 120 years of records . This is in contrast to the drier - than - normal conditions typically associated with La Niña in California , especially in the south .
Warm front
If the air mass is relatively stable , rainfall will increase until the front reaches the location , at which time the clouds can extend all the way to the earth 's surface as fog . Once the front passes , the location experiences some warming and clearing . If the air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may precede and follow the front and temperature changes will be larger .
Thunderstorm
The first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or developing stage . During this stage , masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere . The trigger for this lift can be solar illumination , where the heating of the ground produces thermals , or where two winds converge forcing air upwards , or where winds blow over terrain of increasing elevation . The moisture carried upward cools into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at high altitude , which appear as cumulus clouds . As the water vapor condenses into liquid , latent heat is released , which warms the air , causing it to become less dense than the surrounding , drier air . The air tends to rise in an updraft through the process of convection ( hence the term convective precipitation ) . This process creates a low - pressure zone within and beneath the forming thunderstorm . In a typical thunderstorm , approximately 500 million kilograms of water vapor are lifted into the Earth 's atmosphere .
Climate of the United Kingdom
Snow in the UK falls almost every year , but in small quantities . The UK can suffer extreme winters like 1684 , 1740 , 1795 ( when London received its record lowest temperature of − 21.1 ° C ( − 6.0 ° F ) ) , 1947 and 1963 . In 1963 it snowed on Boxing Day , and snow lasted in most areas until 6 March , with blizzards through February , which had significant and documented effects on the FA Cup - Wrexham were forced to play on sand for one tie . In modern times snow has generally become rarer , but the UK can still get heavy falls , such as in 1978 / 79 , 1981 / 82 , 1986 / 87 and 1990 / 91 . The winter of 2008 / 09 produced the heaviest snowfall since 1991 between 1 and 3 February , and the winter of 2009 - 10 was even more severe , with many parts of the United Kingdom experiencing the coldest and snowiest winters since 1978 / 79 ; temperatures plummeted to − 22.3 ° C ( − 8.1 ° F ) at Altnaharra , Sutherland -- close to the − 22.9 ° C ( − 9.2 ° F ) recorded at the southernmost part of the globe in the same period . The lowest temperature ever recorded in the UK was − 27.2 ° C ( − 17.0 ° F ) which was recorded on 10 January 1982 and 11 February 1895 in Braemar , Scotland and on 30 December 1995 in Altnaharra , Scotland . December 2010 was the coldest December in 120 years ; the CET ( Central England Temperature ) was - 0.7 ° C ; it was the coldest month since February 1986 , and the coldest December since 1890 . Many places had heavy snowfall and extreme cold , temperatures regularly fell below − 10.0 ° C ( 14.0 ° F ) ) across many areas . However , the cold subsided after Christmas Day , 2010 . November 2010 saw an extremely severe cold snap , with lows of − 18.0 ° C ( − 0.4 ° F ) ) in Llysdinam on 28 November . The month saw temperatures below average , despite what was actually a very mild first half .
Cumulus cloud
Cumulus humilis clouds usually indicate fair weather . Cumulus mediocris clouds are similar , except that they have some vertical development , which implies that they can grow into cumulus congestus or even cumulonimbus clouds , which can produce heavy rain , lightning , severe winds , hail , and even tornadoes . Cumulus congestus clouds , which appear as towers , will often grow into cumulonimbus storm clouds . They can produce precipitation . Glider pilots often pay close attention to cumulus clouds , as they can be indicators of rising air drafts or thermals underneath that can suck the plane high into the sky -- a phenomenon known as cloud suck .
Climate of the United Kingdom
Valley areas such as the South Wales Valleys , due to their north - south orientation , receive less sunshine than lowland areas because the mountains on either side of the valley obscure the sun in the early morning and late evening . This is noticeable in winter where there are only a few hours of sunshine . The mountains of Wales , northern England and Scotland can be especially cloudy with extensive mist and fog . Near the coast , sea fog may develop in the spring and early summer . Radiation fog may develop over inland areas of Great Britain and can persist for hours or even days in the winter and can pose a major hazard for drivers and aircraft .
Oklahoma
Because of Oklahoma 's position between zones of differing prevailing temperature and winds , weather patterns within the state can vary widely over relatively short distances and can change drastically in a short time . As an example , on November 11 , 1911 , the temperature at Oklahoma City reached 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) in the afternoon ( the record high for that date ) , then an Arctic cold front of unprecedented intensity slammed across the state , causing the temperature to fall 66 degrees , down to 17 ° F ( − 8 ° C ) at midnight ( the record low for that date ) ; thus , both the record high and record low for November 11 were set on the same date . This type of phenomenon is also responsible for many of the tornadoes in the area , such as the 1912 Oklahoma tornado outbreak , when a warm front traveled along a stalled cold front , resulting in an average of about one tornado per hour over the course of a day .
Climate of Alabama
During El Niño , Alabama receives colder than average winter temperatures with wetter than average conditions along the southern parts of the state and drier than average conditions in the northern parts . La Niña brings warmer than average temperatures with the drier weather in the southern parts of the state due to a northern storm track .
Thunderstorm
Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms . Downburst winds are generally very powerful , and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes , due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight - horizontal characteristic . Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable , incomplete , or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings . Agricultural crops , and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged . Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash . Automobiles can be displaced by the force exerted by downburst winds . Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it , due to their higher density . When these downdrafts reach the surface , they spread out and turn into the destructive straight - horizontal winds .
Hurricane Hugo
The remnants of Hugo tracked northeastward and entered the Canadian province of Quebec . In Montreal , rainfall reached only 0.43 in ( 11 mm ) , while precipitation amounts in the province peaked at 3.73 in ( 95 mm ) . In addition to light rain , high winds were reported in the province . Winds in Montreal gusted up to 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) , leaving 13,400 homes without electricity . 7,400 residence in Verdun and West Island also lost electricity when tree fell on power lines ; it was restored about 12 hours later . While in Brossard and Chambly power was lost to 5,000 homes and 1,000 homes in Valleyfield . In addition , high winds and heavy rainfall also occurred in the St. Lawrence River Valley . New
Warm front
The warm sector is the area of warmer air behind a warm front , usually between the warm and cold fronts in a depression . Temperatures are often warmer than they are before the warm front or after the cold front . Cloud types can be mixed , but usually consist of stratocumulus , which can range to being broken to covering the entire sky depending on distance from the centre of low pressure . Temperature rises and the dew point remains steady . Wind direction and speed remains steady .
Helsinki
Helsinki has a humid continental climate ( Dfb ) . Owing to the mitigating influence of the Baltic Sea and North Atlantic Current ( see also Extratropical cyclone ) , temperatures during the winter are higher than the northern location might suggest , with the average in January and February around − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) .
Lake District
The relatively low height of most of the fells means that , while snow is expected during the winter , they can be free of snow at any time of the year . Normally , significant snow fall only occurs between November and April . On average , snow falls on Helvellyn 67 days per year . During the year , valleys typically experience 20 days with snow falling , a further 200 wet days , and 145 dry days . Hill fog is common at any time of year , and the fells average only around 2.5 hours of sunshine per day , increasing to around 4.1 hours per day on the coastal plains .
Super Bowl XLVIII
A winter storm arrived 6 hours after the game ended , dropping 8 inches of snow on the region . The inclement weather cancelled one quarter of the flights available at the area 's 3 major airports , stranding thousands .
Season
Prevernal ( early or pre-spring ) : Begins February ( mild temperate ) , to March ( cool temperate ) . Deciduous tree buds begin to swell . Some types of migrating birds fly from winter to summer habitats . Vernal ( spring ) : Begins mid March ( mild temperate ) , to late April ( cool temperate ) . Tree buds burst into leaves . Birds establish territories and begin mating and nesting . Estival ( high summer ) : Begins June in most temperate climates . Trees in full leaf . Birds hatch and raise offspring . Serotinal ( late summer ) : Generally begins mid to late August . Deciduous leaves begin to change color in higher latitude locations ( above 45 north ) . Young birds reach maturity and join other adult birds preparing for autumn migration . The traditional `` harvest season '' begins by early September . Autumnal ( autumn ) : Generally begins mid to late September . Tree leaves in full color then turn brown and fall to the ground . Birds migrate back to wintering areas . Hibernal ( winter ) : Begins December ( mild temperate ) , November ( cool temperate ) . Deciduous trees are bare and fallen leaves begin to decay . Migrating birds settled in winter habitats .
Hurricane Hugo
In Connecticut , wind gusts associated with the remnants of Hugo peaked at 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) in Bridgeport . The winds caused minor property damage , while falling trees and tree limbs briefly left up to 30,000 customers without electricity . Gusty winds in Massachusetts left several thousand people without power , while also toppling trees and tree limbs , which caused minor damage to houses and cars . Additionally , apple orchards were impacted , with some losing up to their 30 % of their crops . Strong winds throughout the state of Vermont downed power lines , trees , and tree limbs . Some boats on Lake Champlain were torn from their moorings due to swells up to several feet in height . In Rhode Island , the outer fringes of the remnants of Hugo produced wind gusts between 40 and 50 mph ( 64 and 80 km / h ) , causing minor property damage and scattered power outages .
Hurricane Gloria
Hurricane Gloria was a large hurricane that affected much of the northeastern United States . Gloria brought strong wind gusts , which downed trees and left hundreds of thousands without power . Overall damage was estimated at $900 million , and there were fourteen deaths . Gloria was the first significant hurricane to affect New England since Hurricane Donna in 1960 .