vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Lyme disease
In 1980 , Steere , et al. , began to test antibiotic regimens in adult patients with Lyme disease . In the same year , New York State Health Dept . epidemiologist Jorge Benach provided Willy Burgdorfer , a researcher at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory , with collections of I. dammini ( scapularis ) from Shelter Island , NY , a known Lyme - endemic area as part of an ongoing investigation of Rocky Mountain spotted fever . In examining the ticks for rickettsiae , Burgdorfer noticed `` poorly stained , rather long , irregularly coiled spirochetes . '' Further examination revealed spirochetes in 60 % of the ticks . Burgdorfer credited his familiarity with the European literature for his realization that the spirochetes might be the `` long - sought cause of ECM and Lyme disease . '' Benach supplied him with more ticks from Shelter Island and sera from patients diagnosed with Lyme disease . University of Texas Health Science Center researcher Alan Barbour `` offered his expertise to culture and immunochemically characterize the organism . '' Burgdorfer subsequently confirmed his discovery by isolating , from patients with Lyme disease , spirochetes identical to those found in ticks . In June 1982 , he published his findings in Science , and the spirochete was named Borrelia burgdorferi in his honor .
1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
Snow was sceptical of the prevailing miasma theory , which held that diseases such as cholera or the Black Death were caused by pollution or a noxious form of `` bad air '' . The germ theory was not established at this point ( Louis Pasteur would not propose it until 1861 ) . Snow did not understand the mechanism by which disease was transmitted , but the evidence led him to believe that it was not due to breathing foul air . Based on the pattern of illness among residents , Snow hypothesized that cholera was spread by an agent in contaminated water . He first published his theory in 1849 , in an essay titled `` On the Mode of Communication of Cholera '' . In 1855 he published a second edition , including a more elaborate investigation of the effect of the water supply in the 1854 Soho outbreak .
Book of Enoch
The traditional belief of the Ethiopic Orthodox Church , which sees 1 Enoch as an inspired document , is that the Ethiopic text is the original one , written by Enoch himself . They believe that the following opening sentence of Enoch is the first and oldest sentence written in any human language , since Enoch was the first to write letters :
Atlantic Ocean
Humans evolved in Africa ; first by diverging from other apes around 7 Ma ; then developing stone tools around 2.6 Ma ; to finally evolve as modern humans around 100 kya . The earliest evidences for the complex behavior associated with this behavioral modernity has been found in the Greater Cape Floristic Region ( GCFR ) along the coast of South Africa . During the latest glacial stages the now - submerged plains of the Agulhas Bank were exposed above sea level , extending the South African coastline farther south by hundreds of kilometers . A small population of modern humans -- probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals -- survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by these Palaeo - Agulhas plains . The GCFR is delimited to the north by the Cape Fold Belt and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged . Human history thus begins on the coasts of South Africa where the Atlantic Benguela Upwelling and Indian Ocean Agulhas Current meet to produce an intertidal zone on which shellfish , fur seal , fishes and sea birds provided the necessary protein sources . The African origin of this modern behaviour is evidenced by 70,000 years - old engravings from Blombos Cave , South Africa .
Afrikaans
The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony , through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects , during the course of the 18th century . As early as the mid-18th century and as recently as the mid-20th century , Afrikaans was known in standard Dutch as a `` kitchen language '' ( Afrikaans : kombuistaal ) , lacking the prestige accorded , for example , even by the educational system in Africa , to languages spoken outside Africa . Other early epithets setting apart Kaaps Hollands ( `` Cape Dutch '' , i.e. Afrikaans ) as putatively beneath official Dutch standards included geradbraakt , gebroken and onbeschaafd Hollands ( `` mutilated / broken / uncivilised Dutch '' ) , as well as verkeerd Nederlands ( `` incorrect Dutch '' ) .
Colonial history of the United States
The religious history of the United States began with the first Pilgrim settlers who came on the Mayflower in 1620 . Their Puritan faith motivated their move from Europe . The Spanish set up a network of Catholic missions in California , but they had all closed decades before 1848 when California became part of the U.S. There were a few important French Catholic churches and institutions in New Orleans .
Nile
Krapf went to East Africa in the service of the English Church Missionary Society , arriving at Mombasa , Kenya in 1844 and staying in East Africa until 1853 . While stationed there he was the first to report the existence of Lake Baringo and a sighting of the snow - clad Kilimanjaro . Krapf , during his travels , collected information from the Arab traders operating inland from the coast . From the traders Krapf and his companions learned of great lakes and snow - capped mountains , which Krapf claimed to have seen for himself , much to the ridicule of English explorers who could not believe the idea of snow on the equator . However , Krapf was correct and had seen Mounts Kilimanjaro and Kenya , the first European to do so .
Lyme disease
The full syndrome now known as Lyme disease was not recognized until a cluster of cases originally thought to be juvenile rheumatoid arthritis was identified in three towns in southeastern Connecticut in 1975 , including the towns Lyme and Old Lyme , which gave the disease its popular name . This was investigated by physicians David Snydman and Allen Steere of the Epidemic Intelligence Service , and by others from Yale University , including Dr. Stephen Malawista , who is credited as a co-discover of the disease . The recognition that the patients in the United States had EM led to the recognition that `` Lyme arthritis '' was one manifestation of the same tick - borne condition known in Europe .
Indigenous Australians
By 1788 , Indigenous Australians had not developed a system of writing , so the first literary accounts of Aborigines come from the journals of early European explorers , which contain descriptions of first contact , both violent and friendly . Early accounts by Dutch explorers and the English buccaneer William Dampier wrote of the `` natives of New Holland '' as being `` barbarous savages '' , but by the time of Captain James Cook and First Fleet marine Watkin Tench ( the era of Jean - Jacques Rousseau ) , accounts of Aborigines were more sympathetic and romantic : `` these people may truly be said to be in the pure state of nature , and may appear to some to be the most wretched upon the earth ; but in reality they are far happier than ... we Europeans '' , wrote Cook in his journal on 23 August 1770 .
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Historians differ as to whether the illness of the 1520s was smallpox ; a minority of scholars claim that the epidemic was due to an indigenous illness called Carrion 's disease . In any case , a 1981 study by N.D. Cook the shows that the Andes suffered from three separate population declines during colonization . The first was of 30 -- 50 percent during the first outbreak of smallpox . When a measles outbreak occurred , there was another decline of 25 -- 30 percent . Finally , when smallpox and measles epidemics occurred together , which occurred from 1585 to 1591 , a decline of 30 -- 60 percent occurred . Collectively these declines amounted to a decline of 93 percent from the pre-contact population in the Andes region . Mortality was particularly high among children , ensuring that the impact of the epidemics would extend to the next generation .
Lead poisoning
Lead poisoning was among the first known and most widely studied work and environmental hazards . One of the first metals to be smelted and used , lead is thought to have been discovered and first mined in Anatolia around 6500 BCE . Its density , workability , and corrosion resistance were among the metal 's attractions .
History of Maryland
The largest site of the original Maryland colony , St. Mary 's City , was the seat of colonial government until 1695 . Because Anglicanism had become the official religion in Virginia , a band of Puritans in 1642 left for Maryland ; they founded Providence ( now called Annapolis ) .
Ecuador
New infectious diseases , endemic to the Europeans , caused high fatalities among the Amerindian population during the first decades of Spanish rule , as they had no immunity . At the same time , the natives were forced into the encomienda labor system for the Spanish . In 1563 , Quito became the seat of a real audiencia ( administrative district ) of Spain and part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada .
Virus
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear : some may have evolved from plasmids -- pieces of DNA that can move between cells -- while others may have evolved from bacteria . In evolution , viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer , which increases genetic diversity . Viruses are considered by some to be a life form , because they carry genetic material , reproduce , and evolve through natural selection , but lack key characteristics ( such as cell structure ) that are generally considered necessary to count as life . Because they possess some but not all such qualities , viruses have been described as `` organisms at the edge of life '' , and as replicators .
Romance languages
Romance Romanic Ethnicity Romance peoples ( adopted speakers ) Geographic distribution Originated in coastal Mediterranean and western Europe ; now also spoken all over the Americas , much of Africa and in parts of Southeast Asia and Oceania Linguistic classification Indo - European Italic Romance Early form Vulgar Latin Subdivisions Italo - Western Eastern Romance Sardinian African † Pannonian † ISO 639 - 2 / 5 roa Linguasphere 51 - ( phylozone ) Glottolog roma1334
Santería
The spread of Santería beyond the Spanish - speaking parts of the Caribbean , including to the United States , was catalyzed by the Cuban Revolution of 1959 . In 1974 , the Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye became the first Santería church in the United States to become officially incorporated .
Herpes simplex
The frequency and severity of recurrent outbreaks vary greatly between people . Some individuals ' outbreaks can be quite debilitating , with large , painful lesions persisting for several weeks , while others experience only minor itching or burning for a few days . Some evidence indicates genetics play a role in the frequency of cold sore outbreaks . An area of human chromosome 21 that includes six genes has been linked to frequent oral herpes outbreaks . An immunity to the virus is built over time . Most infected individuals experience fewer outbreaks and outbreak symptoms often become less severe . After several years , some people become perpetually asymptomatic and no longer experience outbreaks , though they may still be contagious to others . Immunocompromised individuals may experience longer , more frequent , and more severe episodes . Antiviral medication has been proven to shorten the frequency and duration of outbreaks . Outbreaks may occur at the original site of the infection or in proximity to nerve endings that reach out from the infected ganglia . In the case of a genital infection , sores can appear at the original site of infection or near the base of the spine , the buttocks , or the back of the thighs . HSV - 2 - infected individuals are at higher risk for acquiring HIV when practicing unprotected sex with HIV - positive persons , in particular during an outbreak with active lesions .
Virus
In the past , there were problems with all of these hypotheses : the regressive hypothesis did not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way . The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles . The virus - first hypothesis contravened the definition of viruses in that they require host cells . Viruses are now recognised as ancient and as having origins that pre-date the divergence of life into the three domains . This discovery has led modern virologists to reconsider and re-evaluate these three classical hypotheses .
Red Sea
The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians , as they attempted to establish commercial routes to Punt . One such expedition took place around 2500 BC , and another around 1500 BC ( by Hatshepsut ) . Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea . Historically , scholars argued whether these trips were possible . The biblical Book of Exodus tells the tale of the Israelites ' crossing of a body of water , which the Hebrew text calls Yam Suph ( Hebrew : יַם סוּף ‬ ) . Yam Suph was traditionally identified as the Red Sea . Rabbi Saadia Gaon ( 882 ‒ 942 ) , in his Judeo - Arabic translation of the Pentateuch , identifies the crossing place of the Red Sea as Baḥar al - Qulzum , meaning the Gulf of Suez . Settlements
History of West Africa
In the western Sahel , the rise of settled communities was largely the result of domestication of millet and sorghum . Archaeology points to sizeable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 2nd millennium BCE . Symbiotic trade relations developed before the trans - Saharan trade , in response to the opportunities afforded by north - south diversity in ecosystems across deserts , grasslands , and forests . The agriculturists received salt from the desert nomads . The desert nomads acquired meat and other foods from pastoralists and farmers of the grasslands and from fishermen on the Niger River . The forest dwellers provided furs and meat .
Germ theory of disease
Koch 's postulates were developed in the 19th century as general guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated with the techniques of the day . Even in Koch 's time , it was recognized that some infectious agents were clearly responsible for disease even though they did not fulfill all of the postulates . Attempts to rigidly apply Koch 's postulates to the diagnosis of viral diseases in the late 19th century , at a time when viruses could not be seen or isolated in culture , may have impeded the early development of the field of virology . Currently , a number of infectious agents are accepted as the cause of disease despite their not fulfilling all of Koch 's postulates . Therefore , while Koch 's postulates retain historical importance and continue to inform the approach to microbiologic diagnosis , fulfillment of all four postulates is not required to demonstrate causality .
Ribosome
Ribosomes were first observed in the mid-1950s by Romanian - American cell biologist George Emil Palade , using an electron microscope , as dense particles or granules . The term `` ribosome '' was proposed by scientist Richard B. Roberts in the end of 1950s :
Priesthood in the Catholic Church
The Council of Elvira in Spain ( c. 305 -- 306 ) was the first council to call for clerical celibacy . In February 385 , Pope Siricius wrote the Directa decretal , which was a long letter to Spanish bishop Himerius of Tarragona , replying to the bishop 's requests on various subjects , which had been sent several months earlier to Pope Damasus I. It was the first of a series of documents published by the Church 's magisterium that claimed apostolic origin for clerical celibacy and reminded ministers of the altar of the perpetual continence required .
Ecological imperialism
The first major smallpox outbreak among natives was between 1616 and 1619 in Massachusetts . Native Americans had never seen a disease like this , and it wiped out entire settlements in nations such as the Abenaki , the Pawtucket , and the Wampanoag . `` By wiping out the Indians , smallpox helped the colonists help themselves to land and resources formerly controlled by unfriendly native people . The Europeans could and did colonize virtually unchallenged in some areas . '' In 1633 there was another devastating epidemic . William Bradford , governor of the Plymouth Colony , observed that : `` They lye on their hard matts , ye pox breaking and muttering , and running one into another , their skin cleaving ( by reason thereof ) to the matts they lye on ; when they turn them , a whole side with flea off at once ... and they will be all of a gore blood , most fearful to behold . Then being very sore , what with cold and other distempers , they dye like rotten sheep . '' Syphilis was also extremely devastating , and ran rampant when brought back to the Old World .
Rudolph Fisher
His internship at Freedman 's Hope hospital was when Fisher wrote his first short story , `` The City of Refuge '' . He earned his Bachelor of Arts from Brown in 1919 , where he delivered the valedictory address and received a Master of Arts a year later . He came to New York City in 1925 to take up a fellowship at College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University , during which time he published two scientific articles of his research on treating Bacteriophage viruses with ultraviolet light .
CCR5
is essential for the spread of the R5 - strain of the HIV - 1 virus . Knowledge of the mechanism by which this strain of HIV - 1 mediates infection has prompted research into the development of therapeutic interventions to block CCR5 function . A number of new experimental HIV drugs , called CCR5 receptor antagonists , have been designed to interfere with the associative binding between the Gp120 envelope protein and the HIV co-receptor CCR5 . These experimental drugs include PRO140 ( CytoDyn ) , Vicriviroc ( Phase III trials were cancelled in July 2010 ) ( Schering Plough ) , Aplaviroc ( GW - 873140 ) ( GlaxoSmithKline ) and Maraviroc ( UK - 427857 ) ( Pfizer ) . Maraviroc was approved for use by the FDA in August 2007 . It is the only one thus far approved by the FDA for clinical use , thus becoming the first CCR5 inhibitor . A problem of this approach is that , while CCR5 is the major co-receptor by which HIV infects cells , it is not the only such co-receptor . It is possible that under selective pressure HIV will evolve to use another co-receptor . However , examination of viral resistance to AD101 , molecular antagonist of CCR5 , indicated that resistant viruses did not switch to another coreceptor ( CXCR4 ) but persisted in using CCR5 , either through binding to alternative domains of CCR5 , or by binding to the receptor at a higher affinity . However , because there is still another co-receptor available , this indicates that lacking the CCR5 gene does n't make one immune to the virus ; it simply implies that it would be more challenging for the individual to contract it . Also , the virus still has access to the CD4 . Unlike CCR5 , which the body apparently does n't really need due to those still living healthy lives even with the lack of / or absence of the gene ( as a result of the delta 32 mutation ) , CD4 is critical in the body 's defense system ( fighting against infection ) .
Nike, Inc.
In 2012 , Nike is listed as a partner of the ( PRODUCT ) campaign together with other brands such as Girl , American Express and Converse . The campaign 's mission is to prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from mother to child by 2015 ( the campaign 's byline is `` Fighting For An AIDS Free Generation '' ) . The company 's goal is to raise and send funds , for education and medical assistance to those who live in areas heavily effected by AIDS .
Herpes simplex
Other experimental antivirals of that period included : heparin , trifluorothymidine ( TFT ) , Ribivarin , interferon , Virazole , and 5 - methoxymethyl - 2 ' - deoxyuridine ( MMUdR ) . The introduction of 9 - ( 2 - hydroxyethoxymethyl ) guanine , AKA acyclovir , in the late 1970s raised antiviral treatment another notch and led to vidarabine vs. acyclovir trials in the late 1980s . The lower toxicity and ease of administration over vidarabine has led to acyclovir becoming the drug of choice for herpes treatment after it was licensed by the FDA in 1998 . Another advantage in the treatment of neonatal herpes included greater reductions in mortality and morbidity with increased dosages , which did not occur when compared with increased dosages of vidarabine . However , acyclovir seems to inhibit antibody response , and newborns on acyclovir antiviral treatment experienced a slower rise in antibody titer than those on vidarabine .
West African Ebola virus epidemic
Ebola control is hindered by the fact that current diagnostic tests require specialised equipment and highly trained personnel . Since there are few suitable testing centres in West Africa , this delays diagnosis . As of February 2015 a number of rapid diagnostic tests were under trial . In September 2015 , a new chip - based testing method that can detect Ebola accurately was reported . This new device allows for the use of portable instruments that can provide immediate diagnosis .
UNICEF
In Botswana , UNICEF has funded the development of new state - of - the - art HIV / AIDS education for every schoolchild in Botswana from nonprofit organization TeachAIDS .
Hormonal contraception
Combined contraceptives have also been made available in a variety of forms . In the 1960s a few combined injectable contraceptives were introduced , notably Injectable Number 1 in China and Deladroxate in Latin America . A third combined injection , Cyclo - Provera , was reformulated in the 1980s by lowering the dose and renamed Cyclofem ( also called Lunelle ) . Cyclofem and Mesigyna , another formulation developed in the 1980s , were approved by the World Health Organization in 1993 . NuvaRing , a contraceptive vaginal ring , was first marketed in 2002 . 2002 also saw the launch of Ortho Evra , the first contraceptive patch .
Virus
Antiviral drugs are often nucleoside analogues ( fake DNA building - blocks ) , which viruses mistakenly incorporate into their genomes during replication . The life - cycle of the virus is then halted because the newly synthesised DNA is inactive . This is because these analogues lack the hydroxyl groups , which , along with phosphorus atoms , link together to form the strong `` backbone '' of the DNA molecule . This is called DNA chain termination . Examples of nucleoside analogues are aciclovir for Herpes simplex virus infections and lamivudine for HIV and Hepatitis B virus infections . Aciclovir is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed antiviral drugs . Other antiviral drugs in use target different stages of the viral life cycle . HIV is dependent on a proteolytic enzyme called the HIV - 1 protease for it to become fully infectious . There is a large class of drugs called protease inhibitors that inactivate this enzyme .
Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights
Homosexuality was not a very accepted trait . During the 1960 's there were `` voluntarily '' embraced conversion therapy for the homosexual . This process created by Katz was said to `` fix '' someone 's `` problem '' of homosexuality . In 1952 , the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders classified homosexuality as a psychopathologic problem . Though conversion therapy is scarce today , conversion therapists feel that Americans have been brainwashed into accepting homosexuality after such strong thoughts against the sexuality during the mid-late 1990 's . To sum up the first chapter :