vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Polycythemia
Altitude related - This physiologic polycythemia is a normal adaptation to living at high altitudes ( see altitude sickness ) . Many athletes train at high altitude to take advantage of this effect -- a legal form of blood doping . Some individuals believe athletes with primary polycythemia may have a competitive advantage due to greater stamina . However , this has yet to be proven due to the multifaceted complications associated with this condition . Hypoxic disease - associated - for example in cyanotic heart disease where blood oxygen levels are reduced significantly , may also occur as a result of hypoxic lung disease such as COPD and as a result of chronic obstructive sleep apnea . Iatrogenic - Secondary polycythemia can be induced directly by phlebotomy ( blood letting ) to withdraw some blood , concentrate the erythrocytes , and return them to the body . Genetic - Heritable causes of secondary polycythemia also exist and are associated with abnormalities in hemoglobin oxygen release . This includes patients who have a special form of hemoglobin known as Hb Chesapeake , which has a greater inherent affinity for oxygen than normal adult hemoglobin . This reduces oxygen delivery to the kidneys , causing increased erythropoietin production and a resultant polycythemia . Hemoglobin Kempsey also produces a similar clinical picture . These conditions are relatively uncommon .
White blood cell
Medications - chemotherapy , sulfas or other antibiotics , phenothiazenes , benzodiazepines , antithyroids , anticonvulsants , quinine , quinidine , indomethacin , procainamide , thiazides Radiation Toxins - alcohol , benzenes Intrinsic disorders - Fanconi 's , Kostmann 's , cyclic neutropenia , Chédiak -- Higashi Immune dysfunction - disorders of collagen , AIDS , rheumatoid arthritis Blood cell dysfunction - megaloblastic anemia , myelodysplasia , marrow failure , marrow replacement , acute leukemia Any major infection Miscellaneous - starvation , hypersplenism
Lead poisoning
Outcome is related to the extent and duration of lead exposure . Effects of lead on the physiology of the kidneys and blood are generally reversible ; its effects on the central nervous system are not . While peripheral effects in adults often go away when lead exposure ceases , evidence suggests that most of lead 's effects on a child 's central nervous system are irreversible . Children with lead poisoning may thus have adverse health , cognitive , and behavioral effects that follow them into adulthood .
BRCA1
Women with a germ - line BRCA1 mutation appear to have a diminished oocyte reserve and decreased fertility compared to normally aging women . Furthermore , women with an inherited BRCA1 mutation undergo menopause prematurely . Since BRCA1 is a key DNA repair protein , these findings suggest that naturally occurring DNA damages in oocytes are repaired less efficiently in women with a BRCA1 defect , and that this repair inefficiency leads to early reproductive failure .
Sickle cell disease
The vaso - occlusive crisis is caused by sickle - shaped red blood cells that obstruct capillaries and restrict blood flow to an organ resulting in ischaemia , pain , necrosis , and often organ damage . The frequency , severity , and duration of these crises vary considerably . Painful crises are treated with hydration , analgesics , and blood transfusion ; pain management requires opioid administration at regular intervals until the crisis has settled . For milder crises , a subgroup of patients manage on nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) such as diclofenac or naproxen . For more severe crises , most patients require inpatient management for intravenous opioids ; patient - controlled analgesia devices are commonly used in this setting . Vaso - occlusive crisis involving organs such as the penis or lungs are considered an emergency and treated with red - blood cell transfusions . Incentive spirometry , a technique to encourage deep breathing to minimise the development of atelectasis , is recommended .
Sickle cell disease
The care of people with sickle cell disease may include infection prevention with vaccination and antibiotics , high fluid intake , folic acid supplementation and pain medication . Other measures may include blood transfusion and the medication hydroxycarbamide ( hydroxyurea ) . A small percentage of people can be cured by a transplant of bone marrow cells .
Polycythemia
The emergency treatment of polycythemia ( e.g. , in hyperviscosity or thrombosis ) is by phlebotomy ( removal of blood from the circulation ) . Depending on the underlying cause , phlebotomy may also be used on a regular basis to reduce the hematocrit . Cytostatics such as busulfan and hydroxyurea are sometimes used for long - term management of polycythemia .
Anemia
Anemia of prematurity from frequent blood sampling for laboratory testing , combined with insufficient RBC production Trauma or surgery , causing acute blood loss Gastrointestinal tract lesions , causing either acute bleeds ( e.g. variceal lesions , peptic ulcers ) or chronic blood loss ( e.g. angiodysplasia ) Gynecologic disturbances , also generally causing chronic blood loss From menstruation , mostly among young women or older women who have fibroids Infection by intestinal nematodes feeding on blood , such as hookworms and the whipworm Trichuris trichiura .
Pleurisy
Aortic dissections Autoimmune disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus ( or drug - induced lupus erythematosus ) , Autoimmune hepatitis ( AIH ) , rheumatoid arthritis and Behçet 's disease . Bacterial infections associated with pneumonia and tuberculosis Chest injuries ( blunt or penetrating ) Familial Mediterranean fever , an inherited condition that often causes fever and swelling in the abdomen or the lungs Fungal or parasitic infections Heart surgery , especially coronary - artery bypass grafting Cardiac problems ( ischemia , pericarditis ) Inflammatory bowel disease Lung cancer and lymphoma Other lung diseases like cystic fibrosis , sarcoidosis , asbestosis , lymphangioleiomyomatosis , and mesothelioma Pneumothorax Pulmonary embolisms , which are blood clots that enter the lungs
Sinoatrial node
Sinus node dysfunction describes an irregular heartbeat caused by faulty electrical signals of the heart . When the heart 's sinoatrial node is defective , the heart 's rhythms become abnormal -- typically too slow or exhibiting pauses in its function or a combination , and very rarely faster than normal .
Mechanism of action of aspirin
Reye 's syndrome is a potentially fatal disease that causes numerous detrimental effects to many organs , especially the brain and liver , as well as causing hypoglycemia . The exact cause is unknown , and while it has been associated with aspirin consumption by children with viral illness , it also occurs in the absence of aspirin use .
Carbon monoxide poisoning
The mechanism that is thought to have a significant influence on delayed effects involves formed blood cells and chemical mediators , which cause brain lipid peroxidation ( degradation of unsaturated fatty acids ) . Carbon monoxide causes endothelial cell and platelet release of nitric oxide , and the formation of oxygen free radicals including peroxynitrite . In the brain this causes further mitochondrial dysfunction , capillary leakage , leukocyte sequestration , and apoptosis . The result of these effects is lipid peroxidation , which causes delayed reversible demyelinization of white matter in the central nervous system known as Grinker myelinopathy , which can lead to edema and necrosis within the brain . This brain damage occurs mainly during the recovery period . This may result in cognitive defects , especially affecting memory and learning , and movement disorders . These disorders are typically related to damage to the cerebral white matter and basal ganglia . Hallmark pathological changes following poisoning are bilateral necrosis of the white matter , globus pallidus , cerebellum , hippocampus and the cerebral cortex .
Thalidomide
Thalidomide has several cardiovascular adverse effects , including risk of heart attacks , pulmonary hypertension , and changes in heart rhythm including syncope , bradycardia and atrioventricular block .
Polycythemia
Inherited mutations in three genes which all result in increased stability of hypoxia - inducible factors , leading to increased erythropoietin production , have been shown to cause erythrocytosis :
Ear
The ear may be affected by disease , including infection and traumatic damage . Diseases of the ear may lead to hearing loss , tinnitus and balance disorders such as vertigo , although many of these conditions may also be affected by damage to the brain or neural pathways leading from the ear .
Insulin
These transcription factors work synergistically and in a complex arrangement . Increased blood glucose can after a while destroy the binding capacities of these proteins , and therefore reduce the amount of insulin secreted , causing diabetes . The decreased binding activities can be mediated by glucose induced oxidative stress and antioxidants are said to prevent the decreased insulin secretion in glucotoxic pancreatic β cells . Stress signalling molecules and reactive oxygen species inhibits the insulin gene by interfering with the cofactors binding the transcription factors and the transcription factors it self .
Working memory
Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress . This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues , who have shown that stress - induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward , intracellular signaling pathways . Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC , including dendritic atrophy and spine loss , which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling . fMRI research has extended this research to humans , and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC , and stress increased levels of catecholamines . Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity , consistent with the animal studies . The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness . The more stress in one 's life , the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks . Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity . Mood states ( positive or negative ) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine , which in turn can affect problem solving .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
Very few cancers would be expected as a result of accumulated radiation exposures , even though people in the area worst affected by Japan 's Fukushima nuclear accident have a slightly higher risk of developing certain cancers such as leukemia , solid cancers , thyroid cancer , and breast cancer .
White blood cell
Like neutropenia , symptoms and treatment of lymphocytopenia are directed at the underlying cause of the change in cell counts .
Thalidomide
The numerous reports of malformations in babies brought about the awareness of the side effects of the drug on pregnant women . The birth defects caused by the drug thalidomide can range from moderate malformation to more severe forms . Possible birth defects include phocomelia , dysmelia , amelia , bone hypoplasticity , and other congenital defects affecting the ear , heart , or internal organs . Franks et al. looked at how the drug affected newborn babies , the severity of their deformities , and reviewed the drug in its early years . Webb in 1963 also reviewed the history of the drug and the different forms of birth defects it had caused . `` The most common form of birth defects from thalidomide is shortened limbs , with the arms being more frequently affected . This syndrome is the presence of deformities of the long bones of the limbs resulting in shortening and other abnormalities . '' Germany
Nutrition and cognition
Lack of thiamin causes the disease known as beriberi . There are two forms of beriberi : `` wet '' , and `` dry '' . Dry beriberi is also known as cerebral beriberi and characterized by peripheral neuropathy . Thiamine deficiency has been reported in up to 80 % of alcoholic patients due to inadequate nutritional intake , reduced absorption , and impaired utilization of thiamine . Clinical signs of B deficiency include mental changes such as apathy , decrease in short - term memory , confusion , and irritability ; also increased rates of depression , dementia , falls , and fractures in old age .
Nervous system
The central nervous system functions to send signals from one cell to others , or from one part of the body to others and to receive feedback . Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result of genetic defects , physical damage due to trauma or toxicity , infection or simply of ageing . The medical specialty of neurology studies disorders of the nervous system and looks for interventions that can prevent or treat them . In the peripheral nervous system , the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction , which can be due to different causes including diabetic neuropathy and demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis . Neuroscience is the field of science that focuses on the study of the nervous system . Diagram
Sickle cell disease
Sickle cell disease Synonyms Sickle cell disorder Figure ( A ) shows normal red blood cells flowing freely through veins . The inset shows a cross section of a normal red blood cell with normal haemoglobin . Figure ( B ) shows abnormal , sickled red blood cells sticking at the branching point in a vein . The inset image shows a cross-section of a sickle cell with long polymerized sickle haemoglobin ( HbS ) strands stretching and distorting the cell shape . Specialty Hematology Symptoms Attacks of pain , anemia , swelling in the hands and feet , bacterial infections , stroke Complications Chronic pain Usual onset 5 -- 6 months of age Causes Genetic Diagnostic method Blood test Treatment Vaccination , antibiotics , high fluid intake , folic acid supplementation . pain medication , blood transfusions Prognosis Life expectancy 40 -- 60 years ( developed world ) Frequency 4.4 million ( 2015 ) Deaths 114,800 ( 2015 )
Cavalier King Charles Spaniel
A veterinarian will rule out basic causes of scratching or discomfort such as ear mites , fleas , and allergies , and then , primary secretory otitis media ( PSOM -- glue ear ) , as well as spinal or limb injuries , before assuming that a Cavalier has SM . PSOM can present similar symptoms but is much easier and cheaper to treat . Episodic Falling Syndrome can also present similar symptoms . An MRI scan is normally done to confirm diagnosis of SM ( and also will reveal PSOM ) . If a veterinarian suspects SM he or she will recommend an MRI scan . Neurologists give scanned dogs a signed certificate noting its grade .
Enzyme
Since the tight control of enzyme activity is essential for homeostasis , any malfunction ( mutation , overproduction , underproduction or deletion ) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a genetic disease . The malfunction of just one type of enzyme out of the thousands of types present in the human body can be fatal . An example of a fatal genetic disease due to enzyme insufficiency is Tay - Sachs disease , in which patients lack the enzyme hexosaminidase .
Brontë family
The following year she died aged 38 . The cause of death given at the time was tuberculosis , but it may have been complicated with typhoid fever ( the water at Haworth being likely contaminated due to poor sanitation and the vast cemetery that surrounded the church and the parsonage ) and her pregnancy that was in its early stage .
Sickle cell disease
In people heterozygous for HbS ( carriers of sickling haemoglobin ) , the polymerisation problems are minor , because the normal allele is able to produce half of the haemoglobin . In people homozygous for HbS , the presence of long - chain polymers of HbS distort the shape of the red blood cell from a smooth doughnut - like shape to ragged and full of spikes , making it fragile and susceptible to breaking within capillaries . Carriers have symptoms only if they are deprived of oxygen ( for example , while climbing a mountain ) or while severely dehydrated . HBB
Sickle cell disease
Effective September 15 , 2017 , the U.S. Social Security Administration issued a Policy Interpretation Ruling providing background information on sickle cell disease and a description of how Social Security evaluates the disease during its adjudication process for disability claims .
Thalidomide
Thalidomide causes birth defects . The FDA and other regulatory agencies have approved marketing of the drug only with an auditable risk evaluation and mitigation strategy that ensures that people using the drug are aware of the risks and avoid pregnancy ; this applies to men and women both , as the drug can be transmitted in sperm .
Polycythemia
Secondary polycythemia is caused by either natural or artificial increases in the production of erythropoietin , hence an increased production of erythrocytes . In secondary polycythemia , 6 to 8 million and occasionally 9 million erythrocytes may occur per millimeter of blood . Secondary polycythemia resolves when the underlying cause is treated .
Osmosis
Essentially , this means that if a cell is put in a solution which has a solute concentration higher than its own , it will shrivel , and if it is put in a solution with a lower solute concentration than its own , the cell will swell and may even burst .
Polycythemia
Primary polycythemias are due to factors intrinsic to red cell precursors . Polycythemia vera ( PCV ) , polycythemia rubra vera ( PRV ) , or erythremia , occurs when excess red blood cells are produced as a result of an abnormality of the bone marrow . Often , excess white blood cells and platelets are also produced . PCV is classified as a myeloproliferative disease . Symptoms include headaches and vertigo , and signs on physical examination include an abnormally enlarged spleen and / or liver . In some cases , affected individuals may have associated conditions including high blood pressure or formation of blood clots . Transformation to acute leukemia is rare . Phlebotomy is the mainstay of treatment . A hallmark of polycythemia is an elevated hematocrit , with Hct > 55 % seen in 83 % of cases . A somatic ( non-hereditary ) mutation ( V617F ) in the JAK2 gene is found in 95 % of cases , though also present in other myeloproliferative disorders .
Polycythemia
Polycythemia ( also known as polycythaemia or polyglobulia ) is a disease state in which the hematocrit ( the volume percentage of red blood cells in the blood ) is elevated .
Myocardial infarction
If impaired blood flow to the heart lasts long enough , it triggers a process called the ischemic cascade ; the heart cells in the territory of the blocked coronary artery die ( infarction ) , chiefly through necrosis , and do not grow back . A collagen scar forms in their place . When an artery is blocked , cells lack oxygen , needed to produce ATP in mitochondria . ATP is required for the maintenance of electrolyte balance , particularly through the Na / K ATPase . This leads to an ischemic cascade of intracellular changes , necrosis and apoptosis of affected cells .
Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction ( MI ) refers to tissue death ( infarction ) of the heart muscle ( myocardium ) . It is a type of acute coronary syndrome , which describes a sudden or short - term change in symptoms related to blood flow to the heart . Unlike other causes of acute coronary syndromes , such as unstable angina , a myocardial infarction occurs when there is cell death , as measured by a blood test for biomarkers ( the cardiac protein troponin or the cardiac enzyme CK - MB ) . When there is evidence of an MI , it may be classified as an ST elevation myocardial infarction ( STEMI ) or Non-ST elevation myocardial infarction ( NSTEMI ) based on the results of an ECG .
Non-communicable disease
National economies are reportedly suffering significant losses because of premature deaths or inability to work resulting from heart disease , stroke and diabetes . For instance , China is expected to lose roughly $558 billion in national income between 2005 and 2015 due to early deaths . In 2005 , heart disease , stroke and diabetes caused an estimated loss in international dollars of national income of 9 billion in India and 3 billion in Brazil .
Huntington's disease
There are multiple cellular changes through which the toxic function of mHTT may manifest and produce the HD pathology . In its mutant ( i.e. polyglutamine expanded ) form , the protein is more prone to cleavage that creates shorter fragments containing the polyglutamine expansion . These protein fragments have a propensity to undergo misfolding and aggregation , yielding fibrillar aggregates in which non-native polyglutamine β - strands from multiple proteins are bonded together via hydrogen bonds . These aggregates share the same fundamental cross-β amyloid architecture seen in other protein deposition diseases . Over time , the aggregates accumulate to form inclusion bodies within cells , ultimately interfering with neuron function . Neuronal inclusions run indirect interference . Inclusion bodies have been found in both the cell nucleus and cytoplasm . Inclusion bodies in cells of the brain are one of the earliest pathological changes , and some experiments have found that they can be toxic for the cell , but other experiments have shown that they may form as part of the body 's defense mechanism and help protect cells .
April 2015 Nepal earthquake
Disastrous events in very poor and politically paralyzed nations such as Nepal often become a long drawn out chain of events , in that one disaster feeds into another for years or even decades upon end . The aftereffects from the earthquake have subsequent effects on myriad of seemingly unrelated aspects : human trafficking , labour cost and availability , rental and property cost burdens , urbanization , private and public debt burdens , mental health , politics , tourism , disease , and damage to the healthcare system . A survey some 30 months afterwards found only 12 % of the reconstruction money was distributed , and those without land were locked out of financial support , exacerbating the social divide and feeding ever more marginalization .
Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction ( MI ) , commonly known as a heart attack , occurs when blood flow decreases or stops to a part of the heart , causing damage to the heart muscle . The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder , arm , back , neck , or jaw . Often it occurs in the center or left side of the chest and lasts for more than a few minutes . The discomfort may occasionally feel like heartburn . Other symptoms may include shortness of breath , nausea , feeling faint , a cold sweat , or feeling tired . About 30 % of people have atypical symptoms . Women more often have atypical symptoms than men . Among those over 75 years old , about 5 % have had an MI with little or no history of symptoms . An MI may cause heart failure , an irregular heartbeat , cardiogenic shock , or cardiac arrest .
Thymus
Severe combined immunodeficiency syndromes ( SCID ) are group of rare congenital genetic diseases that result in combined T lymphocyte and B lymphocyte deficiencies . These syndromes are caused by defective hematopoietic progenitor cells which are the precursors of both B - and T cells . This results in a severe reduction in developing thymocytes in the thymus and consequently thymic atrophy . A number of genetic defects can cause SCID , including IL - 7 receptor deficiency , common gamma chain deficiency , and recombination activating gene deficiency . The gene that codes for the enzyme called ADA ( adenine deaminase ) , is located on chromosomes 20 . HIV