vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Connective tissue
Cells are spread through an extracellular fluid . Ground substance - A clear , colorless , and viscous fluid containing glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans to fix the body water and the collagen fibers in the intercellular spaces . Ground substance slows the spread of pathogens . Fibers . Not all types of CT are fibrous . Examples of non-fibrous CT include adipose tissue and blood . Adipose tissue gives `` mechanical cushioning '' to the body , among other functions . Although there is no dense collagen network in adipose tissue , groups of adipose cells are kept together by collagen fibers and collagen sheets in order to keep fat tissue under compression in place ( for example , the sole of the foot ) . The matrix of blood is plasma . Both the ground substance and proteins ( fibers ) create the matrix for CT . Connective tissues are derived from the mesenchyme .
Endocrine system
Secreted hormone From cells Effect Melatonin Pinealocytes Antioxidant Monitors the circadian rhythm including induction of drowsiness and lowering of the core body temperature
Lead poisoning
The mainstays of treatment are removal from the source of lead and , for people who have significantly high blood lead levels or who have symptoms of poisoning , chelation therapy . Treatment of iron , calcium , and zinc deficiencies , which are associated with increased lead absorption , is another part of treatment for lead poisoning . When lead - containing materials are present in the gastrointestinal tract ( as evidenced by abdominal X-rays ) , whole bowel irrigation , cathartics , endoscopy , or even surgical removal may be used to eliminate it from the gut and prevent further exposure . Lead - containing bullets and shrapnel may also present a threat of further exposure and may need to be surgically removed if they are in or near fluid - filled or synovial spaces . If lead encephalopathy is present , anticonvulsants may be given to control seizures , and treatments to control swelling of the brain include corticosteroids and mannitol . Treatment of organic lead poisoning involves removing the lead compound from the skin , preventing further exposure , treating seizures , and possibly chelation therapy for people with high blood lead concentrations . EDTA
Apoptosis
Treatments aiming to inhibit works to block specific caspases . Finally , the Akt protein kinase promotes cell survival through two pathways . Akt phosphorylates and inhibits Bas ( a Bcl - 2 family member ) , causing Bas to interact with the 14 - 3 - 3 scaffold , resulting in Bcl dissociation and thus cell survival . Akt also activates IKKα , which leads to NF - κB activation and cell survival . Active NF - κB induces the expression of anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl - 2 , resulting in inhibition of apoptosis . NF - κB has been found to play both an antiapoptotic role and a proapoptotic role depending on the stimuli utilized and the cell type .
Anemia
Disturbance of proliferation and differentiation of stem cells Pure red cell aplasia Aplastic anemia affects all kinds of blood cells . Fanconi anemia is a hereditary disorder or defect featuring aplastic anemia and various other abnormalities . Anemia of renal failure by insufficient erythropoietin production Anemia of endocrine disorders
Agranulocyte
Agranulocytes , also known as mononuclear leukocytes , are white blood cells with a one - lobed nucleus . They are characterized by the absence of granules in their cytoplasm , which distinguishes them from granulocytes . Normal hematologic blood values of MLs are about 35 % of all white blood cells . The 2 types of agranulocytes in the blood circulation are lymphocytes and monocytes . A third type of agranulocyte , the macrophage , is formed in the tissue when monocytes leave the circulation and differentiate into macrophages .
Positron emission tomography
PET scanning with the tracer fluorine - 18 ( F - 18 ) fluorodeoxyglucose ( FDG ) , called FDG - PET , is widely used in clinical oncology . This tracer is a glucose analog that is taken up by glucose - using cells and phosphorylated by hexokinase ( whose mitochondrial form is greatly elevated in rapidly growing malignant tumors ) . A typical dose of FDG used in an oncological scan has an effective radiation dose of 14 mSv . Because the oxygen atom that is replaced by F - 18 to generate FDG is required for the next step in glucose metabolism in all cells , no further reactions occur in FDG . Furthermore , most tissues ( with the notable exception of liver and kidneys ) can not remove the phosphate added by hexokinase . This means that FDG is trapped in any cell that takes it up until it decays , since phosphorylated sugars , due to their ionic charge , can not exit from the cell . This results in intense radiolabeling of tissues with high glucose uptake , such as the normal brain , liver , kidneys , and most cancers . As a result , FDG - PET can be used for diagnosis , staging , and monitoring treatment of cancers , particularly in Hodgkin 's lymphoma , non-Hodgkin lymphoma , and lung cancer .
Carbon dioxide
Hemoglobin , the main oxygen - carrying molecule in red blood cells , carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide . However , the CO bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen . Instead , it combines with the N - terminal groups on the four globin chains . However , because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule , the binding of CO decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen . This is known as the Haldane Effect , and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs . Conversely , a rise in the partial pressure of CO or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin , which is known as the Bohr effect . Regulation
Sleep
While awake , metabolism generates reactive oxygen species , which are damaging to cells . In sleep , metabolic rates decrease and reactive oxygen species generation is reduced allowing restorative processes to take over . The sleeping brain has been shown to remove metabolic waste products at a faster rate than during an awake state . It is further theorized that sleep helps facilitate the synthesis of molecules that help repair and protect the brain from these harmful elements generated during waking . Anabolic hormones such as growth hormones are secreted preferentially during sleep . Sleep has also been theorized to effectively combat the accumulation of free radicals in the brain , by increasing the efficiency of endogenous antioxidant mechanisms . The concentration of the sugar compound glycogen in the brain increases during sleep , and is depleted through metabolism during wakefulness .
Spinal cord
The spinal cord proper terminates in a region called the conus medullaris , while the pia mater continues as an extension called the filum terminale , which anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx . The cauda equina ( `` horse 's tail '' ) is a collection of nerves inferior to the conus medullaris that continue to travel through the vertebral column to the coccyx . The cauda equina forms because the spinal cord stops growing in length at about age four , even though the vertebral column continues to lengthen until adulthood . This results in sacral spinal nerves originating in the upper lumbar region .
Bohr effect
Although this reaction usually proceeds very slowly , the enzyme carbonic anhydrase ( which is present in red blood cells ) drastically speeds up the conversion to bicarbonate and protons . This causes the pH of the blood to decrease , which promotes the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin , and allows the surrounding tissues to obtain enough oxygen to meet their demands . In areas where oxygen concentration is high , such as the lungs , binding of oxygen causes haemoglobin to release protons , which recombine with bicarbonate to eliminate carbon dioxide during exhalation . These opposing protonation and deprotonation reactions occur at an equal rate , resulting in little overall change in blood pH .
Myocardial infarction
Calcium deposits in the coronary arteries can be detected with CT scans . Calcium seen in coronary arteries can provide predictive information beyond that of classical risk factors . High blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine is associated with premature atherosclerosis ; whether elevated homocysteine in the normal range is causal is controversial .
Sickle cell disease
In HbS , the complete blood count reveals haemoglobin levels in the range of 6 -- 8 g / dl with a high reticulocyte count ( as the bone marrow compensates for the destruction of sickled cells by producing more red blood cells ) . In other forms of sickle cell disease , Hb levels tend to be higher . A blood film may show features of hyposplenism ( target cells and Howell - Jolly bodies ) .
Food pyramid (nutrition)
Dairy products are produced from the milk of mammals , usually but not exclusively cattle . They include milk , yogurt and cheese . Milk and its derivative products are a rich source of dietary calcium and also provide protein , phosphorus , vitamin A , and vitamin D. However , many dairy products are high in saturated fat and cholesterol compared to vegetables , fruits and whole grains , which is why skimmed products are available as an alternative . Historically , adults were recommended to consume three cups of dairy products per day . More recently , evidence is mounting that dairy products have greater levels of negative effects on health than previously thought and confer fewer benefits . For example , recent research has shown that dairy products are not related to stronger bones or less fractures ; on the flip side , another study showed that milk ( and yogurt ) consumption results in higher bone mineral density in the hip . Overall , the majority of research suggests that dairy has some beneficial effects on bone health , in part because of milk 's other nutrients . Meat
Anemia
In the morphological approach , anemia is classified by the size of red blood cells ; this is either done automatically or on microscopic examination of a peripheral blood smear . The size is reflected in the mean corpuscular volume ( MCV ) . If the cells are smaller than normal ( under 80 fl ) , the anemia is said to be microcytic ; if they are normal size ( 80 -- 100 fl ) , normocytic ; and if they are larger than normal ( over 100 fl ) , the anemia is classified as macrocytic . This scheme quickly exposes some of the most common causes of anemia ; for instance , a microcytic anemia is often the result of iron deficiency . In clinical workup , the MCV will be one of the first pieces of information available , so even among clinicians who consider the `` kinetic '' approach more useful philosophically , morphology will remain an important element of classification and diagnosis . Limitations of MCV include cases where the underlying cause is due to a combination of factors -- such as iron deficiency ( a cause of microcytosis ) and vitamin B12 deficiency ( a cause of macrocytosis ) where the net result can be normocytic cells .
Positron emission tomography
Positron - emission tomography ( PET ) is a nuclear medicine functional imaging technique that is used to observe metabolic processes in the body as an aid to the diagnosis of disease . The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron - emitting radionuclide , most commonly fluorine - 18 . which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule called a radioactive tracer . Three - dimensional images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis . In modern PET - CT scanners , three - dimensional imaging is often accomplished with the aid of a CT X-ray scan performed on the patient during the same session , in the same machine .
Heart
The vagus nerve is a long , wandering nerve that emerges from the brainstem and provides parasympathetic stimulation to a large number of organs in the thorax and abdomen , including the heart . The nerves from the sympathetic trunk emerge through the T1 - T4 thoracic ganglia and travel to both the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes , as well as to the atria and ventricles . The ventricles are more richly innervated by sympathetic fibers than parasympathetic fibers . Sympathetic stimulation causes the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine ( also known as noradrenaline ) at the neuromuscular junction of the cardiac nerves . This shortens the repolarization period , thus speeding the rate of depolarization and contraction , which results in an increased heart rate . It opens chemical or ligand - gated sodium and calcium ion channels , allowing an influx of positively charged ions . Norepinephrine binds to the beta -- 1 receptor .
Anemia
It is difficult to directly measure RBC mass , so the hematocrit ( amount of RBCs ) or the hemoglobin ( Hb ) in the blood are often used instead to indirectly estimate the value . Hemotocrit ; however , is concentration dependent and is therefore not completely accurate . For example , during pregnancy a woman 's RBC mass is normal but because of an increase in blood volume the hemoglobin and hematocrit are diluted and thus decreased . Another example would be bleeding where the RBC mass would decrease but the concentrations of hemoglobin and hematocrit initially remains normal until fluids shift from other areas of the body to the intravascular space .
CCR5
Inspired by the first person ever to be cured of HIV , The Berlin Patient , StemCyte began collaborations with Cord blood banks worldwide to systematically screen Umbilical cord blood samples for the CCR5 mutation beginning in 2011 . Further
Femur
By the sixth week of development , the first hyaline cartilage model of the femur is formed by chondrocytes . Endochondral ossification begins by the end of the embryonic period and primary ossification centers are present in all long bones of the limbs , including the femur , by the 12th week of development . The hindlimb development lags behind forelimb development by 1 -- 2 days .
Megaloblastic anemia
Decreased red blood cell ( RBC ) count and hemoglobin levels Increased mean corpuscular volume ( MCV , > 100 fL ) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin ( MCH ) Normal mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration ( MCHC , 32 -- 36 g / dL ) The reticulocyte count is decreased due to destruction of fragile and abnormal megaloblastic erythroid precursor . The platelet count may be reduced . Neutrophil granulocytes may show multisegmented nuclei ( `` senile neutrophil '' ) . This is thought to be due to decreased production and a compensatory prolonged lifespan for circulating neutrophils , which increase numbers of nuclear segments with age . Anisocytosis ( increased variation in RBC size ) and poikilocytosis ( abnormally shaped RBCs ) . Macrocytes ( larger than normal RBCs ) are present . Ovalocytes ( oval - shaped RBCs ) are present . Howell - Jolly bodies ( chromosomal remnant ) also present .
Cellular waste product
Up to 7 % is dissolved in its molecular form in blood plasma . About 70 - 80 % is converted into hydrocarbonate ions , The remainder binds with hemoglobin in red blood cells , is carried to the lungs , and exhaled .
Germ cell
Germ cell tumor is a rare cancer that can affect people at all ages . 2.4 children out of 1 million are affected , and it counts for 4 % of all cancers in children and adolescents younger than 20 years old .
Lyme disease
B. burgdorferi can spread throughout the body during the course of the disease , and has been found in the skin , heart , joints , peripheral nervous system , and central nervous system . Many of the signs and symptoms of Lyme disease are a consequence of the immune response to the spirochete in those tissues .
Female reproductive system
The ovaries are small , paired organs located near the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity . These organs are responsible for the production of the egg cells ( ova ) and the secretion of hormones . The process by which the egg cell ( ovum ) is released is called ovulation . The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of a menstrual cycle .
Hippocampus
The hippocampus ( named after its resemblance to the seahorse , from the Greek ἱππόκαμπος , `` seahorse '' from ἵππος hippos , `` horse '' and κάμπος kampos , `` sea monster '' ) is a major component of the brains of humans and other vertebrates . Humans and other mammals have two hippocampi , one in each side of the brain . The hippocampus belongs to the limbic system and plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short - term memory to long - term memory , and in spatial memory that enables navigation . The hippocampus is located under the cerebral cortex ( allocortical ) and in primates in the medial temporal lobe . It contains two main interlocking parts : the hippocampus proper ( also called Ammon 's horn ) and the dentate gyrus .
Tyrannosaurus
Only a single Tyrannosaurus rex specimen has been conclusively shown to belong to a specific sex . Examination of B - rex demonstrated the preservation of soft tissue within several bones . Some of this tissue has been identified as a medullary tissue , a specialized tissue grown only in modern birds as a source of calcium for the production of eggshell during ovulation . As only female birds lay eggs , medullary tissue is only found naturally in females , although males are capable of producing it when injected with female reproductive hormones like estrogen . This strongly suggests that B - rex was female , and that she died during ovulation . Recent research has shown that medullary tissue is never found in crocodiles , which are thought to be the closest living relatives of dinosaurs , aside from birds . The shared presence of medullary tissue in birds and theropod dinosaurs is further evidence of the close evolutionary relationship between the two .
Sympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nerves arise from near the middle of the spinal cord in the intermediolateral nucleus of the lateral grey column , beginning at the first thoracic vertebra of the vertebral column and are thought to extend to the second or third lumbar vertebra . Because its cells begin in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord , the sympathetic nervous system is said to have a thoracolumbar outflow . Axons of these nerves leave the spinal cord through the anterior root . They pass near the spinal ( sensory ) ganglion , where they enter the anterior rami of the spinal nerves . However , unlike somatic innervation , they quickly separate out through white rami connectors ( so called from the shiny white sheaths of myelin around each axon ) that connect to either the paravertebral ( which lie near the vertebral column ) or prevertebral ( which lie near the aortic bifurcation ) ganglia extending alongside the spinal column .
Human brain
Cerebral veins drain deoxygenated blood from the brain . The brain has two main networks of veins : an exterior or superficial network , on the surface of the cerebrum that has three branches , and an interior network . These two networks communicate via anastomosing ( joining ) veins . The veins of the brain drain into larger cavities the dural venous sinuses usually situated between the dura mater and the covering of the skull . Blood from the cerebellum and midbrain drains into the great cerebral vein . Blood from the medulla and pons of the brainstem have a variable pattern of drainage , either into the spinal veins or into adjacent cerebral veins .
Endocrine system
Secreted hormone From cells Effect Adrenaline ( epinephrine ) ( Primarily ) Chromaffin cells Fight - or - flight response : Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles ( by increasing heart rate and stroke volume , vasodilation , increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver , breakdown of lipids in fat cells ) Dilate the pupils Suppress non-emergency bodily processes ( e.g. , digestion ) Noradrenaline ( norepinephrine ) Chromaffin cells Fight - or - flight response : Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles ( by increasing heart rate and stroke volume , vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure , breakdown of lipids in fat cells ) Increase skeletal muscle readiness . Dopamine Chromaffin cells Increase heart rate and blood pressure Enkephalin Chromaffin cells Regulate pain
Heart
Humans have known about the heart since ancient times , although its precise function and anatomy were not clearly understood . From the primarily religious views of earlier societies towards the heart , ancient Greeks are considered to have been the primary seat of scientific understanding of the heart in the ancient world . Aristotle considered the heart to be organ responsible for creating blood ; Plato considered the heart as the source of circulating blood and Hippocrates noted blood circulating cyclically from the body through the heart to the lungs . Erasistratos ( 304 -- 250 BCE ) noted the heart as a pump , causing dilation of blood vessels , and noted that arteries and veins both radiate from the heart , becoming progressively smaller with distance , although he believed they were filled with air and not blood . He also discovered the heart valves .
Sickle cell disease
Decreased immune reactions due to hyposplenism ( malfunctioning of the spleen ) Priapism and infarction of the penis Osteomyelitis ( bacterial bone infection ) , the most common cause of osteomyelitis in SCD is Salmonella ( especially the atypical serotypes Salmonella typhimurium , Salmonella enteritidis , Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella paratyphi B ) , followed by Staphylococcus aureus and Gram - negative enteric bacilli perhaps because intravascular sickling of the bowel leads to patchy ischaemic infarction . Acute papillary necrosis in the kidneys Leg ulcers In eyes , background retinopathy , proliferative retinopathy , vitreous haemorrhages , and retinal detachments can result in blindness . Regular annual eye checks are recommended . During pregnancy , intrauterine growth retardation , spontaneous abortion , and pre-eclampsia Chronic pain : Even in the absence of acute vaso - occlusive pain , many patients have unreported chronic pain . Pulmonary hypertension ( increased pressure on the pulmonary artery ) can lead to strain on the right ventricle and a risk of heart failure ; typical symptoms are shortness of breath , decreased exercise tolerance , and episodes of syncope. 21 % of children and 30 % of adults have evidence of pulmonary hypertension when tested ; this is associated with reduced walking distance and increased mortality . Chronic kidney failure due to sickle - cell nephropathy manifests itself with hypertension , protein loss in the urine , loss of red blood cells in urine and worsened anaemia . If it progresses to end - stage renal failure , it carries a poor prognosis .
Xenon
Inhaling a xenon / oxygen mixture activates production of the transcription factor HIF - 1 - alpha , which may lead to increased production of erythropoietin . The latter hormone is known to increase red blood cell production and athletic performance . Reportedly , doping with xenon inhalation has been used in Russia since 2004 and perhaps earlier . On August 31 , 2014 , the World Anti Doping Agency ( WADA ) added xenon ( and argon ) to the list of prohibited substances and methods , although no reliable doping tests for these gases have yet been developed . In addition , effects of xenon on erythropoietin production in humans have not been demonstrated , so far . Imaging