vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Indo-Roman trade relations
The Seleucid dynasty controlled a developed network of trade with the Indian Subcontinent which had previously existed under the influence of the Achaemenid Empire . The Greek - Ptolemaic dynasty , controlling the western and northern end of other trade routes to Southern Arabia and the Indian Subcontinent , had begun to exploit trading opportunities in the region prior to the Roman involvement but , according to the historian Strabo , the volume of commerce between Indians and the Greeks was not comparable to that of later Indo - Roman trade .
Indo-Roman trade relations
The Rome - subcontinental trade also saw several cultural exchanges which had lasting effect for both the civilizations and others involved in the trade . The Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum was involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and Indian architecture . Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory , or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in Europe . The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the manner of this influence . Clement of Alexandria mentions the Buddha in his writings and other Indian religions find mentions in other texts of the period . Indian
European exploration of Africa
The West African coast may have been explored by Hanno the Navigator in an expedition in c. 500 BC . The report of this voyage survives in a short Periplus in Greek , which was first cited by Greek authors in the 3rd century BC . There is some uncertainty as to how far precisely Hanno reached , he clearly sailed as far as Sierra Leone , and may have continued as far as Guinea or even Gabon . However , Robin Law notes that some commentators have argued that Hanno exploration have taken him no further than southern Morocco .
European exploration of Africa
In Dutch Mauritius the colonization started in 1638 and ended in 1710 , with a brief interruption between 1658 and 1666 . Numerous governors were appointed , but continuous hardships such as cyclones , droughts , pest infestations , lack of food and illnesses finally took their toll , and the island was definitively abandoned in 1710 .
United States
In the early days of colonization , many European settlers were subject to food shortages , disease , and attacks from Native Americans . Native Americans were also often at war with neighboring tribes and allied with Europeans in their colonial wars . At the same time , however , many natives and settlers came to depend on each other . Settlers traded for food and animal pelts , natives for guns , ammunition and other European wares . Natives taught many settlers where , when and how to cultivate corn , beans , and squash . European missionaries and others felt it was important to `` civilize '' the Native Americans and urged them to adopt European agricultural techniques and lifestyles .
Pre-Columbian era
The Tiwanaku empire was based in western Bolivia and extended into present - day Peru and Chile from 300 to 1000 . Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important South American civilizations prior to the Inca Empire ; it was the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years . The ruins of the ancient city state are near the south - eastern shore of Lake Titicaca in Tiwanaku Municipality , Ingavi Province , La Paz Department , about 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) west of La Paz . Inca
Apollo
As god of colonization , Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies , especially during the height of colonization , 750 -- 550 BCE . According to Greek tradition , he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy . However , this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction : Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions , which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars . In this interpretation , Apollo 's title of Lykegenes can simply be read as `` born in Lycia '' , which effectively severs the god 's supposed link with wolves ( possibly a folk etymology ) .
History of Colombia
From approximately 12,000 years BP onwards , hunter - gatherer societies existed near present - day Bogotá ( at El Abra and Tequendama ) , and they traded with one another and with cultures living in the Magdalena River valley . Due to its location , the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and the Amazon basin . The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza archaeological site and El Totumo archaeological site sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) southwest of Bogotá . These sites date from the Paleoindian period ( 18,000 -- 8000 BCE ) . At Puerto Hormiga archaeological site and other sites , traces from the Archaic period in South America ( ~ 8000 -- 2000 BCE ) have been found . Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra , Tibitó and Tequendama in Cundinamarca . The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas , found at San Jacinto archaeological site , dates to 5000 -- 4000 BCE . Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 10,500 BCE . Nomadic hunter - gatherer tribes at the El Abra and Tequendama sites near present - day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley .
Karnataka
Karnataka 's pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand - axe culture evidenced by discoveries of , among other things , hand axes and cleavers in the region . Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also been found in the state . Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka , prompting scholars to hypothesise about contacts between ancient Karnataka and the Indus Valley Civilisation ca . 3300 BCE .
Native Hawaiians
With the support of the Bishop Museum , the Polynesian Voyaging Society 's double - hulled canoe , Hōkūle'a , has contributed to rediscovery of native Hawaiian culture , especially in the revival of non-instrument navigation , by which ancient Polynesians originally settled Hawaiʻi .
Kenya
By the 1st century CE , many of the city - states such as Mombasa , Malindi , and Zanzibar began to establish trade relations with Arabs . This led to the increase economic growth of the Swahili states , introduction of Islam , Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language , cultural diffusion , as well as the Swahili city - states becoming a member of a larger trade network . Many historians had long believed that the city states were established by Arab or Persian traders , but archeological evidence has led scholars to recognize the city states as an indigenous development which , though subjected to foreign influence due to trade , retained a Bantu cultural core .
Indirect rule
In the British colonies , the laws were typically made by a British Governor and legislative council , but in the protectorates and princely states local rulers retained their traditional administrative authority and ability to legislate , subject to British control of certain areas . Indirect rule was particularly effective in enabling the British to exploit natural resources and raw materials of vast subordinate nations . The establishment of naval and military bases in strategic points around the globe maintained the necessary power to underpin such control .
Conquistador
The gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese , and its European neighbours , especially Spain . Apart from their religious and scientific aspects , these voyages of discovery were highly profitable .
Nubia
This culture began to decline in the early 28th century BC . George Reisner suggested that it was succeeded by a culture that he called the `` B - Group '' , but most archaeologists today believe that this culture never existed and that the area was depopulated from c. 3000 BC to c. 2500 , when a-group descendants returned to the area . The causes of this are uncertain , but it was perhaps caused by Egyptian invasions and pillaging that began at this time . Nubia is believed to have served as a trade corridor between Egypt and tropical Africa long before 3100 BC . Egyptian craftsmen of the period used ivory and ebony wood from tropical Africa which came through Nubia . Statue
Ecological imperialism
The fur trade was as detrimental to the survival of native people as it was imperative to the success of settlers due the high European demand . Trappers employed natives because of their knowledge of the terrain and wildlife , putting natives with no immunity to European diseases into close contact with Europeans .
Relationship between religion and science
The historical process of Confucianism has largely been antipathic towards scientific discovery . However the religio - philosophical system itself is more neutral on the subject than such an analysis might suggest . In his writings On Heaven , Xunzi espoused a proto - scientific world view . However , during the Han Synthesis the more anti-empirical Mencius was favored and combined with Daoist skepticism regarding the nature of reality . Likewise , during the Medieval period , Zhu Xi argued against technical investigation and specialization proposed by Chen Liang . After contact with the West , scholars such as Wang Fuzhi would rely on Buddhist / Daoist skepticism to denounce all science as a subjective pursuit limited by humanity 's fundamental ignorance of the true nature of the world . After the May Fourth Movement , attempts to modernize Confucianism and reconcile it with scientific understanding were attempted by many scholars including Feng Youlan and Xiong Shili . Given the close relationship that Confucianism shares with Buddhism , many of the same arguments used to reconcile Buddhism with science also readily translate to Confucianism . However , modern scholars have also attempted to define the relationship between science and Confucianism on Confucianism 's own terms and the results have usually led to the conclusion that Confucianism and science are fundamentally compatible .
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa , concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in the place that is now the country Egypt . It is one of six historic civilizations to arise independently . Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC ( according to conventional Egyptian chronology ) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes ( often identified with Narmer ) . The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms , separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods : the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age , the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
War and the subsequent looting of defeated peoples has been common practice since ancient times . The stele of King Naram - Sin of Akkad , which is now displayed in the Louvre Museum in Paris , is one of the earliest works of art known to have been looted in war . The stele commemorating Naram - Sin 's victory in a battle against the Lullubi people in 2250 BCE was taken as war plunder about a thousand years later by the Elamites who relocated it to their capital in Susa , Iran . There , it was uncovered in 1898 by French archaeologists .
Lundy
Lundy has evidence of visitation or occupation from the Neolithic period onward , with Mesolithic flintwork , Bronze Age burial mounds , four inscribed gravestones from the early medieval period , and an early medieval monastery ( possibly dedicated to St Elen or St Helen ) .
History of West Africa
Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states , cutting across ethnic and cultural lines , often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states . In contrast to most of Central , Southern and Southeast Africa , West Africa is not populated by Bantu - speaking peoples .
North America
Canada and the United States were both former British colonies . There is frequent cultural interplay between the United States and English - speaking Canada . Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous people of Canada but is considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark . Spanish - speaking North America shares a common past as former Spanish colonies . In Mexico and the Central American countries where civilizations like the Maya developed , indigenous people preserve traditions across modern boundaries . Central American and Spanish - speaking Caribbean nations have historically had more in common due to geographical proximity .
Economic history of Argentina
During the colonial period , present - day Argentina offered fewer economic advantages compared to other parts of the Spanish Empire such as Mexico or Peru , which caused it to assume a peripheral position within the Spanish colonial economy . It lacked deposits of gold or other precious metals , nor did it have established native civilizations to subject to the encomienda . The sparse population was accompanied by a difficult numeracy development in the 17th century . Nevertheless , Argentina overtook Peru , which enjoyed an early rapid development in numeracy through the contact with Indios , in the middle of the 18th century . This numeracy development as a measure of early modern development demonstrates the rapid and remarkable development of Argentina in the period of colonial time .
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Colonialism left deep traces in the hearts and minds of the Indian people , influencing the way they understood and represented themselves . The influences of `` colonialist forms of knowledge '' can also be found in the works of Radhakrishnan . According to Hawley , Radhakrishnan 's division between East and West , the East being spiritual and mystical , and the West being rationt and colonialist forms of knowledge constructed during the 18th and 19th centuries . Arguably , these characterizations are `` imagined '' in the sense that they reflect the philosophical and religious realities of neither `` East ' nor West . ''
European exploration of Africa
In 1455 and 1456 two Italian explorers , Alvise Cadamosto from Venice and Antoniotto Usodimare from Genoa , together with an unnamed Portuguese captain and working for Prince Henry , the Navigator , of Portugal , followed the Gambia river , visiting the land of Senegal , while another Italian sailor from Genoa , Antonio de Noli , also on behalf of Prince Henry , explored the Bijagós islands , and , together with the Portuguese Diogo Gomes , the Cape Verde archipelago . Antonio de Noli , who became the first governor of Cape Verde ( and the first European colonial governor in Sub-Saharan Africa ) , is also considered the discoverer of the First Islands of Cape Verde .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
The other discovery that perpetuated this system of indigenous forced labor were the extensive silver mines discovered at Potosi , in Upper Peru ( now Bolivia ) and other places in the Spanish empire in the New World that were worked for hundreds of years by forced native labor and contributed most of the wealth that flowed to Spain .
History of Kenya
By the 1st century CE , many of the city - states such as Mombasa , Malindi , and Zanzibar began to establish trade relations with Arabs . This led to the increase economic growth of the Swahili states , introduction of Islam , Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language , cultural diffusion , as well as the Swahili city - states becoming a member of a larger trade network . Many historians had long believed that the city states were established by Arab or Persian traders , but archeological evidence has led scholars to recognize the city states as an indigenous development which , though subjected to foreign influence due to trade , retained a Bantu cultural core .
Third World
The Third World was normally seen to include many countries with colonial pasts in Africa , Latin America , Oceania and Asia . It was also sometimes taken as synonymous with countries in the Non-Aligned Movement . In the dependency theory of thinkers like Raúl Prebisch , Walter Rodney , Theotonio dos Santos , and Andre Gunder Frank , the Third World has also been connected to the world - systemic economic division as `` periphery '' countries dominated by the countries comprising the economic `` core '' .
European exploration of Africa
Overall , European exploration of Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries was very limited . Instead they were focused on the slave trade , which only required coastal bases and items to trade . The real exploration of the African interior would start well into the 19th century .
Pre-Columbian era
Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge ( Beringia ) , now the Bering Strait and possibly along the coast . Genetic evidence found in Amerindians ' maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia . Over the course of millennia , Paleo - Indians spread throughout North and South America . Exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate . One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture , with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago . However , older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed . Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago . The chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches . The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14,000 -- 17,000 years ago , followed by successive waves of immigrants . The second belief is the long chronology theory , which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at a much earlier date , possibly 50,000 -- 40,000 years ago or earlier .
History of New Mexico
From the date of the founding of New Mexico , the Pueblo Indians and Spanish settlers were plagued by hostile relationships with nomadic and semi-nomadic Navajo , Apache , Ute , and Comanche Indians . These tribes raided the more sedentary peoples for livestock , food supplies and stores , and captives to ransom or use as slaves .
Easter Island
Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200 AD , approximately coinciding with the arrival of the first settlers in Hawaii . Rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia . Rapa Nui is now considered to have been settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 AD . Ongoing archaeological studies suggest a still - later date : `` Radiocarbon dates for the earliest stratigraphic layers at Anakena , Easter Island , and analysis of previous radiocarbon dates imply that the island was colonized late , about 1200 AD . Significant ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement . ''
Maya civilization
Trade routes not only supplied physical goods , they facilitated the movement of people and ideas throughout Mesoamerica . Shifts in trade routes occurred with the rise and fall of important cities in the Maya region , and have been identified in every major reorganization of the Maya civilization , such as the rise of Preclassic Maya civilization , the transition to the Classic , and the Terminal Classic collapse . Even the Spanish Conquest did not immediately terminate all Maya trading activity ; for example , the Contact period Manche Ch'ol traded the prestige crops of cacao , annatto and vanilla into colonial Verapaz .
Atlantic slave trade
Because the negative effects of slavery on the economies of Africa have been well documented , namely the significant decline in population , some African rulers likely saw an economic benefit from trading their subjects with European slave traders . With the exception of Portuguese controlled Angola , coastal African leaders `` generally controlled access to their coasts , and were able to prevent direct enslavement of their subjects and citizens '' . Thus , as African scholar John Thornton argues , African leaders who allowed the continuation of the slave trade likely derived an economic benefit from selling their subjects to Europeans . The Kingdom of Benin , for instance , participated in the African slave trade , at will , from 1715 to 1735 , surprising Dutch traders , who had not expected to buy slaves in Benin . The benefit derived from trading slaves for European goods was enough to make the Kingdom of Benin rejoin the trans - Atlantic slave trade after centuries of non-participation . Such benefits included military technology ( specifically guns and gunpowder ) , gold , or simply maintaining amicable trade relationships with European nations . The slave trade was , therefore , a means for some African elites to gain economic advantages . Historian Walter Rodney estimates that by c. 1770 , the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £ 250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and enslaved people to the European slave - traders . Many West African countries also already had a tradition of holding slaves , which was expanded into trade with Europeans .
Celts
The Celts ( / kɛlts , sɛlts / , see pronunciation of Celt for different usages ) are an Indo - European ethnolinguistic group of Europe identified by their use of Celtic languages and cultural similarities .
Celts
Celtic refers to a family of languages and , more generally , means `` of the Celts '' or `` in the style of the Celts '' . Several archaeological cultures are considered Celtic in nature , based on unique sets of artefacts . The link between language and artefact is aided by the presence of inscriptions . The relatively modern idea of an identifiable Celtic cultural identity or `` Celticity '' generally focuses on similarities among languages , works of art , and classical texts , and sometimes also among material artefacts , social organisation , homeland and mythology . Earlier theories held that these similarities suggest a common racial origin for the various Celtic peoples , but more recent theories hold that they reflect a common cultural and language heritage more than a genetic one . Celtic cultures seem to have been widely diverse , with the use of a Celtic language being the main thing they had in common .
Celts
The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula . The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is , however , not a simple Celtiberian question . Recent investigations about the Callaici and Bracari in northwestern Portugal are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture ( language , art and religion ) in western Iberia .
Celts
Continental Celts are the Celtic - speaking people of mainland Europe and Insular Celts are the Celtic - speaking peoples of the British and Irish islands and their descendants . The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating insular Celts , mainly from Wales and Cornwall , and so are grouped accordingly .