vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Bill of Rights 1689
The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688 . This convention arises from the legal fiction ( prior to the passage of the Acts of Parliament ( Commencement ) Act 1793 ) that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed . The Bill was therefore deemed to be effective from 13 February 1689 ( New Style ) , or , under the Old Style calendar in use at the time , 13 February 1688 . Under the Short Titles Act 1896 , the Bill was given the official short title of `` The Bill of Rights '' , without a calendar year suffix .
Apartheid
The first apartheid law was the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act , 1949 , followed closely by the Immorality Amendment Act of 1950 , which made it illegal for most South African citizens to marry or pursue sexual relationships across racial lines . The Population Registration Act , 1950 classified all South Africans into one of four racial groups based on appearance , known ancestry , socioeconomic status , and cultural lifestyle : `` Black '' , `` White '' , `` Coloured '' , and `` Indian '' , the last two of which included several sub-classifications . Places of residence were determined by racial classification . From 1960 - 1983 , 3,500,000 Non-White South Africans were removed from their homes and forced into segregated neighbourhoods , in one of the largest mass evictions in modern history . Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the Black population to ten designated `` tribal homelands '' , also known as bantustans , four of which became nominally independent states . The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans .
Law
Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state . Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive , legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state . Most jurisdictions , like the United States and France , have a single codified constitution with a bill of rights . A few , like the United Kingdom , have no such document . A `` constitution '' is simply those laws which constitute the body politic , from statute , case law and convention . A case named Entick v Carrington illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from the common law . Mr Entick 's house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington . When Mr Entick complained in court , Sheriff Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister , the Earl of Halifax , was valid authority . However , there was no written statutory provision or court authority . The leading judge , Lord Camden , stated that ,
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
In Lawrence v. Texas ( 2003 ) , the Court found that a Texas law against same - sex sexual intercourse violated the right to privacy . In Obergefell v. Hodges ( 2015 ) , the Court ruled that the fundamental right to marriage included same - sex couples being able to marry . Procedural
Republic of Ireland
As with other predominantly Catholic European states , Ireland underwent a period of legal secularisation in the late twentieth century . In 1972 , the article of the Constitution naming specific religious groups was deleted by the Fifth Amendment in a referendum . Article 44 remains in the Constitution : `` The State acknowledges that the homage of public worship is due to Almighty God . It shall hold His Name in reverence , and shall respect and honour religion . '' The article also establishes freedom of religion , prohibits endowment of any religion , prohibits the state from religious discrimination , and requires the state to treat religious and non-religious schools in a non-prejudicial manner .
Fundamental rights in India
In 1919 , the Rowlatt Act gave extensive powers to the British government and police , and allowed indefinite arrest and detention of individuals , warrant-less searches and seizures , restrictions on public gatherings , and intensive censorship of media and publications . The public opposition to this act eventually led to mass campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience throughout the country demanding guaranteed civil freedoms , and limitations on government power . Indians , who were seeking independence and their own government , were particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland and the development of the Irish constitution . Also , the directive principles of state policy in Irish constitution were looked upon by the people of India as an inspiration for the independent India 's government to comprehensively tackle complex social and economic challenges across a vast , diverse nation and population .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
If the Commons votes against the Government on a motion of no confidence , the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 specifies that Parliament automatically dissolves unless a subsequent motion of confidence is passed within fourteen days . The Prime Minister and government would have the option of resigning in order to allow a replacement government the chance to obtain a vote of confidence within the required timeframe , or remaining in office to fight the subsequent general election .
First Amendment to the United States Constitution
In the preamble of this act ( ... ) religious freedom is defined ; and after a recital ' that to suffer the civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion , and to restrain the profession or propagation of principles on supposition of their ill tendency , is a dangerous fallacy which at once destroys all religious liberty ' , it is declared ' that it is time enough for the rightful purposes of civil government for its officers to interfere ( only ) when ( religious ) principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order . ' In these two sentences is found the true distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State .
Freedom of speech by country
In light of South Africa 's racial and discriminatory history , particularly the Apartheid era , the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996 precludes expression that is tantamount to the advocacy of hatred based on some listed grounds . Freedom of speech and expression are both protected and limited by a section in the South African Bill of Rights , chapter 2 of the Constitution . Section 16 makes the following provisions :
United Kingdom
Both English law , which applies in England and Wales , and Northern Ireland law are based on common - law principles . The essence of common law is that , subject to statute , the law is developed by judges in courts , applying statute , precedent and common sense to the facts before them to give explanatory judgements of the relevant legal principles , which are reported and binding in future similar cases ( stare decisis ) . The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales , consisting of the Court of Appeal , the High Court of Justice ( for civil cases ) and the Crown Court ( for criminal cases ) . The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land for both criminal and civil appeal cases in England , Wales and Northern Ireland and any decision it makes is binding on every other court in the same jurisdiction , often having a persuasive effect in other jurisdictions . The
United States Bill of Rights
In Everson v. Board of Education ( 1947 ) , the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for `` a wall of separation between church and State '' , though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute . Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th - and 21st - century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech , anonymous speech , campaign financing , pornography , and school speech ; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections . The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits , most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ( 1964 ) . Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech , and is therefore subject to greater regulation .
Declaration of nullity
Members of the Catholic Church are required to marry in front of a priest ( or deacon ) , and normally with at least one other witness , which can be a layperson . The priest or deacon is not the minister of the sacrament ; the man and wife are the ministers by exchanging vows , though the cleric presides over the exchange of the vows and any Mass or nuptial liturgical celebration ( CCC 1630 ) . If one of the parties is Catholic , but there is a serious reason why the marriage should be celebrated in front of a civil servant or a non-Catholic minister , a dispensation can be granted . If no dispensation was granted and the couple did not observe this law , the marriage is considered invalid . Because the nullity of the marriage is clear from the circumstances there is no need for a canonical process to issue a Declaration of Nullity . The correction of this invalidity requires the couple to exchange their consent according to canonical form ( commonly called `` convalidation '' ) .
Council of Trent
In the decrees on marriage ( twenty - fourth session ) the excellence of the celibate state was reaffirmed , concubinage condemned and the validity of marriage made dependent upon the wedding taking place before a priest and two witnesses , although the lack of a requirement for parental consent ended a debate that had proceeded from the 12th century . In the case of a divorce , the right of the innocent party to marry again was denied so long as the other party was alive , even if the other party had committed adultery . However the council `` refused ... to assert the necessity or usefulness of clerical celibacy .
Apartheid
Development Act ( 1955 ) Riotous Assemblies Act ( 1956 ) Industrial Conciliation Act ( 1956 ) Natives ( Prohibition of Interdicts ) Act ( 1956 ) Immorality Act ( 1957 ) Bantu Investment Corporation Act ( 1959 ) Extension of University Education Act ( 1959 ) Promotion of Bantu Self - government Act ( 1959 ) Unlawful Organizations Act ( 1960 ) Indemnity Act ( 1961 ) Coloured Persons Communal Reserves Act ( 1961 ) Republic of South Africa Constitution Act ( 1961 ) Urban Bantu Councils Act ( 1961 ) General Law Amendment Act ( 1963 ) Coloured Persons Representative Council Act ( 1964 ) Vorster to Botha ( 1966 -- 90 ) ( show ) Terrorism Act ( 1967 ) Separate Representation of Voters Amendment Act ( 1968 ) Prohibition of Political Interference Act ( 1968 ) Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act ( 1970 ) Bantu Homelands Constitution Act ( 1971 ) Aliens Control Act ( 1973 ) Indemnity Act ( 1977 ) National Key Points Act ( 1980 ) List of National Key Points Internal Security Act ( 1982 ) Black Local Authorities Act ( 1982 ) Republic of South Africa Constitution Act ( 1983 ) Abolishment ( 1990 -- 96 ) ( show ) Negotiations to end Apartheid ( 1990 -- 93 ) Interim Constitution ( 1993 ) Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act ( 1995 ) Constitution ( 1996 ) † No new legislation introduced , rather the existing legislation named was amended . Main
Declaration of nullity
In 2015 , the process for declaring matrimonial nullity was amended by the matrimonial nullity trial reforms of Pope Francis , the broadest reforms to matrimonial nullity law in 300 years . Prior to the reforms , a declaration of nullity could only be effective if it had been so declared by two tribunals at different levels of jurisdiction . If the lower courts ( First and Second Instance ) were not in agreement , the case went automatically to the Roman Rota for final decision one way or another .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
The need of a prime minister to retain the support of her own MPs was illustrated by the case of Margaret Thatcher , who resigned in 1990 after being challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party . The strength of party discipline within the Commons , enforced by the whip system , is shown by the fact that the two most recent motions of no confidence in which a Government was defeated occurred in 1924 and 1979 .
Bill of Rights 1689
the pretended power of suspending the laws and dispensing with laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal ; the commission for ecclesiastical causes is illegal ; levying taxes without grant of Parliament is illegal ; it is the right of the subjects to petition the king , and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal ; keeping a standing army in time of peace , unless it be with consent of Parliament , is against law ; Protestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law ; election of members of Parliament ought to be free ; the freedom of speech and debates or proceedings in Parliament ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Parliament ; excessive bail ought not to be required , nor excessive fines imposed , nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted ; jurors in trials for high treason ought to be freeholders ; promises of fines and forfeitures before conviction are illegal and void ; for redress of all grievances , and for the amending , strengthening and preserving of the laws , Parliaments ought to be held frequently .
History of the United Kingdom
The Single European Act ( SEA ) was the first major revision of the 1957 Treaty of Rome . In 1987 , the Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher enacted it into UK law .
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system , as Article 19 of the 1706 Treaty of Union provided for the continuation of Scotland 's separate legal system . Today the UK has three distinct systems of law : English law , Northern Ireland law and Scots law . A new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords . The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , including the same members as the Supreme Court , is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries , the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies .
Bill of Rights 1689
The Bill of Rights was later supplemented by the Act of Settlement 1701 ( which was agreed to by the Parliament of Scotland as part of the Treaty of Union ) . The Act of Settlement altered the line of succession to the throne laid out in the Bill of Rights . However , both the Bill of Rights and the Claim of Right contributed a great deal to the establishment of the concept of parliamentary sovereignty and the curtailment of the powers of the monarch . Leading , ultimately , to the establishment of constitutional monarchy , while also ( along with the penal laws ) settling the political and religious turmoil that had convulsed Scotland , England and Ireland in the 17th century .
Defense of Marriage Act
In a separate letter to Speaker of the House John Boehner , Holder noted that Congress could participate in these lawsuits .
Bill of Rights 1689
In the United Kingdom , the Bill of Rights is further accompanied by Magna Carta , the Petition of Right , the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 as some of the basic documents of the uncodified British constitution . A separate but similar document , the Claim of Right Act 1689 , applies in Scotland . The Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the inspirations for the United States Bill of Rights .
Habeas corpus
The Parliament of Scotland passed a law to have the same effect as habeas corpus in the 18th century . This is now known as the Criminal Procedure Act 1701 c. 6 . It was originally called `` the Act for preventing wrongful imprisonment and against undue delays in trials '' . It is still in force although certain parts have been repealed .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Parliament consists of the Monarch , the House of Commons and the House of Lords . In recent times the House of Commons has consisted of more than 600 members elected by the people from single - member constituencies under a first past the post system . Following the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999 , the House of Lords consists of 26 bishops of the Church of England ( Lords Spiritual ) , 92 representatives of the hereditary peers and several hundred life peers . The power to nominate bishops of the Church of England and to create hereditary and life peers is exercised by the Monarch , on the advice of the prime minister . By the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 legislation may , in certain circumstances , be passed without the approval of the House of Lords . Although all legislation must receive the approval of the Monarch ( Royal Assent ) , no monarch has withheld such assent since 1708 .
Caste system in India
Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination based on caste and Article 17 declared the practice of untouchability to be illegal . In 1955 , India enacted the Untouchability ( Offences ) Act ( renamed in 1976 , as the Protection of Civil Rights Act ) . It extended the reach of law , from intent to mandatory enforcement . The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes ( Prevention of Atrocities ) Act was passed in India in 1989 .
Bill of Rights 1689
Following the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum in 2016 , the Bill of Rights was quoted in a court ruling on a legal challenge seeking a judicial declaration that triggering EU exit must first be authorised by an act of Parliament .
Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India
The Forty - second Amendment of the Constitution of India , officially known as The Constitution ( Forty - second amendment ) Act , 1976 , was enacted during the Emergency ( 25 June 1975 -- 21 March 1977 ) by the Indian National Congress government headed by Indira Gandhi . Most provisions of the amendment came into effect on 3 January 1977 , others were enforced from 1 February and Section 27 came into force on 1 April 1977 . The 42nd Amendment is regarded as the most controversial constitutional amendment in Indian history . It attempted to reduce the power of the Supreme Court and High Courts to pronounce upon the constitutional validity of laws . It laid down the Fundamental Duties of Indian citizens to the nation . This amendment brought about the most widespread changes to the Constitution in its history , and is sometimes called a `` mini-Constitution '' or the `` Constitution of Indira '' .
English contract law
Mutual trust and confidence can be undermined in multiple ways , primarily where an employer 's repulsive conduct means a worker can treat herself as being constructively dismissed . In Mahmud and Malik v Bank of Credit and Commerce International SA the House of Lords held the duty was breached by the employer running the business as a cover for numerous illegal activities . The House of Lords has repeated that the term may always be excluded , but this has been disputed because unlike a contract for goods or services among commercial parties , an employment relation is characterised by unequal bargaining power between employer and worker . In Johnstone v Bloomsbury Health Authority the Court of Appeal all held that a junior doctor could not be made to work at an average of 88 hours a week , even though this was an express term of his contract , where it would damage his health . However , one judge said that result followed from application of the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 , one judge said it was because at common law express terms could be construed in the light of implied terms , and one judge said implied terms may override express terms . Even in employment , or in consumer affairs , English courts remain divided about the extent to which they should depart from the basic paradigm of contractual freedom , that is , in absence of legislation .
Queen's Counsel
In 2006 , the title was renamed Senior Counsel , with the final appointments of Queen 's Counsel occurring in 2007 , after which the Lawyers and Conveyancers Act ( which made the change ) came into force . However , the 2008 general election resulted in a change of government . In June 2009 , Attorney - General Hon Christopher Finlayson announced that the title of Queen 's Counsel would be reinstated , and a bill to implement the restoration was introduced into Parliament in March 2010 . The bill passed committee stage in November 2012 , was passed in a third reading and received the Royal Assent on 19 November 2012 . In December 2012 , Finlayson was one of the first appointments under the reinstated regime .
Nation state
There has been academic debate over whether the United Kingdom can be legally dissolved as it is normally recognized internationally as a single nation state . English law jurist A.V. Dicey from an English legal perspective wrote that the question is based on whether the legislation giving rise to the union ( the Union with Scotland Act ) , one of the two pieces of legislation which created the state , can be repealed . Dicey claimed because the Law of England does not acknowledge the word `` unconstitutional '' , as a matter of English law it can be repealed . He also stated any tampering with the Acts of Union 1707 would be political madness .
Supreme Court of India
The supreme court 's creative and expansive interpretations of Article 21 ( Life and Personal Liberty ) , primarily after the Emergency period , have given rise to a new jurisprudence of public interest litigation that has vigorously promoted many important economic and social rights ( constitutionally protected but not enforceable ) including , but not restricted to , the rights to free education , livelihood , a clean environment , food and many others . Civil and political rights ( traditionally protected in the Fundamental Rights chapter of the Indian constitution ) have also been expanded and more fiercely protected . These new interpretations have opened the avenue for litigation on a number of important issues .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
The Coalition Government formed in May 2010 proposed a series of further constitutional reforms in their coalition agreement . Consequently , the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011 and the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 were passed . The Acts were intended to reduce the number of MPs in the House of Commons from 650 to 600 , change the way the UK is divided into parliamentary constituencies , introduce a referendum on changing the system used to elect MPs and take the power to dissolve Parliament away from the monarch . The Coalition also promised to introduce law on the reform of the House of Lords . In the referendum , the Alternative Vote system was rejected by 67 % to 33 % , and therefore all reforms regarding the voting system were dropped . Conservatives forced the government to drop House of Lords reforms , and the Liberal Democrats said they would refuse to support changes to the boundaries of constituencies , as they believed such changes favoured the Conservatives .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
In the 19th century , A.V. Dicey , a highly influential constitutional scholar and lawyer , wrote of the twin pillars of the British constitution in his classic work Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution ( 1885 ) . These pillars are the principle of Parliamentary sovereignty and the rule of law . Parliamentary sovereignty means that Parliament is the supreme law - making body : its Acts are the highest source of English law . There has been some academic and legal debate as to whether the Acts of Union 1707 place limits on parliamentary supremacy .