vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Trinity
Nontrinitarianism ( or antitrinitarianism ) refers to Christian belief systems that reject the doctrine of the Trinity as found in the Nicene Creed as not having a scriptural origin . Nontrinitarian views differ widely on the nature of God , Jesus , and the Holy Spirit . Various nontrinitarian views , such as Adoptionism , Monarchianism and Arianism existed prior to the formal definition of the Trinity doctrine in AD 325 , 360 , and 431 , at the Councils of Nicaea , Constantinople , and Ephesus , respectively . Following the final victory of orthodoxy at Constantinople in 381 , Arianism was driven from the Empire , retaining a foothold amongst the Teutonic tribes . When the Franks converted to Catholicism in 496 , however , it gradually faded out . Nontrinitarianism was later renewed in the Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries , in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century , and in some groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century .
Middle Ages
The crusaders consolidated their conquests into crusader states . During the 12th and 13th centuries , there were a series of conflicts between those states and the surrounding Islamic states . Appeals from those states to the papacy led to further crusades , such as the Third Crusade , called to try to regain Jerusalem , which had been captured by Saladin ( d . 1193 ) in 1187 . In 1203 , the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople , and captured the city in 1204 , setting up a Latin Empire of Constantinople and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire . The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261 , but never regained their former strength . By 1291 all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland , although a titular Kingdom of Jerusalem survived on the island of Cyprus for several years afterwards .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Because of the schism the Eastern Orthodox no longer recognize the primacy of the Pope of Rome . The Patriarch of Constantinople therefore , like the Pope before him , now enjoys the title of `` first among equals '' .
Gospel of Mark
Christianity began within Judaism , with a Christian `` church '' ( or ἐκκλησία , ekklesia , meaning `` assembly '' ) that arose shortly after his death , when some of his followers claimed to have witnessed him risen from the dead . From the outset , Christians depended heavily on Jewish literature , supporting their convictions through the Jewish scriptures . Those convictions involved a nucleus of key concepts : the messiah , the son of God and the son of man , the Day of the Lord , the kingdom of God . Uniting these ideas was the common thread of apocalyptic expectation : Both Jews and Christians believed that the end of history was at hand , that God would very soon come to punish their enemies and establish his own rule , and that they were at the centre of his plans . Christians read the Jewish scripture as a figure or type of Jesus Christ , so that the goal of Christian literature became an experience of the living Christ . The new movement spread around the eastern Mediterranean and to Rome and further west , and assumed a distinct identity , although the groups within it remained extremely diverse .
Horn of Africa
When Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624 , years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths . The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians . On June 25 , 1632 , Susenyos 's son , Emperor Fasilides , declared the state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity , and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans .
History of the Catholic Church
During Constantine 's reign , approximately half of those who identified themselves as Christian did not subscribe to the mainstream version of the faith . Constantine feared that disunity would displease God and lead to trouble for the Empire , so he took military and judicial measures to eliminate some sects . To resolve other disputes , Constantine began the practice of calling ecumenical councils to determine binding interpretations of Church doctrine .
Ancient Roman architecture
Roman architecture supplied the basic vocabulary of Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque architecture , and spread across Christian Europe well beyond the old frontiers of the empire , to Ireland and Scandinavia for example . In the East , Byzantine architecture developed new styles of churches , but most other buildings remained very close to Late Roman forms . The same can be said in turn of Islamic architecture , where Roman forms long continued , especially in private buildings such as houses and the Turkish bath , and civil engineering such as fortifications and bridges .
Byzantine Empire
The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died . A six - year - long civil war devastated the empire , allowing the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan ( r . 1331 -- 1346 ) to overrun most of the Empire 's remaining territory and establish a Serbian Empire . In 1354 , an earthquake at Gallipoli devastated the fort , allowing the Ottomans ( who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos ) to establish themselves in Europe . By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended , the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals . Following the Battle of Kosovo , much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans .
History of the Catholic Church
According to some historians and scholars The early Christian Church was very loosely organized , resulting in diverse interpretations of Christian beliefs . In part to ensure a greater consistency in their teachings , by the end of the 2nd century Christian communities had evolved a more structured hierarchy , with a central bishop having authority over the clergy in his city , leading to the development of the Metropolitan bishop . The organization of the Church began to mimic that of the Empire ; bishops in politically important cities exerted greater authority over bishops in nearby cities . The churches in Antioch , Alexandria , and Rome held the highest positions . Beginning in the 2nd century , bishops often congregated in regional synods to resolve doctrinal and policy issues . Duffy claims that by the 3rd century , the bishop of Rome began to act as a court of appeals for problems that other bishops could not resolve .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Some of the disciples , namely Saint Clement of Ohrid and Saint Naum , were of great importance to the Orthodox Faith in Bulgaria . In a short time , the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Bulgarian clergy into the biblical texts and in AD 893 , proclaimed the first organized Church on the Balkan Peninsula . The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of East Slavic peoples , most notably the Rus ' , predecessors of Belarusians , Russians , and Ukrainians .
History of the Catholic Church
The battles of Toulouse preserved the Catholic west , even though Rome itself was ravaged in 850 , and Constantinople besieged . In the 11th century , already strained relations between the primarily Greek church in the East , and the Latin church in the West , developed into the East - West Schism , partially due to conflicts over Papal Authority . The fourth crusade , and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved the final breach . Prior to and during the 16th century , the Church engaged in a process of reform and renewal . Reform during the 16th century is known as the Counter-Reformation . In subsequent centuries , Catholicism spread widely across the world despite experiencing a reduction in its hold on European populations due to the growth of Protestantism and also because of religious skepticism during and after the Enlightenment . The Second Vatican Council in the 1960s introduced the most significant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent four centuries before .
History of the Roman Empire
The transition from a single united empire to the later divided Western and Eastern empires was a gradual transformation . In July 285 , Diocletian defeated rival Emperor Carinus and briefly became sole emperor of the Roman Empire . Diocletian 's reign stabilized the empire and marked the end of the Crisis of the Third Century . Diocletian appointed a co-emperor in 286 and delegated further with two junior - emperors .
Byzantine law
Soon after his accession in 527 , Justinian appointed a commission to collect and codify existing Roman law . A second commission , headed by the jurist Tribonian , was appointed in 530 to select matter of permanent value from the works of the jurists , to edit it and to arrange it into 50 books . In 533 this commission produced the Digesta .
History of the Roman Empire
In spite of his failures , Diocletian 's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily , enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another hundred years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian 's youth . Weakened by illness , Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305 , and became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate the position ( John VI retired to a monastery in the 14th century ) . He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast , tending to his vegetable gardens . His palace eventually became the core of the modern - day city of Split .
Julian calendar
The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January , and this remained the start of the year after the Julian reform . However , even after local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar , they started the new year on different dates . The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt started on 29 August ( 30 August after an Alexandrian leap year ) . Several local provincial calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of Augustus , 23 September . The indiction caused the Byzantine year , which used the Julian calendar , to begin on 1 September ; this date is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year . When the Julian calendar was adopted in AD 988 by Vladimir I of Kiev , the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496 , beginning on 1 March , six months after the start of the Byzantine Anno Mundi year with the same number . In 1492 ( AM 7000 ) , Ivan III , according to church tradition , realigned the start of the year to 1 September , so that AM 7000 only lasted for six months in Russia , from 1 March to 31 August 1492 .
Western Roman Empire
Diocletian was the first Emperor to divide the Roman Empire into a Tetrarchy . In 286 he elevated Maximian to the rank of augustus ( emperor ) and gave him control of the Western Empire . In 293 , Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates ( caesars ) , creating the First Tetrarchy . This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions , as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century . In the West , Maximiam made Mediolanum ( now Milan ) his capital , and Constantius made Trier his . In the East , Galerius made his capital Sirmium and Diocletian made Nicomedia his . On 1 May 305 , Diocletian and Maximian abdicated , replaced by Galerius and Constantius , who appointed Maximinus II and Valerius Severus , respectively , as their caesars , creating the Second Tetrarchy .
Byzantine Empire
Despite his military background , Andronikos failed to deal with Isaac Komnenos , Béla III of Hungary ( r . 1172 -- 1196 ) who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary , and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia ( r . 1166 -- 1196 ) who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire . Yet , none of these troubles would compare to William II of Sicily 's ( r . 1166 -- 1189 ) invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men , arriving in 1185 . Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital , but other than that he was indifferent to the populace . He was finally overthrown when Isaac Angelos , surviving an imperial assassination attempt , seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Relevant dates include 117 CE , when the Empire was at its greatest territorial extent , and the accession of Diocletian in 284 . Irreversible major territorial loss , however , began in 376 with a large - scale irruption of Goths and others . In 395 , after winning two destructive civil wars , Theodosius I died , leaving a collapsing field army and the Empire , still plagued by Goths , divided between his two incapable sons . By 476 when Odoacer deposed the Emperor Romulus , the Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military , political , or financial power and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman . Invading barbarians had established their own power in most of the area of the Western Empire . While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today , the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again .
Roman calendar
In large part , this calendar continued unchanged under the Roman Empire . ( Egyptians used the related Alexandrian calendar , which Augustus had adapted from their wandering ancient calendar to maintain its alignment with Rome 's . ) A few emperors altered the names of the months after themselves or their family , but such changes were abandoned by their successors . Diocletian began the 15 - year indiction cycles beginning from the AD 297 census ; these became the required format for official dating under Justinian . Constantine formally established the 7 - day week by making Sunday an official holiday in 321 . Consular dating became obsolete following the abandonment of appointing nonimperial consuls in AD 541 . The Roman method of numbering the days of the month never became widespread in the Hellenized eastern provinces and was eventually abandoned by the Byzantine Empire in its calendar .
Western Roman Empire
Though gone in modern times , the Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire . Its authority even seems to have increased under the rule of Italy by Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths , evident by that the senate in 498 managed to install Symmachus as pope despite both Theodoric of Italy and emperor Anastasius supporting the other candidate , Laurentius . When exactly the senate disappeared is unclear , it is known that the institution remained into the sixth century as gifts from the senate were received by emperor Tiberius II in 578 and 580 in hope of aid against the invading Lombards . The traditional senate building , Curia Julia , was rebuilt into a church under pope Honorius I in 630 , probably with permission from the eastern emperor Heraclius .
Western Roman Empire
Maximian was elevated to caesar by Diocletian in 285 , after Diocletian defeated Carinus . He became Western Emperor in 286 , with the establishment of the Tetrarchy . On 1 May 305 , both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated , leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Relevant dates include 117 CE , when the Empire was at its greatest territorial extent , and the accession of Diocletian in 284 . Irreversible major territorial loss , however , began in 376 with a large - scale irruption of Goths and others . In 395 , after winning two destructive civil wars , Theodosius I died , leaving a collapsing field army and the Empire , still plagued by Goths , divided between the warring ministers of his two incapable sons . Further barbarians crossed the Rhine and other frontiers , and like the Goths were never killed , expelled or subjected . The armed forces of the Western Empire became few and ineffective , and despite brief recoveries under able leaders , central rule was never effectively consolidated . By 476 when Odoacer deposed the Emperor Romulus , the Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military , political , or financial power and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman . Barbarians had established their own power in most of the area of the Western Empire . While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today , the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again . The Eastern Empire survived , and though lessened in strength remained for centuries an effective power of the Eastern Mediterranean .
Macedonia (terminology)
With the exception of a short - lived division between Macedonia Prima in the south and Macedonia Salutaris in the north towards the end of the 4th century ( attested only in the Notitia Dignitatum ) , Macedonia formed a single province until re-divided into southern and northern parts sometime in the late 5th century ( the division is first securely attested in 482 ) , although the province seems to have been reunified by 535 . According to the 6th - century Synecdemus , Macedonia Prima , with Thessalonica as its capital and governed by a consularis , counted 32 cities , and Macedonia Secunda in the north , with Stobi as its capital and governed by a praeses , only eight . The approximate boundary between the two ran on a rough line from north of Bitola ( which belonged to Macedonia Prima ) to the area of Demir Kapija . Byzantine
Timeline of the Ottoman Empire
Year Date Event 1807 May Kabakçı Mustafa rebellion : Reformist sultan Selim III dethroned . 1808 July 21 Alemdar Mustafa Pasha suppresses the rebellion . But Selim III is dead and Mahmut II becomes the new sultan . 1813 April 23 Second Serbian Uprising : The Serbs revolt . 1821 Greek War of Independence : The Greek War of Independence begins . 1826 June 15 Auspicious Incident : centuries old Janissary corps forcibly disbanded after a rebellion against Mahmud II .
Ancient Egypt
In the fourth century , as the Roman Empire divided , Egypt found itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople . In the waning years of the Empire , Egypt fell to the Sassanid Persian army ( 618 - 628 AD ) , was recaptured by the Roman Emperor Heraclius ( 629 - 639 AD ) , and then was finally captured by Muslim Rashidun army in 639 - 640 AD , ending Roman rule .
Russian Orthodox Church
The year 1917 was a major turning point in Russian history , and also the Russian Orthodox Church . In early March 1917 ( O.S. ) , the Czar was forced to abdicate , the Russian empire began to implode , and the government ′ s direct control of the Church was all but over by August 1917 . On 15 August ( O.S. ) , in the Moscow Dormition Cathedral in the Kremlin , the Local ( Pomestniy ) Council of the ROC , the first such convention since the late 17th century , opened . The Council continued its sessions until September 1918 and adopted a number of important reforms , including the restoration of Patriarchy , a decision taken 3 days after the Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government in Petrograd on 25 October ( O.S. ) . On 5 November , Metropolitan Tikhon of Moscow was selected as the first Russian Patriarch after about 300 years of the Synodal rule .
Russian Orthodox Church
After Nazi Germany 's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941 , Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort . On September 4 , 1943 , Metropolitans Sergius ( Stragorodsky ) , Alexius ( Simansky ) and Nicholas ( Yarushevich ) had a meeting with Stalin and received a permission to convene a council on September 8 , 1943 , which elected Sergius Patriarch of Moscow and all the Rus ' . This is considered by some as violation of the XXX Apostolic canon , as no church hierarch could be consecrated by secular authorities . A new patriarch was elected , theological schools were opened , and thousands of churches began to function . The Moscow Theological Academy Seminary , which had been closed since 1918 , was re-opened .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Up until 1666 , when Patriarch Nikon was deposed by the tsar , the Russian Orthodox Church had been independent of the State . In 1721 the first Russian Emperor , Peter I abolished completely the patriarchate and so the Church effectively became a department of the government , ruled by a Most Holy Synod composed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the Emperor himself . From 1721 until the Bolsheviks ' October Revolution of 1917 , the Russian Orthodox Church was essentially transformed into a governmental agency , a tool used to various degrees by the tsars in the imperial campaigns of Russification . The Church was allowed by the State to levy taxes on the peasants . Therefore , the Church , along with the imperial regime , to which it belonged , came to be presented as an enemy of the people by the Bolsheviks and the other Russian revolutionaries .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Other councils have helped to define the Eastern Orthodox position , specifically the Quinisext Council , the Synods of Constantinople , 879 -- 880 , 1341 , 1347 , 1351 , 1583 , 1819 , and 1872 , the Synod of Jassy ( Iași ) , 1642 , and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem , 1672 ; the Pan-Orthodox Council , held in Greece in 2016 , was the only such Eastern Orthodox council in modern times .
Western Roman Empire
Honorius , the younger son of Theodosius I , was declared Augustus ( and as such co-emperor with his father ) on January 23 in 393 . Upon the death of Theodosius , Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East . The western capital was initially Mediolanum , as it had been during previous divisions , but it was moved to Ravenna in 402 upon the entrance of the visigothic king Alaric I into Italy . Ravenna , protected by abundant marshes and strong fortifications , was far easier to defend but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend central parts of Italy from the regular barbarian incursions . Ravenna would remain the western capital until the deposition of Romulus Augustus 74 years later and would later be used as the capital for both the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Exarchate of Ravenna .
Western Roman Empire
Meanwhile , pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius , the governor of Africa , induced the Vandals under their king Gaiseric to cross over from Spain in 429 . They temporarily halted in Numidia ( 435 ) before moving eastward . With Aetius occupied in Gaul , the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the Vandals conquering the wealthy African provinces , eventually culminating in the fall of Carthage on 19 October 439 and the establishment of the Vandalic Kingdom . By the 400s , Italy and Rome itself was dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces , leading to an economic crisis . With Vandal fleets becoming an increasingly constant danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean , Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440 , organizing a large army in Sicily .
History of the Roman Empire
By 258 , the Roman Empire broke up into three competing states . The Roman provinces of Gaul , Britain and Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire and , two years later in 260 , the eastern provinces of Syria , Palestine and Aegyptus became independent as the Palmyrene Empire , leaving the remaining Italian - centered Roman Empire - proper in the middle .
Russian Orthodox Church
Metropolitan Alexy ( Ridiger ) of Leningrad , ascended the patriarchal throne in 1990 and presided over the partial return of Orthodox Christianity to Russian society after 70 years of repression , transforming the ROC to something resembling its pre-communist appearance ; some 15,000 churches had been re-opened or built by the end of his tenure , and the process of recovery and rebuilding has continued under his successor Patriarch Kirill . According to figures released on March 2 , 2011 , the Church had 164 dioceses , 217 bishops , and 30,675 parishes served by 28,934 priests and 3,625 deacons . There were 805 monasteries and 30 theological schools .