vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Italian nationalism
Italy 's demands in the Paris peace settlement of 1919 were not fully achieved : Italy did attain Trentino , Trieste , the Istrian peninsula , and South Tyrol from Austria - Hungary , though other territories previously promised to Italy were not given to it . Benito
Third Rome
After Napoleon 's final defeat and the dissolution of his Empire in 1815 , no European ruler has claimed to revive the Roman Empire . The 19th century did , however , see the birth of the first pan-European movements , calling for a united Europe . This idea was popular among intellectuals , and the term `` United States of Europe '' became widespread , perhaps most famously used be Victor Hugo during his speech at the International Peace Conference 1847 :
Macedonia (terminology)
Historical Macedonia Ancient Macedon Roman Province Byzantine province ( approximate borders ) Ottoman period ( approximate ) Ancient Macedon : Approximate borders of the kingdom before its major expansion , c. 350 BC Roman province ( approximate borders of maximum extent ) . There was also a later diocese of Macedonia . Byzantine province : situated much further east than previous and later units ( approximate borders ) . Ottoman period : During the first four centuries of the Ottoman period , western scholars thought of Macedonia in terms of Greco - Roman geography . The Ottoman Empire did not have an administrative unit by that name . In the early 19th century , the definition of Macedonia by most scholars , approximately matched the contemporary region , with occasional variations .
Economic history of Italy
However , the diffusion of industrialisation that characterised the northwestern area of the country largely excluded Venetia and , especially , the South . The resulting Italian diaspora involved 29 million Italians ( 10.2 million of whom returned ) between 1860 - 1985 and 9 of them 1860 -- 1914 ; by many scholars it is considered the biggest mass migration of contemporary times . During the Great War , the still frail Italian state successfully fought a modern war , being able of arming and training some 5 million recruits . But this result came at a terrible cost : by the end of the war , Italy had lost 700,000 soldiers and had a ballooning sovereign debt amounting to billions of lira .
Axis powers
After the invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia , Italy annexed numerous Adriatic islands and a portion of Dalmatia that was formed into the Italian Governorship of Dalmatia including territory from the provinces of Spalato , Zara , and Cattaro . Though Italy had initially larger territorial aims that extended from the Velebit mountains to the Albanian Alps , Mussolini decided against annexing further territories due to a number of factors , including that Italy held the economically valuable portion of that territory within its possession while the northern Adriatic coast had no important railways or roads and because a larger annexation would have included hundreds of thousands of Slavs who were hostile to Italy , within its national borders . Mussolini and foreign minister Ciano demanded that the Yugoslav region of Slovenia to be directly annexed into Italy , however in negotiations with German foreign minister Ribbentrop in April 1941 , Ribbentrop insisted on Hitler 's demands that Germany be allocated the eastern Slovenia while Italy would be allocated western Slovenia , Italy conceded to this German demand and Slovenia was partitioned between Germany and Italy .
Republic
While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy , which were not monarchies , the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin . The term can quite literally be translated as `` public matter '' . It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government , even during the period of the Roman Empire .
Italian Empire
A wave of nationalism that swept Italy at the turn of the 20th century led to the founding of the Italian Nationalist Association , which pressed for the expansion of Italy 's empire . Newspapers were filled with talk of revenge for the humiliations suffered in Ethiopia at the end of the previous century , and of nostalgia for the Roman era . Libya , it was suggested , as an ex-Roman colony , should be `` taken back '' to provide a solution to the problems of Southern Italy 's population growth . Fearful of being excluded altogether from North Africa by Britain and France , and mindful of public opinion , Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti ordered the declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire , of which Libya was part , in October 1911 . As a result of the Italo - Turkish War , Italy gained Libya and the Dodecanese Islands .
Italian Empire
Outside Africa , Italy possessed the Dodecanese Islands off the coast of Turkey and a concession in Tianjin in China as a result of the Boxer Rebellion . During the First World War , Italy occupied southern Albania to prevent it from falling to Austria - Hungary . In 1917 , it established a protectorate over Albania , which remained in place until 1920 . The Fascist government that came to power with Benito Mussolini in 1922 sought to increase the size of the Italian empire and to satisfy the claims of Italian irredentists .
Italian nationalism
In particular , Italian nationalists were enraged by the Allies denying Italy the right to annex Fiume , that had a slight majority Italian population but was not included in Italy 's demands agreed with the Allies in 1915 , and a larger part of Dalmatia which had a vast majority Slavic population and an Italian minority , claiming that Italian annexation of large part of Dalmatia would violate Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points . D'Annunzio responded to this by mobilizing two thousand veterans of the war who seized Fiume by force ; this action was met with international condemnation of d'Annunzio's actions but was supported by a majority of Italians . Though d'Annunzio's government in Fiume was forced from power , Italy annexed Fiume a few years later .
Italian nationalism
The seizure of power by the Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini as Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and his development of a fascist totalitarian state in Italy involved appeal to Italian nationalism , advocating a Roman - like Italian Empire in the Mediterranean Sea . Mussolini sought to build closer relations with Germany and the United Kingdom while showing hostility towards France and Yugoslavia .
Macedonia (terminology)
The ancient Romans had two different entities called Macedonia , at different levels . Macedonia was established as a Roman province in 146 BC . Its boundaries were shifted from time to time for administrative convenience , but during the Roman Republic and the Principate it extended west to the Adriatic and south to Central Greece .
Macedonia (terminology)
These maps also differed somewhat in the boundaries given to Macedonia . Its only inarguable limits were the Aegean Sea and the Serbian and Bulgarian frontiers ( as of 1885 ) ; where it bordered Old Serbia , Albania , and Thrace ( all parts of Ottoman Rumelia ) was debatable .
History of the Roman Empire
Augustus created his novel and historically unique position by consolidating the constitutional powers of several Republican offices . He renounced his consulship in 23 BC , but retained his consular imperium , leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement . Augustus was granted the authority of a tribune ( tribunicia potestas ) , though not the title , which allowed him to call together the Senate and people at will and lay business before it , veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate , preside over elections , and it gave him the right to speak first at any meeting . Also included in Augustus 's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor ; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest , as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate . No tribune of Rome ever had these powers , and there was no precedent within the Roman system for consolidating the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position , nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor . Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority , or he simply assumed those , is a matter of debate .
Axis powers
Duce Benito Mussolini described Italy 's declaration of war against the Western Allies of Britain and France in June 1940 as the following : `` We are going to war against the plutocratic and reactionary democracies of the West who have invariably hindered the progress and often threatened the very existence of the Italian people '' . Italy condemned the Western powers for enacting sanctions on Italy in 1935 for its actions in the Second Italo - Ethiopian War that Italy claimed was a response to an act of Ethiopian aggression against tribesmen in Italian Eritrea in the Walwal incident of 1934 . Italy , like Germany , also justified its actions by claiming that Italy needed to territorially expand to provide spazio vitale ( `` vital space '' ) for the Italian nation .
Military history of Italy during World War II
Mussolini had the immediate war aim of expanding the Italian colonies in North Africa by taking land from the British and French colonies .
Axis powers
In the late 19th century , after Italian unification , a nationalist movement had grown around the concept of Italia irredenta , which advocated the incorporation into Italy of Italian - populated areas still under foreign rule . There was a desire to annex Dalmatian territories , which had formerly been ruled by the Venetians , and which consequently had Italian - speaking elites . The intention of the Fascist regime was to create a `` New Roman Empire '' in which Italy would dominate the Mediterranean . In 1935 -- 1936 Italy invaded and annexed Ethiopia and the Fascist government proclaimed the creation of the `` Italian Empire '' . Protests by the League of Nations , especially the British , who had interests in that area , led to no serious action , although The League did try to enforce economic sanctions upon Italy , but to no avail . The incident highlighted French and British weakness , exemplified by their reluctance to alienate Italy and lose her as their ally . The limited actions taken by the Western powers pushed Mussolini 's Italy towards alliance with Hitler 's Germany anyway . In 1937 Italy left the League of Nations and joined the Anti-Comintern Pact , which had been signed by Germany and Japan the preceding year . In March / April 1939 Italian troops invaded and annexed Albania . Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Steel on May 22 .
Italian Empire
Italy had long considered the Ottoman province of Tunisia , where a large community of Tunisian Italians lived , within its economic sphere of influence . It did not consider annexing it until 1879 , when it became apparent that Britain and Germany were encouraging France to add it to its colonial holdings in North Africa . A last minute offer by Italy to share Tunisia between the two countries was refused , and France , confident in German support , ordered its troops in from French Algeria , imposing a protectorate over Tunisia in May 1881 under the Treaty of Bardo . The shock of the `` Tunisian bombshell '' , as it was referred to in the Italian press , and the sense of Italy 's isolation in Europe , led it into signing the Triple Alliance in 1882 with Germany and Austria - Hungary . Italian
History of democracy
Rome became the ruler of a great Mediterranean empire . The new provinces brought wealth to Italy , and fortunes were made through mineral concessions and enormous slave run estates . Slaves were imported to Italy and wealthy landowners soon began to buy up and displace the original peasant farmers . By the late 2nd century this led to renewed conflict between the rich and poor and demands from the latter for reform of the constitution . The background of social unease and the inability of the traditional republican constitutions to adapt to the needs of the growing empire led to the rise of a series of over-mighty generals , championing the cause of either the rich or the poor , in the last century BCE . Transition
Ancient Roman architecture
Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early imperial period . For the most part , it concentrated on the semi-arid fringe of the empire , namely the provinces of North Africa , the Near East , and Hispania . The relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to more intensive field work there ; for Italy only the Subiaco Dams , created by emperor Nero ( 54 -- 68 AD ) for recreational purposes , are attested . These dams are noteworthy , though , for their extraordinary height , which remained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late Middle Ages .
Geography of Asia
There is no universally defined standard Asia . Traditional views are approximate at best . Even today borders are still being defined , as between Indonesia , Australia and Oceania . As long as conflict over territory remains a human trait there may well be `` an eastern question , '' as the British Empire said of the Ottoman Empire .
Edward Augustus Freeman
He urged that history not be divided `` by a middle wall of partition '' into ancient and modern , nor broken into fragments as though the history of each nation stood apart . He declared it more than a collection of narratives , deeming it a science , `` the science of man in his political character . '' Freeman asserted that the historical student should view all history as within his range , and have his own special range within which he masters every detail ( Rede Lecture ) .
Italian Empire
In 1915 , Italy agreed to enter World War I on the side of Britain and France ; and , in return , was guaranteed territory at the Treaty of London , both in Europe and , should Britain and France gain Germany 's African possessions , in Africa .
Italian Empire
Over the next two decades the pace of European acquisitions in Africa increased , causing the so - called `` Scramble for Africa '' . By the start of the First World War in 1914 , Italy had acquired in Africa a colony on the Red Sea coast ( Eritrea ) , a large protectorate in Somalia and authority in formerly Ottoman Libya ( gained after the Italo - Turkish War ) . Italy 's expansion inland from the Red Sea coast brought her into conflict with the Ethiopian Empire , which defeated her first at the battle of Dogali ( 1887 ) and again during first Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1895 -- 96 .
History of the Roman Empire
Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero 's excesses and the civil wars . To do this , he not only increased taxes , but created new forms of taxation . Also , through his power as censor , he was able to carefully examine the fiscal status of every city and province , many paying taxes based upon information and structures more than a century old . Through this sound fiscal policy , he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public works projects . It was he who first commissioned the Amphitheatrum Flavium ( Colosseum ) ; he also built a forum whose centrepiece was a temple to Peace . In addition , he allotted sizeable subsidies to the arts , and created a chair of rhetoric at Rome .
History of the Roman Empire
Attempting to secure the borders of the empire upon the rivers Danube and Elbe , Augustus ordered the invasions of Illyria , Moesia , and Pannonia ( south of the Danube ) , and Germania ( west of the Elbe ) . At first everything went as planned , but then disaster struck . The Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed , and three full legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by Germanic tribes led by Arminius . Being cautious , Augustus secured all territories west of Rhine and contented himself with retaliatory raids . The rivers Rhine and Danube became the permanent borders of the Roman empire in the North .
Axis powers
The term `` axis '' was first applied to the Italo - German relationship by the Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini in September 1923 , when he wrote in the preface to Roberto Suster 's Germania Repubblica that `` there is no doubt that in this moment the axis of European history passes through Berlin '' ( non v'ha dubbio che in questo momento l'asse della storia europea passa per Berlino ) . At the time he was seeking an alliance with the Weimar Republic against Yugoslavia and France in the dispute over the Free State of Fiume .
Military history of Italy during World War II
In November 1942 , the Italian Royal Army occupied south - eastern Vichy France and Corsica as part of Case Anton . From December 1942 , Italian military government of French departments east of the Rhône River was established , and continued until September 1943 , when Italy quit the war . This had the effect of providing a de facto temporary haven for French Jews fleeing the Holocaust . In January 1943 the Italians refused to cooperate with the Nazis in rounding up Jews living in the occupied zone of France under their control and in March prevented the Nazis from deporting Jews in their zone . German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop complained to Mussolini that `` Italian military circles ... lack a proper understanding of the Jewish question . ''
Military history of Italy during World War II
Winston Churchill had long regarded southern Europe as the military weak spot of the continent ( in World War I he had advocated the Dardanelles campaign , and during World War II he favoured the Balkans as an area of operations , for example in Greece in 1940 ) . Calling Italy the `` soft underbelly '' of the Axis , Churchill had therefore advocated this invasion instead of a cross-channel invasion of occupied France . But Italy itself proved anything but a soft target : the mountainous terrain gave Axis forces excellent defensive positions , and it also partly negated the Allied advantage in motorized and mechanized units . The final Allied victory over the Axis in Italy did not come until the spring offensive of 1945 , after Allied troops had breached the Gothic Line , leading to the surrender of German and RSI forces in Italy on 2 May shortly before Germany finally surrendered ending World War II in Europe on 8 May . Mussolini was captured and killed on 28 April 1945 by the Italian resistance while attempting to flee .
Axis powers
Once restored to power , Mussolini declared that Italy was a republic and that he was the new head of state . He was subject to German control for the duration of the war . Slovakia
Italian Empire
However , at the concluding Treaty of Versailles in 1919 , Italy received less in Europe than had been promised , and none overseas . In April 1920 , it was agreed between the British and Italian foreign ministers that Jubaland would be Italy 's compensation , but Britain held back on the deal for several years , aiming to use it as leverage to force Italy to cede the Dodecanese to Greece .
Axis powers
An April 1938 report by German Naval High Command ( OKM ) warned that Italy as a combatant ally would be a serious `` burden '' to Germany if a war between Germany and Britain occurred , and recommended that it would be preferable for Germany to seek for Italy to be a `` benevolent neutral '' during the war . On 18 March 1940 , Hitler told Mussolini in person that the war would be over by the summer and that Italy 's military involvement was not required .
Senate of the Roman Republic
The rules and procedures of the Roman Senate were both complex and ancient . Many of these rules and procedures originated in the early years of the Republic , and were upheld over the centuries under the principle of mos maiorum ( `` customs of the ancestors '' ) . While Senate meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city ( the pomerium ) , no meeting could take place more than a mile outside of the pomerium . Senate meetings might take place outside of the formal boundary of the city for several reasons . For example , the Senate might wish to meet with an individual , such as a foreign ambassador , whom they did not wish to allow inside the city .
Italian nationalism
After the unification of Italy was completed in 1870 , the Italian government faced domestic political paralysis and internal tensions , resulting in it resorting to embarking on a colonial policy to divert the Italian public 's attention from internal issues .
Western Roman Empire
Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance , and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation , rather than a fall .
Western Roman Empire
Justinian also undertook limited campaigns against the Visigoths , recovering portions of the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula . Here , the province of Spania would last until the 620s , when the Visigoths under king Suintila reconquered the southern coast . These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian . Only three years after his death , the Lombards invaded Italy . Through conquests of the devastated peninsula , the Lombards conquered large parts of Italy in the late 500s , establishing the Lombard Kingdom . The Lombards were in constant conflict with the Exarchate of Ravenna , a polity established to replace the old Praetorian Prefecture of Italy and enforcing Roman rule in Italy . The wealthiest parts of the province , including the cities of Rome and Ravenna , remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century . Map
Balkans
As time passed , the term gradually acquired political connotations far from its initial geographic meaning , arising from political changes from the late 19th - century to the creation of post -- World War I Yugoslavia ( initially the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ) . Zeune 's goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula , and seemingly nothing more . The gradually acquired political connotations are newer and , to a large extent , due to oscillating political circumstances .
Four continents
For Laurent 's French readers , Asia ended at `` our sea '' , the Mediterranean ; Europeans were only dimly aware of the Ural Mountains , which divide Europe from Asia in the eyes of the modern geographer , and which represent the geological suture between two fragmentary continents , or cratons . Instead , the division between these continents in the European - centered picture was the Hellespont , which neatly separated Europe from Asia . From the European perspective , into the Age of Discovery , Asia began beyond the Hellespont with Asia Minor , where the Roman province of Asia had lain , and stretched away to unimaginably exotic and distant places -- `` the Orient '' .
Citizenship
In the Roman Empire , citizenship expanded from small - scale communities to the entire empire . Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas . Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency , as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law . Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as the principles of equality under the law , civic participation in government , and notions that `` no one citizen should have too much power for too long '' , but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives , including chances for lesser forms of citizenship . If Greek citizenship was an `` emancipation from the world of things '' , the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens , in the sense of buying or selling property , possessions , titles , goods . One historian explained :