vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Of great symbolic importance for Ottoman centralization was the practice whereby Ottoman rulers would customarily stand upon hearing the sound of martial music , indicating their willingness to participate in gaza . Shortly after the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453 , Mehmed II discontinued this practice , indicating that the Ottoman ruler was no longer a simple frontier warrior , but the sovereign of an empire . The empire 's capital was shifted from Edirne , the city symbolically connected with the frontier warrior ethos of gaza , to Constantinople , a city with deeply imperial connotations due to its long history as the capital of the Byzantine Empire . This was seen , both symbolically and practically , as the moment of the empire 's definitive shift from a frontier principality into an empire .
Western Roman Empire
Theodosius I : 394 -- 395 ( Eastern Roman Emperor : 379 -- 394 , Sole Emperor : 392 -- 395 ) .
Byzantine Empire
The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih ( d . 911 ) ; in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the lyra ( lūrā ) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun ( organ ) , shilyani ( probably a type of harp or lyre ) and the salandj ( probably a bagpipe ) . The first of these , the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra , would come to be called the lira da braccio , in Venice , where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin , which later flourished there . The bowed `` lyra '' is still played in former Byzantine regions , where it is known as the Politiki lyra ( lit . `` lyra of the City '' i.e. Constantinople ) in Greece , the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy , and the Lijerica in Dalmatia . The second instrument , the organ , originated in the Hellenistic world ( see Hydraulis ) and was used in the Hippodrome during races . A pipe organ with `` great leaden pipes '' was sent by the emperor Constantine V to Pepin the Short , King of the Franks in 757 . Pepin 's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 , beginning its establishment in Western church music . The final Byzantine instrument , the aulos was a double reeded woodwind like the modern oboe or Armenian duduk . Other forms include the plagiaulos ( πλαγίαυλος , from πλάγιος `` sideways '' ) , which resembled the flute , and the askaulos ( ἀσκός askos -- wine - skin ) , a bagpipe . These bagpipes , also known as Dankiyo ( from ancient Greek : angion ( Τὸ ἀγγεῖον ) `` the container '' ) , had been played even in Roman times . Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign ( possibly Nero ) who could play a pipe ( tibia , Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos ) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit .
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine culture was , initially , the same as Late Greco - Roman , but over the following millennium of the empire 's existence it slowly changed into something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian culture . The cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco - Roman fish - sauce condiment garos , but it also contained foods still familiar today , such as the cured meat pastirma ( known as `` paston '' in Byzantine Greek ) , baklava ( known as koptoplakous κοπτοπλακοῦς ) , tiropita ( known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas ) , and the famed medieval sweet wines ( Commandaria and the eponymous Rumney wine ) . Retsina , wine flavored with pine resin , was also drunk , as it still is in Greece today , producing similar reactions from unfamiliar visitors ; `` To add to our calamity the Greek wine , on account of being mixed with pitch , resin , and plaster was to us undrinkable , '' complained Liutprand of Cremona , who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman Emperor Otto I . The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed ; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an `` exceedingly bad fish liquor . '' The Byzantines also used a soy sauce like condiment , murri , a fermented barley sauce , which , like soy sauce , provided umami flavoring to their dishes .
Byzantine Empire
The Empire of Nicaea , founded by the Laskarid dynasty , managed to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus . This led to a short - lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII Palaiologos , but the war - ravaged Empire was ill - equipped to deal with the enemies that now surrounded it . To maintain his campaigns against the Latins , Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry , causing much resentment . Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade , but none of these initiatives was of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
After two years without a Western Emperor , the Eastern court nominated Anthemius , a successful general who had a strong claim on the Eastern throne . He arrived in Italy with an army , supported by Marcellinus and his fleet ; he married his daughter to Ricimer , and he was proclaimed Augustus in 467 . In 468 , at vast expense , the Eastern empire assembled an enormous force to help the West retake the Diocese of Africa . Marcellinus rapidly drove the Vandals from Sardinia and Sicily , and a land invasion evicted them from Tripolitania . The commander in chief with the main force defeated a Vandal fleet near Sicily and landed at Cape Bon . Here Genseric offered to surrender , if he could have a five - day truce to prepare the process . He used the respite to prepare a full - scale attack preceded by fireships , which destroyed most of the Roman fleet and killed many of its soldiers . The Vandals were confirmed in their possession of the Diocese of Africa and they retook Sardinia and Sicily . Marcellinus was murdered , possibly on orders from Ricimer . The Praetorian prefect of Gaul , Arvandus , tried to persuade the new king of the Visigoths to rebel , on the grounds that Roman power in Gaul was finished anyway , but he refused .
Pope
The title `` Pope '' was from the early 3rd century an honorific designation used for any bishop in the West . In the East , it was used only for the Bishop of Alexandria . Pope Marcellinus ( d . 304 ) is the first Bishop of Rome shown in sources to have had the title `` Pope '' used of him . From the 6th century , the imperial chancery of Constantinople normally reserved this designation for the Bishop of Rome . From the early 6th century , it began to be confined in the West to the Bishop of Rome , a practice that was firmly in place by the 11th century , when Pope Gregory VII declared it reserved for the Bishop of Rome .
Primus inter pares
The Eastern Orthodox Church also uses the term `` first among equals '' in regard to the Bishop of Rome during the first thousand years of Christianity . Whereas the Patriarch of Constantinople is now considered first among the Orthodox patriarchs , the Orthodox Church considers the Bishop of Rome ( regarded as the `` Patriarch of the West '' ) the `` first among equals '' in the Pentarchy of the Patriarchal Sees according to the ancient , first millennial order ( or `` taxis '' in Greek ) of Rome , Constantinople , Alexandria , Antioch , and Jerusalem , established after Constantinople became the eastern capital of the Roman / Byzantine Empire . The Bishop of Rome no longer holds this distinction in the Orthodox Church because , following the East -- West Schism , he is no longer in communion with the Orthodox Church .
History of the Roman Empire
Although Vespasian was considered an autocrat by the Senate , he mostly continued the weakening of that body begun in the reign of Tiberius . The degree of the Senate 's subservience can be seen from the post-dating of his accession to power , by the Senate , to July 1 , when his troops proclaimed him emperor , instead of December 21 , when the Senate confirmed his appointment . Another example was his assumption of the censorship in 73 , giving him power over the make up of the Senate . He used that power to expel dissident senators . At the same time , he increased the number of senators from 200 ( at that low level because of the actions of Nero and the year of crisis that followed ) , to 1,000 ; most of the new senators came not from Rome but from Italy and the urban centres within the western provinces . Vespasian
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Theodosius 's financial position must have been difficult , since he had to pay for expensive campaigning from a reduced tax base . The business of subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts of precious metal . Nevertheless , he is represented as financially lavish , though personally frugal when on campaign . At least one extra levy provoked desperation and rioting in which the emperor 's statues were destroyed . He was pious , a Nicene Christian heavily influenced by Ambrose , and implacable against heretics . In 392 he forbade even private honor to the gods , and pagan rituals such as the Olympic Games . He either ordered or connived at the widespread destruction of sacred buildings .
Byzantine Empire
After Manzikert , a partial recovery ( referred to as the Komnenian restoration ) was made possible by the Komnenian dynasty . The first Komnenian emperor was Isaac I ( 1057 -- 1059 ) , after which the Doukas dynasty held power ( 1059 -- 81 ) . The Komnenoi attained power again under Alexios I in 1081 . From the outset of his reign , Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto , who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu , and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly . Robert Guiscard 's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem . The following year , the Seljuq sultan died , and the sultanate was split by internal rivalries . By his own efforts , Alexios defeated the Pechenegs ; they were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091 .
History of the Roman Empire
Julian would serve as the sole Emperor for two years . He had received his baptism as a Christian years before , but no longer considered himself one . His reign would see the ending of restrictions and violence against paganism introduced by his uncle and father - in - law Constantine I and his cousins and brothers - in - law Constantine II , Constans and Constantius II . He instead placed similar restrictions on Christianity , and some unofficial violence against Christians occurred . His edict of toleration in 362 ordered the reopening of pagan temples and the reinstitution of alienated temple properties , and , more problematically for the Christian Church , the recalling of previously exiled Christian bishops . Returning Orthodox and Arian bishops resumed their conflicts , thus further weakening the Church as a whole .
Third Rome
After the Holy Roman Empire was dismantled in 1806 , the Austrian Empire sought to lay claim as the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria 's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule . Later the German Empire in 1871 also claimed to be the Third Rome , also through lineage of the HRE . The title for emperors of the Holy Roman Empire , the Austrian Empire and the German Empire was Kaiser ( derived from Latin Caesar ) , the German word for emperor .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under Trajan ( emperor 98 -- 117 ) , who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from Armenia to the Atlantic . The Empire had large numbers of trained , supplied , and disciplined soldiers , as well as a comprehensive civil administration based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances . Among its literate elite it had ideological legitimacy as the only worthwhile form of civilization and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric . The Empire 's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status ( including slavery on a large scale ) , and its wide - ranging trade networks permitted even modest households to use goods made by professionals far away .
Western Roman Empire
Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric 's men , and both tried to use Alaric against the other half . Alaric himself tried to establish a long - term territorial and official base , but was never able to do so . Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control , but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and the Vandals , Alans , and Suevi invaded Gaul in large numbers . Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408 . While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation , the West began to collapse entirely . Alaric 's men sacked Rome in 410 .
History of the Roman Empire
But he did not stop there . In 116 , he captured the great city of Susa . He deposed the Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne . Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east . During his rule , the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent ; it was quite possible for a Roman to travel from Britain to the Persian Gulf without leaving Roman territory .
Balkans
From classical antiquity through the Middle Ages , the Balkan Mountains were called by the local Thracian name Haemus . According to Greek mythology , the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment and the mountain has remained with his name . A reverse name scheme has also been suggested . D. Dechev considers that Haemus ( Αἷμος ) is derived from a Thracian word * saimon , ' mountain ridge ' . A third possibility is that `` Haemus '' ( Αἵμος ) derives from the Greek word `` haema '' ( αἷμα ) meaning ' blood ' . The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster / titan Typhon . Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhon 's blood fell on the mountains , from which they got their name . Late
Byzantine law
Byzantium inherited its main political , cultural and social institutions from Rome . Similarly , Roman law constituted the basis for the Byzantine legal system . For many centuries , the two great codifications of Roman law , carried out by Theodosius II and Justinian respectively , were the cornerstones of Byzantine legislation . Of course , over the years these Roman codes were adjusted to the current circumstances , and then replaced by new codifications , written in Greek . However , the influence of Roman law persisted , and it is obvious in codifications , such as Basilika , which was based on Corpus Juris Civilis . In the 11th century , Michael Psellos prides himself for being acquainted with the Roman legal legacy ( `` Ἰταλῶν σοφία '' ) .
Byzantine Empire
The withdrawal of large numbers of troops from the Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion of Slavic peoples into the peninsula , and , as in Asia Minor , many cities shrank to small fortified settlements . In the 670s , the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube by the arrival of the Khazars . In 680 , Byzantine forces sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated .
Byzantine Empire
The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world , with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans , now lost to Byzantium , as well as in Caucasus , Russia and Lithuania . The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire .
Western Roman Empire
Constans was proclaimed emperor of Italy and Africa in 337 , after the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340 , while attempting to invade Constans ' territory in Italy , Constans took control of the entire Western Empire . Constans was contemptuous of his army , who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350 . Constans fled toward Hispania , but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border .
Western Roman Empire
Despite the fall , or abolition , of the Western Empire , many of the new Barbarian kings of Western Europe continued to operate firmly within a Roman administrative framework . This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths , who came to rule Italy after Odoacer . They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer 's kingdom , essentially those of the Western Roman Empire , and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans . The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population , though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws . Western Roman administrative institutions , in particular those of Italy , thus continued to be used during `` barbarian '' rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire re-conquered some of the formerly imperial territories . Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolishment of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units , such as the Praetorian prefecture of Italy , during the sixth century as the `` true '' fall of the Western Roman Empire .
Byzantine Empire
In 532 , attempting to secure his eastern frontier , Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids . In the same year , he survived a revolt in Constantinople ( the Nika riots ) , which solidified his power but ended with the deaths of a reported 30,000 to 35,000 rioters on his orders . The western conquests began in 533 , as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage . Their success came with surprising ease , but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued . In Ostrogothic Italy , the deaths of Theodoric , his nephew and heir Athalaric , and his daughter Amalasuntha had left her murderer , Theodahad ( r . 534 -- 536 ) , on the throne despite his weakened authority .
New Year
The early development of the Christian liturgical year coincided with the Roman Empire ( east and west ) , and later the Byzantine Empire , both of which employed a taxation system labeled the Indiction , the years for which began on September 1 . This timing may account for the ancient church 's establishment of September 1 as the beginning of the liturgical year , despite the official Roman New Year 's Day of January 1 in the Julian calendar , because the indiction was the principal means for counting years in the empires , apart from the reigns of the Emperors . The September 1 date prevailed throughout all of Christendom for many centuries , until subsequent divisions eventually produced revisions in some places .
History of the Roman Empire
After 395 , the emperors in the Western Roman Empire were usually figureheads , while the actual rulers were military strongmen who took the title of magister militum , patrician or both -- Stilicho from 395 to 408 , Constantius from about 411 to 421 , Aëtius from 433 to 454 and Ricimer from about 457 to 472 . The year 476 is generally accepted as the formal end of the Western Roman Empire . That year , Orestes refused the request of Germanic mercenaries in his service for lands in Italy . The dissatisfied mercenaries , including the Heruli , revolted . The revolt was led by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer . Odoacer and his men captured and executed Orestes . Within weeks , Ravenna was captured and Romulus Augustus was deposed . This event has been traditionally considered the fall of the Roman Empire in the West . Odoacer quickly conquered the remaining provinces of Italy .
Byzantine law
Byzantine law was essentially a continuation of Roman law with increased Christian influence . Most sources define Byzantine law as the Roman legal traditions starting after the reign of Justinian I in the 6th century and ending with the Fall of Constantinople in the 15th century .
Byzantine Empire
In the 8th and 9th centuries , civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status , but , starting in the 9th century , the civil aristocracy was rivalled by an aristocracy of nobility . According to some studies of Byzantine government , 11th - century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy . During this period , Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms , including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices .
Western Roman Empire
Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth king Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy , Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy , ancient heartland of the Empire . From 534 to 540 , the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna , the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital , in 540 . The Gothic resistance revived under king Totila in 541 , and they were only defeated following campaigns by the Roman general Narses , who also repelled invasions into Italy by the Franks and Alemanni . Justinian promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction to reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule , though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s . The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated , which combined with the disastrous effects of the Plague of Justinian made it difficult to retain over the following centuries .
New Testament
Increasing standardization of distinct ( and once local ) text - types eventually gave rise to the Byzantine text - type . Since most manuscripts of the New Testament do not derive from the first several centuries , that is , they were copied after the rise of the Byzantine text - type , this form of text is found the majority of extant manuscripts and is therefore often called the `` Majority Text . '' As with all of the other ( earlier ) text - types , the Byzantine can also occasionally preserve early readings .
Byzantine Empire
Bulgarian resistance revived under the rule of the Cometopuli dynasty , but the new emperor Basil II ( r . 976 -- 1025 ) made the submission of the Bulgarians his primary goal . Basil 's first expedition against Bulgaria , however , resulted in a humiliating defeat at the Gates of Trajan . For the next few years , the emperor would be preoccupied with internal revolts in Anatolia , while the Bulgarians expanded their realm in the Balkans . The war dragged on for nearly twenty years . The Byzantine victories of Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened the Bulgarian army , and in annual campaigns , Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds . At the Battle of Kleidion in 1014 the Bulgarians were annihilated : their army was captured , and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded , with the hundredth man left with one eye so he could lead his compatriots home . When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his once formidable army , he died of shock . By 1018 , the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered , and the country became part of the Empire . This victory restored the Danube frontier , which had not been held since the days of the emperor Heraclius . Relations
Western Roman Empire
Constantine II was proclaimed caesar of the Eastern Empire in late 317 . In 335 , Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death , which would take place two years later in 337 , giving Constantine II control of Gaul , Britannia and Hispania . Constantine II 's relationship with Constans I was tense , and in 340 , Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it . However , in the same year , he was ambushed by Constans ' forces in Aquilea , and was killed .