vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Virus
Plant virus particles or virus - like particles ( VLPs ) have applications in both biotechnology and nanotechnology . The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures and can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by expression in a variety of heterologous systems . Plant virus particles can be modified genetically and chemically to encapsulate foreign material and can be incorporated into supramolecular structures for use in biotechnology .
Pizza cheese
In some instances , the production of analogue pizza cheese can be similar to the production of cream cheese , although production may be different and homogenization may be avoided . In some varieties , the product is heated to remain at a specific temperature and for a specific amount of time , which causes the proteins in the mix to gelatinize . During this process , salts in the mix serve to emulsify it and thus improve the meltability of the final product . The heated product is then placed in packaging such as bags - in - boxes while still hot , as it is more easily handled in this state compared to when in a solid state . During packaging , these types of pizza cheeses are then quick - cooled to avoid browning of the product , which can occur vis - a-vis the Maillard reaction .
Political campaign
A campaign team ( which may be as small as one inspired individual , or a heavily resourced group of professionals ) must consider how to communicate the message of the campaign , recruit volunteers , and raise money . Campaign advertising draws on techniques from commercial advertising and propaganda , a mixture also dubbed politainment . The avenues available to political campaigns when distributing their messages is limited by the law , available resources , and the imagination of the campaigns ' participants . These techniques are often combined into a formal strategy known as the campaign plan . The plan takes account of a campaign 's goal , message , target audience , and resources available . The campaign will typically seek to identify supporters at the same time as getting its message across .
Endomembrane system
Many types of cells export proteins produced by ribosomes attached to the rough ER . The ribosomes assemble amino acids into protein units , which are carried into the rough ER for further adjustments . These proteins may be either transmembrane proteins , which become embedded in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum , or water - soluble proteins , which are able to pass through the membrane into the lumen . Those that reach the inside of the endoplasmic reticulum are folded into the correct three - dimensional conformation . Chemicals , such as carbohydrates or sugars , are added , then the endoplasmic reticulum either transports the completed proteins , called secretory proteins , to areas of the cell where they are needed , or they are sent to the Golgi apparatus for further processing and modification .
Magic in Harry Potter
To create a horcrux , a witch or wizard must first prepare the chosen object in a ritual which is referred to only as `` too horrible to go into detail about '' . Following the preparation of the object , the witch or wizard must then take a life , an act which splits the soul . Following that , further dark rituals are required in order to remove the soul shard from the maker and place it into the prepared object . Once this is done , the Horcrux becomes impervious to almost all forms of destruction , requiring extremely powerful magic or substances to do so .
Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current . The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off . Electromagnets usually consist of insulated wire wound into a coil . A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the hole in the center of the coil . The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron ; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet .
Endomembrane system
In addition to making secretory proteins , the rough ER makes membranes that grows in place from the addition of proteins and phospholipids . As polypeptides intended to be membrane proteins grow from the ribosomes , they are inserted into the ER membrane itself and are kept there by their hydrophobic portions . The rough ER also produces its own membrane phospholipids ; enzymes built into the ER membrane assemble phospholipids . The ER membrane expands and can be transferred by transport vesicles to other components of the endomembrane system .
Maple syrup
Maple syrup is a syrup usually made from the xylem sap of sugar maple , red maple , or black maple trees , although it can also be made from other maple species . In cold climates , these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before winter ; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring . Maple trees are tapped by drilling holes into their trunks and collecting the exuded sap , which is processed by heating to evaporate much of the water , leaving the concentrated syrup .
Vector (molecular biology)
Plasmids are double - stranded and generally circular DNA sequences that are capable of automatically replicating in a host cell . Plasmid vectors minimalistically consist of an origin of replication that allows for semi-independent replication of the plasmid in the host . Plasmids are found widely in many bacteria , for example in Escherichia coli , but may also be found in a few eukaryotes , for example in yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Bacterial plasmids may be conjugative / transmissible and non-conjugative :
Oncogene
Growth factors are usually secreted by either specialized or non-specialized cells to induce cell proliferation in themselves , nearby cells , or distant cells . An oncogene may cause a cell to secrete growth factors even though it does not normally do so . It will thereby induce its own uncontrolled proliferation ( autocrine loop ) , and proliferation of neighboring cells , possibly leading to tumor formation . It may also cause production of growth hormones in other parts of the body . Receptor tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to other proteins in order to turn them on or off . Receptor kinases add phosphate groups to receptor proteins at the surface of the cell ( which receives protein signals from outside the cell and transmits them to the inside of the cell ) . Tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to the amino acid tyrosine in the target protein . They can cause cancer by turning the receptor permanently on ( constitutively ) , even without signals from outside the cell . Ras is a small GTPase that hydrolyses GTP into GDP and phosphate . Ras is activated by growth factor signaling ( i.e. , EGF , TGFbeta ) and acting like a binary switch ( on / off ) in growth signaling pathways . Downstream effectors of Ras include three mitogen - activated protein kinases Raf a MAP Kinase Kinase Kinase ( MAPKKK ) , MEK a MAP Kinase Kinase ( MAPKK ) , and ERK a MAP Kinase ( MAPK ) , which in turn regulate genes that mediate cell proliferation .
Bacterial conjugation
The Ti and Ri plasmids can also be transferred between bacteria using a system ( the tra , or transfer , operon ) that is different and independent of the system used for inter-kingdom transfer ( the vir , or virulence , operon ) . Such transfers create virulent strains from previously avirulent strains .
Plant breeding
The construct can be inserted in the plant genome by genetic recombination using the bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens or A. rhizogenes , or by direct methods like the gene gun or microinjection . Using plant viruses to insert genetic constructs into plants is also a possibility , but the technique is limited by the host range of the virus . For example , Cauliflower mosaic virus ( CaMV ) only infects cauliflower and related species . Another limitation of viral vectors is that the virus is not usually passed on the progeny , so every plant has to be inoculated .
Collagen
A single collagen molecule , tropocollagen , is used to make up larger collagen aggregates , such as fibrils . It is approximately 300 nm long and 1.5 nm in diameter , and it is made up of three polypeptide strands ( called alpha peptides , see step 2 ) , each of which has the conformation of a left - handed helix -- this should not be confused with the right - handed alpha helix . These three left - handed helices are twisted together into a right - handed triple helix or `` super helix '' , a cooperative quaternary structure stabilized by many hydrogen bonds . With type I collagen and possibly all fibrillar collagens , if not all collagens , each triple - helix associates into a right - handed super-super - coil referred to as the collagen microfibril . Each microfibril is interdigitated with its neighboring microfibrils to a degree that might suggest they are individually unstable , although within collagen fibrils , they are so well ordered as to be crystalline . Three
Passive transport
Facilitated diffusion , also called carrier - mediated osmosis , is the movement of molecules across the cell membrane via special transport proteins that are embedded within the cellular membrane . Large , insoluble molecules , such as glucose , vesicles and proteins require a carrier molecule to move through the plasma membrane . Therefore , it will bind with its specific carrier proteins , and the complex will then be bonded to a receptor site and moved through the cellular membrane . Facilitated diffusion is a passive process : the solutes move down their concentration gradient and do not require the expenditure of cellular energy for this process . Carrier proteins and channel proteins allow for the diffusion of molecules across the cell membrane . Carrier proteins undergo conformational alterations to allow molecules to pass , while channel proteins form unblocked pores .
Virus
RNA viruses Replication usually takes place in the cytoplasm . RNA viruses can be placed into four different groups depending on their modes of replication . The polarity ( whether or not it can be used directly by ribosomes to make proteins ) of single - stranded RNA viruses largely determines the replicative mechanism ; the other major criterion is whether the genetic material is single - stranded or double - stranded . All RNA viruses use their own RNA replicase enzymes to create copies of their genomes .
Fermentation
Although yeast carries out the fermentation in the production of ethanol in beers , wines , and other alcoholic drinks , this is not the only possible agent : bacteria carry out the fermentation in the production of xanthan gum , while mammalian muscle carries out the fermentation that occurs during periods of intense exercise where oxygen supply becomes limited , resulting in the creation of lactic acid .
Stem cell
However , reprogramming allows for the creation of pluripotent cells , induced pluripotent stem cells , from adult cells . It is important to note that these are not adult stem cells , but adult cells ( e.g. epithelial cells ) reprogrammed to give rise to cells with pluripotent capabilities . Using genetic reprogramming with protein transcription factors , pluripotent stem cells with ESC - like capabilities have been derived . The first demonstration of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells was conducted by Shinya Yamanaka and his colleagues at Kyoto University . They used the transcription factors Oct3 / 4 , Sox2 , c - Myc , and Klf4 to reprogram mouse fibroblast cells into pluripotent cells . Subsequent work used these factors to induce pluripotency in human fibroblast cells . Junying Yu , James Thomson , and their colleagues at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison used a different set of factors , Oct4 , Sox2 , Nanog and Lin28 , and carried out their experiments using cells from human foreskin . However , they were able to replicate Yamanaka 's finding that inducing pluripotency in human cells was possible .
Insulin
The primary structure of bovine insulin was first determined by Frederick Sanger in 1951 . After that , this polypeptide was synthesized independently by several groups . The 3 - dimensional structure of insulin was determined by X-ray crystallography in Dorothy Hodgkin 's laboratory in 1969 ( PDB file 1ins ) .
Nutella
The label states that Nutella does not need to be refrigerated . This is because the large quantity of sugar in the product acts as a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms . More specifically , the sugar acts as a preservative by binding the water in the product , which prevents the microorganisms from growing . Refrigeration causes Nutella to harden because it contains fats from the hazelnuts . When nut fats are placed in cold temperatures they become too hard to spread . Hazelnuts contain almost 91 percent monounsaturated fat , which are known to be liquid at room temperature and solidify at refrigerator temperatures . Room temperature allows the product to have a smooth and spreadable consistency because the monounsaturated oils from the hazelnut are liquid at this state . In addition , the palm oil used in Nutella does not require refrigeration because it contains high amounts of saturated fat and resists becoming rancid . The remaining ingredients in Nutella , such as cocoa , skimmed milk powder , soy lecithin , and vanillin , also do not require refrigeration .
Testosterone
In 1927 , the University of Chicago 's Professor of Physiologic Chemistry , Fred C. Koch , established easy access to a large source of bovine testicles -- the Chicago stockyards -- and recruited students willing to endure the tedious work of extracting their isolates . In that year , Koch and his student , Lemuel McGee , derived 20 mg of a substance from a supply of 40 pounds of bovine testicles that , when administered to castrated roosters , pigs and rats , remasculinized them . The group of Ernst Laqueur at the University of Amsterdam purified testosterone from bovine testicles in a similar manner in 1934 , but isolation of the hormone from animal tissues in amounts permitting serious study in humans was not feasible until three European pharmaceutical giants -- Schering ( Berlin , Germany ) , Organon ( Oss , Netherlands ) and Ciba ( Basel , Switzerland ) -- began full - scale steroid research and development programs in the 1930s . Nobel
Glow stick
By adjusting the concentrations of the two chemicals , manufacturers can produce glow sticks that either glow brightly for a short amount of time or more dimly for an extended length of time . This also allows design of glow sticks that perform satisfactorily in hot or cold climates , by compensating for the temperature dependence of reaction . At maximum concentration ( typically only found in laboratory settings ) , mixing the chemicals results in a furious reaction , producing large amounts of light for only a few seconds . Heating a glow stick also causes the reaction to proceed faster and the glow stick to glow more brightly for a brief period . Cooling a glow stick slows the reaction a small amount and causes it to last longer , but the light is dimmer . This can be demonstrated by refrigerating or freezing an active glow stick ; when it warms up again , it will resume glowing . The dyes used in glow sticks usually exhibit fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet radiation -- even a spent glow stick may therefore shine under a black light .
Precursor mRNA
Eukaryotic pre-mRNA exists only briefly before it is fully processed into mRNA . Pre-mRNAs are built from 5'UTRs ( directly upstream from the initiation codon ) , different number of exons and introns and 3'UTRs which immediately follows the translation termination codon . Exons are segments that are retained in the final mRNA , whereas introns are removed in a process called splicing , which is performed by the spliceosome ( except for self - splicing introns ) .
Collagen
In scurvy , the lack of hydroxylation of prolines and lysines causes a looser triple helix ( which is formed by three alpha peptides ) . Glycosylation occurs by adding either glucose or galactose monomers onto the hydroxyl groups that were placed onto lysines , but not on prolines . Once these modifications have taken place , three of the hydroxylated and glycosylated propeptides twist into a triple helix forming procollagen . Procollagen still has unwound ends , which will be later trimmed . At this point , the procollagen is packaged into a transfer vesicle destined for the Golgi apparatus . Golgi apparatus modification : In the Golgi apparatus , the procollagen goes through one last post-translational modification before being secreted out of the cell . In this step , oligosaccharides ( not monosaccharides as in step 3 ) are added , and then the procollagen is packaged into a secretory vesicle destined for the extracellular space . Formation of tropocollagen : Once outside the cell , membrane bound enzymes known as ' collagen peptidases ' , remove the `` loose ends '' of the procollagen molecule . What is left is known as tropocollagen . Defects in this step produce one of the many collagenopathies known as Ehlers - Danlos syndrome . This step is absent when synthesizing type III , a type of fibrilar collagen . Formation of the collagen fibril : lysyl oxidase , an extracellular copper - dependent enzyme , produces the final step in the collagen synthesis pathway . This enzyme acts on lysines and hydroxylysines producing aldehyde groups , which will eventually undergo covalent bonding between tropocollagen molecules . This polymer of tropocollogen is known as a collagen fibril . Action
Germ theory of disease
Pasteur further demonstrated between 1860 and 1864 that fermentation and the growth of microorganisms in nutrient broths did not proceed by spontaneous generation . He exposed freshly boiled broth to air in vessels that contained a filter to stop all particles passing through to the growth medium , and even with no filter at all , with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not pass dust particles . Nothing grew in the broths : therefore the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside , as spores on dust , rather than being generated within the broth .
Insulin
Insulin consists of two polypeptide chains , the A - and B - chains , linked together by disulfide bonds . It is however first synthesized as a single polypeptide called preproinsulin in beta cells . Preproinsulin contains a 24 - residue signal peptide which directs the nascent polypeptide chain to the rough endoplasmic reticulum ( RER ) . The signal peptide is cleaved as the polypeptide is translocated into lumen of the RER , forming proinsulin . In the RER the proinsulin folds into the correct conformation and 3 disulfide bonds are formed . About 5 -- 10 min after its assembly in the endoplasmic reticulum , proinsulin is transported to the trans - Golgi network ( TGN ) where immature granules are formed . Transport to the TGN may take about 30 min .
Cracked nipple
The nipples of nursing mothers naturally make a lubricant to prevent drying , cracking , or infections . Cracked nipples may be able to be prevented by :
Siege
The shells ( phao ) are made of cast iron , as large as a bowl and shaped like a ball . Inside they contain half a pound of ' magic ' gunpowder ( shen huo ) . They are sent flying towards the enemy camp from an eruptor ( mu phao ) ; and when they get there a sound like a thunder - clap is heard , and flashes of light appear . If ten of these shells are fired successfully into the enemy camp , the whole place will be set ablaze ...
Post-transcriptional modification
Post-transcriptional modification or Co-transcriptional modification is the process in eukaryotic cells where primary transcript RNA is converted into mature RNA . A notable example is the conversion of precursor messenger RNA into mature messenger RNA ( mRNA ) that occurs prior to protein translation . The process includes three major steps : addition of a 5 ' cap , addition of a 3 ' poly - adenylation tail , and splicing . This process is vital for the correct translation of the genomes of eukaryotes because the initial precursor mRNA produced during transcription contains both exons ( coding or important sequences involved in translation ) , and introns ( non-coding sequences ) .
DNA replication
DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3 ' end of an existing nucleotide chain , adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds . The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high - energy phosphate ( phosphoanhydride ) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base . Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides ; in particular , bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates . When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand , the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high - energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphates as a pyrophosphate . Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high - energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible .
Xenon
Liquid or solid xenon nanoparticles can be formed at room temperature by implanting Xe ions into a solid matrix . Many solids have lattice constants smaller than solid Xe . This results in compression of the implanted Xe to pressures that may be sufficient for its liquefaction or solidification .
Cell nucleus
The most controversial model , known as viral eukaryogenesis , posits that the membrane - bound nucleus , along with other eukaryotic features , originated from the infection of a prokaryote by a virus . The suggestion is based on similarities between eukaryotes and viruses such as linear DNA strands , mRNA capping , and tight binding to proteins ( analogizing histones to viral envelopes ) . One version of the proposal suggests that the nucleus evolved in concert with phagocytosis to form an early cellular `` predator '' . Another variant proposes that eukaryotes originated from early archaea infected by poxviruses , on the basis of observed similarity between the DNA polymerases in modern poxviruses and eukaryotes . It has been suggested that the unresolved question of the evolution of sex could be related to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis .
Insulin
Purified animal - sourced insulin was initially the only type of insulin available to diabetics . The amino acid structure of insulin was characterized in the early 1950s by Frederick Sanger , and the first synthetic insulin was produced simultaneously in the labs of Panayotis Katsoyannis at the University of Pittsburgh and Helmut Zahn at RWTH Aachen University in the early 1960s . Synthetic crystalline bovine insulin was achieved by Chinese researchers in 1965 .
Mars, Incorporated
From May 1 , 2007 , many Mars products made in the UK became unsuitable for vegetarians . The company announced that it would be using whey made with animal rennet ( material from a calf 's stomach lining , and a byproduct of veal ) , instead of using rennet made by microorganisms , in products including Mars , Twix , Snickers , Maltesers , Bounty , Minstrels and Milky Way . The response from many consumers , particularly the Vegetarian Society 's request for UK vegetarians to register their protests with Mars , generated extensive press and caused the company to abandon the plans shortly thereafter . Mars switched to all - vegetarian sources in the UK .