vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Apoptosis
Many knock - outs have been made in the apoptosis pathways to test the function of each of the proteins . Several caspases , in addition to APAF - 1 and FADD , have been mutated to determine the new phenotype . In order to create a tumor necrosis factor ( TNF ) knockout , an exon containing the nucleotides 3704 -- 5364 was removed from the gene . This exon encodes a portion of the mature TNF domain , as well as the leader sequence , which is a highly conserved region necessary for proper intracellular processing . TNF - / - mice develop normally and have no gross structural or morphological abnormalities . However , upon immunization with SRBC ( sheep red blood cells ) , these mice demonstrated a deficiency in the maturation of an antibody response ; they were able to generate normal levels of IgM , but could not develop specific IgG levels . Apaf - 1 is the protein that turns on caspase 9 by cleavage to begin the caspase cascade that leads to apoptosis . Since a - / - mutation in the APAF - 1 gene is embryonic lethal , a gene trap strategy was used in order to generate an APAF - 1 - / - mouse . This assay is used to disrupt gene function by creating an intragenic gene fusion . When an APAF - 1 gene trap is introduced into cells , many morphological changes occur , such as spina bifida , the persistence of interdigital webs , and open brain . In addition , after embryonic day 12.5 , the brain of the embryos showed several structural changes . APAF - 1 cells are protected from apoptosis stimuli such as irradiation . A BAX - 1 knock - out mouse exhibits normal forebrain formation and a decreased programmed cell death in some neuronal populations and in the spinal cord , leading to an increase in motor neurons .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
PID can cause scarring inside the reproductive system , which can later cause serious complications , including chronic pelvic pain , infertility , ectopic pregnancy ( the leading cause of pregnancy - related deaths in adult females ) , and other complications of pregnancy . Occasionally , the infection can spread to in the peritoneum causing inflammation and the formation of scar tissue on the external surface of the liver ( Fitz - Hugh -- Curtis syndrome ) .
Myocardial infarction
Play media Poor movement of the heart due to an MI as seen on ultrasound Play media Pulmonary edema due to an MI as seen on ultrasound
Anemia
Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia overall and it has many causes . RBCs often appear hypochromic ( paler than usual ) and microcytic ( smaller than usual ) when viewed with a microscope .
White blood cell
They primarily deal with parasitic infections . Eosinophils are also the predominant inflammatory cells in allergic reactions . The most important causes of eosinophilia include allergies such as asthma , hay fever , and hives ; and also parasitic infections . They secrete chemicals that destroy these large parasites , such as hook worms and tapeworms , that are too big for any one WBC to phagocytize . In general , their nucleus is bi-lobed . The lobes are connected by a thin strand . The cytoplasm is full of granules that assume a characteristic pink - orange color with eosin staining .
Anemia
Certain groups of individuals , such as pregnant women , benefit from the use of iron pills for prevention . Dietary supplementation , without determining the specific cause , is not recommended . The use of blood transfusions is typically based on a person 's signs and symptoms . In those without symptoms , they are not recommended unless hemoglobin levels are less than 60 to 80 g / L ( 6 to 8 g / dL ) . These recommendations may also apply to some people with acute bleeding . Erythropoiesis - stimulating medications are only recommended in those with severe anemia .
Apoptosis
A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a series of characteristic morphological changes . Early alterations include :
Genetic recombination
During both mitosis and meiosis , DNA damages caused by a variety of exogenous agents ( e.g. UV light , X-rays , chemical cross-linking agents ) can be repaired by homologous recombinational repair ( HRR ) . These findings suggest that DNA damages arising from natural processes , such as exposure to reactive oxygen species that are byproducts of normal metabolism , are also repaired by HRR . In humans and rodents , deficiencies in the gene products necessary for HRR during meiosis cause infertility . In humans , deficiencies in gene products necessary for HRR , such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 , increase the risk of cancer ( see DNA repair - deficiency disorder ) .
Lead poisoning
Kidney damage occurs with exposure to high levels of lead , and evidence suggests that lower levels can damage kidneys as well . The toxic effect of lead causes nephropathy and may cause Fanconi syndrome , in which the proximal tubular function of the kidney is impaired . Long - term exposure at levels lower than those that cause lead nephropathy have also been reported as nephrotoxic in patients from developed countries that had chronic kidney disease or were at risk because of hypertension or diabetes mellitus . Lead poisoning inhibits excretion of the waste product urate and causes a predisposition for gout , in which urate builds up . This condition is known as saturnine gout . Cardiovascular
Heart
Healthy heart valves allow blood to flow easily in one direction , but prevent it from flowing in the other direction . Diseased heart valves may have a narrow opening and therefore restrict the flow of blood in the forward direction ( referred to as a stenotic valve ) , or may allow blood to leak in the reverse direction ( referred to as valvular regurgitation ) . Valvular heart disease may cause breathlessness , blackouts , or chest pain , but may be asymptomatic and only detected on a routine examination by hearing abnormal heart sounds or a heart murmur . In the developed world , valvular heart disease is most commonly caused by degeneration secondary to old age , but may also be caused by infection of the heart valves ( endocarditis ) . In some parts of the world rheumatic heart disease is a major cause of valvular heart disease , typically leading to mitral or aortic stenosis and caused by the body 's immune system reacting to a streptococcal throat infection . Cardiac
Virus
Viruses have different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism , which depends largely on the viral species . Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell lysis , the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell . In multicellular organisms , if enough cells die , the whole organism will start to suffer the effects . Although viruses cause disruption of healthy homeostasis , resulting in disease , they may exist relatively harmlessly within an organism . An example would include the ability of the herpes simplex virus , which causes cold sores , to remain in a dormant state within the human body . This is called latency and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses , including Epstein -- Barr virus , which causes glandular fever , and varicella zoster virus , which causes chickenpox and shingles . Most people have been infected with at least one of these types of herpes virus . These latent viruses might sometimes be beneficial , as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial pathogens , such as Yersinia pestis .
Thalidomide
The bacterium that causes tuberculosis is related to leprosy . Thalidomide may be helpful in some cases where standard TB drugs and corticosteroids are not sufficient to resolve severe inflammation in the brain .
Heart valve
Disease of the heart valves can be congenital , such as aortic regurgitation or acquired , for example infective endocarditis . Different forms are associated with cardiovascular disease , connective tissue disorders and hypertension . The symptoms of the disease will depend on the affected valve , the type of disease , and the severity of the disease . For example , valvular disease of the aortic valve , such as aortic stenosis or aortic regurgitation , may cause breathlessness , whereas valvular diseaes of the tricuspid valve may lead to dysfunction of the liver and jaundice . When valvular heart disease results from infectious causes , such as infective endocarditis , an affected person may have a fever and unique signs such as splinter haemorrhages of the nails , Janeway lesions , Osler nodes and Roth spots . A particularly feared complication of valvular disease is the creation of emboli because of turbulent blood flow , and the development of heart failure .
Pleurisy
Bleeding and bruising where the needle went in . In rare cases , bleeding may occur in or around the lung . The doctor can use a chest tube to drain the blood . In some cases , surgery is needed . Infection where the needle went in Injury to the liver or spleen ( in rare cases ) Pain . Pneumothorax , or buildup of air in the pleural space , with a collapsed or partially collapsed lung . Sometimes air comes in through the needle or the needle makes a hole in the lung . Usually , a hole seals itself -- but sometimes air builds up around the lung and makes it collapse . A chest tube removes the air and lets the lung expand again .
Myocardial infarction
Heart failure may develop as a long - term consequence , with an impaired ability of heart muscle to pump , scarring , and increase in size of the existing muscle . Aneurysm of the left ventricle myocardium develops in about 10 % of MI and is itself a risk factor for heart failure , ventricular arrhythmia and the development of clots .
Toxic shock syndrome
Toxic shock syndrome ( TSS ) is a condition caused by bacterial toxins . Symptoms may include fever , rash , skin peeling , and low blood pressure . There may also be symptoms related to the specific underlying infection such as mastitis , osteomyelitis , necrotising fasciitis , or pneumonia .
Myocardial infarction
The phrase `` heart attack '' is often used non-specifically to refer to a myocardial infarction and to sudden cardiac death . An MI is different from -- but can cause -- cardiac arrest , where the heart is not contracting at all or so poorly that all vital organs cease to function , thus causing death . It is also distinct from heart failure , in which the pumping action of the heart is impaired . However , an MI may lead to heart failure .
T cell
( See also Immunosenescence # T - cell functional dysregulation as a biomarker for immunosenescence ) .
Sickle cell disease
Acute chest syndrome ( ACS ) is defined by at least two of the following signs or symptoms : chest pain , fever , pulmonary infiltrate or focal abnormality , respiratory symptoms , or hypoxemia . It is the second-most common complication and it accounts for about 25 % of deaths in patients with SCD , majority of cases present with vaso - occlusive crises then they develop ACS . Nevertheless , about 80 % of patients have vaso - occlusive crises during ACS .
Hurricane Irma
In the days after the hurricane , due to the heavy rainfall , numerous rivers had flooded their surrounding land , including residential areas . Public health risks , such as diarrheal infections and mosquito - borne illnesses , remain from the flooding that resulted in the aftermath of the hurricane . A large concern from flooding is contamination because people become exposed to dirty floodwaters and the potential for contaminated water to get into the local water supply is significant . One example of an illness that can get into the water supply is leptospirosis , which is caused by rat urine being in the floodwaters . If people are exposed to leptospirosis and do not get treatment , it can cause kidney damage , meningitis , and liver failure . Noroviruses and other infections are also a risk .
Bone age
Bone maturation is delayed with the variation of normal development termed Constitutional delay of growth and puberty , but delay also accompanies growth failure due to growth hormone deficiency and hypothyroidism .
Stem cell
Some stem cells form tumors after transplantation ; pluripotency is linked to tumor formation especially in embryonic stem cells , fetal proper stem cells , induced pluripotent stem cells . Fetal proper stem cells form tumors despite multipotency .
Terror management theory
Since findings on mortality salience and worldview defense were first published , other researchers have claimed that the effects may have been obtained due to reasons other than death itself , such as anxiety , fear , or other aversive stimuli such as pain . Other studies have found effects similar to those that MS results in -- for example , thinking about difficult personal choices to be made , being made to respond to open - ended questions regarding uncertainty , thinking about being robbed , thinking about being socially isolated , and being told that one 's life lacks meaning . While these cases exist , thoughts of death have since been compared to various aversive experimental controls , such as ( but not limited to ) thinking about : failure , writing a critical exam , public speaking with a considerable audience , being excluded , paralysis , dental pain , intense physical pain , etc .
Nutrition and cognition
The link between levels of folate and altered mental function is not large , but is sufficient enough to suggest a causal association . Deficiency in folate can cause an elevation of homocysteine within the blood , as the clearance of homocysteine requires enzymatic action dependent on folate , and to a lesser extent , vitamins B and B. Elevated homocysteine has been associated with increased risk of vascular events , as well as dementia .
Semen
The presence of blood in semen or hematospermia may be undetectable ( it only can be seen microscopically ) or visible in the fluid . Its cause could be the result of inflammation , infection , blockage , or injury of the male reproductive tract or a problem within the urethra , testicles , epididymis or prostate . It usually clears up without treatment , or with antibiotics , but if persistent further semen analysis and other urogenital system tests might be needed to find out the cause .
Human brain
Brain death refers to an irreversible total loss of brain function . This is characterised by coma , loss of reflexes , and apnoea , however , the declaration of brain death varies geographically and is not always accepted . In some countries there is also a defined syndrome of brainstem death . Declaration of brain death can have profound implications as the declaration , under the principle of medical futility , will be associated with the withdrawal of life support , and as those with brain death often have organs suitable for organ donation . The process is often made more difficult by poor communication with patients ' families .
Anemia
Iron deficiency anemia is due to insufficient dietary intake or absorption of iron to meet the body 's needs . Infants , toddlers , and pregnant women have higher than average needs . Increased iron intake is also needed to offset blood losses due to digestive tract issues , frequent blood donations , or heavy menstrual periods . Iron is an essential part of hemoglobin , and low iron levels result in decreased incorporation of hemoglobin into red blood cells . In the United States , 12 % of all women of childbearing age have iron deficiency , compared with only 2 % of adult men . The incidence is as high as 20 % among African American and Mexican American women . Studies have shown iron deficiency without anemia causes poor school performance and lower IQ in teenage girls , although this may be due to socioeconomic factors . Iron deficiency is the most prevalent deficiency state on a worldwide basis . It is sometimes the cause of abnormal fissuring of the angular ( corner ) sections of the lips ( angular stomatitis ) . In the United States , the most common cause of iron deficiency is bleeding or blood loss , usually from the gastrointestinal tract . Fecal occult blood testing , upper endoscopy and lower endoscopy should be performed to identify bleeding lesions . In older men and women , the chances are higher that bleeding from the gastrointestinal tract could be due to colon polyps or colorectal cancer . Worldwide , the most common cause of iron deficiency anemia is parasitic infestation ( hookworms , amebiasis , schistosomiasis and whipworms ) .
Endocrine system
Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include Addison 's disease , Cushing 's disease and Grave 's disease . Cushing 's disease and Addison 's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland . Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism . Cushing 's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands . Some clinical signs of Cushing 's disease include obesity , moon face , and hirsutism . Addison 's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency . Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar , a defect that can prove to be fatal .
American ginseng
Individuals requiring anticoagulant therapy such as warfarin should avoid use of ginseng . It is not recommended for individuals with impaired liver or renal function , or during pregnancy or breastfeeding . Other adverse effects include : headaches , anxiety , trouble sleeping and an upset stomach .
Phosphene
Less commonly , phosphenes can also be caused by some diseases of the retina and nerves , such as multiple sclerosis . The British National Formulary lists phosphenes as an occasional side effect of at least one anti-anginal medication .
Vitamin A deficiency
VAD also diminishes the ability to fight infections . In countries where children are not immunized , infectious diseases like measles have higher fatality rates . As elucidated by Alfred Sommer , even mild , subclinical deficiency can also be a problem , as it may increase children 's risk of developing respiratory and diarrheal infections , decrease growth rate , slow bone development , and decrease likelihood of survival from serious illness .
Lumbar vertebrae
Congenital vertebral anomalies can cause compression of the spinal cord by deforming the vertebral canal or causing instability .
Glycolysis
In animals , regulation of blood glucose levels by the pancreas in conjunction with the liver is a vital part of homeostasis . The beta cells in the pancreatic islets are sensitive to the blood glucose concentration . A rise in the blood glucose concentration causes them to release insulin into the blood , which has an effect particularly on the liver , but also on fat and muscle cells , causing these tissues to remove glucose from the blood . When the blood sugar falls the pancreatic beta cells cease insulin production , but , instead , stimulate the neighboring pancreatic alpha cells to release glucagon into the blood . This , in turn , causes the liver to release glucose into the blood by breaking down stored glycogen , and by means of gluconeogenesis . If the fall in the blood glucose level is particularly rapid or severe , other glucose sensors cause the release of epinephrine from the adrenal glands into the blood . This has the same action as glucagon on glucose metabolism , but its effect is more pronounced . In the liver glucagon and epinephrine cause the phosphorylation of the key , rate limiting enzymes of glycolysis , fatty acid synthesis , cholesterol synthesis , gluconeogenesis , and glycogenolysis . Insulin has the opposite effect on these enzymes . The phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of these enzymes ( ultimately in response to the glucose level in the blood ) is the dominant manner by which these pathways are controlled in the liver , fat , and muscle cells . Thus the phosphorylation of phosphofructokinase inhibits glycolysis , whereas its dephosphorylation through the action of insulin stimulates glycolysis .
Tooth decay
There are certain diseases and disorders affecting teeth that may leave an individual at a greater risk for cavities .
Glycogen
Various inborn errors of metabolism are caused by deficiencies of enzymes necessary for glycogen synthesis or breakdown . These are collectively referred to as glycogen storage diseases .
Cell cycle
Cellular senescence is also a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell 's progeny nonviable ; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self - destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis .
Eating disorder
Anorexia nervosa ( AN ) , characterized by lack of maintenance of a healthy body weight , an obsessive fear of gaining weight or refusal to do so , and an unrealistic perception , or non-recognition of the seriousness , of current low body weight . Anorexia can cause menstruation to stop , and often leads to bone loss , loss of skin integrity , etc . It greatly stresses the heart , increasing the risk of heart attacks and related heart problems . The risk of death is greatly increased in individuals with this disease . The most underlining factor researchers are starting to take notice of is that it may not just be a vanity , social , or media issue , but it could also be related to biological and or genetic components . The DSM - 5 contains many changes that better represent patients with these conditions . The DSM - IV required amenorrhea ( the absence of the menstrual cycle ) to be present in order to diagnose a patient with anorexia . This is no longer a requirement in the DSM - 5 . Bulimia nervosa ( BN ) , characterized by recurrent binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as purging ( self - induced vomiting , eating to the point of vomiting , excessive use of laxatives / diuretics , or excessive exercise ) . Fasting and over-exercising may also be used as a method of purging following a binge . Muscle dysmorphia is characterized by appearance preoccupation that one 's own body is too small , too skinny , insufficiently muscular , or insufficiently lean . Muscle dysmorphia affects mostly males . Binge Eating Disorder ( BED ) , characterized by recurring binge eating at least once a week for over a period of 3 months while experiencing lack of control and guilt after overeating . The disorder can develop within individuals of a wide range of ages and socioeconomic classes . Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder ( OSFED ) is an eating or feeding disorder that does not meet full DSM - 5 criteria for AN , BN , or BED .
Polycythemia
Neoplasms - Renal - cell carcinoma or liver tumors , von Hippel - Lindau disease , and endocrine abnormalities including pheochromocytoma and adrenal adenoma with Cushing 's syndrome . People whose testosterone levels are high because of the use of anabolic steroids , including athletes who abuse steroids , or people on testosterone replacement for hypogonadism or transgender hormone replacement therapy , as well as people who take erythropoietin , may develop secondary polycythemia .
Toxic shock syndrome
It was shown later that higher absorbency of tampons was associated with an increased risk for TSS , regardless of the chemical composition or the brand of the tampon . The sole exception was Rely , for which the risk for TSS was still higher when corrected for its absorbency . The ability of carboxymethylcellulose to filter the S. aureus toxin that causes TSS may account for the increased risk associated with Rely .
Cell nucleus
Specialized export proteins exist for translocation of mature mRNA and tRNA to the cytoplasm after post-transcriptional modification is complete . This quality - control mechanism is important due to these molecules ' central role in protein translation . Mis - expression of a protein due to incomplete excision of exons or mis - incorporation of amino acids could have negative consequences for the cell ; thus , incompletely modified RNA that reaches the cytoplasm is degraded rather than used in translation .