vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Great Depression in the United States
Hopkins made it his mission to strengthen ties between the Roosevelt administration and the business community . While Roosevelt believed in complete reform ( The New Deal ) , Hopkins took a more administrative position ; he felt that recovery was imperative and that The New Deal would continue to hinder recovery . With support from Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace and Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr , popular support for recovery , rather than reform , swept the nation . By the end of 1938 reform had been struck down , as no new reform laws were passed .
Woodrow Wilson
The pattern of Wilson 's speechmaking was exemplified by his performances in Buffalo and New York City . His oratory style was , `` right out of my mind as it is working at the time '' . He maintained towards his primary opponent Roosevelt a tone of humorous detachment , describing the Bull Moose party as `` the irregular Republicans , the variegated Republicans '' . Wilson shunned the stump speech campaign routine , and initially was reluctant to conduct an extensive campaign tour , but this changed after Roosevelt went on the offensive .
History of United States foreign policy
Serving again as Secretary of State under Benjamin Harrison , Blaine worked for closer ties with the Kingdom of Hawaii , and sponsored a program to bring together all the independent nations of the Western Hemisphere in what became the Pan-American Union .
Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt
Defenders of Roosevelt , such as Robert N. Rosen , argue that Roosevelt made numerous attempts to allow Jewish refugees to enter the United States and that at weaker periods of his presidency he simply did not have the political capital to wage these battles . Rosen argues that the mood in the country favored the strong desire to remain neutral regarding European affairs and distrust of anything that smacked of internationalism . Rosen argues there were divisions in the American Jewish community , which had not reached a consensus as to the best policy for freeing their European counterparts from Nazi persecution .
Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt
According to comparative law scholar James Whitman , it was not the NIRA statute that fueled suspicions of fascism -- it was the leaders of the National Recovery Administration as the head of the NRA , Hugh Johnson , openly admired Mussolini . Both Johnson and his assistant , Donald Richberg , made disturbing statements indicating that they were hostile to parliamentary government . Richberg denied being a fascist , but described Roosevelt several times as a `` Man of Action '' . Whitman said that there were `` striking '' differences between the ideology of Johnson and Richberg and fascist propaganda .
List of Presidents of the United States who died in office
On March 29 , 1945 , Franklin D. Roosevelt went to the Little White House at Warm Springs , Georgia , to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the United Nations . On the afternoon of April 12 , Roosevelt said , `` I have a terrific pain in the back of my head . '' He then slumped forward in his chair , unconscious , and was carried into his bedroom . The president 's attending cardiologist , Dr. Howard Bruenn , diagnosed a massive cerebral hemorrhage ( stroke ) . At 3 : 35 pm that day , Roosevelt died without regaining consciousness . As Allen Drury later said , `` so ended an era , and so began another . '' After Roosevelt 's death , an editorial by The New York Times declared , `` Men will thank God on their knees a hundred years from now that Franklin D. Roosevelt was in the White House '' . Roosevelt
British Empire
After the Fall of France in June 1940 , Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany , until the German invasion of Greece on 7 April 1941 . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from the United States , but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war . In August 1941 , Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter , which included the statement that `` the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live '' should be respected . This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy , or the peoples colonised by European nations , and would later be interpreted differently by the British , Americans , and nationalist movements .
Great Depression in the United States
The Roosevelt Administration reacted by launching a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power , which was cast as the cause of the depression , and appointing Thurman Arnold to break up large trusts ; Arnold was not effective , and the campaign ended once World War II began and corporate energies had to be directed to winning the war . By 1939 , the effects of the 1937 recession had disappeared . Employment in the private sector recovered to the level of the 1936 and continued to increase until the war came and manufacturing employment leaped from 11 million in 1940 to 18 million in 1943 .
Military history of the United States
The Navy was modernized in the 1880s , and by the 1890s had adopted the naval power strategy of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan -- as indeed did every major navy . The old sailing ships were replaced by modern steel battleships , bringing them in line with the navies of Britain and Germany . In 1907 , most of the Navy 's battleships , with several support vessels , dubbed the Great White Fleet , were featured in a 14 - month circumnavigation of the world . Ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt , it was a mission designed to demonstrate the Navy 's capability to extend to the global theater . The
Woodrow Wilson
Taft had supported the revolution that brought about the election of Francisco I. Madero as president of Mexico . Wilson , who took office shortly after Madero 's assassination in 1913 , rejected the legitimacy of Huerta 's `` government of butchers '' and demanded Mexico hold democratic elections . Wilson 's unprecedented approach meant no recognition and doomed Huerta 's prospects . Wilsonian idealism became a reason for American intervention in Latin America until the 1920s and 1930s , when moralistic interventions were abandoned in favor of realism . After Huerta arrested U.S. navy personnel in the port of Tampico Wilson sent his navy to occupy Veracruz . War between the United States and Mexico was averted through negotiations , and in 1916 his reelection campaign for president boasted he had `` kept us out of war . '' Huerta fled Mexico and Carranza came to power . Pancho
United States in World War I
As U.S. President , it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs : while the country was at peace , the domestic economy ran on a laissez - faire basis , with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France -- funds that were in large part used to buy munitions , raw materials and food from across the Atlantic . Until 1917 , Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing , despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness . He did however expand the United States Navy .
Great Depression
There is no consensus among economists regarding the motive force for the U.S. economic expansion that continued through most of the Roosevelt years ( and the 1937 recession that interrupted it ) . The common view among most economists is that Roosevelt 's New Deal policies either caused or accelerated the recovery , although his policies were never aggressive enough to bring the economy completely out of recession . Some economists have also called attention to the positive effects from expectations of reflation and rising nominal interest rates that Roosevelt 's words and actions portended . It was the rollback of those same reflationary policies that led to the interruption of a recession beginning in late 1937 . One contributing policy that reversed reflation was the Banking Act of 1935 , which effectively raised reserve requirements , causing a monetary contraction that helped to thwart the recovery . GDP returned to its upward trend in 1938 .
United States in World War I
When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 US citizens aboard , Wilson said `` America is too proud to fight '' and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships . Germany complied . Wilson repeatedly warned that the US would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare in violation of international law and of human rights . Wilson came under pressure from war hawks led by former president Theodore Roosevelt , who denounced German acts as `` piracy '' , and from British delegations under Cecil Spring Rice and Sir Edward Grey . Wilson realized he needed to enter the war in order to shape the peace ; indeed in 1919 he was one of those who achieved the establishment of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference . Wilson 's Secretary of State , William Jennings Bryan , whose pacifist goals Wilson ignored , resigned in frustration in June 1915 . Public opinion reacted with outrage to suspected German sabotage of Black Tom in Jersey City , New Jersey on 30 July 1916 , and to the Kingsland explosion on 11 January 1917 in present - day Lyndhurst , New Jersey .
Manhattan Project
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility . There were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first , especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries . In August 1939 , Hungarian - born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein -- Szilárd letter , which warned of the potential development of `` extremely powerful bombs of a new type '' . It urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions . They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter . Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939 , which was attended by Szilárd , Wigner and Edward Teller . The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium `` would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known . ''
Great Depression
By 1932 , unemployment had reached 23.6 % , peaking in early 1933 at 25 % . Drought persisted in the agricultural heartland , businesses and families defaulted on record numbers of loans , and more than 5,000 banks had failed . Hundreds of thousands of Americans found themselves homeless , and began congregating in shanty towns -- dubbed `` Hoovervilles '' -- that began to appear across the country . In response , President Hoover and Congress approved the Federal Home Loan Bank Act , to spur new home construction , and reduce foreclosures . The final attempt of the Hoover Administration to stimulate the economy was the passage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act ( ERA ) which included funds for public works programs such as dams and the creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation ( RFC ) in 1932 . The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was a Federal agency with the authority to lend up to $2 billion to rescue banks and restore confidence in financial institutions . But $2 billion was not enough to save all the banks , and bank runs and bank failures continued . Quarter by quarter the economy went downhill , as prices , profits and employment fell , leading to the political realignment in 1932 that brought to power Franklin Delano Roosevelt . It is important to note , however , that after volunteerism failed , Hoover developed ideas that laid the framework for parts of the New Deal . Buried
Containment
The drama surrounding the announcement of the Truman Doctrine catered to president 's self - image of a strong and decisive leader , but his real decision - making process was more complex and gradual . The timing of the speech was not a response to any particular Soviet action but to the fact that the Republican Party had just gained control of Congress . Truman was little involved in drafting the speech and did not himself adopt the hard - line attitude that it suggested until several months later .
Spanish–American War
The US became interested in a trans - isthmus canal either in Nicaragua , or in Panama , where the Panama Canal would later be built ( 1903 -- 1914 ) , and realized the need for naval protection . Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was an especially influential theorist ; his ideas were much admired by future 26th President Theodore Roosevelt , as the US rapidly built a powerful naval fleet of steel warships in the 1880s and 1890s . Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897 -- 1898 and was an aggressive supporter of an American war with Spain over Cuban interests .
Spanish–American War
The United States Navy armoured cruiser Maine had mysteriously sunk in Havana Harbor ; political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed the administration of Republican President William McKinley into a war that he had wished to avoid .
Grand Canyon
U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Grand Canyon in 1903 . An avid outdoorsman and staunch conservationist , Roosevelt established the Grand Canyon Game Preserve on November 28 , 1906 . Livestock grazing was reduced , but predators such as mountain lions , eagles , and wolves were eradicated . Roosevelt along with other members of his conservation group , the Boone and Crockett Club helped form the National Parks Association , which in turn lobbied for the Antiquities Act of 1906 which gave Roosevelt the power to create national monuments . Once the act was passed , Roosevelt immediately added adjacent national forest lands and redesignated the preserve a U.S. National Monument on January 11 , 1908 . Opponents such as land and mining claim holders blocked efforts to reclassify the monument as a U.S. National Park for 11 years . Grand Canyon National Park was finally established as the 17th U.S. National Park by an Act of Congress signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on February 26 , 1919 .
Containment
There were three alternative policies to containment under discussion in the late 1940s . The first was a return to isolationism , minimizing American involvement with the rest of the world , a policy that was supported by conservative Republicans , especially from the Midwest , including former President Herbert Hoover and Senator Robert A. Taft . However , many other Republicans , led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg , said that policy had helped cause World War II and so was too dangerous to revive .
Woodrow Wilson
At the end of 1913 , summing up the president 's efficacy , the Saturday Evening Post magazine stated , `` This administration is Woodrow Wilson 's and non-other's . He is the top , middle and bottom of it . There is not an atom of divided responsibility ... the Democratic Party revolves about him . He is the center of it -- the biggest Democrat in the country -- the leader and the chief '' . Antitrust
1935 Labor Day hurricane
Williams prepared a response for the President stating : `` A final report , based upon the facts obtained in this investigation ( by the VA and FERA ) , will be submitted to me shortly . At that time I shall transmit a copy of the report to you for your information and consideration . ''
List of Presidents of the United States who died in office
Less than a month after his death , on May 8 , the war in Europe ended . President Harry S. Truman , who turned 61 that day , dedicated Victory in Europe Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt 's memory , and kept the flags across the U.S. at half - staff for the remainder of the 30 - day mourning period . In doing so , Truman said that his only wish was `` that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to witness this day . ''
Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt
After 1945 , the term `` fascist '' conjured up images of Nazi death camps , but in the 1930s it had a very different connotation , meaning the centralization of political power as in Benito Mussolini 's Italy and of a `` third way '' between communism and capitalism . While most American businessmen thought Roosevelt was hostile to them , critics on the left said he was too friendly . Comparisons of American domestic programs to fascist economics are not necessarily pejorative as one of the motives behind the Interstate Highway System was that President Eisenhower was impressed by Adolf Hitler 's autobahn system . Early in Roosevelt 's first term , supporters and critics alike found similarities between the National Recovery Administration ( NRA ) and Italian corporatism . In 1935 and 1936 , after Italy invaded Ethiopia and the Supreme Court struck down the NRA , contemporaries stopped comparing the NRA to Italian corporatism . Interest in the subject returned in 1973 , when two prominent historians wrote articles on resemblances between the New Deal and fascist economics . According to James Q. Whitman , by the late 1980s it was `` almost routine '' for New Deal historians to identify similarities between the New Deal and fascist economic programs . Similarities are in anti-depression policies as in totality the New Deal and fascism were very different .
Franklin D. Roosevelt
In the 1936 presidential election against Republican Alf Landon and a third party candidate , Roosevelt won 60.8 % of the vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont . The Democratic ticket won the highest proportion of the popular vote . Democrats also expanded their majorities in Congress , winning control of over three - quarters of the seats in each house . The election also saw the consolidation of the New Deal coalition ; while the Democrats lost some of their traditional allies in big business , they were replaced by groups such as organized labor and African Americans , the latter of whom voted Democratic for the first time since the Civil War . Roosevelt lost high income voters , especially businessmen and professionals , but made major gains among the poor and minorities . He won 86 percent of the Jewish vote , 81 percent of Catholics , 80 percent of union members , 76 percent of Southerners , 76 percent of Blacks in northern cities , and 75 percent of people on relief . Roosevelt carried 102 of the nation 's 106 cities with a population of 100,000 or more . Supreme
New Deal
Liberal historians argue that Roosevelt restored hope and self - respect to tens of millions of desperate people , built labor unions , upgraded the national infrastructure and saved capitalism in his first term when he could have destroyed it and easily nationalized the banks and the railroads . Historians generally agree that apart from building up labor unions , the New Deal did not substantially alter the distribution of power within American capitalism . `` The New Deal brought about limited change in the nation 's power structure '' . The New Deal preserved democracy in the United States in a historic period of uncertainty and crises when in many other countries democracy failed .
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson ( December 28 , 1856 -- February 3 , 1924 ) was an American statesman and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921 . A member of the Democratic Party , Wilson served as the President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910 and then ran and was elected as a progressive Democrat to the office of Governor of New Jersey . Wilson 's victory in the 1912 presidential election made him the first Southerner elected to the presidency since Zachary Taylor in 1848 . He also led the United States during World War I , establishing an activist foreign policy known as `` Wilsonianism . '' He was a major leader at the Paris ( Versailles ) Peace Conference in 1919 , where he championed the proposed League of Nations . However , he was unable to obtain Senate approval for U.S. membership . After he suffered debilitating strokes in September 1919 , his wife and staff members handled most of his presidential duties .
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Recovery was pursued through federal spending . The NIRA included $3.3 billion of spending through the Public Works Administration . Roosevelt worked with Senator Norris to create the largest government - owned industrial enterprise in American history -- the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) -- which built dams and power stations , controlled floods , and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty - stricken Tennessee Valley . Executive Order 6102 declared that all privately held gold of American citizens was to be sold to the U.S. Treasury and the price raised from $20 to $35 per ounce . The goal was to counter the deflation which was paralyzing the economy .
Franklin D. Roosevelt
The home front was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war , though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt 's most urgent policy concern . The military buildup spurred economic growth . Unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942 , out of a labor force of 54 million . There was a growing labor shortage , accelerating the second wave of the Great Migration of African Americans , farmers and rural populations to manufacturing centers . African Americans from the South went to California and other West Coast states for new jobs in the defense industry . To pay for increased government spending , in 1941 Roosevelt proposed that Congress enact an income tax rate of 99.5 % on all income over $100,000 ; when the proposal failed , he issued an executive order imposing an income tax of 100 % on income over $25,000 , which Congress rescinded . The Revenue Act of 1942 instituted top tax rates as high as 94 % ( after accounting for the excess profits tax ) , greatly increased the tax base , and instituted the first federal withholding tax . In 1944 , Roosevelt requested that Congress enact legislation which would tax all `` unreasonable '' profits , both corporate and individual , and thereby support his declared need for over $10 billion in revenue for the war and other government measures . Congress overrode Roosevelt 's veto to pass a smaller revenue bill raising $2 billion .
Manhattan Project
On 9 October 1941 , President Roosevelt approved the atomic program after he convened a meeting with Vannevar Bush and Vice President Henry A. Wallace . To control the program , he created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself -- although he never attended a meeting -- Wallace , Bush , Conant , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , and the Chief of Staff of the Army , General George C. Marshall . Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy , because the Army had more experience with management of large - scale construction projects . He also agreed to coordinate the effort with that of the British , and on 11 October he sent a message to Prime Minister Winston Churchill , suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters .