vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Asexual reproduction
While all prokaryotes reproduce without the formation and fusion of gametes , mechanisms for lateral gene transfer such as conjugation , transformation and transduction can be likened to sexual reproduction in the sense of genetic recombination in meiosis . A complete lack of sexual reproduction is relatively rare among multicellular organisms , particularly animals . It is not entirely understood why the ability to reproduce sexually is so common among them . Current hypotheses suggest that asexual reproduction may have short term benefits when rapid population growth is important or in stable environments , while sexual reproduction offers a net advantage by allowing more rapid generation of genetic diversity , allowing adaptation to changing environments . Developmental constraints may underlie why few animals have relinquished sexual reproduction completely in their life - cycles . Another constraint on switching from sexual to asexual reproduction would be the concomitant loss of meiosis and the protective recombinational repair of DNA damage afforded as one function of meiosis .
Eukaryotic DNA replication
This pre-replicative complex assembly during the G stage of the cell cycle is required prior to the continuation of DNA replication during the S phase . The regulation of mammalian ORC is consistent with the removal of at least part of the complex from the chromosome at metaphase . The Orc1 associated with chromatin is released during mitosis . The removal of ORC could serve to eliminate the pre-replicative complex formation prior to the completion of metaphase . Cdc6
Nominative determinism
We feel it 's time to open up this whole issue to rigorous scrutiny . You are invited to send in examples of the phenomenon in the fields of science and technology ( with references that check out , please ) together with any hypotheses you may have on how it comes about .
Both Sides, Now
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Christmas stocking
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Mars, Incorporated
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Nation state
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Franchising
In recent years , the idea of franchising has been picked up by the social enterprise sector , which hopes to simplify and expedite the process of setting up new businesses . A number of business ideas , such as soap making , wholefood retailing , aquarium maintenance , and hotel operation have been identified as suitable for adoption by social firms employing disabled and disadvantaged people .
Terror management theory
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Poverty in the United Kingdom
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Hyperinflation
Nobel prize winner Milton Friedman said `` We economists do n't know much , but we do know how to create a shortage . If you want to create a shortage of tomatoes , for example , just pass a law that retailers ca n't sell tomatoes for more than two cents per pound . Instantly you 'll have a tomato shortage . It 's the same with oil or gas . ''
Strappado
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Think globally, act locally
It is not only corporations that are acknowledging the importance of environmental issues , but also the education system . Government officials and school boards across the world are beginning to develop a new way of teaching . Globalization is now thought of as an important concept to understanding the world . Certain schools believe it is important to discuss global issues as young as 5 years old . It is students who are our future , therefore understanding the concept of `` think globally , act locally '' is fundamental to our future .
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
Deductive Method - What does the student know and how can he use it to explain a situation . Co-relation with a real - life situation - Whether the situation given matches any real - life situation , like tsunamis , floods , tropical cyclones , etc . Usage of Information Technology - Can the problem be solved with the use of IT ? If yes , how ?
Scientific management
This article 's Criticism or Controversy section may compromise the article 's neutral point of view of the subject . Please integrate the section 's contents into the article as a whole , or rewrite the material . ( February 2017 )
Super Why!
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Who Moved My Cheese?
In the corporate environment , management has been known to distribute this book to employees during times of `` structural reorganization , '' or during cost - cutting measures , in an attempt to portray unfavorable or unfair changes in an optimistic or opportunistic way . This has been characterized by Barbara Ehrenreich in her book Bright - sided : How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America as an attempt by organizational management to make employees quickly and unconditionally assimilate management ideals , even if they may prove detrimental to them professionally . Ehrenreich summarizes its message as `` the dangerous human tendencies to ' overanalyze ' and complain must be overcome for a more rodentlike approach to life . When you lose a job , just shut up and scamper along to the next one . ''
Happy Birthday to You
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Natural selection
If during the long course of ages and under varying conditions of life , organic beings vary at all in the several parts of their organisation , and I think this can not be disputed ; if there be , owing to the high geometrical powers of increase of each species , at some age , season , or year , a severe struggle for life , and this certainly can not be disputed ; then , considering the infinite complexity of the relations of all organic beings to each other and to their conditions of existence , causing an infinite diversity in structure , constitution , and habits , to be advantageous to them , I think it would be a most extraordinary fact if no variation ever had occurred useful to each being 's own welfare , in the same way as so many variations have occurred useful to man . But if variations useful to any organic being do occur , assuredly individuals thus characterised will have the best chance of being preserved in the struggle for life ; and from the strong principle of inheritance they will tend to produce offspring similarly characterised . This principle of preservation , I have called , for the sake of brevity , Natural Selection . --
Marshall Plan
While some historians today feel some of the praise for the Marshall Plan is exaggerated , it is still viewed favorably and many thus feel that a similar project would help other areas of the world . After the fall of communism several proposed a `` Marshall Plan for Eastern Europe '' that would help revive that region . Others have proposed a Marshall Plan for Africa to help that continent , and US Vice President Al Gore suggested a Global Marshall Plan . `` Marshall Plan '' has become a metaphor for any very large scale government program that is designed to solve a specific social problem . It is usually used when calling for federal spending to correct a perceived failure of the private sector .
The Man in the High Castle
This section needs expansion with : further , broader statements aimed at encyclopedic , balanced views . You can help by adding to it . ( February 2014 )
Conflict theories
A recent articulation of conflict theory is found in Alan Sears ' ( Canadian sociologist ) book A Good Book , in Theory : A Guide to Theoretical Thinking ( 2008 ) :
Social exchange theory
The most extensive application of social exchange has been in the area of interpersonal relationships . However , social exchange theory materializes in many different situations with the same idea of the exchange of resources . Self - Interest can encourage individuals to make decisions that will benefit themselves overall . Homans once summarized the theory by stating :
New York Post
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Lifestyle (sociology)
Lifestyle research can contribute to the question of the relevance of the class concept .
Social development theory
The science of economics is much concerned with scarcity of resources . Though physical resources are limited , social , mental , and human resources are not subject to inherent limits . Even if these appear limited , there is no fixity about the limitation , and these resources continue to expand over time . That expansion can be accelerated by the use of appropriate strategies . In recent decades the rate of growth of these three resources has accelerated dramatically .
Andrew Carnegie
I do not see that it is wise to devote our efforts to creating another organization . Of course I may be wrong in believing that , but I am certainly not wrong that if it were dependent on any millionaire 's money it would begin as an object of pity and end as one of derision . I wonder that you do not see this . There is nothing that robs a righteous cause of its strength more than a millionaire 's money . Its life is tainted thereby .
Fair trade
This article 's Criticism or Controversy section may compromise the article 's neutral point of view of the subject . Please integrate the section 's contents into the article as a whole , or rewrite the material . ( February 2013 )
Tabula rasa
Have n't we already disposed of the difficulty about interaction involving a common element , when we said that mind is in a sense potentially whatever is thinkable , though actually it is nothing until it has thought ? What it thinks must be in it just as characters may be said to be on a writing - tablet on which as yet nothing stands written : this is exactly what happens with mind .
Health care in the United States
Piecemeal market - based reform efforts are complex . One study evaluating current popular market - based reform policy packages concluded that if market - oriented reforms are not implemented on a systematic basis with appropriate safeguards , they have the potential to cause more problems than they solve .
Causes of the Great Depression
I think the Austrian business - cycle theory has done the world a great deal of harm . If you go back to the 1930s , which is a key point , here you had the Austrians sitting in London , Hayek and Lionel Robbins , and saying you just have to let the bottom drop out of the world . You 've just got to let it cure itself . You ca n't do anything about it . You will only make it worse. ... I think by encouraging that kind of do - nothing policy both in Britain and in the United States , they did harm .
Jeopardy!
My wife Julann just came up with the idea one day when we were in a plane bringing us back to New York City from Duluth . I was mulling over game show ideas , when she noted that there had not been a successful `` question and answer '' game on the air since the quiz show scandals . Why not do a switch , and give the answers to the contestant and let them come up with the question ? She fired a couple of answers to me : `` 5,280 '' -- and the question of course was `` How many feet in a mile ? '' . Another was `` 79 Wistful Vista '' ; that was Fibber and Mollie McGee 's address . I loved the idea , went straight to NBC with the idea , and they bought it without even looking at a pilot show .
Robert K. Merton
In order to help people determine whether positive functions outweigh dysfunctions , and vice versa , Merton developed the concept of net balance . Because the issues are complex and based on a lot of subjective judgement , they can not be calculated and weighed easily . Therefore , positive functions and dysfunctions can not be simply added up and objectively determine which outweighs the other . In order to deal with these issues , Merton believed that there must be levels of functional analysis . Rather than solely focusing on the analysis of society as a whole , Merton argued that analysis could and should also be done on an organization , institution or group .
Cousin marriage
This section needs expansion with : more countries and regions . You can help by adding to it . ( March 2010 ) Laws
Foreign trade of the United States
Some economists believe that GDP and employment can be dragged down by an over-large deficit over the long run . Others believe that trade deficits are good for the economy . The opportunity cost of a forgone tax base may outweigh perceived gains , especially where artificial currency pegs and manipulations are present to distort trade .
Heat
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Electric car
This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may only interest a specific audience . Specifically , about repetition of the same basic argument several times . It 's clear the author is trying to argue with the reader , pushing the belief that electric cars are affordable , rather than just summarizing facts . Even so , it beats a dead horse . One or two current , specific examples are sufficient , rather than pounding away over and over . Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information , and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia 's inclusion policy . ( July 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )
Social development theory
When the mind engages in pure creative thinking , it comes up with new thoughts and ideas . When it applies itself to society it can come up with new organizations . When it turns to the study of nature , it discovers nature 's laws and mechanisms . When it applies itself to technology , it makes new discoveries and practical inventions that boost productivity . Technical creativity has had an erratic course through history , with some intense periods of creative output followed by some dull and inactive periods . However , the period since 1700 has been marked by an intense burst of technological creativity that is multiplying human capacities exponentially .
Alternative energy
Before alternative energy becomes mainstream there are a few crucial obstacles that it must overcome . First there must be increased understanding of how alternative energies are beneficial ; secondly the availability components for these systems must increase ; and lastly the pay - back period must be decreased .
Nominative determinism
We recently came across a new book , Pole Positions -- The Polar Regions and the Future of the Planet , by Daniel Snowman . Then , a couple of weeks later , we received a copy of London Under London -- A Subterranean Guide , one of the authors of which is Richard Trench . So it was interesting to see Jen Hunt of the University of Manchester stating in the October issue of The Psychologist : `` Authors gravitate to the area of research which fits their surname . '' Hunt 's example is an article on incontinence in the British Journal of Urology by A.J. Splatt and D. Weedon .
Relative deprivation
Critique of this theory has pointed out that this theory fails to explain why some people who feel discontent fail to take action and join social movements . Counter-arguments include that some people are prone to conflict - avoidance , are short - term - oriented , and that imminent life difficulties may arise since there is no guarantee that life - improvement will result from social action .
What's that got to do with the...?
A common form , what does that have to do with the price of tea in China ? , is a retort to an irrelevant suggestion . This facetious usage implies that the topic under discussion might as well be the price of tea in China for all the relevance the speaker 's suggestion bears on it . It has been said that this expression has stemmed from economists , who describe everything economic as affecting everything else , trying to find an expression which denotes the farthest logical connection from their current economic focus , in a sort of butterfly effect . In this way , the price of tea in China was used to denote the farthest possibility . It can also be used to denote an irrelevant topic .
Social media
People around the world are taking advantage of social media as one of their key components of communication . According to King , 67 percent of US citizens ages 12 and up use social media of some type . With the expansion of social media networks there are many positive and negative alternatives . As the use of Twitter increases , its influence impacts users as well . The potential role of Twitter as a means of both service feedback and a space in which mental health can be openly discussed and considered from a variety of perspectives . The study conducted shows a positive outlook for using Twitter to discuss health issues with a patient and a professional , in this case alcohol . On the other hand , there can be negatives that arise from the use of social media . If a clinician prescribes abstinence from alcohol but then posts pictures on social media of one 's own drunken exploits , the clinician 's credibility is potentially lost in the eyes of the patient . In these two studies , both negative and positive outcomes were examined . Although social media can be beneficial , it is important to understand the negative consequences as well .
Great Depression
`` I think the Austrian business - cycle theory has done the world a great deal of harm . If you go back to the 1930s , which is a key point , here you had the Austrians sitting in London , Hayek and Lionel Robbins , and saying you just have to let the bottom drop out of the world . You 've just got to let it cure itself . You ca n't do anything about it . You will only make it worse. ... I think by encouraging that kind of do - nothing policy both in Britain and in the United States , they did harm . '' Modern
Law
This case is used to support the view of property in common law jurisdictions , that the person who can show the best claim to a piece of property , against any contesting party , is the owner . By contrast , the classic civil law approach to property , propounded by Friedrich Carl von Savigny , is that it is a right good against the world . Obligations , like contracts and torts , are conceptualised as rights good between individuals . The idea of property raises many further philosophical and political issues . Locke argued that our `` lives , liberties and estates '' are our property because we own our bodies and mix our labour with our surroundings .
New Deal
I think it is up to the states to work out their social problems if possible , and while I have always been interested in seeing that the Negro has a square deal , I have never dissipated my strength against the particular stone wall of segregation . I believe that wall will crumble when the Negro has brought himself to a high educational and economic status ... . Moreover , while there are no segregation laws in the North , there is segregation in fact and we might as well recognize this .
Robert K. Merton
The postulate of universal functionalism disproves the idea that not all ideals work for everyone in a society . Merton believes that some things may have consequences that are generally dysfunctional or which are dysfunctional for some and functional for others . For example , poverty may benefit the rich because they are allowed to maintain more of their wealth , but it certainly does not benefit the poor who struggle . On this point he approaches conflict theory , although he does believe that institutions and values can be functional for society as a whole . Merton states that only by recognizing the dysfunctional aspects of institutions , can we explain the development and persistence of alternatives . Merton 's concept of dysfunctions is also central to his argument that functionalism is not essentially conservative .
Probability
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Lobbying in the United States
In a lot of areas , the stakes are between big companies , and it 's hard to argue that one solution is better than another solution with regard to the consumer 's interest ... The issue ... is whether Company A 's solution , or Company B 's solution , based on their technology or their footprint , is the right one . --
Social development theory
Organization is a mental invention . Therefore it is not surprising that the mental stage of development is responsible for the formulation of a great number of organizational innovations . Huge business corporations have emerged that make more money than even the total earnings of some small countries . Global networks for transportation and communication now connect the nations of the world within a common unified social fabric for sea and air travel , telecommunications , weather reporting and information exchange .
Trafficking of children
Many organizations have proposed potential solutions to child trafficking . These organizations continue to conduct research concerning this practice and policies that can be implemented to work towards its eradication . The most internationally recognized of these organizations include :
13 Reasons Why
This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( May 2018 )
Evidence of common descent
A great deal of research has been conducted on the topic , and examples have been found and documented in nature . Debate exists concerning much of the research , with some authors citing evidence against their existence entirely . The following examples provide evidence that -- despite the limited number of concrete , idealized examples in nature -- continuums of species do exist and can be found in biological systems . This is often characterized by the existence of various sub-species level classifications ( i.e. clines , ecotypes , groups , varieties , etc . ) . Caveats do exist considering that many of the examples have been disputed by researchers conducting subsequent studies and that , `` many of the ( proposed ) cases have received very little attention from researchers , making it difficult to assess whether they display the characteristics of ideal ring species . ''