vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Citric acid cycle
A step with significant variability is the conversion of succinyl - CoA to succinate . Most organisms utilize EC 6.2. 1.5 , succinate -- CoA ligase ( ADP - forming ) ( despite its name , the enzyme operates in the pathway in the direction of ATP formation ) . In mammals a GTP - forming enzyme , succinate -- CoA ligase ( GDP - forming ) ( EC 6.2. 1.4 ) also operates . The level of utilization of each isoform is tissue dependent . In some acetate - producing bacteria , such as Acetobacter aceti , an entirely different enzyme catalyzes this conversion -- EC 2.8. 3.18 , succinyl - CoA : acetate CoA - transferase . This specialized enzyme links the TCA cycle with acetate metabolism in these organisms . Some bacteria , such as Helicobacter pylori , employ yet another enzyme for this conversion -- succinyl - CoA : acetoacetate CoA - transferase ( EC 2.8. 3.5 ) .
Gene
Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein . Translation is carried out by ribosomes , large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds . The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time , in units called codons , via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA ( tRNA ) . Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA . The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon . When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand , the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain , which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus . During and after synthesis , most new proteins must fold to their active three - dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions .
Membrane transport protein
Facilitated diffusion is the passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane through specific transport proteins and requires no energy input . Facilitated diffusion is used especially in the case of large polar molecules and charged ions ; once such ions are dissolved in water they can not diffuse freely across cell membranes due to the hydrophobic nature of the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids that make up the bilayers . The type of carrier proteins used in facilitated diffusion is slightly different from those used in active transport . They are still transmembrane carrier proteins , but these are gated transmembrane channels , meaning they do not internally translocate , nor require ATP to function . The substrate is taken in one side of the gated carrier , and without using ATP the substrate is released into the cell . They may be used as potential biomarkers
Diphtheria
In 1888 , Emile Roux and Alexandre Yersin showed that a substance produced by C. diphtheriae caused symptoms of diphtheria in animals .
Diphtheria
In 1919 , in Dallas , Texas , 10 children were killed and 60 others made seriously ill by toxic antitoxin which had passed the tests of the New York State Health Department . Mulford Company of Philadelphia ( manufacturers ) paid damages in every case .
Virus
The poxviruses are large , complex viruses that have an unusual morphology . The viral genome is associated with proteins within a central disc structure known as a nucleoid . The nucleoid is surrounded by a membrane and two lateral bodies of unknown function . The virus has an outer envelope with a thick layer of protein studded over its surface . The whole virion is slightly pleiomorphic , ranging from ovoid to brick shape . Mimivirus is one of the largest characterised viruses , with a capsid diameter of 400 nm . Protein filaments measuring 100 nm project from the surface . The capsid appears hexagonal under an electron microscope , therefore the capsid is probably icosahedral . In 2011 , researchers discovered the largest then known virus in samples of water collected from the ocean floor off the coast of Las Cruces , Chile . Provisionally named Megavirus chilensis , it can be seen with a basic optical microscope . In 2013 , the Pandoravirus genus was discovered in Chile and Australia , and has genomes about twice as large as Megavirus and Mimivirus .
Corynebacterium
Expression of functionally active human epidermal growth factor has been brought about in C. glutamicum , thus demonstrating a potential for industrial - scale production of human proteins . Expressed proteins can be targeted for secretion through either the general secretory pathway or the twin - arginine translocation pathway .
Shofar
According to the Talmud , a shofar may be made from the horn of any animal from the Bovidae family except that of a cow although a ram is preferable . Bovidae horns are made of a layer of keratin ( the same material as human toenails and fingernails ) around a core of bone , with a layer of cartilage in between , which can be removed to leave the hollow keratin horn . An antler , on the other hand , is made of solid bone , so an antler can not be used as a shofar because it can not be hollowed out .
Cell membrane
4 . Exocytosis : Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle , the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane , extruding its contents to the surrounding medium . This is the process of exocytosis . Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis , to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes , and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier . In the process of exocytosis , the undigested waste - containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus , is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface . The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane . The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are , thus , fused . A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell
Tap and die
A die cuts an external thread on cylindrical material , such as a rod , which creates a male threaded piece which functions like a bolt . Dies are generally made in two styles : solid and adjustable . The dies shown to the right are adjustable :
Scientific method
A hypothesis is a conjecture , based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question , that may explain any given behavior . The hypothesis might be very specific ; for example , Einstein 's equivalence principle or Francis Crick 's `` DNA makes RNA makes protein '' , or it might be broad ; for example , unknown species of life dwell in the unexplored depths of the oceans . A statistical hypothesis is a conjecture about a given statistical population . For example , the population might be people with a particular disease . The conjecture might be that a new drug will cure the disease in some of those people . Terms commonly associated with statistical hypotheses are null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis . A null hypothesis is the conjecture that the statistical hypothesis is false ; for example , that the new drug does nothing and that any cure is caused by chance . Researchers normally want to show that the null hypothesis is false . The alternative hypothesis is the desired outcome , that the drug does better than chance . A final point : a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable , meaning that one can identify a possible outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis ; otherwise , it can not be meaningfully tested . Prediction
Arrowhead
Arrowheads may be attached to the shaft with a cap , a socket tang , or inserted into a split in the shaft and held by a process called hafting . Points attached with caps are simply slid snugly over the end of the shaft , or may be held on with hot glue . In medieval Europe , arrowheads were often anchored with nothing but candlewax minutes before firing , if not merely saliva - this ensured that the head would remain in enemy 's body if the shaft was pulled out . Split - shaft construction involves splitting the arrow shaft lengthwise , inserting the arrowhead , and securing it using ferrule , sinew , rope , or wire .
Ancient Egypt
The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill , but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently . It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots , which they melted and finished . However , they did have technical expertise in making objects , as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass . A range of colors could be produced , including yellow , red , green , blue , purple , and white , and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque .
Drink can
Plain lids ( known as shells ) are stamped from a coil of aluminium , typically alloy 5182 - H48 , and transferred to another press that converts them to easy - open ends . This press is known as a conversion press which forms an integral rivet button in the lid and scores the opening , while concurrently forming the tabs in another die from a separate strip of aluminium .
Human skin color
Melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes in a process called melanogenesis . Melanin is made within small membrane -- bound packages called melanosomes . As they become full of melanin , they move into the slender arms of melanocytes , from where they are transferred to the keratinocytes . Under normal conditions , melanosomes cover the upper part of the keratinocytes and protect them from genetic damage . One melanocyte supplies melanin to thirty - six keratinocytes according to signals from the keratinocytes . They also regulate melanin production and replication of melanocytes . People have different skin colors mainly because their melanocytes produce different amount and kinds of melanin .
Cell membrane
3 . Endocytosis : Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them . The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward , called an invagination , in which the substance to be transported is captured. This invagination is caused by proteins on the outside on the cell membrane , acting as receptors and clustering into depressions that eventually promote accumulation of more proteins and lipids on the cytosolic side of the membrane . The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell , creating a vesicle containing the captured substance . Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles ( `` cell eating '' or phagocytosis ) , small molecules and ions ( `` cell drinking '' or pinocytosis ) , and macromolecules . Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form of active transport .
Western blot normalization
A pure protein added externally can be used as a normalization control if it is spiked into each of the samples at a known concentration . A known quantity of protein is added which can be controlled ensuring that the detection is within the linear range of the antibody . An advantage to this method is that there are more proteins to choose from as controls , than HKP . However , expression of the protein of interest is only compared to one other protein . Spike - in proteins can control only for certain steps in the western blotting process , depending upon when they are introduced . When introduced after sample extractions from cells or tissues , the spike protein only controls for differences in sample loading and transfer but not any experimental error in sample preparation methods .
Camel
The camel immune system differs from those of other mammals . Normally , the Y - shaped antibody molecules consist of two heavy ( or long ) chains along the length of the Y , and two light ( or short ) chains at each tip of the Y . Camels , in addition to these , also have antibodies made of only two heavy chains , a trait that makes them smaller and more durable . These `` heavy - chain - only '' antibodies , discovered in 1993 , are thought to have developed 50 million years ago , after camelids split from ruminants and pigs .
Mass production
Mass production benefited from the development of materials such as inexpensive steel , high strength steel and plastics . Machining of metals was greatly enhanced with high speed steel and later very hard materials such as tungsten carbide for cutting edges . Fabrication using steel components was aided by the development of electric welding and stamped steel parts , both which appeared in industry in about 1890 . Plastics such as polyethylene , polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride ( PVC ) can be easily formed into shapes by extrusion , blow molding or injection molding , resulting in very low cost manufacture of consumer products , plastic piping , containers and parts .
Protein folding
A fully denatured protein lacks both tertiary and secondary structure , and exists as a so - called random coil . Under certain conditions some proteins can refold ; however , in many cases , denaturation is irreversible . Cells sometimes protect their proteins against the denaturing influence of heat with enzymes known as heat shock proteins ( a type of chaperone ) , which assist other proteins both in folding and in remaining folded . Some proteins never fold in cells at all except with the assistance of chaperones which either isolate individual proteins so that their folding is not interrupted by interactions with other proteins or help to unfold misfolded proteins , allowing them to refold into the correct native structure . This function is crucial to prevent the risk of precipitation into insoluble amorphous aggregates . The external factors involved in protein denaturation or disruption of the native state include temperature , external fields ( electric , magnetic ) , molecular crowding , and even the limitation of space , which can have a big influence on the folding of proteins . High concentrations of solutes , extremes of pH , mechanical forces , and the presence of chemical denaturants can contribute to protein denaturation , as well . These individual factors are categorized together as stresses . Chaperones are shown to exist in increasing concentrations during times of cellular stress and help the proper folding of emerging proteins as well as denatured or misfolded ones .
Vector (molecular biology)
Modern artificially - constructed vectors contain essential components found in all vectors , and may contain other additional features found only in some vectors :
Manhattan Project
Within the explosives was the 4.5 - inch ( 110 mm ) thick aluminum pusher , which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low density explosive to the next layer , the 3 - inch ( 76 mm ) thick tamper of natural uranium . Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible , but it would also reflect neutrons back into the core . Some part of it might fission as well . To prevent predetonation by an external neutron , the tamper was coated in a thin layer of boron . A polonium - beryllium modulated neutron initiator , known as an `` urchin '' because its shape resembled a sea urchin , was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment . This work with the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by Charles Allen Thomas of the Monsanto Company and became known as the Dayton Project . Testing required up to 500 curies per month of polonium , which Monsanto was able to deliver . The whole assembly was encased in a duralumin bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak . Remote
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
The Major League Soccer All - Star Game is an annual soccer game held by Major League Soccer featuring select players from the league against an international club . MLS initially adopted a traditional all - star game format used by other North American sports leagues where the Eastern Conference squared off against the Western Conference . This eventually evolved into the current system where the league annually invites a club from abroad to play against a league all - star team . The MLS All - Stars hold an 8 -- 4 record in the competition marking the season 's midpoint . Players are awarded rosters spots through a combination of fan voting and selections by the appointed manager and league commissioner .
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
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Major League Soccer All-Star Game
Major League Soccer 's first all - star game was played at Giants Stadium in the summer of 1996 . The game , using the traditional East -- West format with players handpicked by the coaching staffs , was the first game of a doubleheader with the Brazilian national team defeating a team of FIFA World All - Stars . The matchup between divisions would only be used for six seasons as MLS tried experimenting with different formats . The 1998 All - Star Game placed a team of American MLS players against MLS players from abroad . The 2002 game , the first to use a league - wide all - star team , is the only game to feature a national team opponent . Since then ( except in 2004 ) , every opponent has been a professional club invited by the league . The MLS All - Stars won their first six games before falling to Everton in penalties in 2009 . All games since 2005 have been against teams from Europe , the majority of which have been from England 's Premier League . This is a feasible format because unlike MLS ( which runs a spring - summer - fall schedule ) the major European leagues all run a fall - winter - spring schedule , meaning the middle of the MLS season coincides with the pre-seasons of most European leagues . From a European perspective , the match is considered to be a pre-season friendly against an MLS XI .
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
MLS All - Star Game Founded Region Major League Soccer ( CONCACAF ) Number of teams Current champions Real Madrid ( 1st title ) Most successful club ( s ) MLS All - Stars ( 9 times ) Television broadcasters FS1 , UniMás , TSN , TVA Sports 2017 MLS All - Star Game
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
In case of a tie after full - time , the game does not use a 30 - minute extra time period ; instead it goes straight to a penalty shoot - out .
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2011 MLS All - Star Game July 27 , 2011 MLS All - Stars 0 -- 4 Manchester United ( show ) Red Bull Arena , Harrison , New Jersey Report Anderson 20 ' Park 45 ' Berbatov 52 ' Welbeck 68 ' Attendance : 26,760 Referee : Jair Marrufo MVP : Park Ji - sung MLS
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2015 MLS All - Star Game July 29 , 2015 MLS All - Stars 2 -- 1 Tottenham Hotspur ( show ) Dick 's Sporting Goods Park , Commerce City , Colorado Kaká 20 ' ( pen . ) Villa 23 ' Report Kane 37 ' Attendance : 18,671 Referee : Ismail Elfath MVP : Kaká MLS
2018 NBA All-Star Game
On October 3 , 2017 , the NBA announced that the format would change from the traditional Eastern Conference versus Western Conference format , and would instead switch to a draft - style format , similar to the format used by the NHL All - Star Game from 2011 through 2015 and the NFL Pro Bowl from 2014 through 2016 . The team captains were determined by the most votes received in their respective conference . Each team will pick a charity to play for , and the winning team will have money donated to their charity . The winning team will receive $100,000 for each player and the losing team $25,000 each .
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2018 MLS All - Star Game August 1 , 2018 MLS All - Stars Juventus ( show ) Mercedes - Benz Stadium , Atlanta
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2014 MLS All - Star Game August 6 , 2014 MLS All - Stars 2 -- 1 Bayern Munich ( show ) Providence Park , Portland , Oregon Wright - Phillips 51 ' Donovan 70 ' Report Lewandowski 8 ' Attendance : 21,733 Referee : Jair Marrufo MVP : Landon Donovan MLS
2018 NBA All-Star Game
The rosters for the All - Star Game were selected through a voting process . The starters were chosen by the fans , media , and current NBA players . Fans make up 50 % of the vote , and NBA players and media each comprise 25 % of the vote . The two guards and three frontcourt players who receive the highest cumulative vote totals are named the All - Star starters . NBA head coaches vote for the reserves for their respective conferences , none of which can be players on their own team . Each coach selects two guards , three frontcourt players and two wild cards , with each selected player ranked in order of preference within each category . If a multi-position player is to be selected , coaches are encouraged to vote for the player at the position that was `` most advantageous for the All - Star team '' , regardless of where the player was listed on the All - Star ballot or the position he was listed in box scores .
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2005 MLS All - Star Game July 30 , 2005 MLS All - Stars 4 -- 1 Fulham ( show ) Columbus Crew Stadium , Columbus , Ohio Twellman 23 ' O'Brien 56 ' Cunningham 85 ' , 89 ' Report Jensen 66 ' ( pen . ) Attendance : 23,309 Referee : Ricardo Valenzuela MVP : Taylor Twellman MLS
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2007 MLS All - Star Game July 19 , 2007 MLS All - Stars 2 -- 0 Celtic ( show ) Dick 's Sporting Goods Park , Commerce City , Colorado Ángel 36 ' Toja 44 ' Report Attendance : 18,661 Referee : Baldomero Toledo MVP : Juan Pablo Ángel MLS
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
For 2014 , ten players were chosen by All - Star Game coach Caleb Porter , eleven players were chosen by fan voting ( subject to Porter 's approval ) , and two were selected by MLS commissioner Don Garber .
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2013 MLS All - Star Game July 31 , 2013 MLS All - Stars 1 -- 3 Roma ( show ) Sporting Park , Kansas City , Kansas 20 : 30 Gonzalez 90 + 1 ' Report Strootman 4 ' Florenzi 47 ' Tallo 68 ' Attendance : 21,175 Referee : Hilario Grajeda MVP : Alessandro Florenzi MLS
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2017 MLS All - Star Game August 2 , 2017 MLS All - Stars 1 -- 1 ( 2 -- 4 p ) Real Madrid ( show ) Soldier Field , Chicago Dwyer 87 ' Report Mayoral 59 ' Attendance : 61,428 Referee : Allen Chapman MVP : Borja Mayoral Penalties Dwyer Dos Santos Valeri Almirón Benzema Bale Kovačić Marcelo MLS
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2001 MLS All - Star Game July 28 , 2001 East 6 -- 6 West ( show ) Spartan Stadium , San Jose , California Chacón 28 ' McBride 34 ' , 39 ' Diallo 53 ' Rooney 84 ' Catê 87 ' Report Donovan 3 ' , 7 ' , 19 ' , 90 + 2 ' Graziani 26 ' Kovalenko 69 ' Attendance : 23,512 Referee : Noel Kenney MVP : Landon Donovan
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2008 MLS All - Star Game July 24 , 2008 MLS All - Stars 3 -- 2 West Ham United ( show ) BMO Field , Toronto Gómez 27 ' Blanco 45 ' De Rosario 70 ' ( pen . ) Report Ashton 26 ' , 67 ' Attendance : 20,844 Referee : Mauricio Navarro MVP : Cuauhtémoc Blanco MLS
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2006 MLS All - Star Game August 5 , 2006 MLS All - Stars 1 -- 0 Chelsea ( show ) Toyota Park , Bridgeview , Illinois De Rosario 70 ' Report Attendance : 21,210 Referee : Abbey Okulaja MVP : Dwayne De Rosario MLS
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
2010 MLS All - Star Game July 28 , 2010 MLS All - Stars 2 -- 5 Manchester United ( show ) Reliant Stadium , Houston Ching 64 ' De Rosario 90 ' Report Macheda 1 ' , 13 ' Gibson 70 ' Cleverley 73 ' Hernández 84 ' Attendance : 70,728 Referee : Jorge Gonzalez MVP : Federico Macheda MLS
Major League Soccer All-Star Game
Team Winner Runner - up Total MLS All - Stars 9 6 15 MLS East 5 6 Manchester United & -- MLS West 6 Arsenal & -- Everton & -- Roma & -- Real Madrid & -- MLS USA & -- Chelsea & -- Bayern Munich & -- Celtic & -- Fulham & -- Guadalajara & -- MLS World & -- Tottenham Hotspur & -- United States & -- West Ham United & --