vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Western Roman Empire
During the 6th century , the Eastern Roman Empire under Justinian managed to reconquer large areas of the former Western Roman Empire . With the pro-Roman Vandal king Hilderic having been deposed by Gelimer in 530 , Justinian prepared an expedition lead by prominent general Belisarius that swiftly retook North Africa from June 533 to March 534 , returning the wealthy province to Roman rule . Following the reconquest , Justinian swiftly re-established the Roman administrations of the province , establishing a new Praetorian Prefecture of Africa and taking measures to decrease vandal influence , eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the vandalic people . Justinian
History of the Roman Empire
Titus , the eldest son of Vespasian , had been groomed to rule . He had served as an effective general under his father , helping to secure the east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in Syria and Iudaea , quelling a significant Jewish revolt at the time . He shared the consulship for several years with his father and received the best tutelage . Although there was some trepidation when he took office because of his known dealings with some of the less respectable elements of Roman society , he quickly proved his merit , even recalling many exiled by his father as a show of good faith .
Byzantine law
Following Justinian 's reign the Empire entered a period of rapid decline partially enabling the Arab conquests which would further weaken the Empire . Knowledge of Latin , which had been in decline since the fall of the West , virtually disappeared causing making many of the old legal codices almost inaccessible . These developments contributed to a dramatic weakening of legal standards in the Empire and a substantial drop in the standards of legal scholarship . Legal practice would become much more pragmatic and , as knowledge of Latin in the Empire waned , direct use of Justinian 's `` Corpus Juris Civilis '' would be abandoned in favor of summaries , commentaries , and new compilations written in Greek .
Byzantine Empire
Alexios 's son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143 . John was a pious and dedicated Emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert , half a century earlier . Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign , John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm . For this reason , he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius .
Byzantine Empire
A few holdouts remained for a time . The island of Monemvasia refused to surrender and it was first ruled for a short time by an Aragonese corsair . When the population drove him out they obtained the consent of Thomas to place themselves under the Pope 's protection before the end of 1460 . The Mani Peninsula , on the Morea 's south end , resisted under a loose coalition of the local clans and then that area came under Venice 's rule . The very last holdout was Salmeniko , in the Morea 's northwest . Graitzas Palaiologos was the military commander there , stationed at Salmeniko Castle . While the town eventually surrendered , Graitzas and his garrison and some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461 , when they escaped and reached Venetian territory . Flag
Western Roman Empire
Following the death of Jovian , Valentinian I emerged as Emperor in 364 . He immediately divided the Empire once again , giving the eastern half to his brother Valens . Stability was not achieved for long in either half , as the conflicts with outside forces ( tribes ) intensified . In 376 , the Visigoths , fleeing before the Ostrogoths , who in turn were fleeing before the Huns , were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle into the Balkans by the Eastern government . Mistreatment caused a full - scale rebellion , and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople , in which Emperor Valens also died . The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans , and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire , where they would become semi-independent foederati under their own leaders .
Eastern Orthodox Church
A number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim : the Roman Catholic Church , the Anglican Communion , the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox . In the Eastern Orthodox view , the Assyrians and Orientals left the Orthodox Church in the years following the Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus ( 431 ) and the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon ( 451 ) , respectively , in their refusal to accept those councils ' Christological definitions . Similarly , the churches in Rome and Constantinople separated in an event known as the East -- West Schism , traditionally dated to the year 1054 , although it was more a gradual process than a sudden break . The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church , not directly from the Eastern Orthodox Church , for the first time in the 1530s ( and , after a brief reunion in 1555 , again finally in 1558 ) . Thus , though it was united to Orthodoxy when established through the work of Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the early 7th century , its separation from Orthodoxy came about indirectly through the See of Rome .
Byzantine Empire
Maurice , who meanwhile succeeded Tiberius , intervened in a Persian civil war , placed the legitimate Khosrau II back on the throne and married his daughter to him . Maurice 's treaty with his new brother - in - law enlarged the territories of the Empire to the East and allowed the energetic Emperor to focus on the Balkans . By 602 , a series of successful Byzantine campaigns had pushed the Avars and Slavs back across the Danube . However , Maurice 's refusal to ransom several thousand captives taken by the Avars , and his order to the troops to winter in the Danube caused his popularity to plummet . A revolt broke out under an officer named Phocas , who marched the troops back to Constantinople ; Maurice and his family were murdered while trying to escape .
History of the Jews in Egypt
The greatest blow Alexandrian Jews had received during the Byzantine Empire rule and the rise of new state religion : Christianity . It was the expulsion of the Jews from Alexandria ( so - called Alexandria Expulsion ) in 414 or 415 A.D. under the leadership of Saint Cyril . The church and state combined to form a totalitarian state religion under the times of Emperor Constantine . Later violence took on a decidedly anti-Semitic context with calls for ethnic cleansing . Before that time , state / religious - sanctioned claims of a Jewish pariah were not common . Gibbon in his The history of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , chapter 47 , describes the Alexandria pogrom :
Pope
In Eastern Christianity , where the title `` Pope '' is used also of the Bishop of Alexandria , the Bishop of Rome is often referred to as the `` Pope of Rome '' , regardless of whether the speaker or writer is in communion with Rome or not .
Byzantine Empire
Andronikos began his reign well ; in particular , the measures he took to reform the government of the Empire have been praised by historians . According to George Ostrogorsky , Andronikos was determined to root out corruption : Under his rule , the sale of offices ceased ; selection was based on merit , rather than favouritism ; officials were paid an adequate salary so as to reduce the temptation of bribery . In the provinces , Andronikos 's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement . The aristocrats were infuriated against him , and to make matters worse , Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced ; executions and violence became increasingly common , and his reign turned into a reign of terror . Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole . The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter , while the Emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime .
Western Roman Empire
More than in the East , there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the Emperors in the western half of the Empire . In 379 , Valentinian I 's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus , and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the Altar of Victory from the Roman Curia , a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome . Theodosius I later decreed the Edict of Thessalonica , which banned all religions except Christianity .
Eastern Orthodox Church
With the mutual excommunications of the East -- West Schism in 1054 , the churches in Rome and Constantinople each viewed the other as having departed from the true Church , leaving a smaller but still - catholic Church in place . Each retained the `` Catholic '' part of its title , the `` Catholic Church '' ( or `` Roman Catholic Church '' ) on the one hand , and the `` Orthodox Catholic Church '' on the other , each of which was defined in terms of inter-communion with either Rome or Constantinople . While the Eastern Orthodox Church recognizes what it shares in common with other churches , including the Roman Catholic Church , it sees catholicity in terms of complete union in communion and faith , with the Church throughout all time , and the sharing remains incomplete when not shared fully .
Third Rome
Third Rome is the hypothetical successor to the legacy of ancient Rome ( the `` first Rome '' ) . Second Rome usually refers to Constantinople , the capital of the Byzantine Empire , officially called `` New Rome '' , or one of the claimed successors to the Western Roman Empire such as the Papal States and the Holy Roman Empire .
Byzantine Empire
In 491 , Anastasius I , an aged civil officer of Roman origin , became Emperor , but it was not until 497 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance . Anastasius revealed himself as an energetic reformer and an able administrator . He perfected Constantine I 's coinage system by definitively setting the weight of the copper follis , the coin used in most everyday transactions . He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax . The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 lb ( 150,000 kg ) of gold when Anastasius died in 518 .
Western Roman Empire
Roman Empire Senatus Populusque Romanus Imperium Romanum Western division of the Roman Empire ( 395 -- 480 ) 395 -- 476 Tremissis depicting Flavius Julius Nepos ( 474 - 480 ) , the de jure last Emperor of the Western Court The territory controlled by the Western Roman court following the division of the Roman Empire after the death of Theodosius I in 395 . Capital Mediolanum ( 395 -- 402 ) Ravenna ( 402 -- 476 ) Capital - in - exile Spalatum ( 475 -- 480 ) Languages Latin ( official ) Regional / local languages Religion Roman religion until 4th century Christianity ( state church ) after 380 Government Autocracy Notable emperors 395 -- 423 Honorius 457 -- 461 Majorian 474 -- 480 Julius Nepos 475 -- 476 Romulus Legislature Roman Senate Historical era Late Antiquity Division of Theodosius I 395 Deposition of Romulus Augustulus 476 Disestablished 4 September 476 Area 395 2,000,000 km ( 770,000 sq mi ) Currency Roman currency Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire Kingdom of Italy Kingdom of the Visigoths Kingdom of the Vandals Kingdom of the Franks Kingdom of the Suebi Kingdom of the Burgundians Kingdom of the Romans Kingdom of the Moors and Romans Alamannia Armorica Sub-Roman Britain Today part of Various countries ( show ) Algeria Andorra Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia France Germany Gibraltar Guernsey Hungary Italy Jersey Liechtenstein Libya Luxembourg Malta Monaco Morocco Netherlands Portugal San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Switzerland Tunisia United Kingdom Vatican City a . ^ Since the Western Roman Empire was not a distinct state separate from the Eastern Roman Empire , there was no particular official term that designated the Western provinces or their government , which was simply known as the `` Roman Empire '' . Terms such as Imperium Romanum Occidentalis and Hesperium Imperium were either never in official usage or invented long after the western court had fallen . b . ^ Whilst the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire , the last Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos did not die until 480 , when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were actually abolished . Another suggested end date is the reorganization of Italy and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under Justinian during the latter half of the 6th century .
Byzantine law
Aswell other Ancient Church Orders not more extant in Greek . Later more scientific collections emerged like :
Julian calendar
In the eastern Mediterranean , the efforts of Christian chronographers such as Annianus of Alexandria to date the Biblical creation of the world led to the introduction of Anno Mundi eras based on this event . The most important of these was the Etos Kosmou , used throughout the Byzantine world from the 10th century and in Russia until 1700 . In the west , the kingdoms succeeding the empire initially used indictions and regnal years , alone or in combination . The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine , in the fifth century , used an era dated from the Passion of Christ , but this era was not widely adopted . Dionysius Exiguus proposed the system of Anno Domini in 525 . This era gradually spread through the western Christian world , once the system was adopted by Bede in the eighth century .
Pope
Since the beginning of the 7th century , the Caliphate had conquered much of the southern Mediterranean , and represented a threat to Christianity . In 1095 , the Byzantine emperor , Alexios I Komnenos , asked for military aid from Pope Urban II in the ongoing Byzantine -- Seljuq wars . Urban , at the council of Clermont , called the First Crusade to assist the Byzantine Empire to regain the old Christian territories , especially Jerusalem .
History of the Catholic Church
Christianity spread throughout the early Roman Empire , despite persecutions due to conflicts with the pagan state religion . In 313 , the struggles of the Early Church were lessened by the legalisation of Christianity by the Emperor Constantine I. In 380 , under Emperor Theodosius I , Catholicism became the state religion of the Roman Empire by the decree of the Emperor , which would persist until the fall of the Western Empire , and later , with the Eastern Roman Empire , until the Fall of Constantinople . During this time , the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils , there were considered five primary sees ( jurisdictions within the Catholic Church ) according to Eusebius : Rome , Constantinople , Antioch , Jerusalem and Alexandria , known as the Pentarchy .
Byzantine Empire
During the Macedonian dynasty ( 10th -- 11th centuries ) , the Empire again expanded and experienced the two - century long Macedonian Renaissance , which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 . This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia .
Byzantine law
After the Islamic conquests of the Eastern Mediterranean , the Islamic caliphates gradually codified their legal systems using Roman / Byzantine Law as an important model . It has been suggested in fact that it was the publication of the Ecloga that spurred the first major codification of Islamic imperial law .
Western Roman Empire
The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius , instead supporting Julius Nepos , magister militum in Dalmatia as Western Roman Emperor . Nepos , with support from the East , deposed Glycerius in the spring of 474 . Orestes , magister militum of Nepos , deposed him a year later in 475 , forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia . Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western Emperor , though the Eastern Empire and Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor . Nepos continued to rule as `` Western Emperor '' in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title .
Byzantine Empire
Between 850 and 1100 , the Empire developed a mixed relationship with the new state of the Kievan Rus ' , which had emerged to the north across the Black Sea . This relationship would have long - lasting repercussions in the history of the East Slavs , and the Empire quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev . The Rus ' launched their first attack against Constantinople in 860 , pillaging the suburbs of the city . In 941 , they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus , but this time they were crushed , an indication of the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907 , when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders . Basil II could not ignore the emerging power of the Rus ' , and , following the example of his predecessors , he used religion as a means for the achievement of political purposes . Rus ' -- Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of Anna Porphyrogeneta to Vladimir the Great in 988 , and the subsequent Christianisation of the Rus ' . Byzantine priests , architects , and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus ' , expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further , while numerous Rus ' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries , most notably as the famous Varangian Guard .
Indo-Roman trade relations
Tamil speaking south India turned to Southeast Asia for international trade where Indian culture influenced the native culture to a greater degree than the sketchy impressions made on Rome seen in the adoption of Hinduism and then Buddism However , knowledge of the Indian subcontinent and its trade was preserved in Byzantine books and it is likely that the court of the emperor still maintained some form of diplomatic relation to the region up until at least the time of Constantine VII , seeking an ally against the rising influence of the Islamic states in the Middle East and Persia , appearing in a work on ceremonies called De Ceremoniis .
Carthage
After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the fifth century , the Eastern Roman Empire finally subdued the Vandals in the Vandalic War in 533 -- 534 . Thereafter , the city became the seat of the praetorian prefecture of Africa , which was made into an exarchate during the emperor Maurice 's reign , as was Ravenna on the Italian Peninsula . These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of the Byzantine Empire , all that remained of its power in the West . In the early seventh century Heraclius the Elder , the exarch of Carthage , overthrew the Byzantine emperor Phocas , whereupon his son Heraclius succeeded to the imperial throne .
History of the Roman Empire
Capital 27 BC -- 293 AD : Rome 293 -- 330 : Rome ( nominal ) Western Empire only ( in consort with Constantinople ) ( 402 -- 480 ) Ravenna Whole Empire ( 330 -- 1453 ) Constantinople Languages Latin ( official until 610 ) Greek ( official after 610 ) Regional / local languages Religion Before AD 380 : Imperial cult - driven polytheism From AD 380 : Christianity Government Mixed , functionally absolute monarchy Emperor 27 BC -- AD 14 Augustus ( first ) 98 -- 117 Trajan 284 -- 305 Diocletian 306 -- 337 Constantine I 379 -- 395 Theodosius I 474 -- 480 Julius Nepos 527 -- 565 Justinian I 975 -- 1025 Basil II 1449 -- 1453 Constantine XI Legislature Senate Historical era Classical antiquity to Late Middle Ages Final War of the Roman Republic 32 -- 30 BC Empire established 30 -- 2 BC Empire at its greatest extent AD 117 Constantinople becomes capital 330 Final East West divide 395 Fall of Western Empire 476 Fourth Crusade 1202 -- 1204 Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 Area 25 BC 2,750,000 km ( 1,060,000 sq mi ) 117 AD 5,000,000 km ( 1,900,000 sq mi ) 390 AD 4,400,000 km ( 1,700,000 sq mi ) Population 25 BC est . 56,800,000 Density 21 / km ( 53 / sq mi ) Currency Sestertius , Aureus , Solidus , Nomisma Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Republic Ottoman Empire Today part of 54 countries ( show ) Albania Algeria Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Egypt France Georgia Germany Gibraltar Greece Guernsey Hungary Iran Iraq Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant Israel Italy Jersey Jordan Kosovo Kuwait Lebanon Liechtenstein Libya Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Morocco Netherlands Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Saudi Arabia Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Switzerland Syria Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City Officially the final emperor of the Western empire . Last emperor of the Eastern ( Byzantine ) empire . line - height : 0.95 em Territorial
Western Roman Empire
A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Roman Catholic Church . The Church slowly began to replace Roman institutions in the West , even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century . In many cases , the only source of law and civil administration was the local bishop , often himself a former governor like St. Ambrose of Milan and St. Germanus of Auxerre . As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes , many assimilated , and by the middle of the medieval period ( c. 9th and 10th centuries ) the central , western , and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ . The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the church of Rome was Clovis I of the Franks and other kingdoms , such as the Visigoths , later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy . Following the reconquest of Italy under Emperor Justinian I , the popes were largely subservient to the Exarchs of Ravenna ( the imperial representative in Italy ) . This humiliation , alongside the increasing amounts of territory lost by the Empire to the Islamic conquests and the inability to protect Italy against the Lombards , prompted Pope Stephen II to turn from the Eastern Emperor Constantine V. Instead , he appealed to the Frankish king Pepin , who subdued the Lombards and donated lands to the papacy . When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as `` Roman Emperor '' in 800 , he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation . Though the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent Middle Ages and the Modern period , the office remains as the head of the Roman Catholic Church and the head of state of the Vatican City , the smallest sovereign state in the world . The Pope has consistently held the title of `` Pontifex Maximus '' since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day , a title formerly used by the high priest of the old Roman polytheism .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Alexander Demandt enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell , and new ideas have emerged since . Historians still try to analyze the reasons for loss of political control over a vast territory ( and , as a subsidiary theme , the reasons for the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire ) . Comparison has also been made with China after the end of the Han dynasty , which re-established unity under the Sui dynasty while the Mediterranean world remained politically disunited .
Byzantine Empire
Although at various times the Byzantines made magnificent achievements in the application of the sciences , and are responsible for preserving much of ancient knowledge , some authors have argued that Byzantine scholars made few novel contributions to science in terms of developing new theories or extending the ideas of classical authors .