vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Toxic shock syndrome
Clive Barker , fully recovered , contracted the syndrome after visiting the dentist . Lana Coc - Kroft , fully recovered , contracted the syndrome due to group A streptococcal infection . Jim Henson , d . 1990 , contracted the syndrome due to group A streptococcal infection and subsequently died from it . Nan C. Robertson , d . 2009 , 1983 winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Feature Writing for her medically detailed account of her struggle with toxic shock syndrome , a cover story for The New York Times Magazine which at that time became the most widely syndicated article in Times history . Mike Von Erich , d . 1987 , developed the syndrome after shoulder surgery : he made an apparent recovery but suffered brain damage as a result of the condition , eventually committing suicide . Lauren Wasser recovered from a near - death TSS experience and then debuted at the New York Fashion week despite wearing a prosthetic leg . She is now advocating for laws to require more research into the safety of feminine hygiene products .
Entamoeba histolytica
E. histolytica may modulate the virulence of certain human viruses and is itself a host for its own viruses .
Magic bullet (medicine)
In the early 1890s , Paul Ehrlich started to work with Emil Behring , professor of medicine at the University of Marburg . Behring had been investigating antibacterial agents and discovered a diphtheria antitoxin . ( For that discovery , Bering was the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1901 . Ehrlich was also nominated for that year . ) From Behring 's work , Ehrlich understood that antibodies produced in the blood could attack invading pathogens without any harmful effect on the body . He speculated that these antibodies act as bullets fired from a gun to target specific microbes . But after further research , he realised that antibodies sometimes failed to kill microbes . This led him to abandon his first idea on magic bullet .
Lyme disease
While Lyme spirochetes have been found in insects , as well as ticks , reports of actual infectious transmission appear to be rare . Lyme spirochete DNA has been found in semen and breast milk . However , according to the CDC , live spirochetes have not been found in breast milk , urine , or semen and thus is not sexually transmitted .
Tyrannosaurus
Tyrannosaurus may have had infectious saliva used to kill its prey . This theory was first proposed by William Abler . Abler examined the teeth of tyrannosaurids between each tooth serration ; the serrations may have held pieces of carcass with bacteria , giving Tyrannosaurus a deadly , infectious bite much like the Komodo dragon was thought to have . Jack Horner regards Tyrannosaurus tooth serrations as more like cubes in shape than the serrations on a Komodo monitor 's teeth , which are rounded . All forms of saliva contain possibly hazardous bacteria , so the prospect of it being used as a method of predation is disputable .
Entamoeba histolytica
In the vast majority of cases , infection is asymptomatic and the carrier is unaware they are infected . However , in an estimated 10 % of cases E. histolytica causes disease . Once the trophozoites are excysted they colonize the large bowel , remaining on the surface of the mucus layer and feeding on bacteria and food particles . Occasionally , and in response to unknown stimuli , trophozoites move through the mucus layer where they come in contact with the epithelial cell layer and start the pathological process . E. histolytica has a lectin that binds to galactose and N - acetylgalactosamine sugars on the surface of the epithelial cells , The lectin normally is used to bind bacteria for ingestion . The parasite has several enzymes such as pore forming proteins , lipases , and cysteine proteases , which are normally used to digest bacteria in food vacuoles but which can cause lysis of the epithelial cells by inducing cellular necrosis and apoptosis when the trophozoite comes in contact with them and binds via the lectin . Enzymes released allow penetration into intestinal wall and blood vessels , sometimes on to liver and other organs . The trophozoites will then ingest these dead cells . This damage to the epithelial cell layer attracts human immune cells and these in turn can be lysed by the trophozoite , which releases the immune cell 's own lytic enzymes into the surrounding tissue , creating a type of chain reaction and leading to tissue destruction . This destruction manifests itself in the form of an ' ulcer ' in the tissue , typically described as flask - shaped because of its appearance in transverse section . This tissue destruction can also involve blood vessels leading to bloody diarrhea , amebic dysentery . Occasionally , trophozoites enter the bloodstream where they are transported typically to the liver via the portal system . In the liver a similar pathological sequence ensues , leading to amebic liver abscesses . The trophozoites can also end up in other organs , sometimes via the bloodstream , sometimes via liver abscess rupture or fistulas . In all locations , similar pathology can occur .
Herpes simplex
Other identified triggers include local injury to the face , lips , eyes , or mouth ; trauma ; surgery ; radiotherapy ; and exposure to wind , ultraviolet light , or sunlight .
Apoptosis
Apoptosis in HeLa cells is inhibited by proteins produced by the cell ; these inhibitory proteins target retinoblastoma tumor - suppressing proteins . These tumor - suppressing proteins regulate the cell cycle , but are rendered inactive when bound to an inhibitory protein . HPV E6 and E7 are inhibitory proteins expressed by the human papillomavirus , HPV being responsible for the formation of the cervical tumor from which HeLa cells are derived . HPV E6 causes p53 , which regulates the cell cycle , to become inactive . HPV E7 binds to retinoblastoma tumor suppressing proteins and limits its ability to control cell division . These two inhibitory proteins are partially responsible for HeLa cells ' immortality by inhibiting apoptosis to occur . CDV ( Canine Distemper Virus ) is able to induce apoptosis despite the presence of these inhibitory proteins . This is an important oncolytic property of CDV : this virus is capable of killing canine lymphoma cells . Oncoproteins E6 and E7 still leave p53 inactive , but they are not able to avoid the activation of caspases induced from the stress of viral infection . These oncolytic properties provided a promising link between CDV and lymphoma apoptosis , which can lead to development of alternative treatment methods for both canine lymphoma and human non-Hodgkin lymphoma . Defects in the cell cycle are thought to be responsible for the resistance to chemotherapy or radiation by certain tumor cells , so a virus that can induce apoptosis despite defects in the cell cycle is useful for cancer treatment . Treatments
Lyme disease
Several similar but apparently distinct conditions may exist , caused by various species or subspecies of Borrelia in North America . A regionally restricted condition that may be related to Borrelia infection is southern tick - associated rash illness ( STARI ) , also known as Masters ' disease . Amblyomma americanum , known commonly as the lone - star tick , is recognized as the primary vector for STARI . In some parts of the geographical distribution of STARI , Lyme disease is quite rare ( e.g. , Arkansas ) , so patients in these regions experiencing Lyme - like symptoms -- especially if they follow a bite from a lone - star tick -- should consider STARI as a possibility . It is generally a milder condition than Lyme and typically responds well to antibiotic treatment .
Elk
At least 53 species of protist and animal parasites have been identified in elk . Most of these parasites seldom lead to significant mortality among wild or captive elk . Parelaphostrongylus tenuis ( brainworm or meningeal worm ) is a parasitic nematode known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk and other species , leading to death . The definitive host is the white - tailed deer , in which it normally has no ill effects . Snails and slugs , the intermediate hosts , can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing . The liver fluke Fascioloides magna and the nematode Dictyocaulus viviparus are also commonly found parasites that can be fatal to elk . Since infection by either of these parasites can be lethal to some commercial livestock species , their presence in elk herds is of some concern . A
Toxic shock syndrome
Toxic shock syndrome Toxic shock syndrome toxin - 1 protein from staphylococcus Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Fever , rash , skin peeling , low blood pressure Usual onset Rapid Types Staphylococcal ( menstrual and nonmenstrual ) , streptococcal Causes Streptococcus pyogenes or Staphylococcus aureus Risk factors Very absorbent tampons , skin lesions in young children Diagnostic method Based on symptoms Differential diagnosis Septic shock , Kawasaki 's disease , Stevens - Johnson syndrome , scarlet fever Treatment Antibiotics , incision and drainage of any abscesses , intravenous immunoglobulin Prognosis Risk of death : ~ 50 % ( streptococcal ) , ~ 5 % ( staphylococcal ) Frequency 3 per 100,000 per year ( developed world )
Pelvic inflammatory disease
The anatomical structure of the internal organs and tissues of the female reproductive tract provides a pathway for pathogens to ascend from the vagina to the pelvic cavity thorough the infundibulum . The disturbance of the naturally occurring vaginal microbiota associated with bacterial vaginosis increases the risk of PID .
Herpes simplex
A number of topical antivirals are effective for herpes labialis , including acyclovir , penciclovir , and docosanol .
Virus
Penetration follows attachment : Virions enter the host cell through receptor - mediated endocytosis or membrane fusion . This is often called viral entry . The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells . Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose , and fungi one of chitin , so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall . Nearly all plant viruses ( such as tobacco mosaic virus ) can also move directly from cell to cell , in the form of single - stranded nucleoprotein complexes , through pores called plasmodesmata . Bacteria , like plants , have strong cell walls that a virus must breach to infect the cell . Given that bacterial cell walls are much thinner than plant cell walls due to their much smaller size , some viruses have evolved mechanisms that inject their genome into the bacterial cell across the cell wall , while the viral capsid remains outside .
Extinction
Biologist Olivia Judson has advocated the deliberate extinction of certain disease - carrying mosquito species . In a September 25 , 2003 New York Times article , she advocated `` specicide '' of thirty mosquito species by introducing a genetic element which can insert itself into another crucial gene , to create recessive `` knockout genes '' . She says that the Anopheles mosquitoes ( which spread malaria ) and Aedes mosquitoes ( which spread dengue fever , yellow fever , elephantiasis , and other diseases ) represent only 30 species ; eradicating these would save at least one million human lives per annum , at a cost of reducing the genetic diversity of the family Culicidae by only 1 % . She further argues that since species become extinct `` all the time '' the disappearance of a few more will not destroy the ecosystem : `` We 're not left with a wasteland every time a species vanishes . Removing one species sometimes causes shifts in the populations of other species -- but different need not mean worse . '' In addition , anti-malarial and mosquito control programs offer little realistic hope to the 300 million people in developing nations who will be infected with acute illnesses this year . Although trials are ongoing , she writes that if they fail : `` We should consider the ultimate swatting . ''
Lyme disease
Despite Lyme disease ( Borrelia burgdorferi infection ) being a notifiable disease in Scotland since January 1990 which should therefore be reported on the basis of clinical suspicion , it is believed that many GPs are unaware of the requirement . Mandatory reporting , limited to laboratory test results only , was introduced throughout the UK in October 2010 , under the Health Protection ( Notification ) Regulations 2010 .
Lyme disease
Tick bites often go unnoticed because of the small size of the tick in its nymphal stage , as well as tick secretions that prevent the host from feeling any itch or pain from the bite . However , transmission is quite rare , with only about 1 % of recognized tick bites resulting in Lyme disease .
Virus
Viruses are important to the study of molecular and cell biology as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells . The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about aspects of cell biology . For example , viruses have been useful in the study of genetics and helped our understanding of the basic mechanisms of molecular genetics , such as DNA replication , transcription , RNA processing , translation , protein transport , and immunology .
Herpes simplex
Acyclovir is the recommended antiviral for herpes suppressive therapy during the last months of pregnancy . The use of valaciclovir and famciclovir , while potentially improving compliance , have less - well - determined safety in pregnancy .
Toxic shock syndrome
The term `` toxic shock syndrome '' was first used in 1978 by a Denver pediatrician , James K. Todd , to describe the staphylococcal illness in three boys and four girls aged 8 -- 17 years . Even though S. aureus was isolated from mucosal sites in the patients , bacteria could not be isolated from the blood , cerebrospinal fluid , or urine , raising suspicion that a toxin was involved . The authors of the study noted reports of similar staphylococcal illnesses had appeared occasionally as far back as 1927 , but the authors at the time failed to consider the possibility of a connection between toxic shock syndrome and tampon use , as three of the girls who were menstruating when the illness developed were using tampons . Many cases of TSS occurred after tampons were left in the person using them .
Smallpox vaccine
In the early empirical days of vaccination , before Pasteur 's work on establishing the germ theory and Lister 's on antisepsis and asepsis , there was considerable cross-infection . William Woodville , one of the early vaccinators and director of the London Smallpox Hospital is thought to have contaminated the cowpox matter -- the vaccine -- with smallpox matter and this essentially produced variolation . Other vaccine material was not reliably derived from cowpox , but from other skin eruptions of cattle . In modern times , an effective scientific model and controlled production were important in reducing these causes of apparent failure or iatrogenic illness .
Smallpox vaccine
Jenner sent a paper reporting his observations to the Royal Society in April 1797 . Its contents are unknown . It was not submitted formally and there is no mention of it in the Society 's records . Jenner had sent the paper informally to Sir Joseph Banks , the Society 's president , who asked Everard Home for his views . His report , published for the first time in 1999 , was sceptical and called for further vaccinations . These were done and in 1798 Jenner published an analysis of 23 ' cases ' including several individuals who had resisted natural exposure after previous cowpox . It is not known how many Jenner vaccinated or challenged by inoculation with smallpox virus ; e.g. Case 21 included ' several children and adults ' . Crucially all of at least four who Jenner deliberately inoculated with smallpox virus resisted it . These included the first and last patients in a series of arm - to - arm transfers . He concluded that cowpox inoculation was a safe alternative to smallpox inoculation , but rashly claimed that the protective effect was lifelong . This last proved to be incorrect . Jenner also tried to distinguish between ' True ' cowpox which produced the desired result and ' Spurious ' cowpox which was ineffective and / or produced severe reaction . Modern research suggests Jenner was trying to distinguish between effects caused by what would now be recognised as noninfectious vaccine , a different virus ( e.g. paravaccinia / milker 's nodes ) , or contaminating bacterial pathogens . This caused confusion at the time , but would become important criteria in vaccine development . A further source of confusion was Jenner 's belief that fully effective vaccine obtained from cows originated in an equine disease , which he mistakenly referred to as grease . This was criticised at the time but vaccines derived from horsepox were soon introduced and later contributed to the complicated problem of the origin of vaccinia virus , the virus in present - day vaccine .
Lyme disease
A recombinant vaccine against Lyme disease , based on the outer surface protein A ( ospA ) of B. burgdorferi , was developed by SmithKline Beecham . In clinical trials involving more than 10,000 people , the vaccine , called LYMErix , was found to confer protective immunity to Borrelia in 76 % of adults and 100 % of children with only mild or moderate and transient adverse effects . LYMErix was approved on the basis of these trials by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) on 21 December 1998 .
Smallpox vaccine
`` ... scarred the wrists , legs , and forehead of the patient , placed a fresh and kindly pock in each incision and bound it there for eight or ten days , after this time the patient was credibly informed . The patient would then develop a mild case ( of smallpox ) , recover , and thereafter be immune . '' -- Dr. Peter Kennedy
Smallpox vaccine
A major contribution to smallpox vaccination was made in the 1960s by Benjamin Rubin , an American microbiologist working for Wyeth Laboratories . Based on initial tests with textile needles with the eyes cut off transversely half - way he developed the bifurcated needle . This was a sharpened two - prong fork designed to hold one dose of reconstituted freeze - dried vaccine by capillarity . Easy to use with minimum training , cheap to produce ( $5 per 1000 ) , using 4 times less vaccine than other methods , and repeatedly re-usable after flame sterilization , it was used globally in the WHO Smallpox Eradication Campaign from 1968 . Rubin estimated that it was used to do 200 million vaccinations per year during the last years of the campaign . Those closely involved in the campaign were awarded the `` Order of the Bifurcated Needle '' . This , a personal initiative by Donald Henderson , was a lapel badge , designed and made by his daughter , formed from the needle shaped to form an `` O '' . This represented `` Target Zero '' , the objective of the campaign .
Smallpox vaccine
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Smallpox vaccine
Smallpox vaccine was inoculated by scratches into the superficial layers of the skin and a wide variety of instruments was used to achieve this . They ranged from simple needles to multi-pointed and multi-bladed spring - operated instruments specifically designed for the purpose .
Smallpox vaccine
Sydney Arthur Monckton Copeman , an English Government bacteriologist interested in smallpox vaccine investigated the effects on the bacteria in it of various treatments , including glycerine . Glycerine was sometimes used simply as a diluent by some continental vaccine producers . However , Copeman found that vaccine suspended in 50 % chemically - pure glycerine and stored under controlled conditions contained very few `` extraneous '' bacteria and produced satisfactory vaccinations . He later reported that glycerine killed the causative organisms of erysipelas and tuberculosis when they were added to the vaccine in `` considerable quantity '' , and that his method was widely used on the continent . In 1896 , Copeman was asked to supply `` extra good calf vaccine '' to vaccinate the future Edward VIII .
Smallpox vaccine
In the late 1940s and early 1950s , Leslie Collier , an English microbiologist working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine , developed a method for producing a heat - stable freeze - dried vaccine in powdered form . Collier added 0.5 % phenol to the vaccine to reduce the number of bacterial contaminants but the key stage was to add 5 % peptone to the liquid vaccine before it was dispensed into ampoules . This protected the virus during the freeze drying process . After drying the ampoules were sealed under nitrogen . Like other vaccines , once reconstituted it became ineffective after 1 -- 2 days at ambient temperatures . However , the dried vaccine was 100 % effective when reconstituted after 6 months storage at 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) allowing it to be transported to , and stored in , remote tropical areas . Collier 's method was increasingly used and , with minor modifications , became the standard for vaccine production adopted by the WHO Smallpox Eradication Unit when it initiated its global Smallpox Eradication Campaign in 1967 , at which time 23 of 59 manufacturers were using the Lister strain .
Smallpox vaccine
Vaccine produced by Copeman 's method was the only type issued free to public vaccinators by the English Government Vaccine Establishment from 1899 . At the same time the 1898 Vaccination Act banned arm - to - arm vaccination , thus preventing transmission of syphilis by this vaccine . However , private practitioners had to purchase vaccine from commercial producers . Although proper use of glycerine reduced bacterial contamination considerably the crude starting material , scraped from the skin of infected calves , was always heavily contaminated and no vaccine was totally free from bacteria . A survey of vaccines in 1900 found wide variations in bacterial contamination . Vaccine issued by the Government Vaccine Establishment contained 5,000 bacteria per gram , while commercial vaccines contained up to 100,000 per gram . The level of bacterial contamination remained unregulated until the Therapeutic Substances Act , 1925 set an upper limit of 5,000 per gram , and rejected any batch of vaccine found to contain the causative organisms of erysipelas or wound infections . Unfortunately glycerolated vaccine soon lost its potency at ambient temperatures which restricted its use in tropical climates . However , it remained in use into the 1970s where a satisfactory cold chain was available . Animals continued to be widely used by vaccine producers during the Smallpox Eradication Campaign . A WHO survey of 59 producers , some of whom used more than one source of vaccine , found that 39 used calves , 12 used sheep and 6 used water buffalo , whilst only 3 made vaccine in cell culture and 3 in embryonated hens ' eggs . English vaccine was occasionally made in sheep during World War I but from 1946 only sheep were used .
Chickenpox
Treatment mainly consists of easing the symptoms . As a protective measure , people are usually required to stay at home while they are infectious to avoid spreading the disease to others . Cutting the nails short or wearing gloves may prevent scratching and minimize the risk of secondary infections .
Chickenpox
Although there have been no formal clinical studies evaluating the effectiveness of topical application of calamine lotion ( a topical barrier preparation containing zinc oxide , and one of the most commonly used interventions ) , it has an excellent safety profile . It is important to maintain good hygiene and daily cleaning of skin with warm water to avoid secondary bacterial infection . Scratching may also increase the risk of secondary infection .
Lyme disease
Action can be taken to avoid getting bitten by ticks by using insect repellants , for example , those that contain DEET . DEET - containing repellants are thought to be moderately effective in the prevention of tick bites .