vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Gerardus Mercator
The second part of the Atlas contains the maps but each section has its own title page , dedication and preface , and every country is succinctly supplemented by text describing a mixture of history , royal genealogy , ecclesiastical hierarchies , list of universities and occasionally facets of contemporary economy . Every place mentioned in the text is given its geographic coordinates to the nearest minute .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
It will also be necessary to generate the list of footnotes ( where the citation text is actually displayed ) ; for this , see the previous section .
Aeneas
The history of Aeneas was continued by Roman authors . One influential source was the account of Rome 's founding in Cato the Elder 's Origines . The Aeneas legend was well known in Virgil 's day and appeared in various historical works , including the Roman Antiquities of the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus ( relying on Marcus Terentius Varro ) , Ab Urbe Condita by Livy ( probably dependent on Quintus Fabius Pictor , fl. 200 BCE ) , and Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus ( now extant only in an epitome by Justin ) .
River Thames
The River Thames has played several roles in human history : as an economic resource , a maritime route , a boundary , a fresh water source , a source of food and more recently a leisure facility . In 1929 , John Burns , one - time MP for Battersea , responded to an American 's unfavourable comparison of the Thames with the Mississippi by coining the expression `` The Thames is liquid history '' .
Competitive intelligence
As a result , although the Internet is viewed as a key source , most CI professionals should spend their time and budget gathering intelligence using primary research -- networking with industry experts , from trade shows and conferences , from their own customers and suppliers , and so on . Where the Internet is used , it is to gather sources for primary research as well as information on what the company says about itself and its online presence ( in the form of links to other companies , its strategy regarding search engines and online advertising , mentions in discussion forums and on blogs , etc . ) . Also , important are online subscription databases and news aggregation sources which have simplified the secondary source collection process . Social media sources are also becoming important -- providing potential interviewee names , as well as opinions and attitudes , and sometimes breaking news ( e.g. , via Twitter ) .
History of childhood
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject . You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )
Historian
Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century , with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad 's life in the centuries following his death . With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources , scholars had to verify which sources were more reliable . To evaluate these sources , they developed various methodologies , such as the science of biography , science of hadith and Isnad ( chain of transmission ) . They later applied these methodologies to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization . Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah ( d . 712 ) , Wahb ibn Munabbih ( d . 728 ) , Ibn Ishaq ( d . 761 ) , al - Waqidi ( 745 -- 822 ) , Ibn Hisham ( d . 834 ) , Muhammad al - Bukhari ( 810 -- 870 ) and Ibn Hajar ( 1372 -- 1449 ) .
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history : classical civilisation , or Antiquity ; the Middle Ages ; and the Modern Period .
Cold War
Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse , several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified . Historians commonly speak of three differing approaches to the study of the Cold War : `` orthodox '' accounts , `` revisionism '' , and `` post-revisionism '' .
Edward Augustus Freeman
via Archive.org Jump up ^ See Freeman , Edward Augustus ( 1879 ) . Historical Essays . III ( 1 ed . ) . London : Macmillan . Retrieved 23 September 2014 . via Archive.org Jump up ^ Freeman , Edward Augustus ( 1892 ) . Historical Essays. IV ( 1 ed . ) . London : Macmillan . Retrieved 23 September 2014 . via Archive.org Jump up ^ See Freeman , Edward Augustus ( 1863 ) . History of the Federal Government from the Foundation of the Archaian League to the disruption of the United States ( 1 ed . ) . London : Macmillan . Retrieved 13 July 2014 . via Archive.org Jump up ^ See Freeman , Edward Augustus ( 1893 ) . Bury , J.B. , ed . History of the Federal Government in Greece and Italy ( 2 ed . ) . London : Macmillan . Retrieved 13 July 2014 . via Archive.org Jump up ^ Hudson , William Henry ( 1920 ) . Dead Man 's Plack and an Old Thorn . Jump up ^ Tait , James ( comp . ) ( 1894 ) Catalogue of the Freeman Library Presented to the Owens College by the Legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth , Bart . Manchester : T. Sowler . Jump up ^ `` Edward Freeman Papers ''
Great Depression
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Hellenistic period
While a few fragments exist , there is no complete surviving historical work which dates to the hundred years following Alexander 's death . The works of the major Hellenistic historians Hieronymus of Cardia ( who worked under Alexander , Antigonus I and other successors ) , Duris of Samos and Phylarchus which were used by surviving sources are all lost . The earliest and most credible surviving source for the Hellenistic period is Polybius of Megalopolis ( c. 200 - 118 ) , a statesman of the Achaean League until 168 BC when he was forced to go to Rome as a hostage . His Histories eventually grew to a length of forty books , covering the years 220 to 167 BC .
Primary election
The means by which the candidate of an established political party is selected has evolved . Until 2012 , none of the six Presidents elected through direct election faced a competitive internal election .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
The most popular and enduring narrative of the Spanish campaign in central Mexico is by New England - born nineteenth - century historian William Hickling Prescott . His History of the Conquest of Mexico , first published in 1843 , remains an engaging narrative of the conquest , based on a large number of sources copied from the Spanish archives . Prescott based his narrative history on primary source documentation , mainly from the Spanish viewpoint , but it is likely that the copy of the Spanish text of the 1585 revision of Bernardino de Sahagǘn 's account of the conquest was done for Prescott 's history .
Stamp Act 1765
Colonial newspapers were a major source of public unrest after the passage of the Stamp Act . Some of the earliest forms of American propaganda appeared in these printings in response to the law . The articles written in colonial newspapers were particularly critical of the act because of the Stamp Act 's disproportionate effect on printers . David Ramsay , a patriot and historian from South Carolina , wrote of this phenomenon shortly after the American Revolution :
History of Mexico
Education was encouraged by the Crown from the very beginning , and Mexico boasts the first primary school ( Texcoco , 1523 ) , first university , the University of Mexico ( 1551 ) and the first printing press ( 1524 ) of the Americas . Indigenous languages were studied mainly by the religious orders during the first centuries , and became official languages in the so - called Republic of Indians , only to be outlawed and ignored after independence by the prevailing Spanish - speaking creoles .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
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Wikipedia:Citing sources
If an article contains a list of general references , this is usually placed in a separate section , titled ( for example ) `` References '' . This usually comes immediately after the section ( s ) listing footnotes , if any . ( If the general references section is called `` References '' , then the citations section is usually called `` Notes '' . ) How
History of Maryland
Cumberland was Maryland 's second largest city in the 19th century , with ample nearby supplies of coal , iron ore and timber . These resources , along with railroads , the National Road and the C&O Canal , fostered its growth . The city was a major manufacturing center , with industries in glass , breweries , fabrics and tinplate .
My Three Sons
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Primary election
The first primaries in the history of Russia were held in May 2000 in St. Petersburg , the local branches of the parties Yabloko and the Union of Right Forces , who before the Gubernatorial election offered citizens to choose a single candidate from the democratic opposition .
Historian
Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism , including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes . Friedrich Engels wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , which was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on , e.g. the Fabian Society . R.H. Tawney 's The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century ( 1912 ) and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism ( 1926 ) , reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history . A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain ( CPGB ) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians , who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society . Members included Christopher Hill , Eric Hobsbawm and E.P. Thompson .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
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Influence of the French Revolution
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Gerardus Mercator
As an example of the textual content the section on the British Isles mentions ( amongst other things ) : alternative names ; the etymology of British and its relation to woad painted tribes ; climate ; lack of snakes ; the seemly manners of the populace ; coroners and ecclesiastical courts ; lists of counties , bishoprics and universities ; the structure of aristocracy ; and much more , even a list of recommended reading . Back to contents
History of chemistry
The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present . By 1000 BC , civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry . Examples include extracting metals from ores , making pottery and glazes , fermenting beer and wine , extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume , rendering fat into soap , making glass , and making alloys like bronze .
River Thames
The marks of human activity , in some cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain , are visible at various points along the river . These include a variety of structures connected with use of the river , such as navigations , bridges and watermills , as well as prehistoric burial mounds . A major maritime route is formed for much of its length for shipping and supplies : through the Port of London for international trade , internally along its length and by its connection to the British canal system . The river 's position has put it at the centre of many events in British history , leading to it being described by John Burns as `` liquid history '' .
Education in ancient Rome
Typically , elementary education in the Roman world focused on the requirements of everyday life , reading , and writing . The students would progress up from reading and writing letters , to syllables , to word lists , eventually memorizing and dictating texts . The majority of the texts used in early Roman education were literature , predominantly poetry . Greek poets , such as Homer and Hesiod , were frequently used as classroom examples due to the lack of Roman literature . Roman students were expected to work on their own . There was little sense of a class as a cohesive unit , exemplified by students coming and going at different times throughout the day . Young Roman students faced no formal examinations or tests . Their performance was measured through exercises that were either corrected or applauded based on performance . This created an unavoidable sense of competition amongst students .
History of United States prison systems
Jacksonian - era reformers and prison officials began seeking the origins of crime in the personal histories of criminals and traced the roots of crime to society itself . In the words of historian David Rothman , `` They were certain that children lacking discipline quickly fell victim to the influence of vice at loose in the community . '' Jacksonian reformers specifically tied rapid population growth and social mobility to the disorder and immorality of contemporary society .
Mali Empire
Imperial Mali is best known through three primary sources : the first is the account of Shihab al - ' Umari , written in about 1340 by a geographer - administrator in Mamluk Egypt . His information about the empire came from visiting Malians taking the hajj , or pilgrim 's voyage to Mecca . He had first - hand information from several sources , and from a second - hand source , he learned of the visit of Mansa Musa . The second account is that of the traveller Ibn Battuta , who visited Mali in 1352 . This is the first account of a West African kingdom made directly by an eyewitness ; the others are usually second - hand . The third great account is that of Ibn Khaldun , who wrote in the early 15th century . While the accounts are of limited length , they provide a fairly good picture of the empire at its height .
History of Maryland
History of Maryland By year Pre-statehood American Revolution U.S. Civil War Post-Civil War Topics : Maritime history Maryland portal
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
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Theses on the Philosophy of History
Theses on the Philosophy of History ( also On the Concept of History , from German : Über den Begriff der Geschichte ) is an essay written in early 1940 by German philosopher and critic Walter Benjamin . It is one of Benjamin 's best - known , and most controversial works .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Smith ( 2009 ) , p. 99 , cited in Jones ( 2010 ) , p. 29 .
Public administration
Notable scholars of public administration have come from a range of fields . In the period before public administration existed as its own independent discipline , scholars contributing to the field came from economics , sociology , management , political science , administrative law , and , other related fields . More recently , scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories .
Colonial history of the United States
In recent years , historians have enlarged their perspective to cover the entire Atlantic world in a subfield now known as Atlantic history . Of special interest are such themes as international migration , trade , colonization , comparative military and governmental institutions , the transmission of religions and missionary work , and the slave trade . It was the Age of the Enlightenment , and ideas flowed back and forth across the Atlantic , with Philadelphian Benjamin Franklin playing a major role .
Modern history
The changes were accompanied by violent turmoil which included the trial and execution of the king , vast bloodshed and repression during the Reign of Terror , and warfare involving every other major European power . Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars , two separate restorations of the monarchy , and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape . In the following century , France would be governed at one point or another as a republic , constitutional monarchy , and two different empires . National
History of childhood
The history of childhood has been a topic of interest in social history since the highly influential book Centuries of Childhood , published by French historian Philippe Ariès in 1960 . He argued `` childhood '' as a concept was created by modern society . Ariès studied paintings , gravestones , furniture , and school records . He found before the 17th - century , children were represented as mini-adults .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
^ Miller 2005 , p. 23 . ^ Brown 2006 , p. 46 . ^ Miller 2005 , p. 34 .
Primary election
This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( December 2012 )
Founding Fathers of the United States
The National Archives and Records Administration also known as NARA , defines U.S. Founding Documents , or Charters of Freedom , as the Declaration of Independence ( 1776 ) , The Constitution ( 1787 ) and the Bill of Rights ( 1791 ) . These original instruments which represent the philosophy of the United States are housed in Washington , D.C. in the NARA Rotunda . The Library of Congress further identifies the Articles of Confederation , also preserved at NARA , as a primary U.S. document . The Articles of Confederation served as the first constitution of the United States until its replacement by the present Constitution on March 4 , 1789 .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
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Nation state
Historians often look to the past to find the origins of a particular nation state . Indeed , they often put so much emphasis on the importance of the nation state in modern times , that they distort the history of earlier periods in order to emphasize the question of origins . Lansing and English argue that much of the medieval history of Europe was structured to follow the historical winners -- especially the nation states that emerged around Paris and London . Important developments that did not directly lead to a nation state get neglected , they argue :
Modern history
Historians consider the early modern period to be approximately between 1500 and 1800 . It follows the Late Middle Ages period and is marked by the first European colonies , the rise of strong centralized governments , and the beginnings of recognizable nation - states that are the direct antecedents of today 's states .
Education in ancient Rome
It was typical for Roman children of wealthy families to receive their early education from private tutors . However , it was common for children of more humble means to be instructed in a primary school , traditionally known as a ludus litterarius . An instructor in such a school was often known as a litterator or litteratus , which was seen as a more respectable title . There was nothing stopping a litterator from setting up his own school , aside from his meager wages . There were never any established locations for a ludus litterarius . They could be found in a variety of places , anywhere from a private residence to a gymnasium , or even in the street .
History of Texas
During World War II the main universities like University of Texas and Texas A&M University gained a new national role . The wartime financing of university research , curricular change , campus trainee programs , and postwar veteran enrollments changed the tenor and allowed Texas schools to gain national stature .
Wales
Other sources of Welsh folklore include the 9th - century Latin historical compilation Historia Britonum ( the History of the Britons ) and Geoffrey of Monmouth 's 12th - century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae ( the History of the Kings of Britain ) , as well as later folklore , such as The Welsh Fairy Book by W. Jenkyn Thomas .
The Rite of Spring
Taruskin has listed a number of sources that Roerich consulted when creating his designs . Among these are the Primary Chronicle , a 12th - century compendium of early pagan customs , and Alexander Afanasyev 's study of peasant folklore and pagan prehistory . The Princess Tenisheva 's collection of costumes was an early source of inspiration . When the designs were complete , Stravinsky expressed delight and declared them `` a real miracle '' .
Novel
Prefaces and title pages of 17th -- and early 18th - century fiction acknowledged this pattern : histories could claim to be romances , but threaten to relate true events , as in the Roman à clef . Other works could , conversely , claim to be factual histories , yet earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented . A further differentiation was made between private and public history : Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe was , within this pattern , neither a `` romance '' nor a `` novel '' . It smelled of romance , yet the preface stated that it should most certainly be read as a true private history .
History of democracy
Another claim for early democratic institutions comes from the independent `` republics '' of India , sanghas and ganas , which existed as early as the 6th century B.C. and persisted in some areas until the 4th century . The evidence for this is scattered , however , and no pure historical source exists for that period . In addition , Diodorus -- a Greek historian who wrote two centuries after the time of Alexander the Great 's invasion of India -- mentions , without offering any detail , that independent and democratic states existed in India . Modern scholars note the word democracy at the time of the 3rd century B.C. and later suffered from degradation and could mean any autonomous state , no matter how oligarchic in nature .
Historian
An undergraduate history degree is often used as a stepping stone to graduate studies in business or law . Many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary education . In addition , it is normal for colleges and universities to require the PhD degree for new full - time hires , and a master 's degree for part - timers . Publication is increasingly required by smaller schools , so graduate papers become journal articles and PhD dissertations become published monographs . The graduate student experience is difficult -- those who finish their doctorate in the United States take on average 8 or more years ; funding is scarce except at a few very rich universities . Being a teaching assistant in a course is required in some programs ; in others it is a paid opportunity awarded a fraction of the students . Until the 1980s it was rare for graduate programs to teach how to teach ; the assumption was that teaching was easy and that learning how to do research was the main mission .
Colonial history of the United States
Historians debate how influential Christianity was in the era of the American Revolution . Many of the founding fathers were active in a local church ; some of them had Deist sentiments , such as Jefferson , Franklin , and Washington .