vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Italian nationalism
Italian nationalism builds upon the idea that Italians are the ethnic , cultural , and linguistic successors of the ancient Romans who inhabited the Italian Peninsula for over a millennium . The origins of Italian nationalism have been traced to the Renaissance . Italian nationalism first arose as a potent political force in the 1830s in the Italian peninsula under the leadership of Giuseppe Mazzini . It served as a cause for Risorgimento in the 1860s to 1870s . Italian nationalism became strong again in World War I with Italian irredentist claims to territories held by Austria - Hungary , and during the era of Italian Fascism .
Third Rome
The term appeared for the first time during the debates of Prime Minister Ioannis Kolettis with King Otto that preceded the promulgation of the 1844 constitution . This was a visionary nationalist aspiration that was to dominate foreign relations and , to a significant extent , determine domestic politics of the Greek state for much of the first century of independence . The expression was new in 1844 but the concept had roots in the Greek popular psyche . It long had hopes of liberation from Turkish rule and restoration of the Byzantine Empire .
Colosseum
Although the Colossus was preserved , much of the Domus Aurea was torn down . The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre . Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea . Vespasian 's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero 's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use . In contrast to many other amphitheatres , which were located on the outskirts of a city , the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre ; in effect , placing it both symbolically and precisely at the heart of Rome .
World War II
The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919 , and a democratic government , later known as the Weimar Republic , was created . The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left . Italy , as an Entente ally , had made some post-war territorial gains ; however , Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement . From 1922 to 1925 , the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist , totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist , left - wing and liberal forces , and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power , promising the creation of a `` New Roman Empire '' . Adolf
History of the Roman Empire
Hadrian was the first emperor to extensively tour the provinces , donating money for local construction projects as he went . In Britain , he ordered the construction of a wall , the famous Hadrian 's Wall as well as various other such defences in Germania and Northern Africa . His domestic policy was one of relative peace and prosperity .
Congress of Vienna
Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918 , the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace . Besides , the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress . The Italian peninsula became a mere `` geographical expression '' as divided into seven parts : Lombardy -- Venetia , Modena , Naples -- Sicily , Parma , Piedmont -- Sardinia , Tuscany , and the Papal States under the control of different powers . Poland remained partitioned among Russia , Prussia and Austria , with the largest part , the newly created Kingdom of Poland , remaining under Russian control .
Western Roman Empire
The reign of Honorius was , even by Western Roman standards , chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles . The Visigothic foederati under Alaric , magister militum in Illyricum , rebelled as early as 395 . Gildo , the Comes Africae and Magister utriusque militiae per Africam , rebelled in 397 and initiated the Gildonic War . Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was away in Raetia when the Visigoths entered Italy in 402 . Stilicho , hurrying back to aid in defending Italy , summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back to Illyria . Barbarian
Italian Empire
After the United Kingdom signed the Anglo - Italian Easter Accords in 1938 , Mussolini and foreign minister Ciano issued demands for concessions in the Mediterranean by France , particularly regarding Djibouti , Tunisia and the French - run Suez Canal . Three weeks later , Mussolini told Ciano that he intended for Italy to demand an Italian takeover of Albania . Mussolini professed that Italy would only be able to `` breathe easily '' if it had acquired a contiguous colonial domain in Africa from the Atlantic to the Indian Oceans , and when ten million Italians had settled in them . In 1938 , Italy demanded a sphere of influence in the Suez Canal in Egypt , specifically demanding that the French - dominated Suez Canal Company accept an Italian representative on its board of directors . Italy opposed the French monopoly over the Suez Canal because , under the French - dominated Suez Canal Company , all Italian merchant traffic to its colony of Italian East Africa was forced to pay tolls on entering the canal .
Education in ancient Rome
Later in Roman history , the practice of declamation became focused more on the art of delivery as opposed to training to speak on important issues in the courts . Tacitus pointed out that during his day ( the second half of the 1st century AD ) , students had begun to lose sight of legal disputes and had started to focus more of their training on the art of storytelling .
Axis powers
From 1940 to 1941 , Franco endorsed a Latin Bloc of Italy , Vichy France , Spain , and Portugal , with support from the Vatican in order to balance the countries ' powers to that of Germany . Franco discussed the Latin Bloc alliance with Pétain of Vichy France in Montpellier , France in 1940 , and with Mussolini in Bordighera , Italy .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Until late in the fourth century the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch attacks against its enemies in Germania and in the Sassanid Empire . Receptio of barbarians became widely practiced : imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire , split them up , and allotted to them lands , status , and duties within the imperial system . In this way many groups provided unfree workers ( coloni ) for Roman landowners , and recruits ( laeti ) for the Roman army . Sometimes their leaders became officers . Normally the Romans managed the process carefully , with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance , and cultural assimilation followed over the next generation or two . Map
Axis powers
After entering the war in 1940 , Italy had been slated to be granted a series of territorial concessions from France that Hitler had agreed to with Italian foreign minister Ciano , that included Italian annexation of claimed territories in southeastern France , a military occupation of southeastern France up to the river Rhone , and receiving the French colonies of Tunisia and Djibouti . However , on 22 June 1940 , Mussolini suddenly informed Hitler that Italy was abandoning its claims `` in the Rhone , Corsica , Tunisia , and Djibouti '' , instead requesting a demilitarized zone along the French border , and on 24 June Italy agreed to an armistice with the Vichy regime to that effect . Later on 7 July 1940 , the Italian government changed its decision , and Ciano attempted to make an agreement with Hitler to have Nice , Corsica , Tunisia , and Djibouti be transferred to Italy ; Hitler adamantly rejected any new settlement or separate French - Italian peace agreement for the time being prior to the defeat of Britain in the war . However Italy continued to press Germany for the incorporation of Nice , Corsica , and Tunisia into Italy , with Mussolini sending a letter to Hitler in October 1940 , informing him that as the 850,000 Italians living under France 's current borders formed the largest minority community , that ceding these territories to Italy would be beneficial to both Germany and Italy as it would reduce France 's population from 35 million to 34 and forestall any possibility of resumed French ambitions for expansion or hegemony in Europe . Germany had considered the possibility of invading and occupying the non-occupied territories of Vichy France including occupying Corsica ; Germany capturing the Vichy French fleet for use by Germany , in December 1940 with the proposed Operation Attila . An invasion of Vichy France by Germany and Italy took place with Case Anton in November 1942 .
World War I
Italy had been allied with the German and Austro - Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance . However , the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino , the Austrian Littoral , Fiume ( Rijeka ) and Dalmatia . Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France , effectively nullifying its part in the Triple Alliance . At the start of hostilities , Italy refused to commit troops , arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive and that Austria - Hungary was an aggressor . The Austro - Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality , offering the French colony of Tunisia in return . The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would receive the Southern Tyrol , Austrian Littoral and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria - Hungary . This was formalised by the Treaty of London . Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April 1915 , Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria - Hungary on 23 May . Fifteen months later , Italy declared war on Germany . Austro
Macedonia (terminology)
The Greek ethnographer Nicolaides , the Austrian Meinhard , and the Bulgarian Kǎnčev placed the northern boundary of Macedonia at the Šar Mountains and the Crna hills , as had scholars before 1878 . The Serb Gopčevič preferred a line much further south , assigning the entire region from Skopje to Strumica to `` Old Serbia '' ; and some later Greek geographers have defined a more restricted Macedonia . In addition , maps might vary in smaller details : as to whether this town or that was Macedonian . One Italian map included Prizren , where Nicolaides and Meinhard had drawn the boundary just south of it . On the south and west , Grevena , Korçë , and Konitsa varied from map to map ; on the east , the usual line is the lower Mesta / Nestos river and then north or northwest , but one German geographer takes the line so far west as to exclude Bansko and Nevrokop / Gotse Delchev .
Western Roman Empire
Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity between the Germanic foes , however , controlling both frontiers altogether during wartime was difficult . If the emperor was near the border in the East , chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa . This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors . By the time of the Crisis of the Third Century , usurpation became a common method of succession , Philip the Arab , Trebonianus Gallus and Aemilianus were all usurping generals - turned - emperors whose rule would end with the usurpation by another powerful general .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
One notable point of apparent difference between the prophecy and history might seem to be expressly limited to the fourth part of the Roman Earth , but in the history of the period the devastations of the pale horse extended over all . The fourth seal prophecy seems to mark the malignant climax of the evils of the two preceding seals to which no such limitation is attached . Turning to that remarkable reading in Jerome 's Latin Vulgate which reads `` over the four parts of the earth , '' it requires that the Roman empire should have some kind of quadripartition . Dividing from the central or Italian fourth , three great divisions of the Empire separated into the West , East and Illyricum under Posthumus , Aureolus and Zenobia respectively -- divisions that were later legitimized by Diocletian .
Third Rome
As the Greek influence grew , much of European Mediterranean was colonised and Hellenised . This included modern Italy from Sicily to Naples ( founded by the Greeks as Neapolis ) . In particular , the Latin people and the City - state of Rome was Hellenised to an extent where they adopted Greek philosophy , architecture , writing system and religion and made it their own , much like the Greeks had adopted the Minoan culture . As the Romans expanded their power and conquered all of Southern and most of Western and Central Europe , these regions were Romanised , many of them to an extent that they adopted the Roman identity , Latin as their primary language ( e.g. all of France and Iberia ) , and as Rome converted to Christendom , so did all of Roman Europe . As the West Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD , Roman civilisation in Western Europe was severely damaged , and the European Dark Ages began . The
Secession in the United States
Debates on the legality of secession often looked back to the example of the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence . Law professor Daniel Farber defined what he considered the borders of this debate :
Italian Australians
Even in the Italian literature of the 1890s and early 1900s on travel reports and descriptions of Australia , there are notes about these frictions . The Italian Geographical Society ( Societa ' Geografica Italiana ) reported as follows about the few Italian settlements in Australia :
Third Rome
In Italy , the concept of a `` Third Rome '' is related to the capital of the Kingdom of Italy , created in 1861 , and the current Italian Republic , created in 1946 .
Education reform
Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn . In The Republic , he said , `` ... compulsory learning never sticks in the mind . '' An educational debate in the time of the Roman Empire arose after Christianity had achieved broad acceptance . The question concerned the educational value of pre-Christian classical thought : `` Given that the body of knowledge of the pre-Christian Romans was heathen in origin , was it safe to teach it to Christian children ? ''
Italian Empire
In 1922 , the leader of the Italian fascist movement , Benito Mussolini , became Prime Minister of Italy after the March on Rome . Mussolini resolved the question of sovereignty over the Dodecanese at the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne , which formalized Italian administration of both Libya and the Dodecanese Islands , in return for a payment to Turkey , the successor state to the Ottoman Empire , though he failed in an attempt to extract a mandate of a portion of Iraq from Britain .
Economic history of Italy
During the 17th and 18th centuries Italy experienced a decline in relative economic standing . Military conflicts , political fractionalization , limited fiscal capacity and the shift of world trade to north - western Europe are factors which slowed down Italian development .
Indo-Roman trade relations
India , China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate : that is what our luxuries and women cost us . For what fraction of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead ? --
Romeo and Juliet
However , the reference is part of a polemic against the moral decay of Florence , Lombardy , and the Italian Peninsula as a whole ; Dante , through his characters , chastises German King Albert I for neglecting his responsibilities towards Italy ( `` you who are negligent '' ) , and successive popes for their encroachment from purely spiritual affairs , thus leading to a climate of incessant bickering and warfare between rival political parties in Lombardy . History records the name of the family Montague as being lent to such a political party in Verona , but that of the Capulets as from a Cremonese family , both of whom play out their conflict in Lombardy as a whole rather than within the confines of Verona . Allied to rival political factions , the parties are grieving ( `` One lot already grieving '' ) because their endless warfare has led to the destruction of both parties , rather than a grief from the loss of their ill - fated offspring as the play sets forth , which appears to be a solely poetic creation within this context .
Say Uncle
Although it is often regarded as an Americanism , there are at least two differing theories as to the true origin of the phrase : ancient Rome and 19th - century in England .
Balkans
The identity of the Balkans is dominated by its geographical position ; historically the area was known as a crossroads of cultures . It has been a juncture between the Latin and Greek bodies of the Roman Empire , the destination of a massive influx of pagan Bulgars and Slavs , an area where Orthodox and Catholic Christianity met , as well as the meeting point between Islam and Christianity .
Military history of Italy during World War II
Beginning in 1939 Mussolini often voiced his contention that Italy required uncontested access to the world 's oceans and shipping lanes to ensure its national sovereignty . On 4 February 1939 , Mussolini addressed the Grand Council in a closed session . He delivered a long speech on international affairs and the goals of his foreign policy , `` which bears comparison with Hitler 's notorious disposition , minuted by colonel Hossbach '' . He began by claiming that the freedom of a country is proportional to the strength of its navy . This was followed by `` the familiar lament that Italy was a prisoner in the Mediterranean '' . He called Corsica , Tunisia , Malta , and Cyprus `` the bars of this prison '' , and described Gibraltar and Suez as the prison guards . To break British control , her bases on Cyprus , Gibraltar , Malta , and in Egypt ( controlling the Suez Canal ) would have to be neutralized . On 31 March , Mussolini stated that `` Italy will not truly be an independent nation so long as she has Corsica , Bizerta , Malta as the bars of her Mediterranean prison and Gibraltar and Suez as the walls . '' Fascist foreign policy took for granted that the democracies -- Britain and France -- would someday need to be faced down . Through armed conquest Italian North Africa and Italian East Africa -- separated by the Anglo - Egyptian Sudan -- would be linked , and the Mediterranean prison destroyed . Then , Italy would be able to march `` either to the Indian Ocean through the Sudan and Abyssinia , or to the Atlantic by way of French North Africa '' .
Punic Wars
In 200 BC , the Roman Republic had gained control of the Italian peninsula south of the Po River . Unlike Carthage , Rome had a large and disciplined army , but lacked a navy at the start of the First Punic War . This left the Romans at a disadvantage until the construction of large fleets during the war .
Italian Australians
A few years later , Italians were again the subject of public discussion in Western Australia . The gold rush of the early 1890s in Western Australia and the subsequent labour disputes at the mines had belatedly attracted Italians in large number , both from Victoria and Italy itself . Most of them were unskilled and therefore usually employed on the surface of the mines , or cutting , loading and carting wood nearby . Pyke so described the situation :
Military history of Italy during World War II
In June 1940 , after initial success , the Italian offensive into southern France stalled at the fortified Alpine Line . On 24 June 1940 , France surrendered to Germany . Italy occupied a swathe of French territory along the Franco - Italian border . During this operation , Italian casualties amounted to 1,247 men dead or missing and 2,631 wounded . A further 2,151 Italians were hospitalised due to frostbite .
Military history of Italy during World War II
By the summer of 1943 , Rome had withdrawn the remnants of these troops to Italy . Many of the Italian POWs captured in the Soviet Union died in captivity due to the harsh conditions in the Soviet prison camps .
Macedonia (terminology)
In a historic context , the term Macedonia was used in various ways . Macedonia was not an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire ; its entire territory was part of the beylerbeylik of Rumelia . The geographer H. R. Wilkinson suggests that the region `` defies definition '' but that many mappers agree `` on its general location '' . Macedonia was well enough defined in 1897 for Gladstone to propose `` Macedonia for the Macedonians '' ; philhellenes argued that the phrase could not be used by a man of impartiallity , while Turcophiles asserted that there are six different kinds of Macedonians , and only Turkish rule could prevail total anarchy in the region . The Balkan nations began to proclaim their rights to it after the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 and its revision at the Congress of Berlin .
Military history of Italy during World War II
Because of the time it took for the new Italian government to negotiate the armistice , the Germans had time to reinforce their presence in Italy and prepare for their defection . In the first weeks of August they increased the number of divisions in Italy from two to seven and took control of vital infrastructure . Once the signing of the armistice was announced on 8 September , German troops quickly disarmed the Italian forces and took over critical defensive positions in Operation Achse . This included Italian - occupied southeastern France and the Italian - controlled areas in the Balkans . Only in Sardinia , Corsica , and in part of Apulia and Calabria were Italian troops able to hold their positions until the arrival of Allied forces . In the area of Rome , only one infantry division -- the Granatieri di Sardegna -- and some small armoured units fought with commitment , but by 11 September they were overwhelmed by superior German forces .
Italian Australians
As the Restriction Act passed into legislation , there was some confusion as to whether Italians should be let into the country or kept out by means of the ' Dictation test ' provisions , as stated into the Act . The Act did not specify a translation but rather a dictation in a European language , the purpose of the test being to keep non-Europeans out of Australia , as a deterrent to unwanted immigrants . Although the test was initially to be administered in English , it was then changed to any European language , `` mainly through Labour insistence '' . Such a firmly sustained system to select entries into Australia that it remained on the statute books until 1958 , when it was replaced by a system of entry permits . Nevertheless , in the early 1900s , some Italians calling at Fremantle and other Australian ports were refused admission under the provisions of the Act . These latter cases might be indicative of the fact that Western Australia shared the xenophobia of the rest of the world . The reaction was certainly associated with the so - called ' Awakening of Asia ' and ' Yellow Peril ' , which were not exclusively Australian terms . As reported : `` Such concepts combined to produce in Europe a suspicion that the traditional European supremacy around the globe was coming to an end . In Australia that eventually was seen as , or made to appear , a more immediate threatening '' .
Military history of Italy during World War II
In addition , Italian ' cowardice ' did not appear to be more prevalent than the level seen in any army , despite claims of wartime propaganda . Ian Walker wrote :