vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Acts of the Apostles
Acts was read as a reliable history of the early church well into the post-Reformation era . By the 17th century , however , biblical scholars began to notice that it was incomplete and tendentious -- its picture of a harmonious church is quite at odds with that given by Paul 's letters , and it omits important events such as the deaths of both Peter and Paul . The mid-19th - century scholar Ferdinand Baur suggested that Luke had re-written history to present a united Peter and Paul and advance a single orthodoxy against the Marcionites . ( Marcion was a 2nd - century heretic who wished to cut Christianity off entirely from the Jews ) . Baur continues to have enormous influence , but today there is less interest in determining Luke 's historical accuracy ( although this has never died out ) than in understanding his theological program .
Battle of Towton
The fighting continued for three hours , according to research by English Heritage , a government body in charge of conservation of historic sites . It was indecisive until the arrival of Norfolk 's men . Marching up the Old London Road , Norfolk 's contingent was hidden from view until they crested the ridge and attacked the Lancastrian left flank . The Lancastrians continued to give fight but the advantage had shifted to the Yorkists . By the end of the day , the Lancastrian line had broken up , as small groups of men began fleeing for their lives . Polydore Vergil , chronicler for Henry VII of England , claimed that combat lasted for a total of 10 hours .
Battle of Towton
By 1464 , the Yorkists had `` wiped out all effective Lancastrian resistance in the north of England . '' Edward 's reign was not interrupted until 1470 ; by then , his relationship with Warwick had deteriorated to such an extent that the earl defected to the Lancastrians and forced Edward to flee England , restoring Henry to the throne . The interruption of Yorkist rule was brief , as Edward regained his throne after defeating Warwick and his Lancastrian cohorts at the Battle of Barnet in 1471 .
An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture
An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture is a dissertation by the English mathematician and scholar Sir Isaac Newton . This was sent in a letter to John Locke on 14 November 1690 and built upon the textual work of Richard Simon and his own research . The text was first published in English in 1754 , 27 years after his death . The account claimed to review all the textual evidence available from ancient sources on two disputed Bible passages : 1John 5 : 7 and 1Timothy 3 : 16 .
France–United Kingdom relations
During the reign of the closely related Plantagenet dynasty , which was based in its Angevin Empire , half of France was under Angevin control as well as all of England . However , almost all of the Angevin empire was lost to Philip II of France under Richard the Lionheart , John and Henry III of England . This finally gave the English a separate identity as an Anglo - Saxon people under a Francophone , but not French , crown .
Norman conquest of England
When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066 , the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England . Edward 's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex , Harold Godwinson , the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats . Harold was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by the Archbishop of York , Ealdred , although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed by Stigand , the uncanonically elected Archbishop of Canterbury . Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers . Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this ; King Harald III of Norway , commonly known as Harald Hardrada , also contested the succession . His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor , Magnus the Good , and the earlier English king , Harthacnut , whereby if either died without heir , the other would inherit both England and Norway . William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England .
Ancient Egypt
Greek historian Herodotus claimed that ancient Egyptians looked like the people in Colchis ( modern - day Georgia ) . This claim has been largely discredited as fictional by modern - day scholars .
Concordat of Worms
The reign of Henry IV ended with a diminished kingdom and waning power . Many of his underlords had been in constant or desultory revolt for years . Henry IV 's insistence that Antipope Clement III was the real pope had initially been popular with some of the nobles , and even many of the bishops of Germany . But as years passed , this support was slowly withdrawn . The idea that the German king could and should name the pope was increasingly discredited and viewed as an anachronism from a by - gone era . The Empire of the Ottos was virtually lost because of Henry IV .
Elgin Marbles
Many have questioned the legality of Elgin 's actions , including the legitimacy of the documentation purportedly authorising them . A study by Professor David Rudenstine of the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law concluded that the premise that Elgin obtained legal title to the marbles , which he then transferred to the British government , `` is certainly not established and may well be false '' . Rudenstine 's argumentation is partly based on a translation discrepancy he noticed between the surviving Italian document and the English text submitted by Hunt to the parliamentary committee . The text from the committee report reads `` We therefore have written this Letter to you , and expedited it by Mr. Philip Hunt , an English Gentleman , Secretary of the aforesaid Ambassador '' but according to the St. Clair Italian document the actual wording is `` We therefore have written this letter to you and expedited it by N.N. '' . In Rudenstine 's view , this substitution of `` Mr. Philip Hunt '' with the initials `` N.N. '' can hardly be a simple mistake . He further argues that the document was presented after the committee 's insistence that some form of Ottoman written authorisation for the removal of the marbles be provided , a fact known to Hunt by the time he testified . Thus , according to Rudenstine , `` Hunt put himself in a position in which he could simultaneously vouch for the authenticity of the document and explain why he alone had a copy of it fifteen years after he surrendered the original to Ottoman officials in Athens '' . On two earlier occasions , Elgin stated that the Ottomans gave him written permissions more than once , but that he had `` retained none of them . '' Hunt testified on March 13 , and one of the questions asked was `` Did you ever see any of the written permissions which were granted to ( Lord Elgin ) for removing the Marbles from the Temple of Minerva ? '' to which Hunt answered `` yes '' , adding that he possessed an Italian translation of the original firman . Nonetheless , he did not explain why he had retained the translation for 15 years , whereas Elgin , who had testified two weeks earlier , knew nothing about the existence of any such document .
The White Queen (TV series)
A number of anachronisms and historical inaccuracies within the series received attention , especially in the costumes and locations used . Pat Stacey of the Irish Evening Herald newspaper , said that `` the historical howlers are piling up like bodies on a battlefield , week after week '' , comparing it to the `` flaws '' spotted by `` nitpickers '' in Downton Abbey and Foyle 's War . Deborah Ross , of the Daily Mail newspaper , criticised the cleanliness and `` amazing teeth '' of the actors involved , whilst also pointing out glimpses of a modern drainpipe and stair - rail . Bernadette McNulty , of The Daily Telegraph newspaper , commented that in the final episode of the series , the Battle of Bosworth Field appears to take place in a forest rather than a field . Mary McNamara , of the LA Times newspaper , states that in order to fit thirty years of history into ten episodes , `` Years collapse into minutes , intricate policy is condensed into cardboard personalities , and the characters are swiftly categorized as good or evil . '' Others questioned the depiction of the major characters . Amy Licence , Cecily 's biographer , states that Cecily Neville , Duchess of York , is portrayed in the first episode as `` a Cecily straight from the pages of a novel rather than the actual proud aristocrat who asserted her own right to rule '' . Historian Michael Hicks commented , `` They 've fiddled with the chronology '' but added , `` I can see why they decided to restrict the cast of characters , and play up the rivalry between Elizabeth and the Earl of Warwick , '' and also said `` As with Philippa Gregory 's source novels , they 've done their research '' .
Middle Ages
Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities . In Anglo - Saxon England , King Alfred the Great ( r . 871 -- 899 ) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century , resulting in Danish settlements in Northumbria , Mercia , and parts of East Anglia . By the middle of the 10th century , Alfred 's successors had conquered Northumbria , and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain . In northern Britain , Kenneth MacAlpin ( d.c. 860 ) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba . In the early 10th century , the Ottonian dynasty had established itself in Germany , and was engaged in driving back the Magyars . Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of Otto I ( r . 936 -- 973 ) as Holy Roman Emperor . In 972 , he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire , which he sealed with the marriage of his son Otto II ( r . 967 -- 983 ) to Theophanu ( d . 991 ) , daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor Romanos II ( r . 959 -- 963 ) . By the late 10th century Italy had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability ; Otto III ( r . 996 -- 1002 ) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom . The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented , and although kings remained nominally in charge , much of the political power devolved to the local lords .
English Reformation
The historiography of the English Reformation has seen vigorous clashes among dedicated protagonists and scholars for five centuries . The main factual details at the national level have been clear since 1900 , as laid out for example by James Anthony Froude , and Albert Pollard .
The Man in the High Castle
Reported inspirations include Ward Moore 's alternative Civil War history , Bring the Jubilee ( 1953 ) , various classic World War II histories , and the I Ching ( referred to in the novel ) . The novel features a `` novel within the novel '' comprising an alternative history within this alternative history wherein the Allies defeat the Axis ( though in a manner distinct from the actual historical outcome ) .
Justice of the peace
In 1195 , Richard I ( `` the Lionheart '' ) of England and his Minister Hubert Walter commissioned certain knights to preserve the peace in unruly areas . They were responsible to the King for ensuring that the law was upheld and preserving the `` King 's peace '' . Therefore , they were known as `` keepers of the peace '' .
Joan of Arc
The standard accounts of the life of Joan of Arc have been challenged by revisionist authors . Claims made by such authors include : that Joan of Arc was not actually burned at the stake ; that she was secretly the half sister of King Charles VII ; that she was not a true Christian but a member of a pagan cult ; and that most of the story of Joan of Arc is actually a myth . None of these claims are widely accepted by historians .
Tower of London
When Richard II was crowned in 1377 , he led a procession from the Tower to Westminster Abbey . This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660 . During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside . When Richard rode out to meet with Wat Tyler , the rebel leader , a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the Jewel House . The Archbishop of Canterbury , Simon Sudbury , took refuge in St John 's Chapel , hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary . However , he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill . Six years later there was again civil unrest , and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual . When Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399 , Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower . He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke , who became King Henry IV . In the 15th century , there was little building work at the Tower of London , yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge . When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a coup , Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London . During this period , the castle also held many distinguished prisoners . The heir to the Scottish throne , later King James I of Scotland , was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower . The reign of Henry V ( 1413 -- 1422 ) renewed England 's fortune in the Hundred Years ' War against France . As a result of Henry 's victories , such as the Battle of Agincourt , many high - status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed .
The Merchant of Venice
The play was entered in the Register of the Stationers Company , the method at that time of obtaining copyright for a new play , by James Roberts on 22 July 1598 under the title The Merchant of Venice , otherwise called The Jew of Venice . On 28 October 1600 Roberts transferred his right to the play to the stationer Thomas Heyes ; Heyes published the first quarto before the end of the year . It was printed again in a pirated edition in 1619 , as part of William Jaggard 's so - called False Folio . ( Afterward , Thomas Heyes ' son and heir Laurence Heyes asked for and was granted a confirmation of his right to the play , on 8 July 1619 . ) The 1600 edition is generally regarded as being accurate and reliable . It is the basis of the text published in the 1623 First Folio , which adds a number of stage directions , mainly musical cues .
Middle Ages
The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions . One misconception , first propagated in the 19th century and still very common , is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat . This is untrue , as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere . Lindberg and Ronald Numbers , another scholar of the period , state that there `` was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge ( Earth 's ) sphericity and even know its approximate circumference '' . Other misconceptions such as `` the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages '' , `` the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science '' , or `` the medieval Christian Church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy '' , are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth , although they are not supported by historical research .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
By the end of Henry 's reign the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to an aggressive campaign of tallage taxation and fines . Financial and anti-Semite violence grew under Richard I. After the massacre of the York community , in which numerous financial records were destroyed , seven towns were nominated to separately store Jewish bonds and money records and this arrangement ultimately evolved into the Exchequer of the Jews . After an initially peaceful start to John 's reign , the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community , imprisoning the wealthier members , including Isaac of Norwich , until a huge , new taillage was paid . During the Baron 's War of 1215 -- 17 , the Jews were subjected to fresh anti-Semitic attacks . Henry III restored some order and Jewish money - lending became sufficiently successful again to allow fresh taxation . The Jewish community became poorer towards the end of the century and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I , being largely replaced by foreign merchants .
History of the Isle of Wight
The king made several failed attempts to escape , one time famously getting stuck in a castle window . He also had letters smuggled out , most of which were intercepted , which he signed ' J ' to disguise his identity ( donkeys operating the castle 's water - well have subsequently been given names beginning with ' J ' ) . In September 1648 he discussed the Treaty of Newport with the Presbyterian faction of Parliament , which would have granted him a constitutional monarchy . However , he had no intention of accepting its restrictions , and so also conspired for the Scots to invade England on his behalf . This led to his eventual execution on 30 January 1649 .
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
From 1350 to 1400 -- the period in which the poem is thought to have been written -- Wales experienced several raids at the hands of the English , who were attempting to colonise the area . The Gawain poet uses a North West Midlands dialect common on the Welsh -- English border , potentially placing him in the midst of this conflict . Patricia Clare Ingham is credited with first viewing the poem through the lens of postcolonialism , and since then a great deal of dispute has emerged over the extent to which colonial differences play a role in the poem . Most critics agree that gender plays a role , but differ about whether gender supports the colonial ideals or replaces them as English and Welsh cultures interact in the poem .
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
Carolyn Dinshaw argues that the poem may have been a response to accusations that Richard II had a male lover -- an attempt to reestablish the idea that heterosexuality was the Christian norm . Around the time the poem was written , the Catholic Church was beginning to express concerns about kissing between males . Many religious figures were trying to make the distinction between strong trust and friendship between males and homosexuality . Still , the Pearl Poet seems to have been simultaneously entranced and repulsed by homosexual desire . In his other poem Cleanness , he points out several grievous sins , but spends lengthy passages describing them in minute detail . His obsession seems to carry into Gawain in his descriptions of the Green Knight .
The Dark Is Rising Sequence
Pendragon : This is a reference to two characters . First , it is the figurative title referring to status as a leader , of several traditional Kings of the Britons , notably King Arthur . It is also his son in this series , Bran Davies , who is predestined to wield the Crystal Sword of Light that is vital to the final conflict with the Dark . Bran Davies is brought forward in time by Merriman at the request of his mother , Guinevere , who feared that Arthur would reject Bran as a true son because of Guinevere 's affair with Lancelot . Bran is an albino , meaning he has very pale skin and white hair , eyebrows , and eyelashes , but his eyes are an unusual tawny colour . Will meets him in Wales during The Grey King , where they wake the Sleepers using the Harp . In Silver on the Tree , Bran and Will travel to the Lost Land and recover the sword Eirias .
Monty Python and the Holy Grail
The story proper begins in 932 A.D. ( around 400 years later than an Arthurian tale should ) . King Arthur and his squire , Patsy , travel throughout Britain searching for men to join the Knights of the Round Table . Arthur stops at a castle , where the guards ask how Arthur found two coconut halves Patsy uses to simulate the sound of horses galloping . Arthur leaves after his encounter becomes a discussion about African and European swallows . Arthur encounters a Black Knight , who will not let them cross a small bridge . A sword fight ensues with Arthur gaining the upper hand , but the Black Knight continues fighting despite having his arms and legs severed . The Black Knight declares the battle a draw .
History of the Church of England
The Synod of Whitby in 664 forms a significant watershed in that King Oswiu of Northumbria decided to follow Roman rather than Celtic practices . The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain . This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs and local bishops following Celtic ecclesiastical customs was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh ( Streanæshalch ) , later called Whitby Abbey . It was presided over by King Oswiu , who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling .
Third Rome
The concept of a `` Third Rome '' figures greatly in the second memoir of Whittaker Chambers . Although published posthumously as Cold Friday ( 1964 ) , Chambers had planned it from inception as `` The Third Rome '' . A long chapter called `` The Third Rome '' appears in the memoir .
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
The poem is in many ways deeply Christian , with frequent references to the fall of Adam and Eve and to Jesus Christ . Scholars have debated the depth of the Christian elements within the poem by looking at it in the context of the age in which it was written , coming up with varying views as to what represents a Christian element of the poem and what does not . For example , some critics compare Sir Gawain to the other three poems of the Gawain manuscript . Each has a heavily Christian theme , causing scholars to interpret Gawain similarly . Comparing it to the poem Cleanness ( also known as Purity ) , for example , they see it as a story of the apocalyptic fall of a civilisation , in Gawain 's case , Camelot . In this interpretation , Sir Gawain is like Noah , separated from his society and warned by the Green Knight ( who is seen as God 's representative ) of the coming doom of Camelot . Gawain , judged worthy through his test , is spared the doom of the rest of Camelot . King Arthur and his knights , however , misunderstand Gawain 's experience and wear garters themselves . In Cleanness the men who are saved are similarly helpless in warning their society of impending destruction .
History of the Isle of Wight
After the Battle of Hastings in 1066 , the Isle of Wight and the rest of England entered the Norman era . The island has never since been successfully invaded by a foreign army .
The Remains of the Day (film)
The character of Sir Geoffrey Wren is based loosely on that of Sir Oswald Mosley , a British fascist active in the 1930s . Wren is depicted as a strict vegetarian .
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Academic critics have questioned the legitimacy of Smith as a prophet as well as the historical authenticity of the Book of Mormon and the Book of Abraham . Criticism has expanded to include claims of historical revisionism , homophobia , racism , and sexist policies . Notable 20th - century critics include Jerald and Sandra Tanner and historian Fawn Brodie . Evangelical Christians continue to argue that Smith was either fraudulent or delusional .