vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Nine Years' War
The representatives of the Dutch Republic , England , and Spain signed the treaty on 20 September 1697 . Emperor Leopold I , desperate for a continuation of the war so as to strengthen his own claims to the Spanish succession , initially resisted the treaty , but because he was still at war with the Turks , and could not face fighting France alone , he also sought terms and signed on 30 October . The Emperor 's finances were in a bad state , and the dissatisfaction aroused by the raising of Hanover to electoral rank had impaired Leopold I 's influence in Germany . The Protestant princes had also blamed him for the religious clause in the treaty , which stipulated that the lands of the Reunions that France was to surrender would remain Catholic , even those that had been forcibly converted -- a clear defiance of the Westphalia settlement . However , the Emperor had netted an enormous accretion of power : Leopold I 's son , Joseph , had been named King of the Romans ( 1690 ) , and the Emperor 's candidate for the Polish throne , August of Saxony , had carried the day over Louis XIV 's candidate , the Prince of Conti . Additionally , Prince Eugene of Savoy 's decisive victory over the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Zenta -- leading to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 -- consolidated the Austrian Habsburgs and tipped the European balance of power in favour of the Emperor .
Aftermath of the Korean War
President Truman declared a state of national emergency at the outset of the war in December 1950 during which the penalties under numerous federal statutes were automatically escalated . Although the emergency has long since abated , the federal courts have continued to enforce those penalties into the 21st century for acts that occurred while the emergency was at its height .
Anthony Eden
Eden suffered another fever at Chequers over Christmas , but was still talking of going on an official trip to the USSR in April 1957 , wanting a full inquiry into the Crabb affair and badgering Lord Hailsham ( First Lord of the Admiralty ) about the £ 6m being spent on oil storage at Malta .
Axis powers
After the surrender of the Filipino and American forces in Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor Island , the Japanese established a puppet state in the Philippines in 1942 . The following year , the Philippine National Assembly declared the Philippines an independent Republic and elected José Laurel as its President . There was never widespread civilian support for the state , largely because of the general anti-Japanese sentiment stemming from atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese Army . The Second Philippine Republic ended with Japanese surrender in 1945 , and Laurel was arrested and charged with treason by the US government . He was granted amnesty by President Manuel Roxas , and remained active in politics , ultimately winning a seat in the post-war Senate . Vietnam
History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
`` `` On the night of February 2 they sent in a strong detachment to draw the fire of our outposts , which took up a position immediately in front and within a few yards of the same . The outpost was strengthened by a few of our men , who silently bore their taunts and abuse the entire night . This was reported to me by General MacArthur , whom I directed to communicate with the officer in command of the insurgent troops concerned . His prepared letter was shown me and approved , and the reply received was all that could be desired . However , the agreement was ignored by the insurgents and on the evening of February 4 another demonstration was made on one of our small outposts , which occupied a retired position at least 150 yards within the line which had been mutually agreed upon , an insurgent approaching the picket and refusing to halt or answer when challenged . The result was that our picket discharged his piece , when the insurgent troops near Santa Mesa opened a spirited fire on our troops there stationed . `` The insurgents had thus succeeded in drawing the fire of a small outpost , which they had evidently labored with all their ingenuity to accomplish , in order to justify in some way their premeditated attack . It is not believed that the chief insurgent leaders wished to open hostilities at this time , as they were not completely prepared to assume the initiative . They desired two or three days more to perfect their arrangements , but the zeal of their army brought on the crisis which anticipated their premeditated action . They could not have delayed long , however , for it was their object to force an issue before American troops , then en route , could arrive in Manila . '' Thus began the Insurgent attack , so long and so carefully planned for . We learn from the Insurgent records that the shot of the American sentry missed its mark . There was no reason why it should have provoked a hot return fire , but it did . The result of the ensuing combat was not at all what the Insurgents had anticipated . The Americans did not drive very well . It was but a short time before they themselves were routed and driven from their positions . Aguinaldo of course promptly advanced the claim that his troops had been wantonly attacked . The plain fact is that the Insurgent patrol in question deliberately drew the fire of the American sentry , and this was just as much an act of war as was the firing of the shot . Whether the patrol was acting under proper orders from higher authority is not definitely known . '' Surrendered
English Reformation
Having brought down his Chancellor , Cardinal Wolsey , Henry VIII finally resolved to charge the whole English clergy with praemunire to secure their agreement to his annulment . The Statute of Praemunire , which forbade obedience to the authority of the Pope or of any foreign rulers , enacted in 1392 , had been used against individuals in the ordinary course of court proceedings . Now Henry , having first charged Queen Catherine 's supporters , Bishops John Fisher , Nicholas West and Henry Standish and Archdeacon of Exeter , Adam Travers , decided to proceed against the whole clergy . Henry claimed £ 100,000 from the Convocation of Canterbury of the Church of England for their pardon , which was granted by the Convocation on 24 January 1531 . The clergy wanted the payment spread over five years . Henry refused . The Convocation responded by withdrawing their payment altogether , and demanded Henry fulfill certain guarantees before they would give him the money . Henry refused these conditions . He agreed only to the five - year period of payment and added five articles that specified that :
Surrender of Japan
The Supreme Council met at 10 : 30 . Suzuki , who had just come from a meeting with the Emperor , said it was impossible to continue the war . Tōgō Shigenori said that they could accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration , but they needed a guarantee of the Emperor 's position . Navy Minister Yonai said that they had to make some diplomatic proposal -- they could no longer afford to wait for better circumstances .
Korea under Japanese rule
Both the protectorate and the annexation treaties were declared void in the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea because both treaties were obtained under threat of force , and that the Korean Emperor , whose royal assent was required to validate and finalize any legislation or diplomatic agreement under Korean law of the period , refused to sign the document .
Korean War
After MacArthur was removed as Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951 , his successors continued this policy and ultimately extended it to all of North Korea . The U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs , including 32,557 tons of napalm , on Korea , more than during the whole Pacific campaign of World War II . A
Woodrow Wilson
Wilson had earlier downplayed Germany 's guilt in starting the war by calling for `` peace without victory '' , but he had taken an increasingly hard stand at Paris and rejected advice to soften the treaty 's treatment of Germany . In a reversal of his earlier position , in summer 1919 Wilson repeatedly stressed Germany 's guilt , saying the treaty , `` seeks to punish one of the greatest wrongs ever done in history , the wrong which Germany sought to do to the world and to civilization ; and there ought to be no weak purpose with regard to the application of the punishment . She attempted an intolerable thing , and she must be made to pay for the attempt . ''
Middle Ages
Monastic reform inspired change in the secular Church . The ideals that it was based upon were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX ( pope 1049 -- 1054 ) , and provided the ideology of the clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century . This involved Pope Gregory VII ( pope 1073 -- 85 ) and Emperor Henry IV , who initially clashed over episcopal appointments , a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture , clerical marriage , and simony . The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands , but the papacy insisted on the Church 's independence from secular lords . These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms . The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities . It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors . Sénanque
Emperor of Japan
While the Emperor formally appoints the Prime Minister to office , Article 6 of the Constitution requires him to appoint the candidate `` as designated by the Diet '' , without giving the Emperor the right to decline appointment .
Council of Trent
It took a generation for the council to materialise , partly because of papal reluctance , given that a Lutheran demand was the exclusion of the papacy from the Council , and partly because of ongoing political rivalries between France and Germany and the Turkish dangers in the Mediterranean . Under Pope Clement VII ( 1523 -- 34 ) , troops of the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527 , `` raping , killing , burning , stealing , the like had not been seen since the Vandals '' . Saint Peter 's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses . This , together with the Pontiff 's ambivalence between France and Germany , led to his hesitation .
Middle Ages
During the early High Middle Ages , Germany was ruled by the Ottonian dynasty , which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over territorial duchies tracing back to the Migration period . In 1024 , they were replaced by the Salian dynasty , who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor Henry IV ( r . 1084 -- 1105 ) over Church appointments as part of the Investiture Controversy . His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility . A period of instability followed the death of Emperor Henry V ( r . 1111 -- 25 ) , who died without heirs , until Frederick I Barbarossa ( r . 1155 -- 90 ) took the imperial throne . Although he ruled effectively , the basic problems remained , and his successors continued to struggle into the 13th century . Barbarossa 's grandson Frederick II ( r . 1220 -- 1250 ) , who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother , clashed repeatedly with the papacy . His court was famous for its scholars and he was often accused of heresy . He and his successors faced many difficulties , including the invasion of the Mongols into Europe in the mid-13th century . Mongols first shattered the Kievan Rus ' principalities and then invaded Eastern Europe in 1241 , 1259 , and 1287 . The
Attack on Pearl Harbor
While the attack accomplished its intended objective , it turned out to be largely unnecessary . Unbeknownst to Yamamoto , who conceived the original plan , the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon ' charging ' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war ( in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange ) . The U.S. instead adopted `` Plan Dog '' in 1940 , which emphasized keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia , while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany .
Battle of Gettysburg
General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground . He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken `` if practicable . '' Ewell , who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson , a general well known for issuing peremptory orders , determined such an assault was not practicable and , thus , did not attempt it ; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity .
Napoleon
On 1 April , Alexander addressed the Sénat conservateur . Long docile to Napoleon , under Talleyrand 's prodding it had turned against him . Alexander told the Sénat that the Allies were fighting against Napoleon , not France , and they were prepared to offer honorable peace terms if Napoleon were removed from power . The next day , the Sénat passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur ( `` Emperor 's Demise Act '' ) , which declared Napoleon deposed . Napoleon had advanced as far as Fontainebleau when he learned that Paris was lost . When Napoleon proposed the army march on the capital , his senior officers and marshals mutinied . On 4 April , led by Ney , they confronted Napoleon . Napoleon asserted the army would follow him , and Ney replied the army would follow its generals . While the ordinary soldiers and regimental officers wanted to fight on , without any senior officers or marshals any prospective invasion of Paris would have been impossible . Bowing to the inevitable , on 4 April Napoleon abdicated in favour of his son , with Marie Louise as regent . However , the Allies refused to accept this under prodding from Alexander , who feared that Napoleon might find an excuse to retake the throne . Napoleon was then forced to announce his unconditional abdication only two days later . Exile
Emperor of Japan
The Japanese imperial dynasty consistently practiced official polygamy , a practice that only ended in the Taishō period ( 1912 -- 1926 ) . Besides the Empress , the Emperor could take , and nearly always took , several secondary consorts ( `` concubines '' ) of various hierarchical degrees . Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts ( Shinnōke , Ōke ) . After a decree by Emperor Ichijō , some Emperors even had two empresses simultaneously ( kōgō and chūgū are the two separate titles for that situation ) . With the help of all this polygamy , the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more offspring . ( Sons by secondary consorts were usually recognized as imperial princes , too , and could be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir . )
Korean War
Following the intervention of the Chinese in November , General MacArthur ordered increased bombing on North Korea which included incendiary attacks against the country 's arsenals and communications centers and especially against the `` Korean end '' of all the bridges across the Yalu River . As with the aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II , the nominal objective of the U.S. Air Force was to destroy North Korea 's war infrastructure and shatter the country 's morale .
English Reformation
If Mary was to secure England for Roman Catholicism , she needed an heir . On the advice of the Holy Roman Emperor she married his son , Philip II of Spain ; she needed to prevent her Protestant half - sister Elizabeth from inheriting the Crown and thus returning England to Protestantism . There was opposition , and even a rebellion in Kent ( led by Sir Thomas Wyatt ) ; even though it was provided that Philip would never inherit the kingdom if there was no heir , received no estates and had no coronation . He was there to provide an heir . But she never became pregnant , and likely suffered from cancer . Ironically , another blow fell . Pope Julius died and his successor , Pope Paul IV , declared war on Philip and recalled Pole to Rome to have him tried as a heretic . Mary refused to let him go . The support she might have expected from a grateful Pope was thus denied .
Emperor of Japan
Until recent centuries , Japan 's territory did not include several remote regions of its modern - day territory . The name `` Nippon '' came into use only many centuries after the start of the current imperial line . Centralized government only began to appear shortly before and during the time of Prince Shōtoku ( 572 -- 622 ) . The Emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divine harmony than the head of an actual governing administration . In Japan , it has always been easy for ambitious lords to hold actual power , as such positions have not been inherently contradictory to the Emperor 's position . The parliamentary government today continues a similar coexistence with the Emperor as have various shoguns , regents , warlords , guardians , etc .
Trent Affair
Senator Charles Sumner , Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and a frequent consultant to President Lincoln on foreign relations , had recognized immediately that the United States must release Mason and Slidell , but he had remained publicly silent during the weeks of high excitement . Sumner had traveled in England and carried on regular correspondence with many political activists in Britain . In December , he received particularly alarming letters from Richard Cobden and John Bright . Bright and Cobden discussed the preparations of the government for war and the widespread doubts , including their own , of the legality of Wilkes ' actions . The Duchess of Argyll , a strong antislavery advocate in Great Britain , wrote Sumner that the capture of the envoys was `` the maddest act that ever was done , and , unless the ( United States ) government intend to force us to war , utterly inconceivable . ''
Convicts in Australia
Lieutenant - General Sir Richard Bourke was the ninth Governor of the Colony of New South Wales between 1831 and 1837 . Appalled by the excessive punishments doled out to convicts , Bourke passed ' The Magistrates Act ' , which limited the sentence a magistrate could pass to fifty lashes ( previously there was no such limit ) . Bourke 's administration was controversial , and furious magistrates and employers petitioned the crown against this interference with their legal rights , fearing that a reduction in punishments would cease to provide enough deterrence to the convicts .
Korean War
As soon as word of the attack was received , U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea . Truman and Acheson discussed a U.S. invasion response and agreed that the United States was obligated to act , paralleling the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler 's aggressions in the 1930s , with the conclusion being that the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated . Several U.S. industries were mobilized to supply materials , labor , capital , production facilities , and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War . However , President Truman later acknowledged that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the U.S. goal of the global containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 ( NSC 68 ) ( declassified in 1975 ) :
Australia–Canada relations
By common consent , the prime ministers of Britain 's self - governing dominions skirted this contentious issue at the 1902 Colonial Conference . The question , however , could not be avoided indefinitely . Frustrated by his repeated inability to persuade Britain to eject France from its possessions in the New Hebrides , the Australian prime minister , Alfred Deakin , arrived in London for the 1907 Colonial Conference determined to change the very basis on which the empire was organized . He proposed that the conference create an Imperial Council that would assume responsibility for the general shape of imperial defence and foreign policy . A secretariat would carry out agreed policy and facilitate communications between meetings . Laurier was unconvinced . Aware that closer imperial relations would inflame French Canadian opinion , Laurier charged the Australian with endangering dominion self - government . The debate raged for days , but Laurier , whom Deakin later denounced for his `` fifth - rate part in the Conference '' , defiantly stood his ground . For the moment , this fundamental difference over how the empire might be organized precluded close relations . Even the election in 1911 of a Conservative and imperially minded prime minister , Sir Robert Borden , had little immediate impact on Canada 's wary approach to imperial issues . However , the swirling passions that accompanied the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 swept away many Canadian doubts about the value of the Empire . The country plunged into battle alongside Australia and the other overseas dominions . The war revived the debate over imperial organization . This time , Canada and Australia were firmly united in pursuit of identical goals .
British Empire
Since 1718 , transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain , with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year across the Atlantic . Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783 , the British government turned to the newly discovered lands of Australia . The western coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon in 1606 and was later named New Holland by the Dutch East India Company , but there was no attempt to colonise it . In 1770 James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia while on a scientific voyage to the South Pacific Ocean , claimed the continent for Britain , and named it New South Wales . In 1778 , Joseph Banks , Cook 's botanist on the voyage , presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement , and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail , arriving in 1788 . Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840 . The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold , mainly because of gold rushes in the colony of Victoria , making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world and the second largest city ( after London ) in the British Empire .
Rule of law
The Roman statesman Cicero is often cited as saying , roughly : `` We are all servants of the laws in order to be free . '' During the Roman Republic , controversial magistrates might be put on trial when their terms of office expired . Under the Roman Empire , the sovereign was personally immune ( legibus solutus ) , but those with grievances could sue the treasury .
Korea under Japanese rule
The Japanese minister to Korea , Miura Gorō , orchestrated a plot against 43 - year - old Queen Min ( later given the title of `` Empress Myeongseong '' ) , and on 8 October 1895 , she was assassinated by Japanese agents . In 2001 , Russian reports on the assassination were found in the archives of the Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation . The documents included the testimony of King Gojong , several witnesses of the assassination , and Karl Ivanovich Weber 's report to Aleksey Lobanov - Rostovsky , the Foreign Minister of Russia , by Park Jonghyo . Weber was the chargé d'affaires at the Russian legation in Seoul at that time . According to a Russian eyewitness , Seredin - Sabatin , an employee of the king , a group of Japanese agents entered Gyeongbokgung , killed Queen Min , and desecrated her body in the north wing of the palace .