vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
United States Postal Service
Furthermore , some economists have argued that because public enterprises may pursue objectives different than profit maximization , they might have more of an incentive than profit - maximizing firms to behave anticompetitively through policies such as predatory pricing , misstating costs , and creating barriers to entry . To resolve those issues , one economist proposes a cost - allocation model that would determine the optimal allocation of USPS 's common costs by finding the share of costs that would maximize USPS profits from its competitive products . Postal regulators could use such a cost model to ensure that the Postal Service is not abusing its statutory monopoly by subsidizing price cuts in competitive product markets with revenue obtained from the monopolized market .
Social exchange theory
Russell Cropanzano and Marie S. Mitchell discuss how one of the major issues within the social exchange theory is the lack of information within studies on the various exchange rules . Reciprocity is a major exchange rule discussed but Cropanzano and Mitchell write that the theory would be better understood if more research programs discussed a variety of exchange rules such as altruism , group gain , status consistency and competition . Meeker points out that within the exchange process , each unit takes into account at least the following elements : reciprocity , rationality , altruism ( social responsibility ) , group gain , status , consistency , and competition ( rivalry ) .
Labor history of the United States
Nationwide from 1890 to 1914 the unionized wages in manufacturing rose from $17.63 a week to $21.37 , and the average work week fell from 54.4 to 48.8 hours a week . The pay for all factory workers was $11.94 and $15.84 because unions reached only the more skilled factory workers .
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Article XIII -- For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenditures of administration , a common contribution is indispensable ; it must be equally distributed to all the citizens , according to their ability to pay .
General of the Army (United States)
These officers who held the rank of General of the Army remained officers of the United States Army for life with an annual $20,000 ( equivalent to $180,000 in 2016 ) pay and allowances . They were entitled to an office maintained by the Army along with an aide ( of the rank of colonel ) , a secretary and an orderly .
Social equality
A fourth standard of equality is equality of outcome , which is `` a position that argues each player must end up with the same amount regardless of the fairness '' . This ideology is predominately a Marxist philosophy that is concerned with equal distribution of power and resources rather than the rules of society . In this standard of equality , the idea is that `` everyone contributes to society and to the economy according to what they do best . '' . Under this notion of equality , Conley states that `` nobody will earn more power , prestige , and wealth by working harder '' .
Poverty in the United Kingdom
Most people 's ability to sustain their lifestyle and to participate socially comes under threat at around the bottom 30 % of the income distribution , creating a sort of ' participation floor ' that seems to demarcate a major divide in British society ( Ferragina et al. 2016 ) . The floor begins around the point in the income distribution when the benefit system starts to contribute substantially to people 's incomes but is not entirely rigid or for example , it is lower for recipients of social security benefits mainly on account of the greater material deprivation that they experience . For those on the floor , participation is severely constrained with people negotiating a zero - sum world in which spending on one area means reduction in another . Whereas for those above the floor , additional income translates into more evident consumption , greater social participation and trust ; for those on the floor it means a slight easing of pressure , but no major change in lifestyle sufficient to be identified in survey evidence . The implications for policy and our understanding of society are profound . Much policy , notably the new Universal Credit that was the flagship policy of the past Coalition Government , seeks to maximise work incentives premised on the notion that additional income brings rewards for individuals in terms of higher living standards , and benefits society through greater consumption and a shared work ethic . Similarly , as emphasised by Lansley and Mack ( 2015 ) , New Labour during the period 1997 -- 2010 ( despite trying to tackle child poverty ) intervened mainly through more generous and wide - ranging tax - credits rather than fighting poverty and inequality at source ( Ferragina and Arrigoni , 2016 ) .
Social class in the United States
The high salaries and , especially , the potential wealth through stock options , has supported the term corporate elite or corporate class . Top executives , including Chief Executive Officers , are among the financially best compensated occupations in the United States . The median annual earnings for a CEO in the United States were $140,350 ( exceeding the income of more than 90 % of United States households ) . The Wall Street Journal reports the median compensation for CEOs of 350 major corporations was $6,000,000 in 2005 with most of the money coming from stock options .
Chartism
A vote for every man twenty - one years of age , of sound mind , and not undergoing punishment for a crime . The secret ballot to protect the elector in the exercise of his vote . No property qualification for Members of Parliament in order to allow the constituencies to return the man of their choice . Payment of Members , enabling tradesmen , working men , or other persons of modest means to leave or interrupt their livelihood to attend to the interests of the nation . Equal constituencies , securing the same amount of representation for the same number of electors , instead of allowing less populous constituencies to have as much or more weight than larger ones . Annual Parliamentary elections , thus presenting the most effectual check to bribery and intimidation , since no purse could buy a constituency under a system of universal manhood suffrage in each twelve - month period .
Caste system in India
Societal stratification , and the inequality that comes with it , still exists in India , and has been thoroughly criticised . Government policies aim at reducing this inequality by reservation , quota for backward classes , but paradoxically also have created an incentive to keep this stratification alive . The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of India such as the Untouchables under the designation of Scheduled Castes , and certain economically backward castes as Other Backward Class . Loosening
British Army during World War I
The regular army was supported by the Territorial Force , and by reservists . In August 1914 , there were three forms of reserves . The Army Reserve of retired soldiers was 145,350 strong . They were paid 3 Shillings and 6 pence a week ( 17.5 pence ) worth about £ 70 per week in 2013 terms , and had to attend 12 training days per year . The Special Reserve had another 64,000 men and was a form of part - time soldiering , similar to the Territorial Force . A Special Reservist had an initial six months full - time training and was paid the same as a regular soldier during this period ; they had three or four weeks training per year thereafter . The National Reserve had some 215,000 men , who were on a register that was maintained by Territorial Force County Associations ; these men had military experience , but no other reserve obligation .
Executive compensation
The idea that stock options and other alleged pay - for - performance are driven by economics has also been questioned . According to economist Paul Krugman ,
Household income in the United States
Individuals with graduate degrees have an average per capita income exceeding the median household income of married couple families among the general population ( $63,813 annually ) . Higher educational attainment did not , however , help close the income gap between the genders as the life - time earnings for a male with a professional degree were roughly forty percent ( 39.59 % ) higher than those of a female with a professional degree . The lifetime earnings gap between males and females was the smallest for those individuals holding an associate degrees with male life - time earnings being 27.77 % higher than those of females . While educational attainment did not help reduce the income inequality between men and women , it did increase the earnings potential of individuals of both sexes , enabling many households with one or more graduate degree householders to enter the top household income quintile . These data were not adjusted for preferential differences among men and women whom attend college . For example , men often study fields of engineering while women often pursue social sciences .
Poverty in India
India determines household poverty line by summing up the individual per capita poverty lines of the household members . This practice is similar to many developing countries , but different from developed countries such as the United States that adjust poverty line on an incremental basis per additional household member . For example , in the United States , the poverty line for a household with just one member was set at $11,670 per year for 2014 , while it was set at $23,850 per year for a 4 - member household ( or $5963 per person for the larger household ) . The rationale for the differences arise from the economic realities of each country . In India , households may include surviving grandparents , parents and children . They typically do not incur any or significant rent expenses every month particularly in rural India , unlike housing in mostly urban developed economies . The cost of food and other essentials are shared within the household by its members in both cases . However , a larger portion of a monthly expenditure goes to food in poor households in developing countries , while housing , conveyance and other essentials cost significantly more in developed economies .
Fiscal year
In some jurisdictions , particularly those that permit tax consolidation , companies that are part of a group of businesses must use nearly the same fiscal year ( differences of up to three months are permitted in some jurisdictions , such as the U.S. and Japan ) , with consolidating entries to adjust for transactions between units with different fiscal years , so the same resources will not be counted more than once or not at all .
Nervous system
According to a rule called Dale 's principle , which has only a few known exceptions , a neuron releases the same neurotransmitters at all of its synapses . This does not mean , though , that a neuron exerts the same effect on all of its targets , because the effect of a synapse depends not on the neurotransmitter , but on the receptors that it activates . Because different targets can ( and frequently do ) use different types of receptors , it is possible for a neuron to have excitatory effects on one set of target cells , inhibitory effects on others , and complex modulatory effects on others still . Nevertheless , it happens that the two most widely used neurotransmitters , glutamate and GABA , each have largely consistent effects . Glutamate has several widely occurring types of receptors , but all of them are excitatory or modulatory . Similarly , GABA has several widely occurring receptor types , but all of them are inhibitory . Because of this consistency , glutamatergic cells are frequently referred to as `` excitatory neurons '' , and GABAergic cells as `` inhibitory neurons '' . Strictly speaking , this is an abuse of terminology -- it is the receptors that are excitatory and inhibitory , not the neurons -- but it is commonly seen even in scholarly publications .
Watchman (law enforcement)
After 1660 it seems that large numbers of men had avoided night - time service by paying for a substitute well before 1660 . Substitution had become so common by the late 17th century that the night watch was virtually by then a fully paid force .
Whole life insurance
A form of limited pay , where the pay period is a single large payment up front . These policies typically have fees during early policy years should the policyholder cash it in .
Wealth inequality in the United States
In the book Modern Labor Economics : Theory and Public Policy , it is noted that in the United States all income that employees received from their employers in 2012 was 8.6 trillion dollars while the amount of money received from all other sources of personal income in that year came to 5.3 trillion dollars . This makes the relationship of employee to employer and vocational employment in general of paramount importance in the United States .
Indian Rebellion of 1857
However , changes in the terms of their professional service may have created resentment . As the extent of the East India Company 's jurisdiction expanded with victories in wars or annexation , the soldiers were now expected not only to serve in less familiar regions , such as in Burma , but also to make do without the `` foreign service '' remuneration that had previously been their due .
To Tell the Truth
After the second game , a new game called `` One on One '' was played with the four impostors from earlier . One fact had been purposely withheld from the panel about one of the impostors and it was up to the panelists to determine correctly to which of the impostors it applied . One at a time , each panelist would be given twenty seconds to question the impostor sitting directly across from them and would then say whether he / she believed the fact applied to that impostor . Wrong votes still paid $100 with $500 paid if the panel did not correctly determine to whom the fact pertained .
Labor history of the United States
Gompers and nearly all labor unions were strong supporters of the war effort . They used their leverage to gain recognition and higher wages . They minimized strikes as wages soared and full employment was reached . To keep factories running smoothly , Wilson established the National War Labor Board in 1918 , which forced management to negotiate with existing unions . The AFL unions and the railway brotherhoods strongly encouraged their young men to enlist in the military . They fiercely opposed efforts to reduce recruiting and slow war production by the anti-war IWW and left - wing Socialists . President Wilson appointed Gompers to the powerful Council of National Defense , where he set up the War Committee on Labor . The AFL membership soared to 2.4 million in 1917 . Anti-war socialists controlled the IWW , which fought against the war effort and was in turn shut down by legal action by the federal government .
Income inequality in the United States
Nonetheless , results from various studies reflect the fact that endogenous regulations and other different rules yield distinct effects on income inequality . A study examines the effects of institutional change on age - based labor market inequalities in Europe . There is a focus on wage - setting institutions on the adult male population and the rate of their unequal income distribution . According to the study , there is evidence that unemployment protection and temporary work regulation affect the dynamics of age - based inequality with positive employment effects of all individuals by the strength of unions . Even though the European Union is within a favorable economic context with perspectives of growth and development , it is also very fragile .
Church of Ireland
The Representative Body of the Church of Ireland , often called the `` Representative Church Body '' ( RCB ) , is the corporate trustee of the church , as established by law , and much of the church 's property is vested in it . The members of the RCB are the bishops plus diocesan delegates and twelve co-opted members , and it meets at least four times a year . The staff of the Representative Body are analogous to clerical civil servants , and among other duties they oversee property , including church buildings , cemeteries and investments , administer some salaries and pensions , and manage the church library . While parishes , dioceses , and other parts of the church structure care for their particular properties , this is often subject to RCB rules .
Great Depression
Among the few women in the labor force , layoffs were less common in the white - collar jobs and they were typically found in light manufacturing work . However , there was a widespread demand to limit families to one paid job , so that wives might lose employment if their husband was employed . Across Britain , there was a tendency for married women to join the labor force , competing for part - time jobs especially .
Wealth inequality in the United States
The United States Census Bureau formally defines income as received on a regular basis ( exclusive of certain money receipts such as capital gains ) before payments for personal income taxes , social security , union dues , medicare deductions , etc . By this official measure , the wealthiest families may have low income , but the value of their assets earns enough money to support their lifestyle . Dividends from trusts or gains in the stock market do not fall under the definition of income but are the primary money flows for the wealthy . Retired people also have little income but usually have a higher net worth because of money saved over time .
Household income in the United States
Household income also increased significantly with the educational attainment of the householder . The US Census Bureau publishes educational attainment and income data for all households with a householder who was aged twenty - five or older . The biggest income difference was between those with some college education and those who had a Bachelor 's degree , with the latter making $23,874 more annually . Income also increased substantially with increased post-secondary education . While the median annual household income for a household with a householder having an associate degree was $51,970 , the median annual household income for householders with a bachelor 's degree or higher was $73,446 . Those with doctorates had the second highest median household with a median of $96,830 ; $18,289 more than that for those at the master 's degree level , but $3,170 lower than the median for households with a professional degree holding householder .
Health care in the United States
The challenging demographic pressures on the United States ' medical system means that more reductions ( and imbalances ) in wages are coming . Employment opportunities are increasing but job security and employee confidence have both fallen for medical professionals . Highly trained doctors , surgeons , and support staff such as anesthesiologists are insulated from falling wages thanks to high barriers of entry . For staff with less training , formerly well paying jobs are being outsourced or cut to make up budget shortfalls . Additionally , some of the fastest growing health sectors ( such as seniors home care ) are also some of the lowest paid which could cause supply shortages in the near future .
Free agent
Free agents do not have to be signed during the normal transfer window that is implemented in some countries ' leagues . If they are signed by a team , the team signing them does not have to pay any fees -- sometimes this is known as `` a free transfer '' .
History of women in the United States
Also in 1963 , President Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act into law , which amended the Fair Labor Standards Act to prohibit pay discrimination because of sex . It requires the employer to pay equal wages to men and women doing equal work on jobs requiring equal skill , effort , and responsibility , which are performed under similar working conditions . Another accomplishment for feminism in 1963 was that feminist activist Gloria Steinem published her article I Was a Playboy Bunny , a behind the scenes look at the sexist treatment of Playboy bunnies , which was one of her first major assignments in investigative journalism .
Law firm
There is more information available for entry level soups . First year lawyers earn anywhere between INR 25,000 to INR 1 , 10,000 a month . Tier 1 law firms provide the best pay package , of about INR 15 , 00,000 a year . There is wide difference in the salary range in big cities like Chennai and Delhi as opposed to other cities like Mumbai and Kolkata .
Medicare (United States)
Medicare also has an important role driving changes in the entire health care system . Because Medicare pays for a huge share of health care in every region of the country , it has a great deal of power to set delivery and payment policies . For example , Medicare promoted the adaptation of prospective payments based on DRG 's , which prevents unscrupulous providers from setting their own exorbitant prices . Meanwhile , the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act has given Medicare the mandate to promote cost - containment throughout the health care system , for example , by promoting the creation of accountable care organizations or by replacing fee - for - service payments with bundled payments .
Indian Railways
Staff are classified into gazetted ( Group ' A ' and ' B ' ) and non-gazetted ( Group ' C ' and ' D ' ) employees . The recruitment of Group ' A ' gazetted employees is carried out by the Union Public Service Commission through exams conducted by it . The Recruitment of Group ' B ' for the following post Section Officers , Junior Engineers , Depot Material Superintendent posts is conducted by Railway Recruitment Board . The recruitment to Group ' C ' and ' D ' employees on the IR is done through 21 Railway Recruitment Boards and Railway Recruitment Cells which are controlled by the Railway Recruitment Control Board ( RRCB ) . The training of all cadres is entrusted and shared between six centralised training institutes .
Medicare Advantage
Exact parity would require major changes to Medicare law ( so - called `` premium support '' proposals , for example ) , but as of the March 2016 MedPAC report , in 2016 Medicare was expected to spend just 2 percent more on `` like '' Medicare Advantage beneficiaries per person than for a `` like set of beneficiaries '' under Original Medicare Parts A and B , theoretically adding an additional 0.5 % ( $3 billion ) to the cost of the overall Medicare program vs. what would have been spent absent Part C. As in 2009 , the major plans within Medicare Advantage causing the lack of parity were Employer Group plans ( 6 percent more ) and the few grandfathered PFFS beneficiaries left ( 10 percent more ) . Vanilla HMO and PPO plans -- as well as SNPs -- cost only 1 % more per person in comparing `` like set of beneficiaries '' . Overall , only a few recent studies provide a limited picture of beneficiary experiences since the Affordable Care Act ( ACA ) was passed in 2010 .
United States Congress
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely . It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress . As time goes by , members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects . Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade - offs . The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member 's constituency , important regional issues , prior background and experience . Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap . Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation ; for example , the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs . Power