vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
A reason for establishing it in Pusa in northern Bihar was the proximity to the indigo plantations which were in need of revival after the German synthesis of aniline in 1899 . One of the first scientists to be deputed to the institute was the English chemist John Walter Leather in 1892 .
Poverty in India
As with many countries , poverty was historically defined and estimated in India using a sustenance food standard . This methodology has been revised . India 's current official poverty rates are based on its Planning Commission 's data derived from so - called Tendulkar methodology . It defines poverty not in terms of annual income , but in terms of consumption or spending per individual over a certain period for a basket of essential goods . Further , this methodology sets different poverty lines for rural and urban areas . Since 2007 , India set its official threshold at ₹ 26 a day ( $0.43 ) in rural areas and about ₹ 32 per day ( $0.53 ) in urban areas . While these numbers are lower than the World Bank 's $1.25 per day income - based definition , the definition is similar to China 's US $0.65 per day official poverty line in 2008 .
Education in India
The pre-primary stage is the foundation of children 's knowledge , skills and behaviour . On completion of pre-primary education , the children are sent to the primary stage but pre-primary education in India is not a fundamental right . In rural India , pre-primary schools are rarely available in small villages and urban areas on the contrary . But in cities and big towns , there are many established players in the pre-primary education sector . The demand for the preschools is growing considerably in the smaller towns and cities but still only 1 % of the population under age 6 is enrolled in preschool education .
Climate of India
India 's geography and geology are climatically pivotal : the Thar Desert in the northwest and the Himalayas in the north work in tandem to effect a culturally and economically important monsoonal regime . As Earth 's highest and most massive mountain range , the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia . Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter ; the same thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer .
Rocky Mountains
Agriculture and forestry are major industries . Agriculture includes dryland and irrigated farming and livestock grazing . Livestock are frequently moved between high - elevation summer pastures and low - elevation winter pastures , a practice known as transhumance .
Climate of India
Though the Tropic of Cancer -- the boundary between the tropics and subtropics -- passes through the middle of India , the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical . As in much of the tropics , monsoonal and other weather patterns in India can be wildly unstable : epochal droughts , floods , cyclones , and other natural disasters are sporadic , but have displaced or ended millions of human lives . There is one scientific opinion which states that in South Asia such climatic events are likely to change in unpredictability , frequency , and severity . Ongoing and future vegetative changes and current sea level rises and the attendant inundation of India 's low - lying coastal areas are other impacts , current or predicted , that are attributable to global warming .
Forestry in India
According to India 's 2013 forest survey report , the forest cover in top five states has increased , with the exception of Arunachal Pradesh :
Karnataka
Karnataka has a rich diversity of flora and fauna . It has a recorded forest area of 38,720 km ( 14,950 sq mi ) which constitutes 20.19 % of the total geographical area of the state . These forests support 25 % of the elephant and 10 % of the tiger population of India . Many regions of Karnataka are as yet unexplored , so new species of flora and fauna are found periodically . The Western Ghats , a biodiversity hotspot , includes the western region of Karnataka . Two sub-clusters in the Western Ghats , viz . Talacauvery and Kudremukh , both in Karnataka , are on the tentative list of World Heritage Sites of UNESCO . The Bandipur and Nagarahole National Parks , which fall outside these subclusters , were included in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in 1986 , a UNESCO designation . The Indian roller and the Indian elephant are recognised as the state bird and animal while sandalwood and the lotus are recognised as the state tree and flower respectively . Karnataka has five national parks : Anshi , Bandipur , Bannerghatta , Kudremukh and Nagarhole . It also has 27 wildlife sanctuaries of which seven are bird sanctuaries .
Green Revolution in India
The excessive use of chemical fertilizers decreased soil fertility and also the use of electric tube wells decreased groundwater table below the previous level .
Famine
The failure of a harvest or change in conditions , such as drought , can create a situation whereby large numbers of people continue to live where the carrying capacity of the land has temporarily dropped radically . Famine is often associated with subsistence agriculture . The total absence of agriculture in an economically strong area does not cause famine ; Arizona and other wealthy regions import the vast majority of their food , since such regions produce sufficient economic goods for trade .
Environmental impact of irrigation
Frequently irrigation schemes are seen as extremely necessary for socioeconomic well - being especially in developing countries . One example of this can be demonstrated from a proposal for an irrigation scheme in Malawi . Here it was shown that the potential positive effects of the irrigation project that was being proposed `` outweighed the potential negative impacts '' . It was stated that the impacts would mostly `` be localized , minimal , short term occurring during the construction and operation phases of the Project '' . In order to help alleviate and prevent major environmental impacts , they would use techniques that minimize the potential negative impacts . As far as the region 's socioeconomic well - being , there would be no `` displacement and / or resettlement envisioned during the implementation of the Project activities '' . The original primary purposes of the irrigation project were to reduce poverty , improve food security , create local employment , increase household income and enhance the sustainability of land use .
Slash-and-burn
Tribal groups in the northeastern Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh , Meghalaya , Mizoram and Nagaland and the Bangladeshi districts of Rangamati , Khagrachari , Bandarban and Sylhet refer to slash - and - burn agriculture as jhum or jhoom cultivation . The system involves clearing land , by fire or clear - felling , for economically - important crops such as upland rice , vegetables or fruits . After a few cycles , the land 's fertility declines and a new area is chosen . Jhum cultivation is most often practiced on the slopes of thickly - forested hills . Cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach the land , burning the trees and grasses for fresh soil . Although it is believed that this helps fertilize the land , it can leave it vulnerable to erosion . Holes are made for the seeds of crops such as sticky rice , maize , eggplant and cucumber are planted . After considering jhum 's effects , the government of Mizoram has introduced a policy to end the method in the state . Slash - and - burn is typically a type of subsistence agriculture , not focused on a need to sell crops globally ; planting decisions are governed by the needs of the family ( or clan ) for the coming year .
Mechanised agriculture
Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanise the work of agriculture , greatly increasing farm worker productivity . In modern times , powered machinery has replaced many farm jobs formerly carried out by manual labour or by working animals such as oxen , horses and mules .
Environmental issues in India
There are many environmental issues in India . Air pollution , water pollution , garbage and pollution of the natural environment are all challenges for India . Nature is also causing some drastic effects on India . The situation was worse between 1947 through 1995 . According to data collection and environment assessment studies of World Bank experts , between 1995 through 2010 , India has made some of the fastest progress in addressing its environmental issues and improving its environmental quality in the world . Still , India has a long way to go to reach environmental quality similar to those enjoyed in developed economies . Pollution remains a major challenge and opportunity for India .
Social class in the United States
Today , the agricultural sector has essentially taken on the characteristics of business and industry generally . In contemporary usage , a `` farmer '' is someone who owns and operates a farm , which more often than not will be a sizable business enterprise ; `` agricultural workers '' or `` farm workers '' , who perform the actual work associated with farming , typically come out of the lower classes ; indeed , they are often near - destitute immigrants or migrant farm workers . In this respect , farming mirrors big business : like any enterprise , a farm has owners ( who may be a family or a corporation ) , salaried managers , supervisors , foremen and workers .
Indus River
There are concerns that extensive deforestation , industrial pollution and global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta , while affecting agricultural production as well . There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards -- although the progression spans centuries . On numerous occasions , sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation . In addition , extreme heat has caused water to evaporate , leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation .
History of India
The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the Old World to India . Early writings and Stone Age carvings of Neolithic age obtained indicates that India 's Southwest coastal port Muziris , in Kerala , had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE , according to Sumerian records . Kerala was referred to as the land of spices or as the `` Spice Garden of India '' . It was the place traders and exporters wanted to reach , including Christopher Colombus , Vasco da Gama , and others . Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism in the 1st or 2nd century CE . The interaction of cultures resulted in several Chinese travellers and monks to enter India . Most notable were Faxian , Yijing , Song Yun and Xuanzang . These travellers wrote detailed accounts of the Indian Subcontinent , which includes the political and social aspects of the region . Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with the economic activity and commerce as patrons entrust large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management , craftsmanship , promotion of trading activities . Buddhism in particular , travelled alongside the maritime trade , promoting coinage , art and literacy . Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia , where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the native inhabitants . The Greco - Roman world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman - India routes . During the first millennium , the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and Ethiopians that became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea . According to Poseidonius , later reported in Strabo 's Geography , the monsoon wind system of the Indian Ocean was first sailed by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 118 or 116 BCE . Poseidonius said a shipwrecked sailor from India had been rescued in the Red Sea and taken to Ptolemy VIII in Alexandria . Strabo , whose Geography is the main surviving source of the story , was sceptical about its truth . Modern scholarship tends to consider it relatively credible . During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports such as Aden ( called Eudaemon by the Greeks ) . Another Greek navigator , Hippalus , is sometimes credited with discovering the monsoon wind route to India . He is sometimes conjectured to have been part of Eudoxus 's expeditions . Satavahana
Education in India
The education of women in India plays a significant role in improving livings standards in the country . A higher women literacy rate improves the quality of life both at home and outside the home , by encouraging and promoting education of children , especially female children , and in reducing the infant mortality rate . Several studies have shown that a lower level of women literacy rates results in higher levels of fertility and infant mortality , poorer nutrition , lower earning potential and the lack of an ability to make decisions within a household . Women 's lower educational levels is also shown to adversely affect the health and living conditions of children . A survey that was conducted in India showed results which support the fact that infant mortality rate was inversely related to female literacy rate and educational level . The survey also suggests a correlation between education and economic growth .
India
The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert , both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons . The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in , keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes . The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture - laden south - west summer monsoon winds that , between June and October , provide the majority of India 's rainfall . Four major climatic groupings predominate in India : tropical wet , tropical dry , subtropical humid , and montane .
Forestry in India
India 's 0.6 % average annual rate of deforestation for agricultural and non-lumbering land uses in the decade beginning in 1981 was one of the lowest in the world and on a par with Brazil .
Poverty in India
The World Bank has been revising its definition and benchmarks to measure up poverty since 1990 , with a $2 per day income on purchasing power parity basis as the definition in use from 2005 to 2013 . Some semi-economic and non-economic indices have also been proposed to measure poverty in India ; for example , the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index placed 33 % weight on number of years spent in school and education and 6.25 % weight on financial condition of a person , in order to determine if that a person is poor .
Famine
Noting that modern famines are sometimes aggravated by misguided economic policies , political design to impoverish or marginalize certain populations , or acts of war , political economists have investigated the political conditions under which famine is prevented . Economist Amartya Sen states that the liberal institutions that exist in India , including competitive elections and a free press , have played a major role in preventing famine in that country since independence . Alex de Waal has developed this theory to focus on the `` political contract '' between rulers and people that ensures famine prevention , noting the rarity of such political contracts in Africa , and the danger that international relief agencies will undermine such contracts through removing the locus of accountability for famines from national governments . A
Thar Desert
The importance of animal husbandry can be understood from the organization of large number of cattle fairs in the region . Cattle fairs are normally named after the folk - deities . Some of major cattle fairs held are Ramdevji cattle fair at Manasar in Nagaur district , Tejaji cattle fair at Parbatsar in Nagaur district , Baldeo cattle fair at Merta city in Nagaur district , Mallinath cattle fair at Tilwara in barmer district . Live stock is very important to the Thar desert people .
Poverty alleviation programmes in India
The poverty alleviation programmes in India can be categorized based on whether it is targeted for rural areas or urban areas . Most of the programmes are designed to target rural poverty as prevalence of poverty is high in rural areas . Also targeting poverty is challenging in rural areas due to various geographic and infrastructure limitations . The programmes can be mainly grouped into 1 ) Wage employment programmes 2 ) Self - employment programmes 3 ) Food security programmes 4 ) Social security programmes 5 ) Urban poverty alleviation programmes .
Sustainability
At the global level the environmental impact of agribusiness is being addressed through sustainable agriculture and organic farming . At the local level there are various movements working towards local food production , more productive use of urban wastelands and domestic gardens including permaculture , urban horticulture , local food , slow food , sustainable gardening , and organic gardening .
Irrigation tank
5 . The scattered nature of population and agricultural fields also favours tank irrigation .
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism . Large Vaishnava communities exist throughout India , and particularly in Western Indian states , such as western Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan , Maharashtra and Gujarat . Other major regions of Vaishnava presence , particularly after the 15th century , are Odisha , Bengal and northeastern India ( Assam , Manipur ) . Dvaita school Vaishnava have flourished in Karnataka where Madhavacharya established temples and monasteries , and in neighboring states , particularly the Pandharpur region .
India
Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 BCE . Traditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors , including climate and faith . Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men . Stitched clothes , such as the shalwar kameez for women and kurta -- pyjama combinations or European - style trousers and shirts for men , are also popular . Use of delicate jewellery , modelled on real flowers worn in ancient India , is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 years ; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans .
Michigan
A wide variety of commodity crops , fruits , and vegetables are grown in Michigan , making it second only to California among U.S. states in the diversity of its agriculture . The state has 54,800 farms utilizing 10,000,000 acres ( 40,000 km ) of land which sold $6.49 billion worth of products in 2010 . The most valuable agricultural product is milk . Leading crops include corn , soybeans , flowers , wheat , sugar beets and potatoes . Livestock in the state included 1 million cattle , 1 million hogs , 78,000 sheep and over 3 million chickens . Livestock products accounted for 38 % of the value of agricultural products while crops accounted for the majority .
Forestry in India
The 2009 Indian national forest policy document emphasizes the need to combine India 's effort at forest conservation with sustainable forest management . India defines forest management as one where the economic needs of local communities are not ignored , rather forests are sustained while meeting nation 's economic needs and local issues through scientific forestry .
Environmental issues in India
More recent scholarly articles concede that whilst there is no question that population growth may contribute to environmental degradation , its effects can be modified by economic growth and modern technology . Research in environmental economics has uncovered a relationship between environmental quality , measured by ambient concentrations of air pollutants and per capita income . This so - called environmental Kuznets curve shows environmental quality worsening up until about $5,000 of per capita income on purchasing parity basis , and improving thereafter . The key requirement , for this to be true , is continued adoption of technology and scientific management of resources , continued increases in productivity in every economic sector , entrepreneurial innovation and economic expansion .
Climate of India
All such episodes of severe drought correlate with El Niño - Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) events . El Niño - related droughts have also been implicated in periodic declines in Indian agricultural output . Nevertheless , ENSO events that have coincided with abnormally high sea surfaces temperatures in the Indian Ocean -- in one instance during 1997 and 1998 by up to 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) -- have resulted in increased oceanic evaporation , resulting in unusually wet weather across India . Such anomalies have occurred during a sustained warm spell that began in the 1990s . A contrasting phenomenon is that , instead of the usual high pressure air mass over the southern Indian Ocean , an ENSO - related oceanic low pressure convergence centre forms ; it then continually pulls dry air from Central Asia , desiccating India during what should have been the humid summer monsoon season . This reversed air flow causes India 's droughts . The extent that an ENSO event raises sea surface temperatures in the central Pacific Ocean influences the extent of drought .
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Post-independence , the institute renamed Indian Agricultural Research Institute , and in 1950 the Shimla sub-station of institute developed Rust - resistant varieties of wheat , including Pusa 718 , 737 , 745 , and 760 . In 1958 , it was recognized as a `` deemed university '' under the UGC act of 1956 of Parliament and since then it has awarded MSc and PhD degrees .
Narmada River
The construction of the two multipurpose major projects , the Sardar Sarvoar in Gujarat and Indira Sagar in Madhya Pradesh , with the two interdependent to attain full envisaged benefits , is in progress and substantial partial benefits have already been achieved . Hence , details of these two projects are elaborated below .
Forestry in India
Indian forests represent one of the 12 mega biodiverse regions of the world . India 's Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are amongst the 32 biodiversity hotspots on earth .
Green Revolution in India
Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get finance and credit at economical rate from the government and banks , hence , fell as easy prey to the money lenders . They took loans from zamindars , who charged high rates of interests and also exploited the farmers later on to work in their fields to repay the loans ( farm labourers ) . proper financing was not given during the green revolution period , which created a lot of problems and sufferings to the farmers of india .
Environmental issues in India
Despite active passage of laws by the central government of India , the reality of environmental quality mostly worsened between 1947 and 1990 . Rural poor had no choice , but to sustain life in whatever way possible . Air emissions increased , water pollution worsened , forest cover decreased .
Neolithic Revolution
Recent analyses point out that agriculture also brought about deep social divisions and in particular encouraged inequality between the sexes .
Zimbabwe
For the past ten years , the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ( ICRISAT ) has been assisting Zimbabwe 's farmers to adopt conservation agriculture techniques , a sustainable method of farming that can help increase yields . By applying the three principles of minimum soil disturbance , legume - based cropping and the use of organic mulch , farmers can improve infiltration , reduce evaporation and soil erosion , and build up organic soil content .
Forestry in India
Significant forest products of India include paper , plywood , sawnwood , timber , poles , pulp and matchwood , fuelwood , sal seeds , tendu leaves , gums and resins , cane and rattan , bamboo , grass and fodder , drugs , spices and condiments , herbs , cosmetics , tannins .