vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Chernobyl disaster
In 1996 , geneticist colleagues Ronald Chesser and Robert Baker published a paper on the thriving vole population within the exclusion zone , in which the central conclusion of their work was essentially that `` The mutation rate in these animals is hundreds and probably thousands of times greater than normal '' , this claim occurred after they had done a comparison of the mitochondrial DNA of the `` Chernobyl voles '' with that of a control group of voles from outside the region . These alarming conclusions led the paper to appear on the front cover of the prestigious journal Nature , however not long after publication Chesser & Baker discovered a fundamental error in their research in which they had incorrectly classified the species of vole , and therefore were comparing the genetics of two entirely different vole species to start with . Abortion
Small intestine
Iron is absorbed in the duodenum . Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum . Water and lipids are absorbed by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine . Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport . Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion .
American Revolutionary War
Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war ; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service . Around 1,240 were killed in battle , while an estimated 18,500 died from disease ( 1776 -- 1780 ) . The greatest killer at sea was scurvy , a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency . It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors . Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war . The impact on merchant shipping was substantial ; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war ; of those , 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone .
Carbon
Carbon generally has low toxicity to life on Earth ; but carbon nanoparticles are deadly to Drosophila .
Active transport
One category of cotransporters that is especially prominent in research regarding diabetes treatment is sodium glucose cotransporters . These transporters were discovered by scientists at that National Health Institute . These scientists had noticed a discrepancy in the absorption of glucose at different points in the kidney tubule of a rat . The gene was then discovered for intestinal glucose transport protein and linked to these membrane sodium glucose cotransport systems . The first of these membrane transport proteins was named SGLT1 followed buy the discovery of SGLT2 . Robert Krane also played a prominent role in this field .
Vitamin A deficiency
Global efforts to support national governments in addressing VAD are led by the Global Alliance for Vitamin A ( GAVA ) , which is an informal partnership between A2Z , the Canadian International Development Agency , Helen Keller International , Micronutrient Initiative , UNICEF , USAID , and the World Bank . Joint GAVA activity is coordinated by the Micronutrient Initiative .
Cranberry
Raw cranberries have moderate levels of vitamin C , dietary fiber and the essential dietary mineral , manganese ( each nutrient having more than 10 % of the Daily Value per 100 g serving , as well as other essential micronutrients in minor amounts .
Carbon
In 2015 , a team at the North Carolina State University announced the development of another allotrope they have dubbed Q - carbon , created by a high energy low duration laser pulse on amorphous carbon dust . Q - carbon is reported to exhibit ferromagetism , fluorescence , and a hardness superior to diamonds .
Megaloblastic anemia
Vitamin B12 deficiency leading to folate deficiency : Achlorhydria - induced malabsorption Deficient intake Deficient intrinsic factor , a molecule produced by cells in the stomach that is required for B12 absorption ( pernicious anemia or gastrectomy ) Coeliac disease Biological competition for vitamin B12 by diverticulosis , fistula , intestinal anastomosis , or infection by the marine parasite Diphyllobothrium latum ( fish tapeworm ) Selective vitamin B12 malabsorption ( congenital -- juvenile megaloblastic anemia 1 -- and drug - induced ) Chronic pancreatitis Ileal resection and bypass Nitrous oxide anesthesia ( usually requires repeated instances ) . Folate deficiency : Alcoholism Deficient intake Increased needs : pregnancy , infant , rapid cellular proliferation , and cirrhosis Malabsorption ( congenital and drug - induced ) Intestinal and jejunal resection ( indirect ) Deficient thiamine and factors ( e.g. , enzymes ) responsible for folate metabolism . Combined Deficiency : vitamin B12 & folate . Inherited Pyrimidine Synthesis Disorders : Orotic aciduria Inherited DNA Synthesis Disorders Toxins and Drugs : Folic acid antagonists ( methotrexate ) Purine synthesis antagonists ( 6 - mercaptopurine ) Pyrimidine antagonists ( cytarabine ) Phenytoin Nitrous Oxide Erythroleukemia Inborn genetic mutations of the Methionine synthase gene
Nairobi
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Tapioca balls
German researchers from University Hospital Aachen tested the tapioca pearls from an unnamed Taiwanese chain . According to the Daily News , the report showed that carcinogenic chemicals were found in the samples . Chemicals found included styrene , acetophenone , and brominated substances , which were not permitted as food additives . Another German study found carcinogenic PCBs , or polychlorinated biphenyls , in the starchy balls as well .
Caenorhabditis elegans
The Orsay virus is a virus that affects C. elegans , as well as the Caenorhabditis elegans Cer1 virus and the Caenorhabditis elegans Cer13 virus .
Non-communicable disease
Many types of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) caused by smoking tobacco Diabetes mellitus type 2 Lower back pain caused by too little exercise Malnutrition caused by too little food , or eating the wrong kinds of food ( e.g. scurvy from lack of Vitamin C ) Skin cancer caused by radiation from the sun Obesity
Cavalier King Charles Spaniel
A 1999 study of Cavaliers conducted by the Canine Eye Registration Foundation showed that an average of 30 % of all Cavalier King Charles Spaniels evaluated had eye problems . They include hereditary cataracts , corneal dystrophy , distichiasis , entropion , microphthalmia , progressive retinal atrophy , and retinal dysplasia .
Ultraviolet
Vitamin D promotes the creation of serotonin . The production of serotonin is in direct proportion to the degree of bright sunlight the body receives . Serotonin is thought to provide sensations of happiness , well being and serenity to human beings . Skin
Agent Orange
In 2002 , Vietnam and the U.S. held a joint conference on Human Health and Environmental Impacts of Agent Orange . Following the conference , the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences ( NIEHS ) began scientific exchanges between the U.S. and Vietnam , and began discussions for a joint research project on the human health impacts of Agent Orange .
Manhattan Project
An Associate Professor of Radiology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine , Stafford L. Warren , was commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army Medical Corps , and appointed as chief of the MED 's Medical Section and Groves ' medical advisor . Warren 's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge , Richland and Los Alamos . The Medical Section was responsible for medical research , but also for the MED 's health and safety programs . This presented an enormous challenge , because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals , using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures , working with high voltages , and performing experiments involving explosives , not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials . Yet in December 1945 , the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record . Between January 1943 and June 1945 , there were 62 fatalities and 3,879 disabling injuries , which was about 62 percent below the rate of private industry .
Carbon monoxide poisoning
John Scott Haldane identified carbon monoxide as the lethal constituent of afterdamp , the gas created by combustion , after examining many bodies of miners killed in pit explosions . Their skin was coloured cherry - pink from carboxyhaemoglobin , the stable compound formed in the blood by reaction with the gas . As a result of his research , he was able to design respirators for rescue workers . He tested the effect of carbon monoxide on his own body in a closed chamber , describing the results of his slow poisoning . In the late 1890s , he introduced the use of small animals for miners to detect dangerous levels of carbon monoxide underground , either white mice or canaries . With a faster metabolism , they showed the effects of poisoning before gas levels became critical for the workers , and so gave an early warning of the problem . The canary in British pits was replaced in 1986 by the electronic gas detector .
Acetylcholine
Partly because of its muscle - activating function , but also because of its functions in the autonomic nervous system and brain , a large number of important drugs exert their effects by altering cholinergic transmission . Numerous venoms and toxins produced by plants , animals , and bacteria , as well as chemical nerve agents such as Sarin , cause harm by inactivating or hyperactivating muscles via their influences on the neuromuscular junction . Drugs that act on muscarinic acetylcholine receptors , such as atropine , can be poisonous in large quantities , but in smaller doses they are commonly used to treat certain heart conditions and eye problems . Scopolamine , which acts mainly on muscarinic receptors in the brain , can cause delirium and amnesia . The addictive qualities of nicotine are derived from its effects on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain .
Glycolysis
Citrate inhibits phosphofructokinase when tested in vitro by enhancing the inhibitory effect of ATP . However , it is doubtful that this is a meaningful effect in vivo , because citrate in the cytosol is utilized mainly for conversion to acetyl - CoA for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis . Pyruvate
Crossing the Red Sea
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Human skin color
The genetic mutations leading to light skin , though partially different among East Asians and Western Europeans , suggest the two groups experienced a similar selective pressure after settlement in northern latitudes . At what point these developments took place for sub-populations of Homo sapiens ( and whether light skin also occurred independently in Homo neanderthalensis ) is under debate . There is a long - standing hypothesis that the selection for lighter skin due to higher vitamin D absorption occurred soon after the Out of Africa migration some time before 40,000 years ago . A number of researchers disagree with this and suggest that the northern latitudes permitted enough synthesis of vitamin D combined with food sources from hunting to keep populations healthy , and only when agriculture was adopted was there a need for lighter skin to maximize the synthesis of vitamin D .
Collagen
First , a three - dimensional stranded structure is assembled , with the amino acids glycine and proline as its principal components . This is not yet collagen but its precursor , procollagen . Procollagen is then modified by the addition of hydroxyl groups to the amino acids proline and lysine . This step is important for later glycosylation and the formation of the triple helix structure of collagen . Because the hydroxylase enzymes that perform these reactions require vitamin C as a cofactor , a long - term deficiency in this vitamin results in impaired collagen synthesis and scurvy . These hydroxylation reactions are catalyzed by two different enzymes : prolyl - 4 - hydroxylase and lysyl - hydroxylase . Vitamin C also serves with them in inducing these reactions . In this service , one molecule of vitamin C is destroyed for each H replaced by OH . The synthesis of collagen occurs inside and outside of the cell . The formation of collagen which results in fibrillary collagen ( most common form ) is discussed here . Meshwork collagen , which is often involved in the formation of filtration systems , is the other form of collagen . All types of collagens are triple helices , and the differences lie in the make - up of the alpha peptides created in step 2 .
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a particularly favorable site for studying LTP because of its densely packed and sharply defined layers of neurons , but similar types of activity - dependent synaptic change have also been observed in many other brain areas . The best - studied form of LTP has been seen in CA1 of the hippocampus and occurs at synapses that terminate on dendritic spines and use the neurotransmitter glutamate . The synaptic changes depend on a special type of glutamate receptor , the N - methyl - D - aspartate ( NMDA ) receptor , a cell surface receptor which has the special property of allowing calcium to enter the postsynaptic spine only when presynaptic activation and postsynaptic depolarization occur at the same time . Drugs that interfere with NMDA receptors block LTP and have major effects on some types of memory , especially spatial memory . Genetically modified mice that are modified to disable the LTP mechanism , also generally show severe memory deficits .
Phosphene
Experiments with humans have shown that when the visual cortex is stimulated above the calcarine fissure , phosphenes are produced in the lower part of the visual field , and vice versa .
Vitamin A deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency ( VAD ) or hypovitaminosis A is a lack of vitamin A in blood and tissues . It is common in poorer countries but rarely seen in more developed countries . Nyctalopia ( night blindness ) is one of the first signs of VAD . Xerophthalmia , keratomalacia , and complete blindness can also occur since Vitamin A has a major role in phototransduction .
Toxic shock syndrome
On 22 September 1980 , Procter and Gamble recalled Rely following release of the CDC report . As part of the voluntary recall , Procter and Gamble entered into a consent agreement with the FDA `` providing for a program for notification to consumers and retrieval of the product from the market '' . However , it was clear to other investigators that Rely was not the only culprit . Other regions of the United States saw increases in menstrual TSS before Rely was introduced .
Cocoa production in Ghana
Researchers at the ODI therefore suggest that liberalisation has been good for producers by :
Casualties of the Iraq War
The Burnham et al. study has been described as the most controversial study in survey research on armed conflict , and its findings have been widely disputed in the academic literature . Shortly after publication , the study 's estimate and methodology came under criticism from a number of sources , including the United States government , academics , and the Iraq Body Count . At the time , other experts , praised the methodology of the study . John Tirman , who commissioned and directed the funding for the study defended the study .
Carbon dioxide
Increased atmospheric CO concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants which leads to reduced water usage and increased water - use efficiency . Studies using FACE have shown that CO enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants . This may have knock - on effects on other parts of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain the same amount of protein .
Thalidomide
In East Germany , the head of the central pharmacy control commission , Friedrich Jung , suspected an antivitaminic effect of thalidomide as derivative of glutamic acid . Meanwhile , in West Germany , it took some time before the increase in dysmelia at the end of the 1950s was connected with thalidomide . In 1958 , Karl Beck , a former pediatric doctor in Bayreuth , wrote an article in a local newspaper claiming a relationship between nuclear weapons testing and cases of dysmelia in children . Based on this , FDP whip Erich Mende requested an official statement from the federal government . For statistical reasons , the main data series used to research dysmelia cases started by chance at the same time as the approval date for thalidomide . After the Nazi regime with its Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring used mandatory statistical monitoring to commit various crimes , western Germany had been very reluctant to monitor congenital disorders in a similarly strict way . The parliamentary report rejected any relation with radioactivity and the abnormal increase of dysmelia . Also the DFG research project installed after the Mende request was not helpful . The project was led by pathologist Franz Büchner , who ran the project to propagate his teratological theory . Büchner saw lack of healthy nutrition and behavior of the mothers as being more important than genetic reasons . Furthermore , it took a while to install a Surgeon General in Germany ; the Federal Ministry of Health was not founded until 1962 , some months after thalidomide was banned from the market . In Germany approximately 2,500 thalidomide babies were born .
Cigarette
`` Ulcerative colitis is a condition of nonsmokers in which nicotine is of therapeutic benefit . '' A recent review of the available scientific literature concluded that the apparent decrease in Alzheimer disease risk may be simply because smokers tend to die before reaching the age at which it normally occurs . `` Differential mortality is always likely to be a problem where there is a need to investigate the effects of smoking in a disorder with very low incidence rates before age 75 years , which is the case of Alzheimer 's disease '' , it stated , noting that smokers are only half as likely as nonsmokers to survive to the age of 80 .
Endocrine system
Secreted hormone From cells Effect Calcidiol ( 25 - hydroxyvitamin D ) Inactive form of vitamin D
Citric acid cycle
Two carbon atoms are oxidized to CO , the energy from these reactions is transferred to other metabolic processes through GTP ( or ATP ) , and as electrons in NADH and QH . The NADH generated in the citric acid cycle may later be oxidized ( donate its electrons ) to drive ATP synthesis in a type of process called oxidative phosphorylation . FADH is covalently attached to succinate dehydrogenase , an enzyme which functions both in the CAC and the mitochondrial electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation . FADH , therefore , facilitates transfer of electrons to coenzyme Q , which is the final electron acceptor of the reaction catalyzed by the succinate : ubiquinone oxidoreductase complex , also acting as an intermediate in the electron transport chain .
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine ( ACh ) is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals , including humans , as a neurotransmitter -- a chemical message released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells ( neurons , muscle cells , and gland cells ) . Its name is derived from its chemical structure : it is an ester of acetic acid and choline . Parts in the body that use or are affected by acetylcholine are referred to as cholinergic . Substances that interfere with acetylcholine activity are called anticholinergics . Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction -- in other words , it is the chemical that motor neurons of the nervous system release in order to activate muscles . This property means that drugs that affect cholinergic systems can have very dangerous effects ranging from paralysis to convulsions . Acetylcholine is also a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system , both as an internal transmitter for the sympathetic nervous system and as the final product released by the parasympathetic nervous system .
Chernobyl disaster
In very high doses , it was known at the time that radiation can cause a physiological increase in the rate of pregnancy anomalies , but unlike the dominant linear - no threshold model of radiation and cancer rate increases , it was known , by researchers familiar with both the prior human exposure data and animal testing , that the `` Malformation of organs appears to be a deterministic effect with a threshold dose '' below which , no rate increase is observed . This teratology ( birth defects ) issue was discussed by Frank Castronovo of the Harvard Medical School in 1999 , publishing a detailed review of dose reconstructions and the available pregnancy data following the Chernobyl accident , inclusive of data from Kiev 's two largest obstetrics hospitals . Castronovo concludes that `` the lay press with newspaper reporters playing up anecdotal stories of children with birth defects '' is , together with dubious studies that show selection bias , the two primary factors causing the persistent belief that Chernobyl increased the background rate of birth defects . When the vast amount of pregnancy data does not support this perception as no women took part in the most radioactive liquidator operations , no pregnant individuals were exposed to the threshold dose .
Nutrition and cognition
Also known as cobalamin , B is important for the maintenance of neurological function and psychiatric health . B deficiency , also known as hypocobalaminemia , often results from complications involving absorption into the body . An assortment of neurological effects can be observed in 75 -- 90 % of individuals of any age with clinically observable B deficiency . Cobalamin deficiency manifestations are apparent in the abnormalities of the spinal cord , peripheral nerves , optic nerves , and cerebrum . These abnormalities involve a progressive degeneration of myelin , and may be expressed behaviorally through reports of sensory disturbances in the extremities , or motor disturbances , such as gait ataxia . Combined myelopathy and neuropathy are prevalent within a large percentage of cases . Cognitive changes may range from loss of concentration to memory loss , disorientation , and dementia . All of these symptoms may present with or without additional mood changes . Mental symptoms are extremely variable , and include mild disorders of mood , mental slowness , and memory defect . Memory defect encompasses symptoms of confusion , severe agitation and depression , delusions and paranoid behavior , visual and auditory hallucinations , dysphasia , violent maniacal behavior and epilepsy . It has been suggested that mental symptoms could be related to a decrease in cerebral metabolism , as caused by the state of deficiency .
Megaloblastic anemia
A measurement of methylmalonic acid ( methylmalonate ) can provide an indirect method for partially differentiating Vitamin B and folate deficiencies . The level of methylmalonic acid is not elevated in folic acid deficiency . Direct measurement of blood cobalamin remains the gold standard because the test for elevated methylmalonic acid is not specific enough . Vitamin B is one necessary prosthetic group to the enzyme methylmalonyl - coenzyme A mutase . Vitamin B deficiency is but one among the conditions that can lead to dysfunction of this enzyme and a buildup of its substrate , methylmalonic acid , the elevated level of which can be detected in the urine and blood .