vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
World War II
Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) and in early conflicts against the Soviets . Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians and , sometimes on prisoners of war .
Manhattan Project
The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard - of quantities sparked a revolution in nuclear medicine in the immediate postwar years . Starting in mid-1946 , Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities . Most of the orders were for iodine - 131 and phosphorus - 32 , which were used in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer . In addition to medicine , isotopes were also used in biological , industrial and agricultural research .
Caenorhabditis elegans
Nicotine dependence can also be studied using C. elegans because it exhibits behavioral responses to nicotine that parallel those of mammals . These responses include acute response , tolerance , withdrawal , and sensitization .
Caenorhabditis elegans
C. elegans has been a model organism for research into ageing ; for example , the inhibition of an insulin - like growth factor signaling pathway has been shown to increase adult lifespan threefold . In addition C. elegans exposed to 5mM lithium chloride ( LiCl ) showed lengthened life spans . When exposed to 10μM LiCl , reduced mortality was observed , but not with 1μM .
Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay has been put to use in the technique of radioisotopic labeling , which is used to track the passage of a chemical substance through a complex system ( such as a living organism ) . A sample of the substance is synthesized with a high concentration of unstable atoms . The presence of the substance in one or another part of the system is determined by detecting the locations of decay events .
Germ cell
There are also other applications of induced differentiation of germ cells . Another study showed that culture of human embryonic stem cells in mitotically inactivated porcine ovarian fibroblasts ( POF ) causes differentiation into germ cells , as evidenced by gene expression analysis .
Alkaloid
Prior to the development of a wide range of relatively low - toxic synthetic pesticides , some alkaloids , such as salts of nicotine and anabasine , were used as insecticides . Their use was limited by their high toxicity to humans .
Clay
Traditional uses of clay as medicine go back to prehistoric times . An example is Armenian bole , which is used to soothe an upset stomach . Some animals such as parrots and pigs ingest clay for similar reasons . Kaolin clay and attapulgite have been used as anti-diarrheal medicines .
Vasopressin
Vasopressin is available for use as a nasal spray as a dietary supplement , research chemical , or medication .
Bubonic plague
Later , plague was used during the Second Sino - Japanese War as a bacteriological weapon by the Imperial Japanese Army . These weapons were provided by Shirō Ishii 's units and used in experiments on humans before being used on the field . For example , in 1940 , the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague . During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials , the accused , such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima , testified that , in 1941 , 40 members of Unit 731 air - dropped plague - contaminated fleas on Changde . These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks .
Alkaloid
Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria , fungi , plants , and animals . They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid - base extraction . Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial ( e.g. quinine ) , antiasthma ( e.g. ephedrine ) , anticancer ( e.g. homoharringtonine ) , cholinomimetic ( e.g. galantamine ) , vasodilatory ( e.g. vincamine ) , antiarrhythmic ( e.g. quinidine ) , analgesic ( e.g. morphine ) , antibacterial ( e.g. chelerythrine ) , and antihyperglycemic activities ( e.g. piperine ) . Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine , or as starting points for drug discovery . Other alkaloids possess psychotropic ( e.g. psilocin ) and stimulant activities ( e.g. cocaine , caffeine , nicotine , theobromine ) , and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs . Alkaloids can be toxic too ( e.g. atropine , tubocurarine ) . Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals , they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste .
Evidence of common descent
The cytochrome c molecule has been extensively studied for the glimpse it gives into evolutionary biology . Both chicken and turkeys have identical sequence homology ( amino acid for amino acid ) , as do pigs , cows and sheep . Both humans and chimpanzees share the identical molecule , while rhesus monkeys share all but one of the amino acids : the 66th amino acid is isoleucine in the former and threonine in the latter .
Iodine-131
The I isotope is also used as a radioactive label for certain radiopharmaceuticals that can be used for therapy , e.g. I - metaiodobenzylguanidine ( I - MIBG ) for imaging and treating pheochromocytoma and neuroblastoma . In all of these therapeutic uses , I destroys tissue by short - range beta radiation . About 90 % of its radiation damage to tissue is via beta radiation , and the rest occurs via its gamma radiation ( at a longer distance from the radioisotope ) . It can be seen in diagnostic scans after its use as therapy , because I is also a gamma - emitter .
Bohr effect
An exception to the otherwise well - supported link between animal body size and the sensitivity of its haemoglobin to changes in pH was discovered in 1961 . Based on their size and weight , many marine mammals were hypothesized to have a very low , almost negligible Bohr effect . However , when their blood was examined , this was not the case . Humpback whales weighing 41,000 kilograms had an observed Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) Δ pH ( \ textstyle ( \ scriptstyle \ Delta \ log ( P_ ( 50 ) ) \ over \ Delta ( \ text ( pH ) ) ) ) value of 0.82 , which is roughly equivalent to the Bohr effect magnitude in a 0.57 kg guinea pig . This extremely strong Bohr effect is hypothesized to be one of marine mammals ' many adaptations for deep , long dives , as it allows for virtually all of the bound oxygen on haemoglobin to dissociate and supply the whale 's body while it is underwater . Examination of other marine mammal species supports this . In pilot whales and porpoises , which are primarily surface feeders and seldom dive for more than a few minutes , the Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) Δ pH ( \ textstyle ( \ scriptstyle \ Delta \ log ( P_ ( 50 ) ) \ over \ Delta ( \ text ( pH ) ) ) ) was 0.52 , comparable to a cow , which is much closer to the expected Bohr effect magnitude for animals of their size .
Positron emission tomography
PET scan of the human brain Neurology : PET neuroimaging is based on an assumption that areas of high radioactivity are associated with brain activity . What is actually measured indirectly is the flow of blood to different parts of the brain , which is , in general , believed to be correlated , and has been measured using the tracer oxygen - 15 . Because of its 2 - minute half - life , O - 15 must be piped directly from a medical cyclotron for such uses , which is difficult . In practice , since the brain is normally a rapid user of glucose , and since brain pathologies such as Alzheimer 's disease greatly decrease brain metabolism of both glucose and oxygen in tandem , standard FDG - PET of the brain , which measures regional glucose use , may also be successfully used to differentiate Alzheimer 's disease from other dementing processes , and also to make early diagnoses of Alzheimer 's disease . The advantage of FDG - PET for these uses is its much wider availability . PET imaging with FDG can also be used for localization of seizure focus : A seizure focus will appear as hypometabolic during an interictal scan . Several radiotracers ( i.e. radioligands ) have been developed for PET that are ligands for specific neuroreceptor subtypes such as ( C ) raclopride , ( F ) fallypride and ( F ) desmethoxyfallypride for dopamine D2 / D3 receptors , ( C ) McN 5652 and ( C ) DASB for serotonin transporters , ( F ) Mefway for serotonin 5HT1A receptors , ( F ) Nifene for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors or enzyme substrates ( e.g. 6 - FDOPA for the AADC enzyme ) . These agents permit the visualization of neuroreceptor pools in the context of a plurality of neuropsychiatric and neurologic illnesses .
Chernobyl disaster
On farms in Narodychi Raion of Ukraine it is claimed that in the first four years of the disaster nearly 350 animals were born with gross deformities such as missing or extra limbs , missing eyes , heads or ribs , or deformed skulls ; in comparison , only three abnormal births had been registered in the five years prior . The two primary individuals involved with the attempt to suggest that the mutation rate amongst animals was , and continues to be , higher in the Chernobyl zone , are the Anders Moller and Timothy Mousseau group . Apart from continuing to publish experimentally unrepeatable and discredited papers , Mousseau routinely gives talks at the Helen Caldicott organized `` Physicians for Social Responsibility '' ( PSR ) symposiums , an ultra anti-nuclear group , devoted to bring about a `` nuclear free planet '' . Moreover , in years past Moller was previously caught and reprimanded for publishing papers that crossed the scientific `` misconduct '' / `` fraud '' line . The duo have more recently attempted to publish meta - analyses in which the primary references they weigh - up , analyze and draw their conclusions from is their own prior papers along with the discredited book Chernobyl : Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment .
Human brain
Invasive measures include electrocorticography , which uses electrodes placed directly on the exposed surface of the brain . This method is used in cortical stimulation mapping , used in the study of the relationship between cortical areas and their systemic function . By using much smaller microelectrodes , single - unit recordings can be made from a single neuron that give a high spatial resolution and high temporal resolution . This has enabled the linking of brain activity to behaviour , and the creation of neuronal maps .
Caenorhabditis elegans
In 1963 , Sydney Brenner proposed research into C. elegans primarily in the area of neuronal development . In 1974 , he began research into the molecular and developmental biology of C. elegans , which has since been extensively used as a model organism . It was the first multicellular organism to have its whole genome sequenced , and as of 2012 , is the only organism to have its connectome ( neuronal `` wiring diagram '' ) completed .
Estrogen
Some hair shampoos on the market include estrogens and placental extracts ; others contain phytoestrogens . In 1998 , there were case reports of four prepubescent African - American girls developing breasts after exposure to these shampoos . In 1993 , the FDA determined that not all over-the - counter topically applied hormone - containing drug products for human use are generally recognized as safe and effective and are misbranded . An accompanying proposed rule deals with cosmetics , concluding that any use of natural estrogens in a cosmetic product makes the product an unapproved new drug and that any cosmetic using the term `` hormone '' in the text of its labeling or in its ingredient statement makes an implied drug claim , subjecting such a product to regulatory action .
Computer mouse
Often called `` air mice '' since they do not require a surface to operate , inertial mice use a tuning fork or other accelerometer ( US Patent 4787051 , published in 1988 ) to detect rotary movement for every axis supported . The most common models ( manufactured by Logitech and Gyration ) work using 2 degrees of rotational freedom and are insensitive to spatial translation . The user requires only small wrist rotations to move the cursor , reducing user fatigue or `` gorilla arm '' .
Scientific method
Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those conducting an experiment . Detailed record keeping is essential , to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results , and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure . They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results , likely by others . Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of Hipparchus ( 190 -- 120 BCE ) , when determining a value for the precession of the Earth , while controlled experiments can be seen in the works of Jābir ibn Hayyān ( 721 -- 815 CE ) , al - Battani ( 853 -- 929 ) and Alhazen ( 965 -- 1039 ) . DNA
Medical device
Recognized in the official National Formulary , or the United States Pharmacopoeia , or any supplement to them Intended for use in the diagnosis of disease or other conditions , or in the cure , mitigation , treatment , or prevention of disease , in man or other animals Intended to affect the structure or any function of the body of man or other animals , and does not achieve any of its primary purpose through chemical action within or on the body of man or other animals and does not depend on metabolic action to achieve its primary purpose .
Emotional lateralization
There are several limitations when using fMRI or PET to study emotional responses . Because fMRI measures changes in blood oxygenation , using the BOLD effect , its temporal resolution is limited by the haemodynamic response to several seconds . PET has similar limits , offering slightly better temporal resolution and slightly worse spatial resolution .
Pleurisy
A number of alternative or complementary medicines are being investigated for their anti-inflammatory properties , and their use in pleurisy . At this time , clinical trials of these compounds have not been performed .
Mechanism of action of aspirin
The mechanism of aspirin 's analgesic , anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties was unknown through the drug 's heyday in the early - to mid-twentieth century ; Heinrich Dreser 's explanation , widely accepted since the drug was first brought to market , was that aspirin relieved pain by acting on the central nervous system . In 1958 Harry Collier , a biochemist in the London laboratory of pharmaceutical company Parke Davis , began investigating the relationship between kinins and the effects of aspirin . In tests on guinea pigs , Collier found that aspirin , if given beforehand , inhibited the bronchoconstriction effects of bradykinin . He found that cutting the guinea pigs ' vagus nerve did not affect the action of bradykinin or the inhibitory effect of aspirin -- evidence that aspirin worked locally to combat pain and inflammation , rather than on the central nervous system . In 1963 , Collier began working with University of London pharmacology graduate student Priscilla Piper to determine the precise mechanism of aspirin 's effects . However , it was difficult to pin down the precise biochemical goings - on in live research animals , and in vitro tests on removed animal tissues did not behave like in vivo tests .
Institutional review board
IRBs are most commonly used for studies in the fields of health and the social sciences , including anthropology , sociology , and psychology . Such studies may be clinical trials of new drugs or devices , studies of personal or social behavior , opinions or attitudes , or studies of how health care is delivered and might be improved .
Origin of the domestic dog
The pointing gesture is a human - specific signal , is referential in its nature , and is a foundation building - block of human communication . Human infants acquire it weeks before the first spoken word . In 2009 , a study compared the responses to a range of pointing gestures by dogs and human infants . The study showed little difference in the performance of 2 - year - old children and dogs , while 3 - year - old children 's performance was higher . The results also showed that all subjects were able to generalize from their previous experience to respond to relatively novel pointing gestures . These findings suggest that dogs demonstrating a similar level of performance as 2 - year - old children can be explained as a joint outcome of their evolutionary history as well as their socialization in a human environment .
Theory of mind
Non-human research still has a major place in this field , however , and is especially useful in illuminating which nonverbal behaviors signify components of theory of mind , and in pointing to possible stepping points in the evolution of what many claim to be a uniquely human aspect of social cognition . While it is difficult to study human - like theory of mind and mental states in species whose potential mental states we have an incomplete understanding , researchers can focus on simpler components of more complex capabilities . For example , many researchers focus on animals ' understanding of intention , gaze , perspective , or knowledge ( or rather , what another being has seen ) . Call and Tomasello 's study that looked at understanding of intention in orangutans , chimpanzees and children showed that all three species understood the difference between accidental and intentional acts . Part of the difficulty in this line of research is that observed phenomena can often be explained as simple stimulus - response learning , as it is in the nature of any theorizers of mind to have to extrapolate internal mental states from observable behavior . Recently , most non-human theory of mind research has focused on monkeys and great apes , who are of most interest in the study of the evolution of human social cognition . Other studies relevant to attributions theory of mind have been conducted using plovers and dogs , and have shown preliminary evidence of understanding attention -- one precursor of theory of mind -- in others .
Estrogen
In rodents , estrogens ( which are locally aromatized from androgens in the brain ) play an important role in psychosexual differentiation , for example , by masculinizing territorial behavior ; the same is not true in humans . In humans , the masculinizing effects of prenatal androgens on behavior ( and other tissues , with the possible exception of effects on bone ) appear to act exclusively through the androgen receptor . Consequently , the utility of rodent models for studying human psychosexual differentiation has been questioned .
Strappado
According to a 1997 Human Rights Watch report , this technique was `` widely employed '' by the security forces of Turkey , where it is `` usually used together with high - pressure water , electric shock , beating , or sexual molestation such as squeezing the testicles or breast or placing a nightstick against or in the vagina or anus '' . In 1996 , the European Court of Human Rights found Turkey guilty of torture for its use of reverse hanging . Turkey has been admonished by Amnesty International and other international human rights groups concerning the use of the technique .
Philosophical zombie
Though philosophical zombies are widely used in thought experiments , the detailed articulation of the concept is not always the same . P - zombies were introduced primarily to argue against specific types of physicalism such as behaviorism , according to which mental states exist solely as behavior : belief , desire , thought , consciousness , and so on , are simply certain kinds of behavior or tendencies towards behaviors . A p - zombie that is behaviorally indistinguishable from a normal human being but lacks conscious experiences is therefore not logically possible according to the behaviorist , so an appeal to the logical possibility of a p - zombie furnishes an argument that behaviorism is false . Proponents of zombie arguments generally accept that p - zombies are not physically possible , while opponents necessarily deny that they are metaphysically or even logically possible .
Glycolysis
In animals , an isozyme of hexokinase called glucokinase is also used in the liver , which has a much lower affinity for glucose ( K in the vicinity of normal glycemia ) , and differs in regulatory properties . The different substrate affinity and alternate regulation of this enzyme are a reflection of the role of the liver in maintaining blood sugar levels .
Positron emission tomography
Limitations to the widespread use of PET arise from the high costs of cyclotrons needed to produce the short - lived radionuclides for PET scanning and the need for specially adapted on - site chemical synthesis apparatus to produce the radiopharmaceuticals after radioisotope preparation . Organic radiotracer molecules that will contain a positron - emitting radioisotope can not be synthesized first and then the radioisotope prepared within them , because bombardment with a cyclotron to prepare the radioisotope destroys any organic carrier for it . Instead , the isotope must be prepared first , then afterward , the chemistry to prepare any organic radiotracer ( such as FDG ) accomplished very quickly , in the short time before the isotope decays . Few hospitals and universities are capable of maintaining such systems , and most clinical PET is supported by third - party suppliers of radiotracers that can supply many sites simultaneously . This limitation restricts clinical PET primarily to the use of tracers labelled with fluorine - 18 , which has a half - life of 110 minutes and can be transported a reasonable distance before use , or to rubidium - 82 ( used as rubidium - 82 chloride ) with a half - life of 1.27 minutes , which is created in a portable generator and is used for myocardial perfusion studies . Nevertheless , in recent years a few on - site cyclotrons with integrated shielding and `` hot labs '' ( automated chemistry labs that are able to work with radioisotopes ) have begun to accompany PET units to remote hospitals . The presence of the small on - site cyclotron promises to expand in the future as the cyclotrons shrink in response to the high cost of isotope transportation to remote PET machines . In recent years the shortage of PET scans has been alleviated in the US , as rollout of radiopharmacies to supply radioisotopes has grown 30 % / year .
Corynebacterium
They are widely distributed in nature in the microbiota of animals ( including the human microbiota ) and are mostly innocuous . Some are useful in industrial settings such as C. glutamicum . Others can cause human disease , including most notably diphtheria , which is caused by C. diphtheriae . As with various species of a microbiota ( including their cousins in the genera Arcanobacterium and Trueperella ) , they usually are not pathogenic but can occasionally opportunistically capitalize on atypical access to tissues ( via wounds ) or weakened host defenses .
Primary color
The presence of photoreceptor cell types in an organism 's eyes do not directly imply that they are being used to functionally perceive color . Measuring functional spectral discrimination in non-human animals is challenging due to the difficulty in performing psychophysical experiments on creatures with limited behavioral repertoires who can not respond using language . Limitations in the discriminative ability of shrimp having twelve distinct color photoreceptors have demonstrated that having more cell types in itself need not always correlate with better functional color vision .
Testosterone
Studies conducted in rats have indicated that their degree of sexual arousal is sensitive to reductions in testosterone . When testosterone - deprived rats were given medium levels of testosterone , their sexual behaviors ( copulation , partner preference , etc . ) resumed , but not when given low amounts of the same hormone . Therefore , these mammals may provide a model for studying clinical populations among humans suffering from sexual arousal deficits such as hypoactive sexual desire disorder .