vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Romance languages
Documentary evidence is limited about Vulgar Latin for the purposes of comprehensive research , and the literature is often hard to interpret or generalize . Many of its speakers were soldiers , slaves , displaced peoples , and forced resettlers , more likely to be natives of conquered lands than natives of Rome . In Western Europe , Latin gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages , which were related to it by a shared Indo - European origin . Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin .
Siege
The importance of siege warfare in the ancient period should not be underestimated . One of the contributing causes of Hannibal 's inability to defeat Rome was his lack of siege engines , thus , while he was able to defeat Roman armies in the field , he was unable to capture Rome itself . The legionary armies of the Roman Republic and Empire are noted as being particularly skilled and determined in siege warfare . An astonishing number and variety of sieges , for example , formed the core of Julius Caesar 's mid-1st - century BC conquest of Gaul ( modern France ) .
Halloween
Samhain ( pronounced / ˈsɑːwɪn / SAH - win or / ˈsaʊ. ɪn / SOW - in ) was the first and most important of the four quarter days in the medieval Gaelic calendar and was celebrated on 31 October -- 1 November in Ireland , Scotland and the Isle of Man . A kindred festival was held at the same time of year by the Brittonic Celts , called Calan Gaeaf in Wales , Kalan Gwav in Cornwall and Kalan Goañv in Brittany ; a name meaning `` first day of winter '' . For the Celts , the day ended and began at sunset ; thus the festival began on the evening before 1 November by modern reckoning . Samhain and Calan Gaeaf are mentioned in some of the earliest Irish and Welsh literature . The names have been used by historians to refer to Celtic Halloween customs up until the 19th century , and are still the Gaelic and Welsh names for Halloween . Snap
Byzantine Empire
This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies , which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy . Averil Cameron regards as undeniable the Byzantine contribution to the formation of the medieval Europe , and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy , which in turn occupies a central position in the history and societies of Greece , Romania , Bulgaria , Russia , Georgia , Serbia and other countries . The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts , and they are thus regarded as transmitters of the classical knowledge , as important contributors to the modern European civilization , and as precursors of both the Renaissance humanism and the Slav Orthodox culture .
Celtic Britons
Many of the old Brittonic kingdoms began to disappear in the centuries after the Anglo - Saxon and Scottish Gaelic invasions ; Parts of the regions of modern East Anglia , East Midlands , North East England , Argyll and South East England were the first to fall to the Germanic and Gaelic Scots invasions ;
Brittany
Breton is a Celtic language derived from the historical Common Brittonic language , and is most closely related to Cornish and Welsh . It was imported in Western Armorica during the 5th century by Britons fleeing the Anglo - Saxon invasion of Britain . Since the 13th century , long before the union of Brittany and France , the main administrative language of the Duchy of Brittany had been French , which had replaced Latin . Breton remained the language of the rural population , but since the Middle Ages the bourgeoisie , the nobility , and the higher clergy have spoken French .
History of the Catholic Church
In 530 , Saint Benedict wrote his Rule of St Benedict as a practical guide for monastic community life . Its message spread to monasteries throughout Europe . Monasteries became major conduits of civilization , preserving craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools , scriptoria and libraries . They functioned as agricultural , economic and production centers as well as a focus for spiritual life . During this period the Visigoths and Lombards moved away from Arianism for Catholicism . Pope Gregory the Great played a notable role in these conversions and dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structures and administration which then launched renewed missionary efforts . Missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury , who was sent from Rome to begin the conversion of the Anglo - Saxons , and , coming the other way in the Hiberno - Scottish mission , Saints Colombanus , Boniface , Willibrord , Ansgar and many others took Christianity into northern Europe and spread Catholicism among the Germanic , and Slavic peoples , and reached the Vikings and other Scandinavians in later centuries . The Synod of Whitby of 664 , though not as decisive as sometimes claimed , was an important moment in the reintegration of the Celtic Church of the British Isles into the Roman hierarchy , after having been effectively cut off from contact with Rome by the pagan invaders .
Celtic music
Celtic music is a broad grouping of music genres that evolved out of the folk music traditions of the Celtic people of Western Europe . It refers to both orally - transmitted traditional music and recorded music and the styles vary considerably to include everything from `` trad '' ( traditional ) music to a wide range of hybrids .
Celtic Britons
11th Century AD ; The kingdom of Ystrad Clud ( Strathclyde ) was for some time a large and powerful Brittonic kingdom of the Henn Ogledd ( the ' Old North ) which endured until the end of the 11th century , successfully resisting Anglo - Saxon , Gaelic Scots and later also Viking attacks . At its peak it encompassed modern Strathclyde , Dumbartonshire , Cumbria , Stirlingshire , Lanarkshire , Ayrshire , Dumfries and Galloway , Argyll and Bute and parts of North Yorkshire , the western Pennines , and as far as modern Leeds in West Yorkshire . Thus the Kingdom of Strathclyde ( Ystrad - Clud ) became the last of the Brittonic kingdoms of the old north to fall in the 1090s , when it was effectively divided between England and Scotland .
Recruitment in the British Army
The importance of the Irish in the British Army was summed up by Rudyard Kipling , who lost his son , Lt John Kipling of the Irish Guards , in World War I ,
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
In Scotland , as in England , monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century . The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east , the Britons in the south , including the Kingdom of Strathclyde , and the Gaels or Scotti ( who would later give their name to Scotland ) , of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west . Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland ( known as Scotia to writers in Latin , or Alba to the Scots ) . The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries , as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed .
Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
Consequently , the way in which metallurgy was initiated differs considerably depending on the region . There are areas in which copper seems to play a crucial role ( i.e. , the Balkans ) , whereas other areas show no interest in it at all . Then there are societies that use copper artifacts but do not practice metallurgy ( Mohen 1992 ; 71 ) , and there are other ones that fully adopt some of the cultural innovations but ignore the rest . One example of the latter is Basque country in northern Spain , where splendid large dolmens are present along the Ebro river , but metal is rather infrequent , and when it does appear between the trapping , it is more often bronze or arsenical copper than copper ( Cava 1984 ) .
Citizenship
Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance of freedom . Hosking explained :
France–United Kingdom relations
The Seven Years ' War is regarded as a critical moment in the history of Anglo - French relations , which laid the foundations for the dominance of the British Empire during the next two and a half centuries .
Church of Ireland
Since the days of the Emperor Constantine in the 4th century European states saw themselves as having a central role in the government of the Church . This church - state link was vigorously applied when the Normans came to Ireland in the 12th century . Bishops were required to do homage to the king for their lands , just like earls and barons , who were vassals of the crown . It was therefore accepted , both during and after the Reformation , that the Crown should continue to exercise that authority over the church , in which it continued to play a central role . In this way , church property that existed at the time of the Reformation , buildings included , was retained by the Reformed , Established ( state ) Church of Ireland .
Wales
The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as Lloegyr ( Modern Welsh Lloegr ) , which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to refer to England as a whole . The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called Saeson , meaning `` Saxons '' . The Anglo - Saxons called the Romano - British ' Walha ' , meaning ' Romanised foreigner ' or ' stranger ' . The Welsh continued to call themselves Brythoniaid ( Brythons or Britons ) well into the Middle Ages , though the first written evidence of the use of Cymru and y Cymry is found in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan ( Moliant Cadwallon , by Afan Ferddig ) c. 633 . In Armes Prydain , believed to be written around 930 -- 942 , the words Cymry and Cymro are used as often as 15 times . However , from the Anglo - Saxon settlement onwards , the people gradually begin to adopt the name Cymry over Brythoniad . Dolwyddelan
Middle Ages
During the later Roman Empire , the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force as well as the continued development of highly specialised types of troops . The creation of heavily armoured cataphract - type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the 5th - century Roman military . The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers -- ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo - Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths , who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies . During the early invasion period , the stirrup had not been introduced into warfare , which limited the usefulness of cavalry as shock troops because it was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider . The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic composite bow in place of the earlier , and weaker , Scythian composite bow . Another development was the increasing use of longswords and the progressive replacement of scale armour by mail armour and lamellar armour .
Oral storytelling
The importance of stories and storytellers throughout human history can be seen in the respect afforded to professional storytellers .
Economy of Scotland
Historians agree that widespread high quality education was one key to Scotland 's economic success , providing human capital that helped make up for the deficit in natural resources . The history of education in Scotland in its modern sense of organised and institutional learning , began in the Middle Ages , with the education of boys based around Church choir schools and grammar schools . By the end of the 15th century schools were also being organised for girls and universities were founded at St Andrews , Glasgow and Aberdeen . Their academic reputation was higher than Oxford or Cambridge . Education was encouraged by the Education Act 1496 , which made it compulsory for the sons of barons and freeholders of substance to attend the grammar schools , which in turn helped increase literacy among the upper classes . The
Middle Ages
The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called Austrasia , Neustria , and Burgundy during the 6th and 7th centuries , all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty , who were descended from Clovis . The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria . Such warfare was exploited by Pippin ( d . 640 ) , the Mayor of the Palace for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne . Later members of his family inherited the office , acting as advisers and regents . One of his descendants , Charles Martel ( d . 741 ) , won the Battle of Poitiers in 732 , halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees . Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia , Wessex , and East Anglia , which were descended from the Anglo - Saxon invaders . Smaller kingdoms in present - day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and Picts . Ireland was divided into even smaller political units , usually known as tribal kingdoms , under the control of kings . There were perhaps as many as 150 local kings in Ireland , of varying importance .
Middle Ages
The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period , with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry . The use of militia - type levies of the free population declined over the Carolingian period . Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted , a large proportion during the early period appear to have been mounted infantry , rather than true cavalry . One exception was Anglo - Saxon England , where the armies were still composed of regional levies , known as the fyrd , which were led by the local elites . In military technology , one of the main changes was the return of the crossbow , which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages . Another change was the introduction of the stirrup , which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops . A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the horseshoe , which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain .
Middle Ages
Jewish communities were expelled from England in 1290 and from France in 1306 . Although some were allowed back into France , most were not , and many Jews emigrated eastwards , settling in Poland and Hungary . The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 , and dispersed to Turkey , France , Italy , and Holland . The rise of banking in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century , fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms . Many banking firms loaned money to royalty , at great risk , as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans .
Celtic music
There are musical genres and styles specific to each Celtic country , due in part to the influence of individual song traditions and the characteristics of specific languages :
Catalonia
Catalunya derives from the term `` land of castles '' , having evolved from the term castlà or castlan , the medieval term for the ruler of a castle . This theory therefore suggests that the names Catalunya and Castile have a common root . The source is of Celtic origin , meaning `` chiefs of battle '' . Although the area is not known to have been occupied by Celts , a Celtic culture was present within the interior of Iberia in pre-Roman times . The Lacetani , an Iberian tribe that lived in the area and whose name , due to the Roman influence , could have evolved by metathesis to Katelans and then Catalans . Miguel Carrasquer Vidal ( 1 ) , finding serious shortcomings with earlier proposals ( such as that an original - t - would have , by normal sound laws in the local Romance languages , developed into - d - ) , suggested an Arabic etymology : qattāl ( قتالو , pl . qattālūn قتالون ) -- meaning `` killer '' -- could have been applied by Muslims to groups of raiders and bandits on the southern border of the Spanish March . The name , originally derogatory , could have been reappropriated by Christians as an autonym . This is comparable to attested development of the term Almogavar in nearby areas . In this model , the country name Catalunya derives from the plural qattālūn while the adjective and language name català derives from the singular qattāl , both with the addition of common Romance suffixes .
Wales
The Latinised forms of these names , Cambrian , Cambric and Cambria , survive as lesser - used alternative names for Wales , Welsh and the Welsh people . Examples include the Cambrian Mountains ( which cover much of Wales and gave their name to the Cambrian geological period ) , the newspaper Cambrian News , and the organisations Cambrian Airways , Cambrian Railways , Cambrian Archaeological Association and the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art . Outside Wales , a related form survives as the name Cumbria in North West England , which was once a part of Yr Hen Ogledd . The Cumbric language , which is thought to have been closely related to Welsh , was spoken in this area until becoming extinct around the 12th century . This form also appears at times in literary references , as in the pseudohistorical `` Historia Regum Britanniae '' of Geoffrey of Monmouth , where the character of Camber is described as the eponymous King of Cymru .
History of the United Kingdom
That Treaty ( of Utrecht ) , which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth - Century civilization , marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy , and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large , -- the maritime , commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain .
Romanticism
One of Romanticism 's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism , which became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy . From the earliest parts of the movement , with their focus on development of national languages and folklore , and the importance of local customs and traditions , to the movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for self - determination of nationalities , nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism , its role , expression and meaning . One of the most important functions of medieval references in the 19th century was nationalist . Popular and epic poetry were its workhorses . This is visible in Germany and Ireland , where underlying Germanic or Celtic linguistic substrates dating from before the Romanization - Latinization were sought out . And , in Catalonia , nationalists reclaimed Catalanism from before the Hispanicization of the Catholic Monarchs in the 15th century , when the Crown of Aragon was unified with the Castilian nobility .
Coureur des bois
The role and importance of the coureurs des bois has been exaggerated over the course of history . This figure has achieved mythological status , leading to many false accounts , and to the coureurs des bois being assimilated with `` Canadiens '' ( Canadians ) .
Celtic Britons
Common Brittonic developed from the Insular branch of the Proto - Celtic language that developed in the British Isles after arriving from the continent in the 7th century BC . The language eventually began to diverge ; some linguists have grouped subsequent developments as Western and Southwestern Brittonic languages . Western Brittonic developed into Welsh in Wales and the Cumbric language in the Hen Ogledd or `` Old North '' of Britain ( modern northern England and southern Scotland ) , while the Southwestern dialect became Cornish in Cornwall and South West England and Breton in Armorica . Pictish is now generally accepted to descend from Common Brittonic , rather than being a separate Celtic language . Welsh and Breton survive today ; Cumbric and Pictish became extinct in the 12th century . Cornish had become extinct by the 19th century but has been the subject of language revitalization since the 20th century .
Wales
The English words `` Wales '' and `` Welsh '' derive from the same Germanic root ( singular Walh , plural Walha ) , which was itself derived from the name of the Celtic tribe known to the Romans as Volcae and which came to refer indiscriminately to all Celts . The Old English - speaking Anglo - Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular , and Wēalas when referring to their lands . The modern names for some Continental European lands ( e.g. Wallonia and Wallachia ) and peoples ( e.g. the Vlachs via a borrowing into Old Church Slavonic ) have a similar etymology .
Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
This article needs attention from an expert in European history , metalworking or mining . Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article . WikiProject European history , WikiProject Metalworking or WikiProject Mining may be able to help recruit an expert . ( March 2010 )
Balkans
The Balkan region was the first area in Europe to experience the arrival of farming cultures in the Neolithic era . The Balkans have been inhabited since the Paleolithic and are the route by which farming from the Middle East spread to Europe during the Neolithic ( 7th millennium BC ) . The practices of growing grain and raising livestock arrived in the Balkans from the Fertile Crescent by way of Anatolia and spread west and north into Central Europe , particularly through Pannonia . Two early culture - complexes have developed in the region , Starčevo culture and Vinča culture . The Balkans are also the location of the first advanced civilizations . Vinča culture developed a form of proto - writing before the Sumerians and Minoans , known as the Old European script , while the bulk of the symbols had been created in the period between 4500 and 4000 BC , with the ones on the Tărtăria clay tablets even dating back to around 5300 BC .
History of the Roman Empire
Reigning alone , Caracalla was noted for lavish bribes to the legionaries and unprecedented cruelty , authorizing numerous assassinations of perceived enemies and rivals . He campaigned with indifferent success against the Alamanni . The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are the most enduring monument of his rule . His reign was also notable for the Antonine Constitution ( Latin : Constitutio Antoniniana ) , also known as the Edict of Caracalla , which granted Roman citizenship to nearly all freemen throughout the Roman Empire .
Celts
The Gauls are tall of body with rippling muscles and white of skin and their hair is blond , and not only naturally so for they also make it their practice by artificial means to increase the distinguishing colour which nature has given it . For they are always washing their hair in limewater and they pull it back from the forehead to the nape of the neck , with the result that their appearance is like that of Satyrs and Pans since the treatment of their hair makes it so heavy and coarse that it differs in no respect from the mane of horses . Some of them shave the beard but others let it grow a little ; and the nobles shave their cheeks but they let the moustache grow until it covers the mouth . The
History of the Knights Templar
The Templars ' political connections and awareness of the essentially urban and commercial nature of the Outremer communities led the Order to a position of significant power , both in Europe and the Holy Land . They owned large tracts of land both in Europe and the Middle East , built churches and castles , bought farms and vineyards , were involved in manufacturing and import / export , had their own fleet of ships , and for a time even `` owned '' the entire island of Cyprus .
Wales
Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language , customs , holidays and music .