vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
False Claims Act
On May 20 , 2009 , the Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009 ( FERA ) was signed into law . It includes the most significant amendments to the FCA since the 1986 amendments . FERA enacted the following changes :
Fundamental rights in India
Equality before law : Article 14 of the constitution guarantees that all people shall be equally protected by the laws of the country . It means that the State will treat people in the same circumstances alike . This article also means that individuals , whether citizens of India or otherwise shall be treated differently if the circumstances are different . Social equality and equal access to public areas : Article 15 of the constitution states that no person shall be discriminated on the basis of religion , race , caste , sex or place of birth . Every person shall have equal access to public places like public parks , museums , wells , bathing ghats and temples etc . However , the State may make any special provision for women and children . Special provisions may be made for the advancements of any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or scheduled tribes . Equality in matters of public employment : Article 16 of the constitution lays down that the State can not discriminate against anyone in the matters of employment . All citizens can apply for government jobs . There are some exceptions . The Parliament may enact a law stating that certain jobs can be filled only by applicants who are domiciled in the area . This may be meant for posts that require knowledge of the locality and language of the area . The State may also reserve posts for members of backward classes , scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not adequately represented in the services under the State to bring up the weaker sections of the society . Also , there a law may be passed that requires that the holder of an office of any religious institution shall also be a person professing that particular religion . According to the Citizenship ( Amendment ) Bill , 2003 , this right shall not be conferred to Overseas citizens of India . Abolition of untouchability : Article 17 of the constitution abolishes the practice of untouchability . Practice of untouchability is an offence and anyone doing so is punishable by law . The Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 ( renamed to Protection of Civil Rights Act in 1976 ) provided penalties for preventing a person from entering a place of worship or from taking water from a tank or well .
Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
On December 22 , 2006 , a three - judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated its unanimous decision ( of August 2006 ) in Murphy v. Internal Revenue Service and United States . In an unrelated matter , the court had also granted the government 's motion to dismiss Murphy 's suit against the Internal Revenue Service . Under federal sovereign immunity , a taxpayer may sue the federal government , but not a government agency , officer , or employee ( with some exceptions ) . The Court ruled :
Freedom of speech by country
Outdoor assemblies must be registered beforehand . Assemblies at memorial sites are banned . Individuals and groups may be banned from assembling , especially those whose fundamental rights have been revoked and banned political parties . The Love Parade decision ( 1 BvQ 28 / 01 and 1 BvQ 30 / 01 of 12 July 2001 ) determined that for an assembly to be protected it must comply with the concept of a constituent assembly , or the so - called narrow concept of assembly whereby the participants in the assembly must pursue a common purpose that is in the common interest . Greece
Freedom of speech by country
In 1992 the High Court of Australia judged in the case of Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth that the Australian Constitution , by providing for a system of representative and responsible government , implied the protection of political communication as an essential element of that system . This freedom of political communication is not a broad freedom of speech as in other countries , but rather a freedom whose purpose is only to protect political free speech . This freedom of political free speech is a shield against government prosecution , not a shield against private prosecution ( civil law ) . It is also less a causal mechanism in itself , rather than simply a boundary which can be adjudged to be breached . Despite the court 's ruling , however , not all political speech appears to be protected in Australia and several laws criminalise forms of speech that would be protected in republic countries such as the United States .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
The act has been criticised for being hastily drafted , not consulting many groups active in education , not considering the quality of education , infringing on the rights of private and religious minority schools to administer their system , and for excluding children under six years of age . Many of the ideas are seen as continuing the policies of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan of the last decade , and the World Bank funded District Primary Education Programme DPEP of the ' 90s , both of which , while having set up a number of schools in rural areas , have been criticised for being ineffective and corruption - ridden .
April 2018 caste protests in India
The Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe ( Prevention of Atrocities ) Act , 1989 protects the SC / ST caste groups . The act does not allow the court to grant anticipatory bail to accused person . The police must file a First Information Report ( FIR ) and arrest the accused on receiving a complaint . In 2016 , the conviction rate under the act was 25.7 % in cases of atrocities against SC and 20.8 % in cases against ST in 2016 , according to the National Crime Records Bureau . On 20 March 2018 , the Supreme Court of India ruled that no arrests can be made without prior permission and allowed a court to grant an anticipatory bail if it , prima facie , finds the complaint an abuse of the law . The Attorney General of India , on behalf of the Government of India , filed a review petition against the order of the Supreme Court .
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Informally recognized for over a century as a convention of the constitution , the position of Leader of the Opposition was given statutory recognition in 1937 by the Ministers of the Crown Act .
English contract law
The common law of privity of contract is a sub-rule of consideration because it restricts who can enforce an agreement to those who have brought consideration to the bargain . In an early case , Tweddle v Atkinson , it was held that because a son had not given any consideration for his father in law 's promise to his father to pay the son £ 200 , he could not enforce the promise . Given the principle that standing to enforce an obligation should reflect whoever has a legitimate interest in its performance , a 1996 report by the Law Commission entitled Privity of Contract : Contracts for the Benefit of Third Parties , recommended that while courts should be left free to develop the common law , some of the more glaring injustices should be removed . This led to the Contracts ( Rights of Third Parties ) Act 1999 . Under section 1 , a third party may enforce an agreement if it purports to confer a benefit on the third party , either individually or a member as a class , and there is no expressed stipulation that the person was not intended to be able to enforce it . In this respect there is a strong burden on the party claiming enforcement was not intended by a third party . A third party has the same remedies available as a person privy to an agreement , and can enforce both positive benefits , or limits on liability , such as an exclusion clause . The rights of a third party can then only be terminated or withdrawn without her consent if it is reasonably foreseeable that she would rely upon them . In
Factory Acts
The Factory and Workshop Act 1883 ( 46 & 47 Vict . c. 53 ) gave additional powers for the regulation of white - lead manufacture and bakehouses ( but sanitary requirements for retail bakehouses were to be enforced by local authorities ) ; in the same session a private member 's bill intended to prohibit the employment of female children in the manufacture of nails was defeated at Second Reading . The Factory and Workshops Act 1878 Amendment ( Scotland ) Act 1888 affected the choice of full - day holidays in Scottish burghs ; formerly they had been the sacramental fast days specified by the local church -- they could now be specified by the burgh magistrates . The Cotton Cloth Factories Act of 1889 set limits on temperature ( and humidity at a given temperature ) where cotton cloth was being woven .
Fair Debt Collection Practices Act
The Fair Debt Collection Practices Act ( FDCPA ) , Pub . L. 95 - 109 ; 91 Stat. 874 , codified as 15 U.S.C. § 1692 -- 1692p , approved on September 20 , 1977 ( and as subsequently amended ) is a consumer protection amendment , establishing legal protection from abusive debt collection practices , to the Consumer Credit Protection Act , as Title VIII of that Act . The statute 's stated purposes are : to eliminate abusive practices in the collection of consumer debts , to promote fair debt collection , and to provide consumers with an avenue for disputing and obtaining validation of debt information in order to ensure the information 's accuracy . The Act creates guidelines under which debt collectors may conduct business , defines rights of consumers involved with debt collectors , and prescribes penalties and remedies for violations of the Act . It is sometimes used in conjunction with the Fair Credit Reporting Act .
Civil Rights Act of 1964
In October 2017 , Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum . According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News , Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between `` men and women '' . Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law , `` Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se . '' Devin O'Malley , speaking on behalf of the DoJ , stated `` the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle ( that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided ) , which necessitated today 's action . '' Sharon McGowan , a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ , rejected that argument , saying `` ( T ) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and `` The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court . ''
Constitution of the United Kingdom
Reforms since 1997 have decentralised the UK by setting up a devolved Scottish Parliament and assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland . The UK was formed as a unitary state , though Scotland and England retained separate legal systems . Some commentators have stated the UK is now a `` quasi-federal '' state : it is only `` quasi '' federal , because ( unlike the other components of the UK ) England has no legislature of its own , and is directly ruled from Westminster ( the devolved bodies are not sovereign and could , in theory at least , be repealed by Parliament -- unlike `` true '' federations , such as the United States , where the constituent states share sovereignty with the federal government ) . Attempts to extend devolution to the various regions of England have stalled , and the fact that Parliament functions both as a British and as an English legislature has created some dissatisfaction ( the so - called `` West Lothian question '' ) .
Bill of Rights 1689
The proposal to draw up a statement of rights and liberties and James 's violation of them was first made on 29 January 1689 in the House of Commons , with members arguing that the House `` can not answer it to the nation or Prince of Orange till we declare what are the rights invaded '' and that William `` can not take it ill if we make conditions to secure ourselves for the future '' in order to `` do justice to those who sent us hither '' . On 2 February a committee specially convened reported to the Commons 23 Heads of Grievances , which the Commons approved and added some of their own . However , on 4 February the Commons decided to instruct the committee to differentiate between `` such of the general heads , as are introductory of new laws , from those that are declaratory of ancient rights '' . On 7 February the Commons approved this revised Declaration of Right , and on 8 February instructed the committee to put into a single text the Declaration ( with the heads which were `` introductory of new laws '' removed ) , the resolution of 28 January and the Lords ' proposal for a revised oath of allegiance . It passed the Commons without division .
English Reformation
The Act of Uniformity 1558 , which forced people to attend Sunday service in an Anglican church with a new version of the Book of Common Prayer , passed by only three votes . The Bill of Uniformity was more cautious than the initial Reformation Bill . It revoked the harsh laws proposed against Roman Catholics , it removed the abuse of the pope from the litany and kept the wording that allowed for both consubstantial and transubstantial beliefs in the presence of Christ in the Eucharist .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act , 2009 An Act to provide for free and compulsory education to all the children of the age of six to fourteen years . Citation Act No. 35 of 2009 Enacted by Parliament of India Date assented to 26 August 2009 Date commenced 1 April 2010 Related legislation 86th Amendment ( 2002 ) Status : In force
Equal Rights Amendment
Maryland -- Equality of rights under the law shall not be abridged or denied because of sex . Maryland Constitution , Declaration of Rights , Article 46 ( 1972 )
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
The monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland , Wales , and Northern Ireland . The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament , and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales . In Scottish matters , the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government . However , as devolution is more limited in Wales , in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom . The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly , if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland .
English contract law
Sources on enforceability Balfour v Balfour ( 1919 ) 2 KB 571 Rose & Frank Co v JR Crompton & Bros Ltd ( 1924 ) Hillas & Co Ltd v Arcos Ltd ( 1932 ) Parker v Clark ( 1960 ) 1 WLR 286 Jones v Padavatton ( 1968 ) Esso Petroleum Co Ltd v Customs and Excise ( 1975 ) Baird Textile Holdings Ltd v M&S plc ( 2001 ) Statute of Frauds 1677 s 4 Bills of Exchange Act 1882 s 3 ( 1 ) Law of Property Act 1925 ss 52 , 54 ( 2 ) Consumer Credit Act 1974 ss 60 , 61 Law of Property ( Miscellaneous Provisions ) Act 1989 s 2 ( 1 ) see Certainty , social agreements and deeds .
Arizona
Arizona rejected a same - sex marriage ban in a referendum as part of the 2006 elections . Arizona was the first state in the nation to do so . Same - sex marriage was not recognized in Arizona , but this amendment would have denied any legal or financial benefits to unmarried homosexual or heterosexual couples . In 2008 , Arizona voters passed Proposition 102 , an amendment to the state constitution to define marriage as a union of one man and one woman . It passed by a more narrow majority than similar votes in a number of other states .
British North America Acts
This Act instituted a mandatory retirement age of 75 for all superior court judges . In 1982 , this Act was renamed the Constitution Act , 1960 .
House of Lords
The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extended , in civil and in criminal cases , to appeals from the courts of England and Wales , and of Northern Ireland . From Scotland , appeals were possible only in civil cases ; Scotland 's High Court of Justiciary is the highest court in criminal matters . The House of Lords was not the United Kingdom 's only court of last resort ; in some cases , the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council performs such a function . The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom , however , is relatively restricted ; it encompasses appeals from ecclesiastical courts , disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975 , and a few other minor matters . Issues related to devolution were transferred from the Privy Council to the Supreme Court in 2009 .
False Claims Act
In October 2013 , the UK Government announced that it is considering the case for financially incentivising individuals reporting fraud in economic crime cases by private sector organisations , in an approach much like the US False Claims Act . The ' Serious and Organised Crime Strategy ' paper released by the UK 's Secretary of State for the Home Department sets out how that government plans to take action to prevent serious and organised crime and strengthen protections against and responses to it . The paper asserts that serious and organised crime costs the UK more than £ 24 billion a year . In the context of anti-corruption , the paper acknowledges that there is a need to not only target serious and organised criminals but also support those who seek to help identify and disrupt serious and organised criminality . Three UK agencies , the Department for Business , Innovation & Skills , the Ministry of Justice and the Home Office have been tasked with considering the case for a US - style False Claims Act in the UK .
Republican Party (United States)
Owing largely to the prominence of the religious right in conservative politics in the United States , the Republican Party has taken positions regarded as outwardly hostile to the gay rights movement . Republicans have historically strongly opposed same - sex marriage ( the party 's overall attitude on civil unions is much more divided , with some in favor and others opposed ) , with the issue a galvanizing one that many believe helped George W. Bush win re-election in 2004 . In both 2004 and 2006 , congressional Republican leaders promoted the Federal Marriage Amendment , a proposed constitutional amendment which would legally restrict the definition of marriage to heterosexual couples . In both attempts , the amendment failed to secure enough votes to invoke cloture and thus ultimately was never passed . As more states legalized same - sex marriage in the 2010s , Republicans increasingly supported allowing each state to decide its own marriage policy .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
An example of administrative law in practice is the 1999 case of R. v. North and East Devon Health Authority which held that a disabled woman told by a health authority she would have a `` home for life '' in a facility had a substantive legitimate expectation the authority would not shut it down .
United Kingdom
Although the monarchy was restored , the Interregnum ensured ( along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689 , and the Claim of Right Act 1689 ) that , unlike much of the rest of Europe , royal absolutism would not prevail , and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne . The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system . With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660 , science was greatly encouraged . During this period , particularly in England , the development of naval power ( and the interest in voyages of discovery ) led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies , particularly in North America .
Declaration of nullity
According to Canon 1095 a marriage can be declared null only when consent was given in the presence of some grave lack of discretionary judgment regarding the essential rights and obligations of marriage , or of some real incapacity to assume these essential obligations . Pope Benedict XVI in his address to the Roman Rota in 2009 , echoing words of his predecessor John Paul II , has criticized `` the exaggerated and almost automatic multiplication of declarations of nullity of marriage in cases of the failure of marriage on the pretext of some immaturity or psychic weakness on the part of the contracting parties '' . Calling for `` the reaffirmation of the innate human capacity for matrimony '' , he insisted on the point made in 1987 by John Paul II that `` only incapacity and not difficulty in giving consent invalidates a marriage '' .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act , 2009 is about a child 's right to education . It ensures that all children get free education from class 1 to class 8 . To achieve this , the Act lays down some duties for governments , schools , teachers and parents .
Declaration of nullity
One or both parties is below the absolute minimum age of 16 for males and 14 for females Antecedent and perpetual impotence ( not to be confused with sterility ) Ligamen , or being already married The situation in which one party is a Catholic and the other has not been baptized ( unless a dispensation is granted ) The man was ordained to holy orders Either party made a public perpetual vow of chastity in a religious institute Abduction with the intent of marriage ( known as raptus ) , is an impediment as long as the person remains in the kidnapper 's power Impediment of Crime , bringing about the death of one 's spouse , or the spouse of another , with the intention of marriage Consanguinity , or close relationship by blood , even if the relationship is only by law Affinity , or close relationship by marriage