vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Ryukyu Islands
The first possible mentions of the islands are in the Annals of the Qin Dynasty . Qin Shi Huang heard of `` happy immortals '' living on the Eastern Islands , so he sent expeditions there to find the source of immortality , to no avail . While some purport that these expeditions reached Japan and launched a social and agricultural revolution , the same events are marked in Ryukyuan folklore on Kudaka Island . The Eastern Islands are again mentioned as the land of immortals in the Annals of the Han Dynasty .
Constellation
Classical Chinese astronomy is recorded in the Han period and appears in the form of three schools , which are attributed to astronomers of the Warring States period . The constellations of the three schools were conflated into a single system by Chen Zhuo , an astronomer of the 3rd century ( Three Kingdoms period ) . Chen Zhuo 's work has been lost , but information on his system of constellations survives in Tang period records , notably by Qutan Xida . The oldest extant Chinese star chart dates to that period and was preserved as part of the Dunhuang Manuscripts . Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the Song dynasty , and during the Yuan Dynasty became increasingly influenced by medieval Islamic astronomy ( see Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era ) . As maps were prepared during this period on more scientific lines they were considered as more reliable .
Chinese Buddhism
Mahāyāna figures such as Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva , Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva , Amitābha Buddha , and the Medicine Buddha , were all widely known and revered . Beliefs in karma and rebirth were held at all levels of Chinese society , and pilgrimages to well - known monasteries and the four holy mountains of China were undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike .
Chinese Buddhism
When the famous monk Kumārajīva was captured during the Chinese conquest of the Buddhist kingdom of Kucha , he was imprisoned for many years . When he was released in AD 401 , he immediately took a high place in Chinese Buddhism and was appraised as a great master from the West . He was especially valued by Emperor Yao Xing of the state of Later Qin , who gave him an honorific title and treated him like a god . Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism with his high quality translations ( from AD 402 -- 413 ) , which are still praised for their flowing smoothness , clarity of meaning , subtlety , and literary skill . Due to the efforts of Kumārajīva , Buddhism in China became not only recognized for its practice methods , but also as high philosophy and religion . The arrival of Kumārajīva also set a standard for Chinese translations of Buddhist texts , effectively doing away with previous concept - matching systems .
Chinese food therapy
In the early 14th century , Hu Sihui , who served as Grand Dietician ( Yinshan Taiyi 饮 膳 太医 / 飲 膳 太醫 ) at the court of the Mongol Yuan dynasty ( 1260 -- 1368 ) , compiled a treatise called the Proper and Essential Things for the Emperor 's Food and Drink ( Yinshan Zhengyao 饮 膳 正 要 ) , which is still recognized in China as a classic of both materia medica and materia dietetica . Influenced by the culinary and medical traditions of the Turko - Islamic world and integrating Mongol food stuffs like mutton into its recipes , Hu 's treatise interpreted the effects of food according to the scheme of correspondences between the Five Phases that had recently been systematized by northern Chinese medical writers of the Jin ( 1115 -- 1234 ) and Yuan eras . Before that period , food materials had not yet been comprehensively assigned to one of five flavors systematically correlated with specific internal organs and therapeutic effects .
Serial killer
Liu Pengli of China , cousin of the Han Emperor Jing , was made Prince of Jidong in the sixth year of the middle period of Jing 's reign ( 144 BC ) . According to the Chinese historian Sima Qian , he would `` go out on marauding expeditions with 20 or 30 slaves or with young men who were in hiding from the law , murdering people and seizing their belongings for sheer sport '' . Although many of his subjects knew about these murders , it was not until the 29th year of his reign that the son of one of his victims finally sent a report to the Emperor . Eventually , it was discovered that he had murdered at least 100 people . The officials of the court requested that Liu Pengli be executed ; however , the emperor could not bear to have his own cousin killed , so Liu Pengli was made a commoner and banished .
Qing dynasty
Traditional learning flourished , especially among Ming loyalists such as Dai Zhen and Gu Yanwu , but scholars in the school of evidential learning made innovations in skeptical textual scholarship . Scholar - bureaucrats , including Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan , developed a school of practical statecraft which rooted bureaucratic reform and restructuring in classical philosophy .
Samurai
Oda Nobunaga was the well - known lord of the Nagoya area ( once called Owari Province ) and an exceptional example of a samurai of the Sengoku period . He came within a few years of , and laid down the path for his successors to follow , the reunification of Japan under a new bakufu ( shogunate ) . A
Humanism
In China , Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor . Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded . King Wu of Zhou has the famous saying : `` Humanity is the Ling ( efficacious essence ) of the world ( among all ) . '' Among them Duke of Zhou , respected as a founder of Rujia ( Confucianism ) , is especially prominent and pioneering in humanistic thought . His words were recorded in the Book of History as follows ( translation ) :
Second Sino-Japanese War
According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno , the chemical weapons were authorized by specific orders given by Japanese Emperor Hirohito himself , transmitted by the Imperial General Headquarters . For example , the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938 . They were also used during the invasion of Changde . Those orders were transmitted either by Prince Kan'in Kotohito or General Hajime Sugiyama .
Mars
In the fourth century BCE , Aristotle noted that Mars disappeared behind the Moon during an occultation , indicating that the planet was farther away . Ptolemy , a Greek living in Alexandria , attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars . Ptolemy 's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection Almagest , which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries . Literature from ancient China confirms that Mars was known by Chinese astronomers by no later than the fourth century BCE . In the fifth century CE , the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimated the diameter of Mars . In the East Asian cultures , Mars is traditionally referred to as the `` fire star '' ( 火星 ) , based on the Five elements .
Chinese marriage
Despite the limitations imposed on ancient Chinese concubines , history and literature have examples of concubines achieving great power and influence . For example , in one of the Four Great Classical Novels of China , The Dream of the Red Chamber ( believed to be a semi-autobiographical account of author Cao Xueqin 's own family life ) , three generations of the Jia family are supported by one favorite concubine of the emperor .
Chinese Buddhism
The Kaiyuan 's Three Great Enlightened Masters , Śubhakarasiṃha , Vajrabodhi , and Amoghavajra , established Esoteric Buddhism in China from AD 716 to 720 during the reign of emperor Xuanzong . They came to Daxing Shansi ( 大 行善 寺 , Great Propagating Goodness Temple ) , which was the predecessor of Temple of the Great Enlightener Mahavairocana . Daxing Shansi was established in the ancient capital Chang'an , today 's Xi'an , and became one of the four great centers of scripture translation supported by the imperial court . They had translated many Buddhist scriptures , sutra and tantra , from Sanskrit to Chinese . They had also assimilated the prevailing teachings of China : Daoism and Confucianism , with Buddhism , and had further evolved the practice of the Esoteric school .
Qing dynasty
Beneath outward prosperity and imperial confidence , the later years of Qianlong 's reign were marked by rampant corruption and neglect . Heshen , the emperor 's handsome young favorite , took advantage of the emperor 's indulgence to become one of the most corrupt officials in the history of the dynasty . Qianlong 's son , the Jiaqing Emperor ( r . 1796 -- 1820 ) , eventually forced Heshen to commit suicide . Commerce
Chinese Buddhism
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period ( simplified Chinese : 五代 十 国 ; traditional Chinese : 五代 十 國 ; pinyin : Wǔdài Shíguó ) was an era of political upheaval in China , between the fall of the Tang Dynasty and the founding of the Song Dynasty . During this period , five dynasties quickly succeeded one another in the north , and more than 12 independent states were established , mainly in the south . However , only ten are traditionally listed , hence the era 's name , `` Ten Kingdoms '' . Some historians , such as Bo Yang , count eleven , including Yan and Qi , but not Northern Han , viewing it as simply a continuation of Later Han . This era also led to the founding of the Liao Dynasty .
Silk Road
It is true that these coins were found in China , but they were deposited there in the twentieth century , not in ancient times , and therefore they do not shed light on historic contacts between China and Rome . Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and quite possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam , which was then part of the Kingdom of Funan bordering the Chinese province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam . Given the archaeological finds of Mediterranean artefacts made by Louis Malleret in the 1940s , Óc Eo may have been the same site as the port city of Kattigara described by Ptolemy in his Geography ( c. 150 CE ) , although Ferdinand von Richthofen had previously believed it was closer to Hanoi .
Chinese food therapy
A number of ancient Chinese cookbooks and treatises on food ( now lost ) display an early Chinese interest in food , but no known focus on its medical value . The literature on `` nourishing life '' ( 养生 ; 養生 ; yangsheng ) integrated advice on food within broader advice on how to attain immortality . Such books , however , are only precursors of `` dietary therapy '' , because they did not systematically describe the effect of individual food items . In the volume on `` Fermentations and Food Science '' of Joseph Needham 's Science and Civilization in China , H.T. Huang considers the Recipes for Fifty - Two Ailments ( ca . 200 BCE ) and the Yellow Emperor 's Inner Canon as precursors of the `` dietary therapy '' tradition , the former because it recommends food products as remedies for various illnesses , the latter because it discusses the impact of food on health . The materia medica literature , exemplified by the Shennong Bencao Jing ( 1st century CE ) , also discussed food products , but without specializing on them . The
Shakespeare's reputation
Likewise , a 1982 production of King Lear was hailed by the critics as the story of `` moral decline '' , of a story `` when human beings ' souls were so polluted that they even mistreated their aged parents '' , an allusion to the days of the Cultural Revolution when the young people serving in the Red Guard had berated , denounced , attacked and sometimes even killed their parents for failing to live up to `` Mao Zedong thought '' . The play 's director , the Shakespearean scholar Fang Ping who had suffered during the Cultural Revolution for studying this `` bourgeois Western imperialist '' , stated in an interview at the time that King Lear was relevant in China because King Lear , the `` highest ruler of a monarchy '' created a world full of cruelty and chaos where those who loved him were punished and those who did not were rewarded , a barely veiled reference to the often capricious behavior of Mao , who punished his loyal followers for no apparent reason . Cordeilia 's devotion and love for her father - despite his madness , cruelty and rejection of her - is seen in China as affirming traditional Confucian values where love of the family counts above all , and for this reason , King Lear is seen in China as being a very `` Chinese '' play that affirms the traditional values of filial piety .
State of nature
The early Warring States philosopher Mozi was the first thinker in ancient China to develop an ideal state of nature as a premise to defend the need of a single ruler in a state . According to him , on that state each person have their own moral ( yi : 義 ) . As a result , people were unable to reach agreements and resources were wasted . Since his philosophy promotes the actions that leads to the benefit ( li : 利 ) of the state , such natural organization was rejected :
Subhas Chandra Bose
In 2004 , Shyam Benegal directed the biographical film , Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose : The Forgotten Hero depicting his life in Nazi Germany ( 1941 -- 1943 ) , in Japanese - occupied Asia ( 1943 -- 1945 ) and the events leading to the formation of Azad Hind Fauj . The film received critical acclaim at the BFI London Film Festival , and has garnered the National Film Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration , and the National Film Award for Best Production Design for that year . In 2017 , ALTBalaji and BIG Synergy Media , released a 9 - episode web series , Bose : Dead / Alive , which is a dramatised version of the book India 's Biggest Cover - up written by Anuj Dhar , which starred Bollywood actor Rajkummar Rao as Subhas Chandra Bose . The series was praised by both audience and critics , for its plot , performance and production design .
History of calendars
Before the Spring and Autumn period ( before 770 BC ) , the Chinese Calendars were solar calendars . In the so - called five - phase calendar , the year consists of 10 months and a transition , each month being 36 days long , and the transitions 5 or 6 days . During the Warring States period ( ~ 475 - 220 BC ) , the primitive lunisolar calendars were established under the Zhou Dynasty , known as the six ancient calendars ( simplified Chinese : 古 六 历 ; traditional Chinese : 古 六 曆 ) . The months of these calendars begin on the day with the new moon , with 12 or 13 months ( lunations ) in a year . The intercalary month is placed at the end of the year . In Qin China , the Qin calendar ( simplified Chinese : 秦 历 ; traditional Chinese : 秦 曆 ) was introduced . It follows the rules of Zhuanxu 's calendar , but the months order follows the Xia 's calendar .
Philosophical skepticism
Wang Chong ( 王充 ) was the leading figure of the skeptic branch of the Confucianism school in China during the first century A.D. He introduced a method of rational critique and applied it to the wide - spread dogmatism thinking of his age like phenomenology ( the main contemporary Confucianism ideology that linked all natural phenomenons with human ethics ) , state - led cults , and popular superstition . His own philosophy incorporated both Taoism and Confucianism thinkings , and it was based on a secular , rational practice of developing hypotheses based on natural events to explain the universe which exemplified a form of naturalism that resembled the philosophical idea of Epicureans like Lucretius .
Islamic Golden Age
The Islamic Empire heavily patronized scholars . The money spent on the Translation Movement for some translations is estimated to be equivalent to about twice the annual research budget of the United Kingdom 's Medical Research Council . The best scholars and notable translators , such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq , had salaries that are estimated to be the equivalent of professional athletes today . The House of Wisdom was a library established in Abbasid - era Baghdad , Iraq by Caliph al - Mansur .
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Rommel ( 15 November 1891 -- 14 October 1944 ) was a German general and military theorist . Popularly known as the Desert Fox , he served as field marshal in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II .
Islamic Golden Age
Ibn al - Haytham ( Alhazen ) was a significant figure in the history of scientific method , particularly in his approach to experimentation , and has been described as the `` world 's first true scientist '' .
Qing dynasty
The second major source of stability was the Central Asian aspect of their Manchu identity , which allowed them to appeal to Mongol , Tibetan and Uighur constituents . The ways of the Qing legitimization were different for the Chinese , Mongolian and Tibetan peoples . This contradicted traditional Chinese worldview requiring acculturation of `` barbarians '' . Qing emperors , on the contrary , sought to prevent this in regard to Mongols and Tibetans . The Qing used the title of Emperor ( Huangdi ) in Chinese , while among Mongols the Qing monarch was referred to as Bogda khan ( wise Khan ) , and referred to as Gong Ma in Tibet . The Qianlong Emperor propagated the image of himself as a Buddhist sage ruler , a patron of Tibetan Buddhism . In the Manchu language , the Qing monarch was alternately referred to as either Huwangdi ( Emperor ) or Khan with no special distinction between the two usages . The Kangxi Emperor also welcomed to his court Jesuit missionaries , who had first come to China under the Ming . Missionaries including Tomás Pereira , Martino Martini , Johann Adam Schall von Bell , Ferdinand Verbiest and Antoine Thomas held significant positions as military weapons experts , mathematicians , cartographers , astronomers and advisers to the emperor . The relationship of trust was however lost in the later Chinese Rites controversy .
Silk Road
The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative Eurasian silk and horse trade , a major reason for the connection of trade routes into an extensive transcontinental network . The German terms Seidenstraße and Seidenstraßen ( `` the Silk Road ( s ) '' ) were coined by Ferdinand von Richthofen , who made seven expeditions to China from 1868 to 1872 . The term Silk Route is also used . Although the term was coined in the 19th century , it did not gain widespread acceptance in academia or popularity among the public until the 20th century . The first book entitled The Silk Road was by Swedish geographer Sven Hedin in 1938 . The fall of the Soviet Union and ' Iron Curtain ' in 1989 led to a surge of public and academic interest in Silk Road sites and studies in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia .
Modern history
The assertions of Chinese philosophy began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy , as steps toward modernization . By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 , there were many calls , such as the May Fourth Movement , to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China . There were attempts to incorporate democracy , republicanism , and industrialism into Chinese philosophy , notably by Sun Yat - Sen ( Sūn yì xiān , in one Mandarin form of the name ) at the beginning of the 20th century . Mao Zedong ( Máo zé dōng ) added Marxist - Leninist thought . When the Communist Party of China took over power , previous schools of thought , excepting notably Legalism , were denounced as backward , and later even purged during the Cultural Revolution .
Bessemer process
A system akin to the Bessemer process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia . Economic historian Robert Hartwell writes that the Chinese of the Song Dynasty innovated a `` partial decarbonization '' method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast . Sinologist Joseph Needham and historian of metallurgy Theodore A. Wertime have described the method as a predecessor to the Bessemer process of making steel . This process was first described by the prolific scholar and polymath government official Shen Kuo ( 1031 -- 1095 ) in 1075 , when he visited Cizhou . Hartwell states that perhaps the earliest center where this was practiced was the great iron - production district along the Henan - Hebei border during the 11th century .
Shakespeare's reputation
In the years of tentative political and economic liberalization after the death of Mao in 1976 , Shakespeare became popular in China . The very act of putting on a play by Shakespeare , formerly condemned as a `` bourgeois Western imperialist author '' whom no Chinese could respect , was in and of itself an act of quiet dissent . Of all Shakespeare 's plays , the most popular in China in the late 1970s and 1980s was Macbeth , as Chinese audiences saw in a play first performed in England in 1606 and set in 11th century Scotland a parallel with the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of the late 1960s . The violence and bloody chaos of Macbeth reminded Chinese audiences of the violence and bloody chaos of the Cultural Revolution , and furthermore , the story of a national hero becoming a tyrant complete with a power - hungry wife was seen as a parallel with Mao Zedong and his wife , Jiang Qing . Reviewing a production of Macbeth in Beijing in 1980 , one Chinese critic , Xu Xiaozhong praised Macbeth as the story of `` how the greed for power finally ruined a great man '' . Another critic , Zhao Xun wrote `` Macbeth is the fifth Shakespearean play produced on the Chinese stage after the smashing of the Gang of Four . This play of conspiracy has always been performed at critical moments in the history of our nation '' .
Subhas Chandra Bose
Bose 's body was cremated in the main Taihoku crematorium two days later , 20 August 1945 . On 23 August 1945 , the Japanese news agency Do Trzei announced the death of Bose and Shidea . On 7 September a Japanese officer , Lieutenant Tatsuo Hayashida , carried Bose 's ashes to Tokyo , and the following morning they were handed to the president of the Tokyo Indian Independence League , Rama Murti . On 14 September a memorial service was held for Bose in Tokyo and a few days later the ashes were turned over to the priest of the Renkōji Temple of Nichiren Buddhism in Tokyo . There they have remained ever since .
Jupiter
The Chinese , Koreans and Japanese called it the `` wood star '' ( Chinese : 木星 ; pinyin : mùxīng ) , based on the Chinese Five Elements . Chinese Taoism personified it as the Fu star . The Greeks called it Φαέθων ( Phaethon , meaning `` blazing '' ) . In Vedic astrology , Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati , the religious teacher of the gods , and often called it `` Guru '' , which literally means the `` Heavy One '' .
Chinese food therapy
Sun Simiao 's disciple Meng Shen ( 孟 诜 ; 孟 詵 ; 621 -- 713 ) compiled the first work entirely devoted to the therapeutic value of food : the Materia Dietetica ( 食疗 本草 ; 食療 本草 ; Shíliáo běncǎo ; `` food therapy materia medica '' ) . This work has not survived , but it was quoted in later texts -- like the 10th - century Japanese text Ishinpō -- and a fragment of it has been found among the Dunhuang manuscripts . Surviving excerpts show that Meng gave less importance to dietary prohibitions than Sun , and that he provided information on how to prepare foodstuffs rather than just describe their properties . The works of Sun Simiao and Meng Shen established the genre of materia dietetica and shaped its development in the following centuries .
Sagittarius (constellation)
A competing mythological tradition , as espoused by Eratosthenes , identified the Archer not as a centaur but as the satyr Crotus , son of Pan , who Greeks credited with the invention of archery . According to myth , Crotus often went hunting on horseback and lived among the Muses , who requested that Zeus place him in the sky , where he is seen demonstrating archery .