vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Timeline of young people's rights in the United Kingdom
Timeline of 21st century events related to Children 's Rights in the UK in chronological order Date Parties Event Image 2001 Wales Children 's Commissioner for Wales was appointed . 2001 Sarah 's Law Following the abduction and murder of eight - year - old Sarah Payne , the News of the World newspaper spearheaded a controversial campaign for the government to allow controlled access to the Sex Offenders Register , so that parents with young children could know if a child sex - offender was living in their area . The campaign derived from the USA 's so - called Megan 's Law , operating in honour of murder victim Megan Kanka and allowing publication of a sex offender 's photograph and address . 2002 UK Government The Care Standards Act reformed the law relating to the inspection and regulation of various care institutions including children 's homes , and created the new post of Director of Children 's Rights with the power to investigate individual cases . October 2002 The UK committee responsible for monitoring the implementation of the UNCRC in the UK issued its second concluding observations on the UK 's progress . 2003 Northern Ireland The Commissioner for Children and Young People for Northern Ireland was appointed . 2003 UK Government The Sexual Offences Act 2003 lowered the age of consent for certain sexual activities from 18 to 16 in England and Wales . Section 45 defines a `` child '' for the purposes of the Protection of Children Act 1978 as a person under 18 years , rather than under 16 years , of age . Despite a previous `` deep lack of understanding '' of incidents of abuse in children 's homes run by Islington , Margaret Hodge is appointed Children 's Minister in June 2003 . 29 January 2003 Victoria Climbie The Laming report on the murder of Victoria Climbie recommended the creation of the post of Children 's Commissioner and generated legislation known as Every Child Matters . A revised Children Act based on Every Child Matters was enacted in 2004 . December 2003 Sir Michael Bichard After the murder of Jessica Chapman and Holly Wells , the Bichard report severely criticised the Chief Constable of Humberside Police for ordering the destruction of criminal records of child abusers as required under the Protection of Children Act 1999 . A revised registration scheme for people working with children and vulnerable adults was recommended . The report also revealed that investigation into the murders was severely compromised by involvement of some of the police officers in child pornography , or were Operation Ore suspects .
Bill of Rights 1689
On 13 February the clerk of the House of Lords read the Declaration of Right , and the Marquess of Halifax , in the name of all the estates of the realm , asked William and Mary to accept the throne . William replied for his wife and himself : `` We thankfully accept what you have offered us '' . They then went in procession to the great gate at Whitehall . The Garter King at Arms proclaimed them King and Queen of England , France , and Ireland , whereupon they adjourned to the Chapel Royal , with the Bishop of London preaching the sermon . They were crowned on 11 April , swearing an oath to uphold the laws made by Parliament . The Coronation Oath Act 1688 had provided a new coronation oath , whereby the monarchs were to `` solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this kingdom of England , and the dominions thereunto belonging , according to the statutes in parliament agreed on , and the laws and customs of the same '' . They were also to maintain the laws of God , the true profession of the Gospel , and the Protestant Reformed faith established by law . This replaced an oath which had deferred more to the monarch . The previous oath required the monarch to rule based on `` the laws and customs ... granted by the Kings of England '' .
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005
The Constitution of India -- India 's fundamental and supreme law . The Act aims to follow the Directive Principles of State Policy enunciated in Part IV of the Constitution of India . The law by providing a ' right to work ' is consistent with Article 41 that directs the State to secure to all citizens the right to work . The statute also seeks to protect the environment through rural works which is consistent with Article 48A that directs the State to protect the environment . In accordance with the Article 21 of the Constitution of India that guarantees the right to life with dignity to every citizen of India , this act imparts dignity to the rural people through an assurance of livelihood security . The Fundamental Right enshrined in Article 16 of the Constitution of India guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and prevents the State from discriminating against anyone in matters of employment on the grounds only of religion , race , caste , sex , descent , place of birth , place of residence or any of them . NREGA also follows Article 46 that requires the State to promote the interests of and work for the economic uplift of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and protect them from discrimination and exploitation . Article 40 mandates the State to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self - government . Conferring the primary responsibility of implementation on Gram Panchayats , the Act adheres to this constitutional principle . Also the process of decentralization initiated by 73rd Amendment to the Constitution of India that granted a constitutional status to the Panchayats is further reinforced by the Mahatma Gandhi NREGA that endowed these rural self - government institutions with authority to implement the law .
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 , which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities .
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
Children attending the private schools are seen to be at an advantage , forming a discrimination against the weakest sections who are forced to go to government schools . Furthermore , the system has been criticised as catering to the rural elites who are able to afford school fees in a country where a large number of families live in absolute poverty . The act has been criticised as discriminatory for not addressing these issues . Well - known educationist Anil Sadagopal said of the hurriedly drafted act :
Article Three of the United States Constitution
Under English law effective during the ratification of the U.S. Constitution , including the Treason Act 1351 , there were essentially five species of treason . Of the five , the Constitution adopted only two : levying war and adhering to enemies . Omitted were species of treason involving encompassing ( or imagining ) the death of the king , certain types of counterfeiting , and finally fornication with women in the royal family of the sort which could call into question the parentage of royal successors . James Wilson wrote the original draft of this section , and he was involved as a defense attorney for some accused of treason against the Patriot cause .
Precedent
This situation changed , however , after the issuance of the Practice Statement of 1966 . It enabled the House of Lords to adapt English law to meet changing social conditions . In R v G & R 2003 , the House of Lords overruled its decision in Caldwell 1981 , which had allowed the Lords to establish mens rea ( `` guilty mind '' ) by measuring a defendant 's conduct against that of a `` reasonable person , '' regardless of the defendant 's actual state of mind .
Chinese marriage
The second way ( 義 绝 ) is through state - mandated annulment of marriage . This applies when one spouse commits a serious crime ( variously defined , usually more broadly for the wife ) against the other or his / her clan .
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
At Young 's death in 1877 , he was followed by other church presidents , who resisted efforts by the United States Congress to outlaw Mormon polygamous marriages . In 1878 , the United States Supreme Court , in Reynolds v. United States , decreed that `` religious duty '' to engage in plural marriage was not a valid defense to prosecutions for violating state laws against polygamy . Conflict between Mormons and the U.S. government escalated to the point that , in 1890 , Congress disincorporated the LDS Church and seized most of its assets . Soon thereafter , church president Wilford Woodruff issued a manifesto that officially suspended the practice . Although this manifesto did not dissolve existing plural marriages , so that families would not be split apart or damaged , no new polygamous marriages would be performed . Relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890 , such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state in 1896 . Relations further improved after 1904 , when church president Joseph F. Smith again disavowed polygamy before the United States Congress and issued a `` Second Manifesto '' , calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease , as they were already against church doctrine since Woodruff issued the Manifesto . Eventually , the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy and today actively distances itself from `` fundamentalist '' groups still practicing polygamy .
English contract law
Relatively few cases are ever brought directly by consumers , given the complexity of litigation , cost , and its worth if claims are small . In order to ensure consumer protection laws are actually enforced , the Competition and Markets Authority has jurisdiction to bring consumer regulation cases on behalf of consumers after receiving complaints . Under the Consumer Rights Act 2015 section 70 and Schedule 3 , the CMA has jurisdiction to collect and consider complaints , and then seek injunctions in the courts to stop businesses using unfair terms ( under any legislation ) . The CRA 2015 is formally broader than UCTA 1977 in that it covers any unfair terms , not just exemption clauses , but narrower in that it only operates for consumer contracts . Under section 2 , a consumer is an `` individual acting for purposes that are wholly or mainly outside that individual 's trade , business , craft or profession . '' However , while the United Kingdom could always opt for greater protection , when it translated the Directive into national law it opted to follow the bare minimum requirements , and not to cover every contract term . Under section 64 , a court may only assess the fairness of terms that do not specify `` the main subject matter of the contract '' , or terms which relate to `` appropriateness of the price payable '' of the thing sold . Outside such `` core '' terms , a term may be unfair , under section 62 if it is not one that is individually negotiated , and if contrary to good faith it causes a significant imbalance in the rights and obligations of the parties . A list of examples of unfair terms are set out in Schedule 2 . In DGFT v First National Bank plc the House of Lords held that given the purpose of consumer protection , the predecessor to section 64 should be construed tightly and Lord Bingham stated good faith implies fair , open and honest dealing . This all meant that the bank 's practice of charging its ( higher ) default interest rate to customers who had ( lower ) interest rate set by a court under a debt restructuring plan could be assessed for fairness , but the term did not create such an imbalance given the bank wished only to have its normal interest . This appeared to grant a relatively open role for the Office of Fair Trading to intervene against unfair terms .
Queen's Counsel
The first States to change to the title of Senior Counsel were New South Wales in 1993 and Queensland in 1994 . Most other States and the Commonwealth Government followed over the next 15 years , including the ACT in 1995 , Victoria in 2000 ( though this was reversed in 2014 ) , Western Australia in 2001 , Tasmania in 2005 , and South Australia in 2008 . In the Northern Territory , the rank of Queen 's Counsel was never formally abolished , but in 2007 the rules of the Territory 's Supreme Court were amended to facilitate the appointment of Senior Counsel by the Chief Justice . Those appointed Queen 's Counsel ( QC ) before the change in each jurisdiction were permitted to retain the old title .
Cousin marriage
Texas actually did pass a ban on first - cousin marriage the same year as Amrhein and Andrews married , evidently in reaction to the presence of the polygamous Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - Day Saints ( FLDS ) . Texas Representative Harvey Hilderbran , whose district includes the main FLDS compound , authored an amendment to a child protection statute to both discourage the FLDS from settling in Texas and to `` prevent Texas from succumbing to the practices of taking child brides , incest , welfare abuse and domestic violence '' . While Hilderbran stated that he would not have authored a bill solely to ban first - cousin marriage , he also said in an interview , `` Cousins do n't get married just like siblings do n't get married . And when it happens you have a bad result . It 's just not the accepted normal thing . '' Some news sources then only mentioned the polygamy and child abuse provisions and ignored the cousin marriage portion of the bill , as did some more recent sources . The new statute made sex with an adult first cousin a more serious felony than with adult members of one 's immediate family . However , this statute was amended in 2009 ; while sex with close adult family members ( including first cousins ) remains a felony , the more serious penalty now attaches to sex with an individual 's direct ancestor or descendant .
English contract law
English contract law is a body of law regulating contracts in England and Wales . With its roots in the lex mercatoria and the activism of the judiciary during the industrial revolution , it shares a heritage with countries across the Commonwealth ( such as Australia , Canada , India ) , and to a lesser extent the United States . It is also experiencing gradual change because of the UK 's membership of the European Union and international organisations like Unidroit . Any agreement that is enforceable in court is a contract . Because a contract is a voluntary obligation , in contrast to paying compensation for a tort and restitution to reverse unjust enrichment , English law places a high value on ensuring people have truly consented to the deals that bind them in court .
Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India
The Constitution ( Forty - second Amendment ) Act , 1976 Parliament of India An Act further to amend the Constitution of India . Citation 42nd Amendment Territorial extent India Enacted by Lok Sabha Date passed 2 November 1976 Enacted by Rajya Sabha Date passed 11 November 1976 Date assented to 18 December 1976 Date commenced 3 January 1977 Legislative history Bill introduced in the Lok Sabha The Constitution ( Forty - fourth Amendment ) Bill , 1976 Bill published on 1 September 1976 Introduced by H.R. Gokhale Bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha Constitution ( Forty - fourth Amendment ) Bill , 1976 Bill published on 4 November 1976 Repealing legislation 43rd and 44th Amendments Summary Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights , imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a `` Socialist Secular '' Republic Status : Substantially amended
Federalism in India
The state of Jammu and Kashmir has a separate set of applicable laws under Article 370 read with Appendix I & II ( The Constitution ( Application to Jammu and Kashmir ) Order , 1954 ) of the Indian constitution . Only matters related to defence , foreign relations and communications of Jammu and Kashmir are under the jurisdiction of Union government . The laws enacted by the parliament ( including amendments to the Indian constitution ) applicable to rest of India are not valid in J&K state unless ratified by its state assembly . The Government of India can declare a state of emergency in Jammu and Kashmir and impose governor 's rule in certain conditions . The state has its own constitution other than applicable Indian constitution . Part XII of the J&K state constitution makes provision to amend its constitution with two - thirds majority by the state assembly . Part VI ( The states ) and Part XIV ( Services ) of the Indian constitution is not applicable to J&K state per Article 152 and Article 308 .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
If the time should come when our Parliament deliberately passes an Act -- with the intention of repudiating the Treaty or any provision of it -- or intentionally of acting inconsistently with it -- and says so in express terms -- then ... it would be the duty of our courts to follow the statute of our Parliament . --
Republic of Ireland
The Local Government Act 1898 is the founding document of the present system of local government , while the Twentieth Amendment to the constitution of 1999 provided for its constitutional recognition . The twenty - six traditional counties of Ireland are not always coterminous with administrative divisions although they are generally used as a geographical frame of reference by the population of Ireland . The Local Government Reform Act 2014 provides for a system of thirty - one local authorities - twenty - six county councils , two city and county councils and three city councils . Below this ( with the exception of the Dublin Region and the three city councils ) are municipal districts , replacing a previous system of town councils .
Civil Rights Act of 1964
On December 15 , 2014 , under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder , the United States Department of Justice ( DoJ ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC , namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status . DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees .
Constitution of India
It is drawn from many sources . Keeping in mind the needs and conditions of India its framers borrowed different features freely from previous legislation viz . Government of India Act 1858 , Indian Councils Act 1861 , Indian Councils Act 1892 , Indian Councils Act 1909 , Government of India Act 1919 , Government of India Act 1935 and the Indian Independence Act 1947 . The last legislation which led to the creation of the two independent nations of India and Pakistan provided for the division of the erstwhile Constituent Assembly into two , with each new assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it , to enable each to draft and enact a new constitution , for the separate states .
Declaration of nullity
If one of the parties were prohibited from marrying by a diriment impediment ( from the Latin for `` interrupting '' ) , the marriage is invalid . Because these impediments may not be known at all , the marriage is called a putative marriage if at least one of the parties married in good faith .
Declaration of nullity
Defect of form : If the marriage ceremony is invalid ( e.g. two Catholic persons being married outside of the Catholic Church ) Defect of contract : If it was not a marriage that was contracted , such as if there was a defect of intent on either side . This can occur if either party lacked the intent to enter into a lifelong , exclusive union , open to reproduction . In the Church 's understanding , the marriage contract can only be between a woman and a man . Defect of will : Because of `` mental incapacity , ignorance , error about the person , error about marriage , fraud , knowledge of nullity , simulation , conditioned consent , force or grave fear '' . Defect of capacity : If either party were married to another and thus unable to enter into the contract . Also , certain relationships of blood render the parties unable to enter into contract .
Declaration of nullity
The Catholic Church teaches that , in a true marriage , one man and one woman become `` one flesh '' before the eyes of God . Various impediments can render a person unable to validly contract a marriage . Besides impediments , marriage consent can be rendered null due to invalidating factors such as simulation or deceit , or to psychological incapacity .
Declaration of nullity
Marriages annulled under the Catholic Church are considered as void ab initio , meaning that the marriage was invalid from the beginning . Some worry that their children will be considered illegitimate if they get an annulment . However , Canon 1137 of the Code of Canon Law specifically affirms the legitimacy of children born in both valid and putative marriages ( objectively invalid , though at least one party celebrated in good faith ) . Critics point to this as additional evidence that a Catholic annulment is similar to divorce ; although civil laws regard the offspring of all marriages as legitimate .
Declaration of nullity
Certain conditions are necessary for the marriage contract to be valid in canon law . Lack of any of these conditions makes a marriage invalid and constitutes legal grounds for a declaration of nullity . Accordingly , apart from the question of diriment impediments dealt with below , there is a fourfold classification of contractual defects : defect of form , defect of contract , defect of willingness , defect of capacity . For annulment , proof is required of the existence of one of these defects , since canon law presumes all marriages are valid until proven otherwise .
Declaration of nullity
In the Catholic Church , a declaration of nullity , commonly called an annulment and less commonly a decree of nullity , is a judgment on the part of an ecclesiastical tribunal determining that a marriage was invalidly contracted or , less frequently , a judgment determining that ordination was invalidly conferred .
Constitution of the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom does not have one specific constitutional document named as such . Instead , the so called constitution of the United Kingdom , or British constitution , is a sum of laws and principles that make up the country 's body politic . This is sometimes referred to as an `` unwritten '' or uncodified constitution . The British constitution primarily draws from four sources : statute law ( laws passed by the legislature ) , common law ( laws established through court judgments ) , parliamentary conventions , and works of authority . Similar to an entirely written constitution , this sum also concerns both the relationship between the individual and the state and the functioning of the legislature , the executive , and the judiciary .
Declaration of nullity
Some of the Eastern Orthodox Churches allow a second or third marriage in oikonomia ( `` economy '' ) , which is not permitted in the Catholic Church . This concept states that the first marriage was valid and the second is allowed in the economy of salvation . The Catholic Church would see this as contrary to divine law and therefore invalid . The same impediment would exist as with divorce or `` dissolution '' of a bond ( annulment ) that is not in the favor of the faith .
Declaration of nullity
If someone has been married previously and the first spouse is still alive , he or she must have received a Declaration of Nullity before entering into a marriage in the Catholic Church , even if neither party in the marriage was Catholic ( privilege of faith being separate cases ) . The Catholic Church treats as indissoluble and valid every marriage when it is the first marriage for both parties . However , the church does not recognise as valid a marriage when one of the parties is Catholic but the marriage was not celebrated before a Catholic priest ( unless a dispensation was first obtained ) .