vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Luteinizing hormone
Premature menopause Gonadal dysgenesis , Turner syndrome Castration Swyer syndrome Polycystic ovary syndrome Certain forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia Testicular failure Pregnancy - BetaHCG can mimic LH so tests may show elevated LH
Caesarean section
Infertility , which may end when adhesions distort the tissues of the ovaries and tubes , impeding the normal passage of the egg ( ovum ) from the ovary to the uterus . One in five infertility cases may be adhesion related ( stoval ) Chronic pelvic pain , which may result when adhesions are present in the pelvis . Almost 50 % of chronic pelvic pain cases are estimated to be adhesion related ( stoval ) Small bowel obstruction -- the disruption of normal bowel flow , which can result when adhesions twist or pull the small bowel .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
N. gonorrhoea and C. trachomatis are the most common organisms . The least common were infections caused exclusively by anaerobes and facultative organisms . Anaerobes and facultative bacteria were also isolated from 50 percent of the patients from whom Chlamydia and Neisseria were recovered ; thus , anaerobes and facultative bacteria were present in the upper genital tract of nearly two - thirds of the PID patients . PCR and serological tests have associated extremely fastidious organism with endometritis , PID , and tubal factor infertility . Microorganisms associated with PID are listed below .
Fallopian tube
While a full testing of tubal functions in patients with infertility is not possible , testing of tubal patency is important as tubal obstruction is a major cause of infertility . A hysterosalpingogram , laparoscopy and dye , or HyCoSy will demonstrate that tubes are open . Tubal insufflation is a standard procedure for testing patency . During surgery the condition of the tubes may be inspected and a dye such as methylene blue can be injected into the uterus and shown to pass through the tubes when the cervix is occluded . As tubal disease is often related to Chlamydia infection , testing for Chlamydia antibodies has become a cost - effective screening device for tubal pathology . Fallopian
Infertility
A doctor or WHNP takes a medical history and gives a physical examination . They can also carry out some basic tests on both partners to see if there is an identifiable reason for not having achieved a pregnancy . If necessary , they refer patients to a fertility clinic or local hospital for more specialized tests . The results of these tests help determine the best fertility treatment .
Testosterone
High androgen levels are associated with menstrual cycle irregularities in both clinical populations and healthy women . Sexual
Homologous chromosome
Proper homologous chromosome separation in meiosis I is crucial for sister chromatid separation in meiosis II . A failure to separate properly is known as nondisjunction . There are two main types of nondisjunction that occur : trisomy and monosomy . Trisomy is caused by the presence of one additional chromosomes in the zygote as compared to the normal number , and monosomy is characterized by the presence of one fewer chromosome in the zygote as compared to the normal number . If this uneven division occurs in meiosis I , then none of the daughter cells will have proper chromosomal distribution and severe effects can ensue , including Down 's syndrome . Unequal division can also occur during the second meiotic division . Nondisjunction which occurs at this stage can result in normal daughter cells and deformed cells .
Infertility
One definition of infertility that is frequently used in the United States by reproductive endocrinologists , doctors who specialize in infertility , to consider a couple eligible for treatment is :
Fallopian tube
Embryos have two pairs of ducts to let gametes out of the body ; one pair ( the Müllerian ducts ) develops in females into the Fallopian tubes , uterus and vagina , while the other pair ( the Wolffian ducts ) develops in males into the epididymis and vas deferens .
Germ cell
Inducing differentiation of certain cells to germ cells has many applications . One implication of induced differentiation is that it may allow for the eradication of male and female factor infertility . Furthermore , it would allow same - sex couples to have biological children if sperm could be produced from female cells or if eggs could be produced from male cells . Efforts to create sperm and eggs from skin and embryonic stem cells were pioneered by Hayashi and Saitou 's research group at Kyoto University . These researchers produced primordial germ cell - like cells ( PGCs ) from embryonic stem cells ( ESCs ) and skin cells in vitro .
Infertility
Women who are fertile experience a natural period of fertility before and during ovulation , and they are naturally infertile for the rest of the menstrual cycle . Fertility awareness methods are used to discern when these changes occur by tracking changes in cervical mucus or basal body temperature .
Infertility
Other medical techniques are e.g. tuboplasty , assisted hatching , and Preimplantation genetic diagnosis .
Infertility
Sometimes it can be a combination of factors , and sometimes a clear cause is never established .
Egg donation
A need for egg donation may arise for a number of reasons . Infertile couples may resort to egg donation when the female partner can not have genetic children because her own eggs can not generate a viable pregnancy , or because they could generate a viable pregnancy but the chances are so low that it is not advisable or not financially feasible to do IVF with her own eggs . This situation is often , but not always based on advanced reproductive age . It can also be due to early onset of menopause , which can occur as early as their 20s . In addition , some women are born without ovaries , while some women 's reproductive organs have been damaged or surgically removed due to disease or other circumstances . Another indication would be a genetic disorder on part of the woman that either renders her infertile or would be dangerous for any offspring , problems that can be circumvented by using eggs from another woman . Many women have none of these issues , but continue to be unsuccessful using their own eggs -- in other words , they have undiagnosed infertility -- and thus turn to donor eggs or donor embryos . As stated above , egg donation is also helpful for gay male couples using surrogacy ( see LGBT parenting ) .
Fallopian tube
Salpingitis is inflammation of the Fallopian tubes and may be found alone , or be a component of pelvic inflammatory disease ( PID ) . A thickening of the Fallopian tube at its narrow portion , due to inflammation , is known as salpingitis isthmica nodosa . Like PID and endometriosis , it may lead to Fallopian tube obstruction . Fallopian tube obstruction is associated with infertility and ectopic pregnancy .
Estrogen
Estrogens are synthesized in all vertebrates as well as some insects . Their presence in both vertebrates and insects suggests that estrogenic sex hormones have an ancient evolutionary history . The three major naturally occurring forms of estrogen in women are estrone ( E1 ) , estradiol ( E2 ) , and estriol ( E3 ) . Another type of estrogen called estetrol ( E4 ) is produced only during pregnancy . Quantitatively , estrogens circulate at lower levels than androgens in both men and women . While estrogen levels are significantly lower in males compared to females , estrogens nevertheless also have important physiological roles in males .
Infertility
One of the best known is the HFEA -- The UK 's regulator for fertility treatment and embryo research . This was set up on 1 August 1991 following a detailed commission of enquiry led by Mary Warnock in the 1980s A similar model to the HFEA has been adopted by the rest of the countries in the European Union . Each country has its own body or bodies responsible for the inspection and licensing of fertility treatment under the EU Tissues and Cells directive Regulatory bodies are also found in Canada and in the state of Victoria in Australia
Estrogen
Hyperestrogenism ( elevated levels of estrogen ) may be a result of exogenous administration of estrogen or estrogen - like substances , or may be a result of physiologic conditions such as pregnancy . Any of these causes is linked with an increase in the risk of thrombosis . It 's also a symptom of liver cirrhosis , due to lowered metabolic function of the liver , which metabolises estrogen , leading to spider angioma , palmary erythema , gynecomastia and testicular atrophy in some male patients .
Sperm motility
Without technological intervention , a non-motile or abnormally - motile sperm is not going to fertilize . Therefore , the fraction of a sperm population that is motile is widely used as a measure of semen quality . Insufficient sperm motility is a common cause of subfertility or infertility . Several measures are available to improve sperm quality .
Infertility
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Benzo(a)pyrene
In experiments with male rats , sub-chronic exposure to inhaled BaP has been shown to generally reduce the function of testicles and epididymis with lower sex steroid / testosterone production and sperm production .
Estrogen
Structural Mediate formation of female secondary sex characteristics Accelerate metabolism Increase fat store Stimulate endometrial growth Increase uterine growth Increase vaginal lubrication Thicken the vaginal wall Maintenance of vessel and skin Reduce bone resorption , increase bone formation Protein synthesis Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation Increase circulating level of factors 2 , 7 , 9 , 10 , plasminogen Decrease antithrombin III Increase platelet adhesiveness Lipid Increase HDL , triglyceride Decrease LDL , fat deposition Fluid balance Salt ( sodium ) and water retention Increase cortisol , SHBG Gastrointestinal tract Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin Increase pheomelanin , reduce eumelanin Cancer Support hormone - sensitive breast cancers ( see section below ) Lung function Promotes lung function by supporting alveoli ( in rodents but probably in humans ) . Uterus lining Estrogen together with progesterone promotes and maintains the uterus lining in preparation for implantation of fertilized egg and maintenance of uterus function during gestation period , also upregulates oxytocin receptor in myometrium Ovulation Surge in estrogen level induces the release of luteinizing hormone , which then triggers ovulation by releasing the egg from the Graafian follicle in the ovary . Sexual behavior Promotes sexual receptivity in estrus , and induces lordosis behavior . In non-human mammals , it also induces estrus ( in heat ) prior to ovulation , which also induces lordosis behavior . Female non-human mammals are not sexually receptive without the estrogen surge , i.e. , they have no mating desire when not in estrus . Regulates the stereotypical sexual receptivity behavior ; this lordosis behavior is estrogen - dependent , which is regulated by the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus . Sex drive is dependent on androgen levels only in the presence of estrogen , but without estrogen , free testosterone level actually decreases sexual desire ( instead of increases sex drive ) , as demonstrated for those women who have hypoactive sexual desire disorder , and the sexual desire in these women can be restored by administration of estrogen ( using oral contraceptive ) . In non-human mammals , mating desire is triggered by estrogen surge in estrus .
Luteinizing hormone
Changes in LH and testosterone ( T ) blood levels and pulse secretions are induced by changes in sexual arousal in human males .
Pteridophyte
Dioicous : each individual gametophyte is either male ( producing antheridia and hence sperm ) or female ( producing archegonia and hence egg cells ) . Monoicous : each individual gametophyte produces both antheridia and archegonia and can function both as a male and as a female . Protandrous : the antheridia mature before the archegonia ( male first , then female ) . Protogynous : the archegonia mature before the antheridia ( female first , then male ) .
Infertility
Older people with adult children appear to live longer . Why this is the case is unclear and may dependent in part on those who have children adopting a healthier lifestyle , support from children , or the circumstances that led to not having children .
Sperm motility
Sperm DNA damage is common in infertile men . About 31 % of men with sperm motility defects have high levels of sperm DNA fragmentation .
X chromosome
Klinefelter syndrome is caused by the presence of one or more extra copies of the X chromosome in a male 's cells . Extra genetic material from the X chromosome interferes with male sexual development , preventing the testicles from functioning normally and reducing the levels of testosterone . Males with Klinefelter syndrome typically have one extra copy of the X chromosome in each cell , for a total of two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome ( 47 , XXY ) . It is less common for affected males to have two or three extra X chromosomes ( 48 , XXXY or 49 , XXXXY ) or extra copies of both the X and Y chromosomes ( 48 , XXYY ) in each cell . The extra genetic material may lead to tall stature , learning and reading disabilities , and other medical problems . Each extra X chromosome lowers the child 's IQ by about 15 points , which means that the average IQ in Klinefelter syndrome is in general in the normal range , although below average . When additional X and / or Y chromosomes are present in 48 , XXXY , 48 , XXYY , or 49 , XXXXY , developmental delays and cognitive difficulties can be more severe and mild intellectual disability may be present . Klinefelter syndrome can also result from an extra X chromosome in only some of the body 's cells . These cases are called mosaic 46 , XY / 47 , XXY .
Semen
During internal fertilization , however , fertilization occurs inside the female 's sexual organs . Internal fertilization takes place after insemination of a female by a male through copulation . In most vertebrates , including amphibians , reptiles , birds and monotreme mammals , copulation is achieved through the physical mating of the cloaca of the male and female . In marsupial and placental mammals , copulation occurs through the vagina .
Testosterone
The effects of testosterone in humans and other vertebrates occur by way of multiple mechanisms : by activation of the androgen receptor ( directly or as DHT ) , and by conversion to estradiol and activation of certain estrogen receptors . Androgens such as testosterone have also been found to bind to and activate membrane androgen receptors .
Estrogen
Compulsions in male lab mice , such as those in obsessive - compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , may be caused by low estrogen levels . When estrogen levels were raised through the increased activity of the enzyme aromatase in male lab mice , OCD rituals were dramatically decreased . Hypothalamic protein levels in the gene COMT are enhanced by increasing estrogen levels which are believed to return mice that displayed OCD rituals to normal activity . Aromatase deficiency is ultimately suspected which is involved in the synthesis of estrogen in humans and has therapeutic implications in humans having obsessive - compulsive disorder .
Birth control in the United States
There are many types of contraceptive methods available . Hormonal methods which contain the hormones estrogen and progestin include oral contraceptive pills ( there is also a progestin only pill ) , transdermal patch ( OrthoEvra ) , and intravaginal ring ( NuvaRing ) . Progestin only methods include an injectable form ( Depo - Provera ) , a subdermal implant ( Nexplanon ) , and the intrauterine device ( Mirena ) . Non-hormonal contraceptive methods include the copper intrauterine device ( ParaGard ) , male and female condoms , male and female sterilization , cervical diaphragms and sponges , spermicides , withdrawal , and fertility awareness .
Infertility
In the UK , previous NICE guidelines defined infertility as failure to conceive after regular unprotected sexual intercourse for 2 years in the absence of known reproductive pathology . Updated NICE guidelines do not include a specific definition , but recommend that `` A woman of reproductive age who has not conceived after 1 year of unprotected vaginal sexual intercourse , in the absence of any known cause of infertility , should be offered further clinical assessment and investigation along with her partner , with earlier referral to a specialist if the woman is over 36 years of age .
Adolescence
Primary sex characteristics are those directly related to the sex organs . In males , the first stages of puberty involve growth of the testes and scrotum , followed by growth of the penis . At the time that the penis develops , the seminal vesicles , the prostate , and the bulbourethral gland also enlarge and develop . The first ejaculation of seminal fluid generally occurs about one year after the beginning of accelerated penis growth , although this is often determined culturally rather than biologically , since for many boys first ejaculation occurs as a result of masturbation . Boys are generally fertile before they have an adult appearance .
Estrogen
While estrogens are present in both men and women , they are usually present at significantly higher levels in women of reproductive age . They promote the development of female secondary sexual characteristics , such as breasts , and are also involved in the thickening of the endometrium and other aspects of regulating the menstrual cycle . In males , estrogen regulates certain functions of the reproductive system important to the maturation of sperm and may be necessary for a healthy libido . Furthermore , there are several other structural changes induced by estrogen in addition to other functions .
Fallopian tube
The inner layer is a single layer of column - shaped cells . Cells with microscopic hair - like filaments ( cilia ) predominate throughout the tube , but are most numerous in the infundibulum and ampulla . Estrogen increases the production of cilia on these cells . Between the ciliated cells are peg cells , which contain apical granules and produce the tubular fluid . This fluid contains nutrients for spermatozoa , oocytes , and zygotes . The secretions also promote capacitation of the sperm by removing glycoproteins and other molecules from the plasma membrane of the sperm . Progesterone increases the number of peg cells , while estrogen increases their height and secretory activity . Tubal fluid flows against the action of the cilia , that is toward the fimbrial end .
Testosterone
Growth of spermatogenic tissue in testicles , male fertility , penis or clitoris enlargement , increased libido and frequency of erection or clitoral engorgement . Growth of jaw , brow , chin , nose , and remodeling of facial bone contours , in conjunction with human growth hormone . Completion of bone maturation and termination of growth . This occurs indirectly via estradiol metabolites and hence more gradually in men than women . Increased muscle strength and mass , shoulders become broader and rib cage expands , deepening of voice , growth of the Adam 's apple . Enlargement of sebaceous glands . This might cause acne , subcutaneous fat in face decreases . Pubic hair extends to thighs and up toward umbilicus , development of facial hair ( sideburns , beard , moustache ) , loss of scalp hair ( androgenetic alopecia ) , increase in chest hair , periareolar hair , perianal hair , leg hair , armpit hair .
Female reproductive system
There are many practices of mutilating female genitalia in different cultures . The most common two types of genital mutilation practiced are clitoridectomy , the circumcision of the clitoris and the excision of the prepuce the skin around the clitoris . They can all involve a range of adverse health consequences such as bleeding , irreparable tissue damage , and sepsis which can sometimes prove fatal .
Infertility
Secondary infertility is defined as the absence of a live birth for women who desire a child and have been in a union for at least 12 months since their last live birth , during which they did not use any contraceptives .
Egg donation
There are also some Christian leaders ( especially Catholic ) who are concerned about all in vitro fertility therapies because they disrupt the natural act of conceiving a child where gamete donations , both egg and sperm donations , are seen to `` compromise the marital bond and family integrity '' . and they encourage infertile couples to consider adoption instead .
Testosterone
Androgens may modulate the physiology of vaginal tissue and contribute to female genital sexual arousal . Women 's level of testosterone is higher when measured pre-intercourse vs pre-cuddling , as well as post-intercourse vs post-cuddling . There is a time lag effect when testosterone is administered , on genital arousal in women . In addition , a continuous increase in vaginal sexual arousal may result in higher genital sensations and sexual appetitive behaviors .
Ejaculatory duct
Ejaculatory duct obstruction is an acquired or congenital pathological condition in which one or both ejaculatory ducts are obstructed . In the case that both ejaculatory ducts are obstructed , this illness presents with the symptoms of aspermia and male infertility. ,
X chromosome
XX male syndrome is a rare disorder , where the SRY region of the Y chromosome has recombined to be located on one of the X chromosomes . As a result , the XX combination after fertilization has the same effect as a XY combination , resulting in a male . However , the other genes of the X chromosome cause feminization as well .
Testosterone
The first period occurs between 4 and 6 weeks of the gestation . Examples include genital virilisation such as midline fusion , phallic urethra , scrotal thinning and rugation , and phallic enlargement ; although the role of testosterone is far smaller than that of dihydrotestosterone . There is also development of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles .