vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Celts
Part of a series on Indo - European topics Languages ( show ) List of Indo - European languages Historical Albanian Armenian Balto - Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Indo - Iranian Indo - Aryan Iranian Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo - Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapian Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto - Indo - European language Phonology : Sound laws , Accent , Ablaut Hypothetical Daco - Thracian Graeco - Armenian Graeco - Aryan Graeco - Phrygian Indo - Hittite Italo - Celtic Thraco - Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto - Anatolian Proto - Armenian Proto - Germanic ( Proto - Norse ) Proto - Celtic Proto - Italic Proto - Greek Proto - Balto - Slavic ( Proto - Slavic ) Proto - Indo - Iranian ( Proto - Iranian ) Philology ( show ) Hittite texts Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogam Gothic Bible Armenian Bible Slanting Brahmi Old Irish glosses Origins ( show ) Homeland Proto - Indo - Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo - European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Indigenous Aryans Baltic homeland Paleolithic Continuity Theory Archaeology ( show ) Chalcolithic ( Copper Age ) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug -- Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper -- Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamna Mikhaylovka culture Novotitorovka culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded
Lundy
Beacon Hill Cemetery was excavated by Charles Thomas in 1969 . The cemetery contains four inscribed stones , dated to the 5th or 6th century AD . The site was originally enclosed by a curvilinear bank and ditch , which is still visible in the south west corner . However , the other walls were moved when the Old Light was constructed in 1819 . Celtic Christian enclosures of this type were common in Western Britain and are known as Llans in Welsh and Lanns in Cornish . There are surviving examples in Luxulyan , in Cornwall ; Mathry , Meidrim and Clydau in Wales ; and Stowford , Jacobstowe , Lydford and Instow , in Devon .
History of Pennsylvania
Long - term European exploration of the Americas commenced after the 1492 expedition of Christopher Columbus , and the 1497 expedition of John Cabot is credited with discovering continental North America for Europeans . European exploration of the North America continued in the 16th century , and the area now known as Pennsylvania was mapped by the French and labeled L'arcadia , or `` wooded coast '' , during Giovanni da Verrazzano 's voyage in 1524 . Even before large - scale European settlement , the Native American tribes in Pennsylvania engaged in trade with Europeans , and the fur trade was a major motivation for the European colonization of North America . The fur trade also sparked wars among Native American tribes , including the Beaver Wars , which saw the Iroquois Confederacy rise in power . In the 17th century , the Dutch , Swedish , and British all competed for southeastern Pennsylvania , while the French expanded into parts of western Pennsylvania .
Libya
The coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by Neolithic peoples from as early as 8000 BC . The Afroasiatic ancestors of the Berber people are assumed to have spread into the area by the Late Bronze Age . The earliest known name of such a tribe is that of the Garamantes , who were based in Germa . The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya . By the 5th century BC , the greatest of the Phoenician colonies , Carthage , had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa , where a distinctive civilization , known as Punic , came into being .
Hayling Island
An Iron Age shrine in the north of Hayling Island was later developed into a Roman temple in the 1st century BC and was first recorded in Richard Scott 's Topographical and Historical Account of Hayling Island , published in 1826 . The site was excavated between 1897 and 1907 and again from 1976 to 1978 . Remains are no longer visible and are buried beneath cultivated farmland . The first coin credited to Commius that was found in an excavated context was found at the temple . This Commius was probably the son of the Commius mentioned by Julius Caesar in his writings although its possible the coin was issued by the original Commius .
Roanoke Colony
From the early 17th century to the middle 18th century , European colonists reported encounters with gray - eyed American Indians who claimed descent from the colonists ( although at least one , a story of a Welsh priest who met a Doeg warrior who spoke the Welsh language , is likely to be a hoax ) . Records from French Huguenots who settled along the Tar River in 1696 tell of meeting Tuscaroras with blond hair and blue eyes not long after their arrival . As Jamestown was the nearest English settlement , and they had no record of being attacked by Tuscarora , the likelihood that the origin of those fair - skinned natives was the Lost Colony is high .
History of the Isle of Wight
Part of a series on the History of the British Isles Overview ( hide ) United Kingdom England Isle of Wight Isles of Scilly Scotland Shetland Orkney Inner Hebrides Outer Hebrides Wales Anglesey Northern Ireland Ireland Isle of Man ( Mann ) Channel Islands Jersey Guernsey Prehistoric period ( show ) Prehistoric Britain Prehistoric England Prehistoric Scotland Prehistoric Shetland Prehistoric Orkney Prehistoric Wales Prehistoric Ireland Prehistoric Mann Classical period ( show ) Roman Britain Roman Scotland Roman Wales Protohistoric Ireland , Roman Ireland Sub-Roman Britain Medieval period ( show ) Medieval England Early medieval England High medieval England Late medieval England Medieval Scotland Early medieval Scotland High medieval Scotland Late medieval Scotland Medieval Wales Early medieval Wales High medieval Wales Late medieval Wales Medieval Ireland Early medieval Ireland High medieval Ireland Late medieval Ireland Medieval Mann Early modern period ( show ) Early modern Britain Early modern England Early modern Scotland Early modern Wales Early modern Ireland Early modern Mann Late modern period ( show ) United Kingdom ( since 1707 ) Victorian period Edwardian period First World War Interwar period Second World War Post-war period ( political history ) Post-war period ( social history ) Late modern Ireland Late modern Mann
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
From the late 15th Century , European explorers like John Cabot , João Fernandes Lavrador , Gaspar Corte - Real , Jacques Cartier and others began exploration .
Grand Canyon
The Ancestral Puebloans were a Native American culture centered on the present - day Four Corners area of the United States . They were the first people known to live in the Grand Canyon area . The cultural group has often been referred to in archaeology as the Anasazi , although the term is not preferred by the modern Puebloan peoples . The word `` Anasazi '' is Navajo for `` Ancient Ones '' or `` Ancient Enemy '' .
Mesolithic
Geographical range Periodization Culture Temporal range Notable sites North Africa ( Morocco ) Late Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic Iberomaurusian culture 24 ! 24,000 -- 10,000 BP Southwest Asia ( Caucasus , Iran ) Late Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic Zarzian culture 20 ! 20,000 -- 10,000 BP Levant Early Epipaleolithic Kebaran 19 ! 19,000 -- 14,500 BP Caucasus Epipaleolithic Trialetian 16 ! 16,000 -- 8,000 BP Levant Late Epipaleolithic Natufian culture 14.5 ! 14,500 -- 11,500 BP Levant ( Israel ) Late Epipaleolithic Harifian culture ( Late Natufian ) 10.8 ! 10,800 -- 10,000 BP North Africa Capsian culture 12 ! 12,000 -- 8,000 BP
European colonization of the Americas
Systematic European colonization began in 1492 , when a Spanish expedition headed by the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus sailed west to find a new trade route to the Far East but inadvertently landed in what came to be known to Europeans as the `` New World '' . Running aground on the northern part of Hispaniola on 5 December 1492 , which the Taino people had inhabited since the 7th century , the site became the first European settlement in the Americas . European conquest , large - scale exploration and colonization soon followed . Columbus 's first two voyages ( 1492 -- 93 ) reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands , including Hispaniola , Puerto Rico and Cuba . In 1498 , John Cabot , on behalf of England , landed on the North American coast , and a year later , Columbus 's third voyage reached the South American coast . As the sponsor of Christopher Columbus 's voyages , Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize the largest areas , from North America and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America .
History of West Africa
A major migration of Sahel cattle farmers took place in the third millennium BCE , and the pastoralists encountered the developed hunter - gatherers of the Guinea region . Flint was considerably more available there and made the use of microliths in hunting far easier . The migration of the Sahel farmers was probably caused by the final desiccation of the Sahara desert in this millennium , which contributed greatly to West Africa 's isolation from cultural and technological phenomena in Europe and the Mediterranean Coast of Africa .
River Thames
Some of the earliest written references to the Thames ( Latin : Tamesis ) occur in Julius Caesar 's account of his second expedition to Britain in 54 BC , when the Thames presented a major obstacle and he encountered the Iron Age Belgic tribes the Catuvellauni and the Atrebates along the river . The confluence of the Thames and Cherwell was the site of early settlements and the River Cherwell marked the boundary between the Dobunni tribe to the west and the Catuvellauni tribe to the east ( these were pre-Roman Celtic tribes ) . In the late 1980s a large Romano - British settlement was excavated on the edge of the village of Ashton Keynes in Wiltshire .
Celtic Britons
Some Brittonic kingdoms , such as Rheged , which at its height encompassed much what is today Strathclyde , Cumbria , Northumberland , the Scottish borders , Lancashire and modern Greater Manchester and had a capital at Cair Ligualid ( Carlisle ) , were able to successfully resist these incursions for some time , before the eastern part peacefully joined with the Anglo - Saxon kingdom of Bernicia - Northumberland by 730 AD , and the west was taken over by the fellow Britons of Ystrad Clud . Similarly , the kingdom of Gododdin , which appears to have had its capital at Din Eidyn ( modern Edinburgh and encompassed parts of modern Northumbria , County Durham , Lothian and Clackmannanshire endured until approximately 775 AD before being divided by fellow Brittonic Picts , Gaelic Scots and Anglo - Saxons .
Republic of Ireland
Ireland has a wealth of structures , surviving in various states of preservation , from the Neolithic period , such as Brú na Bóinne , Poulnabrone dolmen , Castlestrange stone , Turoe stone , and Drombeg stone circle . As the Romans never conquered Ireland , architecture of Greco - Roman origin is extremely rare . The country instead had an extended period of Iron Age architecture . The Irish round tower originated during the Early Medieval period .
New Mexico
The first known inhabitants of New Mexico were members of the Clovis culture of Paleo - Indians . Later inhabitants include American Indians of the Mogollon and Ancestral Pueblo peoples cultures . By the time of European contact in the 16th century , the region was settled by the villages of the Pueblo peoples and groups of Navajo , Apache , and Ute .
History of New Mexico
Many of the Pueblo people harbored hostility toward the Spanish , due to their oppression of the Indians and prohibition of their practice of traditional religion . The economies of the pueblos were disrupted , as the people were forced to labor on the encomiendas of the colonists . The Spanish introduced new farming implements which the Pueblo adopted and provided some measure of security against Navajo and Apache raiding parties . The Pueblo lived in relative peace with the Spanish from the founding of the Northern New Mexican colony in 1598 .
Carthage
The Carthaginian republic was one of the longest - lived and largest states in the ancient Mediterranean . Reports relay several wars with Syracuse and finally , Rome , which eventually resulted in the defeat and destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War . The Carthaginians were Phoenician settlers originating in the Mediterranean coast of the Near East . They spoke Canaanite , a Semitic language , and followed a local variety of the ancient Canaanite religion . Ruins
Brittany
The word Brittany , along with its French , Breton and Gallo equivalents Bretagne , Breizh and Bertaèyn , derive from the Latin Britannia , which means `` Britons ' land '' . This word had been used by the Romans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain , and more specifically the Roman province of Britain . This word derives from a Greek word , Πρεττανικη ( Prettanike ) or Βρεττανίαι ( Brettaniai ) , used by Pytheas , an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Islands around 320 BC .
United Kingdom
In 1066 , the Normans and their Breton allies invaded England from northern France and after its conquest , seized large parts of Wales , conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland , bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman - French culture . The Norman elites greatly influenced , but eventually assimilated with , each of the local cultures . Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and made an unsuccessful attempt to annex Scotland . Following the Declaration of Arbroath , Scotland maintained its independence , albeit in near - constant conflict with England . The English monarchs , through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown , were also heavily involved in conflicts in France , most notably the Hundred Years War , while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period .
History of the Isle of Wight
The Isle of Wight is rich in historical and archaeological sites , from prehistoric fossil beds with dinosaur remains , to dwellings and artefacts dating back to the Bronze Age , Iron Age , and Roman periods .
Celtic Britons
The Welsh word Brython was introduced into English usage by John Rhys in 1884 as a term unambiguously referring to the P - Celtic speakers of Great Britain , to complement Goidel ; hence the adjective Brythonic referring to the group of languages . `` Brittonic languages '' is a more recent coinage ( first attested 1923 according to the Oxford English Dictionary ) intended to refer to the ancient Britons specifically .
Roanoke Colony
In 1998 , East Carolina University organized `` The Croatoan Project '' , an archaeological investigation into the events at Roanoke . The excavation team sent to Hatteras Island uncovered what they believed to be a 10 karat ( 42 % ) gold 16th - century English signet ring , gun flints , and two copper farthings ( produced sometime in the 1670s ) at the site of the ancient Croatan capital , 50 miles ( 80 km ) from the old Roanoke Colony . Genealogists were able to trace the lion crest on the signet ring to the Kendall coat of arms , and concluded that the ring most likely belonged to one Master Kendall who is recorded as having lived in the Roanoke Colony from 1585 to 1586 . If this is the case , the ring represents the first material connection between the Roanoke colonists and the Native Americans on Hatteras Island . However , archaeologist David Phelps did not have the ring tested , and Charles Ewen , who continued Phelps ' work after Phelps retired , had the ring tested and found the ring was brass . Ewen announced his findings in April 2017 . Mark Horton of the University of Bristol said he was not convinced that this news proved the ring did not date to the 16th century .
Caribbean Sea
The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until 1492 , when Christopher Columbus sailed into Caribbean waters on a quest to find a sea route to Asia . At that time the Western Hemisphere in general was unknown to Europeans , but first discovered between the years 800 and 1000 by the vikings . Following Eurasia 's discovery of the islands by Columbus , the area was quickly colonized by several Western cultures ( initially Spain , then later England , the Dutch Republic , France , Courland and Denmark ) . Following the colonization of the Caribbean islands , the Caribbean Sea became a busy area for European - based marine trading and transports , and this commerce eventually attracted pirates such as Samuel Bellamy and Blackbeard . ( See Piracy in the Caribbean )
Celts
They cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses . The blood - stained spoils they hand over to their attendants and striking up a paean and singing a song of victory ; and they nail up these first fruits upon their houses , just as do those who lay low wild animals in certain kinds of hunting . They embalm in cedar oil the heads of the most distinguished enemies , and preserve them carefully in a chest , and display them with pride to strangers , saying that for this head one of their ancestors , or his father , or the man himself , refused the offer of a large sum of money . They say that some of them boast that they refused the weight of the head in gold .
Philippines
The most widely accepted theory , based on linguistic and archeological evidence , is the `` Out - of - Taiwan '' model , which hypothesizes that Austronesians from Taiwan , who were themselves descended from the neolithic civilizations of the Yangtze river such as the Liangzhu culture , began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals . During the neolithic period , a `` jade culture '' is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC .
European exploration of Africa
France also set her eyes on Madagascar , the island that had been used since 1527 as a stop in travels to India . In 1642 , the French East India Company founded a settlement in southern Madagascar called Fort Dauphin . The commercial results of this settlement were scarce and , again , most of the settlers died . One of the survivors , Etienne de Flacourt , published a History of the Great Island of Madagascar and Relations , which was for a long time the main European source of information about the island . Further settlement attempts had no more success but , in 1667 , François Martin led the first expedition to the Malgasy heartland , reaching Lake Alaotra . In 1665 , France officially claimed Madagascar , under the name of Île Dauphine . However , little colonial activity would take place in Madagascar until the 19th century .
Western Roman Empire
Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West : Italia ( modern Italy ) , Gaul ( modern France ) , Gallia Belgica ( parts of modern Belgium , the Netherlands and Luxembourg ) , and Hispania ( modern Spain and Portugal ) . These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas , though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant . Lepidus received the minor province of Africa ( roughly modern Tunisia ) . Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus , while adding Sicilia ( modern Sicily ) to his holdings .
History of the Roman Empire
Antoninus Pius 's reign was comparatively peaceful ; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time , in Mauretania , Judaea , and amongst the Brigantes in Britain , but none of them are considered serious . The unrest in Britain is believed to have led to the construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde , although it was soon abandoned .
Carthage
The Chora ( farm lands of Carthage ) encompassed a limited area : the north coastal tell , the lower Bagradas river valley ( inland from Utica ) , Cape Bon , and the adjacent sahel on the east coast . Punic culture here achieved the introduction of agricultural sciences first developed for lands of the eastern Mediterranean , and their adaptation to local African conditions .
Colonial history of the United States
Up and down the colonies , non-English ethnic groups had clusters of settlements . The most numerous were the Scotch Irish and the Germans . Each group assimilated into the dominant English , Protestant , commercial , and political culture , albeit with local variations . They tended to vote in blocs , and politicians negotiated with group leaders for votes . They generally retained their historic languages and cultural traditions , even as they merged into the developing American culture .
Columbian Exchange
Still , the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive . In the Caribbean , the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos , plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence .
Wales
Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century , and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations . Llywelyn ap Gruffudd 's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England 's conquest of Wales , though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century . The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 -- 1542 . Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century . Welsh Liberalism , exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George , was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party . Welsh national feeling grew over the century ; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962 . Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998 , the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters .
Modern history
The expanding French and British colonies were contending for control of the western , or interior , territories . Whenever the European countries went to war , there were actions within and by these colonies although the dates of the conflict did not necessarily exactly coincide with those of the larger conflicts . John
North America
The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact by any European culture with the landmasses that geologically constitute the `` mainland '' of modern North America has been dated to the end of the 10th century CE -- this site , situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland , is known as L'Anse aux Meadows , where unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement was uncovered in the early 1960s .
Celtic Britons
During the 19th century , a large number of Welsh farmers migrated to Patagonia in Argentina , forming a community called Y Wladfa , which today consists of over 1,500 Welsh speakers .
Wales
The remnants of the native Celtic mythology of the pre-Christian Britons was passed down orally , in much altered form , by the cynfeirdd ( the early poets ) . Some of their work survives in much later medieval Welsh manuscripts , known as : the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Book of Aneirin ( both 13th - century ) ; the Book of Taliesin and the White Book of Rhydderch ( both 14th - century ) ; and the Red Book of Hergest ( c. 1400 ) . The prose stories from the White and Red Books are known as the Mabinogion , a title given to them by their first translator , Lady Charlotte Guest , and also used by subsequent translators . Poems such as Cad Goddeu ( The Battle of the Trees ) and mnemonic list - texts like the Welsh Triads and the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain , also contain mythological material . These texts also include the earliest forms of the Arthurian legend and the traditional history of post-Roman Britain .