vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
United States home front during World War II
One way to enlist everyone in the war effort was scrap collection ( called `` recycling '' decades later ) . Many everyday commodities were vital to the war effort , and drives were organized to recycle such products as rubber , tin , waste kitchen fats ( a raw material for explosives ) , newspaper , lumber , steel , and many others . Popular phrases promoted by the government at the time were `` Get into the scrap ! '' and `` Get some cash for your trash '' ( a nominal sum was paid to the donor for many kinds of scrap items ) and Thomas `` Fats '' Waller even wrote and recorded a song with the latter title . Such commodities as rubber and tin remained highly important as recycled materials until the end of the war , while others , such as steel , were critically needed at first . War propaganda played a prominent role in many of these drives . Nebraska had perhaps the most extensive and well - organized drives ; it was mobilized by the Omaha World Herald newspaper .
Space Race
The Space Race refers to the 20th - century competition between two Cold War rivals , the Soviet Union ( USSR ) and the United States ( US ) , for dominance in spaceflight capability . It had its origins in the missile - based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following World War II , aided by captured German missile technology and personnel from the Aggregat program . The technological superiority required for such dominance was seen as necessary for national security , and symbolic of ideological superiority . The Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites , uncrewed space probes of the Moon , Venus , and Mars , and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon .
Carbon
Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon is abundant in the Sun , stars , comets , and in the atmospheres of most planets . Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk . Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts .
Precambrian
At present , it is still believed that molecular oxygen was not a significant fraction of Earth 's atmosphere until after photosynthetic life forms evolved and began to produce it in large quantities as a byproduct of their metabolism . This radical shift from a chemically inert to an oxidizing atmosphere caused an ecological crisis , sometimes called the oxygen catastrophe . At first , oxygen would have quickly combined with other elements in Earth 's crust , primarily iron , removing it from the atmosphere . After the supply of oxidizable surfaces ran out , oxygen would have begun to accumulate in the atmosphere , and the modern high - oxygen atmosphere would have developed . Evidence for this lies in older rocks that contain massive banded iron formations that were laid down as iron oxides .
Seawater
Halley 's theory was partly correct . In addition , sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed . The presence of salt 's other dominant ion , chloride , results from outgassing of chloride ( as hydrochloric acid ) with other gases from Earth 's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents . The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt .
Earth
Chemical reactions led to the first self - replicating molecules about four billion years ago . A half billion years later , the last common ancestor of all current life arose . The evolution of photosynthesis allowed the Sun 's energy to be harvested directly by life forms . The resultant molecular oxygen ( O 2 ) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation , formed a protective ozone layer ( O 3 ) in the upper atmosphere . The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes . True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized . Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer , life colonized Earth 's surface . Among the earliest fossil evidence for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion - year - old sandstone in Western Australia , biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion - year - old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland , and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion - year - old rocks in Western Australia . The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion - year - old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms .
Mars
Scientists have proposed that carbonate globules found in meteorite ALH84001 , which is thought to have originated from Mars , could be fossilized microbes extant on Mars when the meteorite was blasted from the Martian surface by a meteor strike some 15 million years ago . This proposal has been met with skepticism , and an exclusively inorganic origin for the shapes has been proposed .
Recycling
Every year , millions of tons of materials are being exploited from the earth 's crust , and processed into consumer and capital goods . After decades to centuries , most of these materials are `` lost '' . With the exception of some pieces of art or religious relics , they are no longer engaged in the consumption process . Where are they ? Recycling is only an intermediate solution for such materials , although it does prolong the residence time in the anthroposphere . For thermodynamic reasons , however , recycling can not prevent the final need for an ultimate sink . --
Mars
The caps at both poles consist primarily ( 70 % ) of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , whereas the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight metres thick . This permanent dry ice cover at the south pole is peppered by flat floored , shallow , roughly circular pits , which repeat imaging shows are expanding by meters per year ; this suggests that the permanent CO cover over the south pole water ice is degrading over time . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1,000 km ( 620 mi ) during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic kilometres ( 380,000 cu mi ) of ice , which , if spread evenly on the cap , would be 2 km ( 1.2 mi ) thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic kilometres ( 680,000 cu mi ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km ( 220 mi ) and a thickness of 3 km ( 1.9 mi ) . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect .
Chicxulub crater
Chicxulub is the only known Earth crater with a remaining impact peak ring , but it is under 600 m ( 2,000 ft ) of sediment . During April and May 2016 , a joint IODP - ICDP Mission Specific Platform Expedition obtained the first offshore core samples from the peak ring , the central zone of the crater . During Expedition 364 , DES drillers on the L / B Myrtle collected core samples to enable ECORD Science Party members to study how the peak ring formed and calculate the total impact energy .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
Five years after the event , the Department of Agriculture from the University of Tokyo ( which holds many experimental agricultural research fields around the affected area ) has noted that `` the fallout was found at the surface of anything exposed to air at the time of the accident . The main radioactive nuclides are now caesium - 137 and caesium - 134 '' , but these radioactive compounds have not dispersed much from the point where they landed at the time of the explosion , `` which was very difficult to estimate from our understanding of the chemical behavior of cesium '' .
Space Race
At war 's end , American , British , and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed to capture Germany 's rocket engineers along with the German rockets themselves and the designs on which they were based . Each of the Allies captured a share of the available members of the German rocket team , but the United States benefited the most with Operation Paperclip , recruiting von Braun and most of his engineering team , who later helped develop the American missile and space exploration programs . The United States also acquired a large number of complete V2 rockets .
Moon landing
As a result , the Soviets secretly planned to continue unmanned Zond tests until their reliability to support manned flight had been demonstrated . However , due to NASA 's continuing problems with the lunar module , and because of CIA reports of a potential Soviet manned circumlunar flight in late 1968 , NASA fatefully changed the flight plan of Apollo 8 from an Earth - orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968 .
Semen
It was widely believed in ancient times that gemstones were drops of divine semen which had coagulated after having fertilized the earth . There is an ancient Chinese belief that jade , in particular , was the dried semen of the celestial dragon .
Precambrian
The atmosphere of the early Earth is not well understood . Most geologists believe it was composed primarily of nitrogen , carbon dioxide , and other relatively inert gases , and was lacking in free oxygen . There is , however , evidence that an oxygen - rich atmosphere existed since the early Archean .
Iodine-131
On 27 March 2011 , the Massachusetts Department of Public Health reported that I was detected in very low concentrations in rainwater from samples collected in Massachusetts , USA , and that this likely originated from the Fukushima power plant . Farmers near the plant dumped raw milk , while testing in the United States found 0.8 pico - curie s per liter of iodine - 131 in a milk sample , but the radiation levels were 5,000 times lower than the FDA 's `` defined intervention level '' . The levels were expected to drop relatively quickly
Environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill
After Hurricane Isaac in September 2012 , about 565,000 pounds of oiled material traced to the spill was brought to land . This was a greater amount than had been collected in the eight months prior . The Louisiana Coastal Protection Agency criticized BP and the USCG clean - up efforts , calling for more resources to deal with the roughly 1 million barrels ( 160 × 10 ^ m ) of oil believed to remain below water . Huge tar mats were also uncovered during the storm , prompting beach closures .
Nickel
Use of nickel ( as a natural meteoric nickel -- iron alloy ) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE . Nickel was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt , who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral , in the cobalt mines of Los , Hälsingland , Sweden . The element 's name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology , Nickel ( similar to Old Nick ) , who personified the fact that copper - nickel ores resisted refinement into copper . An economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite , which often contains 1 -- 2 % nickel . Nickel 's other important ore minerals include pentlandite and a mixture of Ni - rich natural silicates known as garnierite . Major production sites include the Sudbury region in Canada ( which is thought to be of meteoric origin ) , New Caledonia in the Pacific , and Norilsk in Russia .
Wetland
Wetland systems naturally produce an array of vegetation and other ecological products that can harvested for personal and commercial use . The most significant of these is fish which have all or part of their life - cycle occur within a wetland system . Fresh and saltwater fish are the main source of protein for one billion people and comprise 15 % of an additional two billion people 's diets . In addition , fish generate a fishing industry that provides 80 % of the income and employment to residents in developing countries . Another food staple found in wetland systems is rice , a popular grain that is consumed at the rate of one fifth of the total global calorie count . In Bangladesh , Cambodia and Vietnam , where rice paddies are predominant on the landscape , rice consumption reach 70 % .
Halley's Comet
Halley is the most active of all the periodic comets , with others , such as Comet Encke and Comet Holmes , being one or two orders of magnitude less active . Its day side ( the side facing the Sun ) is far more active than the night side . Spacecraft observations showed that the gases ejected from the nucleus were 80 % water vapour , 17 % carbon monoxide and 3 -- 4 % carbon dioxide , with traces of hydrocarbons although more - recent sources give a value of 10 % for carbon monoxide and also include traces of methane and ammonia . The dust particles were found to be primarily a mixture of carbon -- hydrogen -- oxygen -- nitrogen ( CHON ) compounds common in the outer Solar System , and silicates , such as are found in terrestrial rocks . The dust particles decreased in size down to the limits of detection ( ~ 0.001 μm ) . The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth 's ocean water , suggesting that Halley - type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past . Subsequent observations showed Halley 's deuterium ratio to be far higher than that found in Earth 's oceans , making such comets unlikely sources for Earth 's water .
California Gold Rush
A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel , silt , heavy metals , and other pollutants went into streams and rivers . As of 1999 many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining , since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life .
History of agriculture
Synthetic nitrogen , along with mined rock phosphate , pesticides and mechanization , have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century . Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well . Further , global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high - yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice , wheat , and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution . The Green Revolution exported the technologies ( including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen ) of the developed world to the developing world . Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population , but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food .
Xenon
Xenon is a trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere , occurring at 87 ± 1 parts per billion ( nL / L ) , or approximately 1 part per 11.5 million . It is also found as a component of gases emitted from some mineral springs .
Moon landing
ISRO , the Indian National Space agency , is planning a second version of Chandrayaan named Chandrayaan 2 . According to former ISRO Chairman G. Madhavan Nair , `` The Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) hopes to land two rovers -- one Indian and another Russian -- on the Moon in 2018 , as a part of its second Chandrayaan mission . The rover will be designed to move on wheels on the lunar surface , pick up samples of soil or rocks , do on - site chemical analysis and send the data to the mother - spacecraft Chandrayaan II , which will be orbiting above . Chandrayaan II will transmit the data to Earth . '' The payloads have already been finalized . ISRO has mentioned that due to weight restrictions it will not be carrying any overseas payloads on this mission . The lander weight is projected to be 1,250 kg , and the spacecraft will be launched by the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle .
History of chemistry
Silver , copper , tin and meteoric iron can also be found native , allowing a limited amount of metalworking in ancient cultures . Egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as `` Daggers from Heaven '' .
Chernobyl disaster
Contamination from the Chernobyl accident was scattered irregularly depending on weather conditions , much of it deposited on mountainous regions such as the Alps , the Welsh mountains and the Scottish Highlands , where adiabatic cooling caused radioactive rainfall . The resulting patches of contamination were often highly localized , and water - flows across the ground contributed further to large variations in radioactivity over small areas . Sweden and Norway also received heavy fallout when the contaminated air collided with a cold front , bringing rain .
Chicxulub crater
The researchers stated that the impact generated an environmental calamity that extinguished life , but it also induced a vast subsurface hydrothermal system that became an oasis for the recovery of life .
Moon landing
At the same time , Kennedy had suggested various joint programs , including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather - monitoring satellites . Khrushchev , sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology , rejected the idea : if the USSR went to the Moon , it would go alone . Sergey Korolev , the Soviet space program 's chief designer , had started promoting his Soyuz craft and the N1 launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a manned Moon landing .
Period (periodic table)
All elements of period 7 are radioactive . This period contains the heaviest element which occurs naturally on earth , plutonium . All of the subsequent elements in the period have been synthesized artificially . Whilst five of these ( from americium to einsteinium ) are now available in macroscopic quantities , most are extremely rare , having only been prepared in microgram amounts or less . Some of the later elements have only ever been identified in laboratories in quantities of a few atoms at a time .
Chicxulub crater
At the same time , in 1980 , geologist Walter Alvarez and his father , Nobel Prize - winning scientist Luis Walter Alvarez , put forth his hypothesis that a large extraterrestrial body had struck Earth . In 1981 , unaware of Penfield 's discovery , University of Arizona graduate student Alan R. Hildebrand and faculty adviser William V. Boynton published a draft Earth - impact theory and sought a candidate crater . Their evidence included greenish - brown clay with surplus iridium containing shocked quartz grains and small weathered glass beads that looked to be tektites . Thick , jumbled deposits of coarse rock fragments were also present , thought to have been scoured from one place and deposited elsewhere by a megatsunami resulting from an Earth impact . Such deposits occur in many locations but seem concentrated in the Caribbean basin at the K -- Pg boundary . So when Haitian professor Florentine Morás discovered what he thought to be evidence of an ancient volcano on Haiti , Hildebrand suggested it could be a telltale feature of a nearby impact . Tests on samples retrieved from the K -- Pg boundary revealed more tektite glass , formed only in the heat of asteroid impacts and high - yield nuclear detonations .
Mars
Like Earth , Mars has differentiated into a dense metallic core overlaid by less dense materials . Current models of its interior imply a core with a radius of about 1,794 ± 65 kilometers ( 1,115 ± 40 mi ) , consisting primarily of iron and nickel with about 16 -- 17 % sulfur . This iron ( II ) sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements as Earth 's . The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet , but it appears to be dormant . Besides silicon and oxygen , the most abundant elements in the Martian crust are iron , magnesium , aluminum , calcium , and potassium . The average thickness of the planet 's crust is about 50 km ( 31 mi ) , with a maximum thickness of 125 km ( 78 mi ) . Earth 's crust averages 40 km ( 25 mi ) .
Wetland
Bogs receive their water from the atmosphere ; therefore , their water has low mineral ionic composition . In contrast , groundwater has a higher concentration of dissolved nutrients and minerals .
Magnetar
On March 5 , 1979 , a few months after the successful dropping of satellites into the atmosphere of Venus , the two unmanned Soviet spaceprobes , Venera 11 and 12 , that were then drifting through the Solar System were hit by a blast of gamma radiation at approximately 10 : 51 EST . This contact raised the radiation readings on both the probes from a normal 100 counts per second to over 200,000 counts a second , in only a fraction of a millisecond .
Space Race
Most of the novice pilots on the early missions would command the later missions . In this way , Project Gemini built up spaceflight experience for the pool of astronauts for the Apollo lunar missions .
Quit India Movement
In the meanwhile , crucial political events took place in England . Chamberlain was succeeded by Churchill as prime minister and the Conservatives , who assumed power in England , did not have a sympathetic stance towards the claims made by the Congress . In order to pacify the Indians in the circumstance of worsening war situation , the Conservatives were forced to concede some of the demands made by the Indians . On 8 August , the Viceroy issued a statement that has come to be referred as the `` August Offer '' . However , the Congress rejected the offer followed by the Muslim League .
Quit India Movement
The Quit India Movement or the India August Movement , was a movement launched at the Bombay session of the All - India Congress Committee by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 , during World War II , demanding an end to British Rule of India .
Quit India Movement
Allama Mashriqi ( head of the Khaksar Tehrik ) was called by Jawaharlal Nehru to join the Quit India Movement . Mashriqi was apprehensive of its outcome and did not agree with the Congress Working Committee 's resolution . On 28 July 1942 , Allama Mashriqi sent the following telegram to Maulana Abul Kalam Azad , Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan , Mahatma Gandhi , C. Rajagopalachari , Jawaharlal Nehru , Rajendra Prasad and Pattabhi Sitaramayya . He also sent a copy to Bulusu Sambamurti ( former Speaker of the Madras Assembly ) . The telegram was published in the press , and stated :
Quit India Movement
The Cripps Mission had failed , and on August 1942 , Gandhi made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech delivered in Bombay at the Gowalia Tank Maidan . The All - India Congress Committee launched a mass protest demanding what Gandhi called `` An Orderly British Withdrawal '' from India . Even though it was wartime , the British were prepared to act . Almost the entire leadership of the Indian National Congress was imprisoned without trial within hours of Gandhi 's speech . Most spent the rest of the war in prison and out of contact with the masses . The British had the support of the Viceroy 's Council ( which had a majority of Indians ) , of the All India Muslim League , the princely states , the Indian Imperial Police , the British Indian Army and the Indian Civil Service . Many Indian businessmen profiting from heavy wartime spending did not support the Quit India Movement . Many students paid more attention to Subhas Chandra Bose , who was in exile and supporting the Axis Powers . The only outside support came from the Americans , as President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to give in to some of the Indian demands . The Quit India campaign was effectively crushed . The British refused to grant immediate independence , saying it could happen only after the war had ended .