vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Herpes simplex
The annual incidence in Canada of genital herpes due to HSV - 1 and HSV - 2 infection is not known ( for a review of HSV - 1 / HSV - 2 prevalence and incidence studies worldwide , see Smith and Robinson 2002 ) . As many as one in seven Canadians aged 14 to 59 may be infected with herpes simplex type 2 virus and more than 90 per cent of them may be unaware of their status , a new study suggests . In the United States , it is estimated that about 1,640,000 HSV - 2 seroconversions occur yearly ( 730,000 men and 910,000 women , or 8.4 per 1,000 persons ) .
Apoptosis
Viruses can remain intact from apoptosis in particular in the latter stages of infection . They can be exported in the apoptotic bodies that pinch off from the surface of the dying cell , and the fact that they are engulfed by phagocytes prevents the initiation of a host response . This favours the spread of the virus .
Herpes simplex
Worldwide rates of either HSV - 1 and / or HSV - 2 are between 60 and 95 % in adults . HSV - 1 is more common than HSV - 2 , with rates of both increasing as people age . HSV - 1 rates are between 70 % and 80 % in populations of low socioeconomic status and 40 % to 60 % in populations of improved socioeconomic status . An estimated 536 million people or 16 % of the population worldwide were infected with HSV - 2 as of 2003 with greater rates among women and in those in the developing world . Rates of infection are determined by the presence of antibodies against either viral species .
Herpes simplex
Worldwide rates of either HSV - 1 or HSV - 2 are between 60 % and 95 % in adults . HSV - 1 is usually acquired during childhood . Rates of both increase as people age . Rates of HSV - 1 are between 70 % and 80 % in populations of low socioeconomic status and 40 % to 60 % in populations of improved socioeconomic status . An estimated 536 million people worldwide ( 16 % of the population ) were infected with HSV - 2 as of 2003 with greater rates among women and those in the developing world . Most people with HSV - 2 do not realize that they are infected . The name is from Greek : ἕρπης herpēs which means `` creeping '' or `` latent '' . Play
Apoptosis
Canine distemper virus ( CDV ) is known to cause apoptosis in central nervous system and lymphoid tissue of infected dogs in vivo and in vitro . Apoptosis caused by CDV is typically induced via the extrinsic pathway , which activates caspases that disrupt cellular function and eventually leads to the cells death . In normal cells , CDV activates caspase - 8 first , which works as the initiator protein followed by the executioner protein caspase - 3 . However , apoptosis induced by CDV in HeLa cells does not involve the initiator protein caspase - 8 . HeLa cell apoptosis caused by CDV follows a different mechanism than that in vero cell lines . This change in the caspase cascade suggests CDV induces apoptosis via the intrinsic pathway , excluding the need for the initiator caspase - 8 . The executioner protein is instead activated by the internal stimuli caused by viral infection not a caspase cascade .
Diphtheria
Diphtheria is usually spread between people by direct contact or through the air . It may also be spread by contaminated objects . Some people carry the bacteria without having symptoms , but can still spread the disease to others . The three main types of C. diphtheriae cause different severities of disease . The symptoms are due to a toxin produced by the bacteria . Diagnosis can often be made based on the appearance of the throat with confirmation by microbiological culture . Previous infection may not prevent against future infection .
Bubonic plague
Bubonic plague is an infection of the lymphatic system , usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea , Xenopsylla cheopis ( the rat flea ) . In very rare circumstances , as in the septicemic plague , the disease can be transmitted by direct contact with infected tissue or exposure to the cough of another human . The flea is parasitic on house and field rats , and seeks out other prey when its rodent hosts die . The bacteria remain harmless to the flea , allowing the new host to spread the bacteria . The bacteria form aggregates in the gut of infected fleas and this results in the flea regurgitating ingested blood , which is now infected , into the bite site of a rodent or human host . Once established , bacteria rapidly spread to the lymph nodes and multiply .
Herpes simplex
Herpes simplex Synonyms Cold sores , fever blisters Herpes labialis of the lower lip . Note the blisters in a group marked by an arrow . Specialty Infectious disease Symptoms Blisters that break open and form small ulcers , fever , swollen lymph nodes Duration 2 -- 4 weeks Causes Herpes simplex virus spread by direct contact Risk factors Decreased immune function , stress , sunlight Diagnostic method Based on symptoms , PCR , viral culture Medication Aciclovir , valaciclovir , paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) , topical lidocaine Frequency 60 -- 95 % ( adults ) ( edit on Wikidata )
Virus
Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold , influenza , chickenpox , and cold sores . Many serious diseases such as Ebola virus disease , AIDS , avian influenza , and SARS are caused by viruses . The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of virulence . Other diseases are under investigation to discover if they have a virus as the causative agent , such as the possible connection between human herpesvirus 6 ( HHV6 ) and neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis and chronic fatigue syndrome . There is controversy over whether the bornavirus , previously thought to cause neurological diseases in horses , could be responsible for psychiatric illnesses in humans .
Rabbit
In addition to being at risk of disease from common pathogens such as Bordetella bronchiseptica and Escherichia coli , rabbits can contract the virulent , species - specific viruses RHD ( `` rabbit hemorrhagic hisease '' , a form of calicivirus ) or myxomatosis . Among the parasites that infect rabbits are tapeworms ( such as Taenia serialis ) , external parasites ( including fleas and mites ) , coccidia species , and Toxoplasma gondii . Domesticated rabbits with a diet lacking in high fiber sources , such as hay and grass , are susceptible to potentially lethal gastrointestinal stasis . Rabbits and hares are almost never found to be infected with rabies and have not been known to transmit rabies to humans .
Virus
Genetic recombination is the process by which a strand of DNA is broken and then joined to the end of a different DNA molecule . This can occur when viruses infect cells simultaneously and studies of viral evolution have shown that recombination has been rampant in the species studied . Recombination is common to both RNA and DNA viruses .
Apoptosis
In order for apoptosis to occur within OROV , viral uncoating , viral internalization , along with the replication of cells is necessary . Apoptosis in some viruses is activated by extracellular stimuli . However , studies have demonstrated that the OROV infection causes apoptosis to be activated through intracellular stimuli and involves the mitochondria .
Herpes simplex
In Nova Scotia , 58 % of 1,790 HSV isolates from genital lesion cultures in women were HSV - 1 ; in men , 37 % of 468 isolates were HSV - 1 .
Elk
Elk are susceptible to a number of infectious diseases , some of which can be transmitted to livestock . Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations , largely by vaccination , have had mixed success .
Germ theory of disease
In 1762 , the Austrian physician Marcus Antonius von Plenciz ( 1705 - 1786 ) published a book titled Opera medico - physica . It outlined a theory of contagion stating that specific ' animalculae ' in the soil and the air were responsible for causing specific diseases . Von Plenciz noted the distinction between diseases which are both epidemic and contagious ( like measles and dysentry ) , and diseases which are contagious but not epidemic ( like rabies and leprosy ) . The book cites Anton van Leeuwenhoek to show how ubitquitous such animalculae are , and was unique for describing the presence of germs in ulcerating wounds . Ultimately , the theory espoused by von Plenciz was not accepted by the scientific community .
Loggerhead sea turtle
Fibropapillomatosis disease caused by a form of the herpes - type virus threatens loggerheads with internal and external tumors . These tumors disrupt essential behaviors and , if on the eyes , cause permanent blindness . Trematodes of the family Spirorchiidae inhabit tissues throughout the body of the loggerhead , including vital organs , such as the heart and the brain . Trematode infection can be highly debilitating . For example , inflammatory trematode lesions can cause endocarditis and neurological disease . A nematode , Angiostoma carettae , also infects loggerheads , causing histologic lesions in the respiratory tract .
Chickenpox
Because watery nasal discharge containing live virus usually precedes both exanthem ( external rash ) and enanthem ( oral ulcers ) by 1 to 2 days , the infected person actually becomes contagious one to two days before recognition of the disease . Contagiousness persists until all vesicular lesions have become dry crusts ( scabs ) , which usually entails four or five days , by which time nasal shedding of live virus ceases .
Apoptosis
Viral induction of apoptosis occurs when one or several cells of a living organism are infected with a virus , leading to cell death . Cell death in organisms is necessary for the normal development of cells and the cell cycle maturation . It is also important in maintaining the regular functions and activities of cells .
Chickenpox
Chickenpox is rarely fatal , although it is generally more severe in adult men than in women or children . Non-immune pregnant women and those with a suppressed immune system are at highest risk of serious complications . Arterial ischemic stroke ( AIS ) associated with chickenpox in the previous year accounts for nearly one third of childhood AIS . The most common late complication of chickenpox is shingles ( herpes zoster ) , caused by reactivation of the varicella zoster virus decades after the initial , often childhood , chickenpox infection .
Virus
A second defence of vertebrates against viruses is called cell - mediated immunity and involves immune cells known as T cells . The body 's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell 's surface , and , if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there , the host cell is destroyed by killer T cells and the virus - specific T - cells proliferate . Cells such as the macrophage are specialists at this antigen presentation . The production of interferon is an important host defence mechanism . This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present . Its role in immunity is complex ; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours .
Desert tortoise
Desert tortoises have been severely affected by disease . Both upper respiratory tract disease and cutaneous dyskeratosis have caused precipitous population declines and die - offs across the entire range of this charismatic species . Both of these diseases are extremely likely to be caused by people , and URTD is easily linked with people releasing captive tortoises into the wild . The combination of scientific research and public education is imperative to curb the spread of disease and aid the tortoise in recovery .
Plant virus
Plant viruses need to be transmitted by a vector , most often insects such as leafhoppers . One class of viruses , the Rhabdoviridae , has been proposed to actually be insect viruses that have evolved to replicate in plants . The chosen insect vector of a plant virus will often be the determining factor in that virus 's host range : it can only infect plants that the insect vector feeds upon . This was shown in part when the old world white fly made it to the United States , where it transferred many plant viruses into new hosts . Depending on the way they are transmitted , plant viruses are classified as non-persistent , semi-persistent and persistent . In non-persistent transmission , viruses become attached to the distal tip of the stylet of the insect and on the next plant it feeds on , it inoculates it with the virus . Semi-persistent viral transmission involves the virus entering the foregut of the insect . Those viruses that manage to pass through the gut into the haemolymph and then to the salivary glands are known as persistent . There are two sub-classes of persistent viruses : propagative and circulative . Propagative viruses are able to replicate in both the plant and the insect ( and may have originally been insect viruses ) , whereas circulative can not . Circulative viruses are protected inside aphids by the chaperone protein symbionin , produced by bacterial symbionts . Many plant viruses encode within their genome polypeptides with domains essential for transmission by insects . In non-persistent and semi-persistent viruses , these domains are in the coat protein and another protein known as the helper component . A bridging hypothesis has been proposed to explain how these proteins aid in insect - mediated viral transmission . The helper component will bind to the specific domain of the coat protein , and then the insect mouthparts -- creating a bridge . In persistent propagative viruses , such as tomato spotted wilt virus ( TSWV ) , there is often a lipid coat surrounding the proteins that is not seen in other classes of plant viruses . In the case of TSWV , 2 viral proteins are expressed in this lipid envelope . It has been proposed that the viruses bind via these proteins and are then taken into the insect cell by receptor - mediated endocytosis .
Desert tortoise
The second study indicated that captive tortoises can be a source of disease to wild Agassiz 's desert tortoise populations . Johnson et al. ( 2006 ) tested blood samples for URTD ( n = 179 ) and herpesvirus ( n = 109 ) from captive tortoises found near Barstow , CA and Hesperia , CA . Demographic and health data were collected from the tortoises , as well from other reptiles housed in the same facility . Of these , 45.3 % showed signs of mild disease , 16.2 % of moderate disease , and 4.5 % of severe disease , and blood tests revealed that 82.7 % of tortoises had antibodies to mycoplasma , and 26.6 % had antibodies to herpesvirus ( which means the tortoises were seropositive for these two diseases , and indicate previous exposure to the causative agents ) . With an estimated 200,000 captive desert tortoises in California , their escape or release into the wild is a real threat to uninfected wild populations of tortoises . Projections from this study suggest that about 4400 tortoises could escape from captivity in a given year , and with an 82 % exposure rate to URTD , the wild population may be at greater risk than previously thought .
Plant virus
Soil - borne nematodes also have been shown to transmit viruses . They acquire and transmit them by feeding on infected roots . Viruses can be transmitted both non-persistently and persistently , but there is no evidence of viruses being able to replicate in nematodes . The virions attach to the stylet ( feeding organ ) or to the gut when they feed on an infected plant and can then detach during later feeding to infect other plants . Examples of viruses that can be transmitted by nematodes include tobacco ringspot virus and tobacco rattle virus .
Oyster
Some oysters also harbor bacterial species which can cause human disease ; of importance is Vibrio vulnificus , which causes gastroenteritis , which is usually self - limiting , and cellulitis . Cellulitis can be so severe and rapidly spreading , often it requires amputation . It is usually acquired when the contents of the oyster come in contact with a cut skin lesion , as when shucking an oyster .
Herpes simplex
In British Columbia in 1999 , the seroprevalence of HSV - 2 antibody in leftover serum submitted for antenatal testing revealed a prevalence of 17 % , ranging from 7 % in women 15 -- 19 years old to 28 % in those 40 -- 44 years .
Desert tortoise
Two case studies outlined the spread of disease in desert tortoises . The Daggett Epidemiology of Upper Respiratory Tract Disease project , which provides supporting disease research for the Fort Irwin translocation project , lends an example of the spread of disease . In 2008 , 197 health evaluations were conducted , revealing 25.0 -- 45.2 % exposure to M. agassizii and M. testudineum , respectively , in a core area adjacent to Interstate 15 . The spread of disease was tracked over two years , and clinical signs of URTD spread from the core area to adjacent , outlying locations during this time . Overlaying home ranges and the social nature of these animals , suggests that disease - free individuals may be vulnerable to spread of disease , and that transmission can occur rapidly . Thus , wild tortoises that are close to the urban - wildlife interface may be vulnerable to spread of disease as a direct result of human influence .
Virus
Like any organism , marine mammals are susceptible to viral infections . In 1988 and 2002 , thousands of harbour seals were killed in Europe by phocine distemper virus . Many other viruses , including caliciviruses , herpesviruses , adenoviruses and parvoviruses , circulate in marine mammal populations .
Virus
Viruses infect all cellular life and , although viruses occur universally , each cellular species has its own specific range that often infect only that species . Some viruses , called satellites , can replicate only within cells that have already been infected by another virus .
Entamoeba histolytica
The active ( trophozoite ) stage exists only in the host and in fresh loose feces ; cysts survive outside the host in water , in soils , and on foods , especially under moist conditions on the latter . The infection can occur when a person puts anything into their mouth that has touched the feces of a person who is infected with E. histolytica , swallows something , such as water or food , that is contaminated with E. histolytica , or swallows E. histolytica cysts ( eggs ) picked up from contaminated surfaces or fingers . The cysts are readily killed by heat and by freezing temperatures , and survive for only a few months outside of the host . When cysts are swallowed they cause infections by excysting ( releasing the trophozoite stage ) in the digestive tract . The pathogenic nature of E. histolytica was first reported by Lösch in 1875 , but it was not given its Latin name until Fritz Schaudinn described it in 1903 . E. histolytica , as its name suggests ( histo -- lytic = tissue destroying ) , is pathogenic ; infection can be asymptomatic or can lead to amoebic dysentery or amoebic liver abscess . Symptoms can include fulminating dysentery , bloody diarrhea , weight loss , fatigue , abdominal pain , and amoeboma . The amoeba can actually ' bore ' into the intestinal wall , causing lesions and intestinal symptoms , and it may reach the blood stream . From there , it can reach different vital organs of the human body , usually the liver , but sometimes the lungs , brain , spleen , etc . A common outcome of this invasion of tissues is a liver abscess , which can be fatal if untreated . Ingested red blood cells are sometimes seen in the amoeba cell cytoplasm .
Herpes simplex
The causes of reactivation are uncertain , but several potential triggers have been documented . A 2009 study showed the protein VP16 plays a key role in reactivation of the dormant virus . Changes in the immune system during menstruation may play a role in HSV - 1 reactivation . Concurrent infections , such as viral upper respiratory tract infection or other febrile diseases , can cause outbreaks . Reactivation due to other infections is the likely source of the historic terms ' cold sore ' and ' fever blister ' .
Herpes simplex
In a 2007 study , 1900 people ( 25 % of which had herpes ) ranked genital herpes second for social stigma , out of all sexually transmitted diseases ( HIV took the top spot for STD stigma ) .
Virus
Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell . Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally . This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years . This is often the case with herpes viruses .
Phosphofructokinase 1
Herpes simplex type 1 and phosphofructokinase : Some viruses , including HIV , HCMV , Mayaro , and HCMV affect cellular metabolic pathways such as glycolysis by a MOI - dependent increase in the activity of PFK . The mechanism that Herpes increases PFK activity is by phosphorylating the enzyme at the serine residues . The HSV - 1 induced glycolysis increases ATP content , which is critical for the virus 's replication .
Germ theory of disease
The miasma theory was the predominant theory of disease transmission before the germ theory took hold towards the end of the 19th century . It held that diseases such as cholera , chlamydia infection , or the Black Death were caused by a miasma ( μίασμα , Ancient Greek : `` pollution '' ) , a noxious form of `` bad air '' emanating from rotting organic matter . Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter ( miasmata ) that was identifiable by its foul smell . The theory posited that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water , foul air , and poor hygienic conditions . Such infections , according to the theory , were not passed between individuals but would affect those within a locale that gave rise to such vapors . It is the correct way , which Thucydides has stated .
Streptococcal pharyngitis
Strep throat is spread by respiratory droplets from an infected person . It may be spread directly or by touching something that has droplets on it and then touching the mouth , nose , or eyes . Some people may carry the bacteria without symptoms . It may also be spread by skin infected with group A strep . The diagnosis is made based on the results of a rapid antigen detection test or throat culture in those who have symptoms .
Lyme disease
Days to weeks following the tick bite , the spirochetes spread via the bloodstream to joints , heart , nervous system , and distant skin sites , where their presence gives rise to the variety of symptoms of the disseminated disease . The spread of B. burgdorferi is aided by the attachment of the host protease plasmin to the surface of the spirochete .
Chickenpox
The spread of chickenpox can be prevented by isolating affected individuals . Contagion is by exposure to respiratory droplets , or direct contact with lesions , within a period lasting from three days before the onset of the rash , to four days after the onset of the rash . The chickenpox virus is susceptible to disinfectants , notably chlorine bleach ( i.e. , sodium hypochlorite ) . Like all enveloped viruses , it is sensitive to desiccation , heat and detergents .