vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Earth's orbit
Orbital characteristics epoch J2000. 0 aphelion 152.10 × 10 ^ km ( 94.51 × 10 ^ mi ) 1.0167 AU perihelion 147.10 × 10 ^ km ( 91.40 × 10 ^ mi ) 0.98329 AU semimajor axis 149.60 × 10 ^ km ( 92.96 × 10 ^ mi ) 1.000001018 AU eccentricity 0.0167086 inclination 7.155 ° to Sun 's equator 1.578690 ° to invariable plane longitude of the ascending node 174.9 ° longitude of perihelion 102.9 ° argument of periapsis 288.1 ° period 365.256 363 004 days average speed 29.78 km / s ( 18.50 mi / s ) 107,200 km / h ( 66,600 mph )
Space Race
The American Lunar Module was finally ready for a successful piloted test flight in low Earth orbit on Apollo 9 in March 1969 . The next mission , Apollo 10 , conducted a `` dress rehearsal '' for the first landing in May 1969 , flying the LM in lunar orbit as close as 47,400 feet ( 14.4 km ) above the surface , the point where the powered descent to the surface would begin . With the LM proven to work well , the next step was to attempt the landing .
Communications satellite
Typically the orbit of a medium earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres ( 10,000 mi ) above earth . In various patterns , these satellites make the trip around earth in anywhere from 2 -- 12 hours , which provides better coverage to wider areas than that provided by LEOs . Example
Venus
Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU ( 108 million km ; 67 million mi ) , and completes an orbit every 224.7 days . Although all planetary orbits are elliptical , Venus 's orbit is the closest to circular , with an eccentricity of less than 0.01 . When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction , it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km ( 25 million mi ) . The planet reaches inferior conjunction every 584 days , on average . Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years . From the year 1 to 5383 , there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km ; then there are none for about 60,158 years .
Moon landing
It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so that it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit , following the so - called free return trajectory . Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required . However , a manned circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges above and beyond those found in a manned low - Earth - orbit mission , offering valuable lessons in preparation for a manned Moon landing . Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth 's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon .
Moon landing
Launched 27 September 2003 , 23 : 14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou , French Guiana . At the end of its mission , the ESA lunar orbiter SMART - 1 performed a controlled crash into the Moon , at about 2 km / s . The time of the crash was 3 September 2006 , at 5 : 42 UTC .
Mars
Mars made its closest approach to Earth and maximum apparent brightness in nearly 60,000 years , 55,758,006 km ( 0.37271925 AU ; 34,646,419 mi ) , magnitude − 2.88 , on August 27 , 2003 at 9 : 51 : 13 UT . This occurred when Mars was one day from opposition and about three days from its perihelion , making it particularly easy to see from Earth . The last time it came so close is estimated to have been on September 12 , 57,617 BC , the next time being in 2287 . This record approach was only slightly closer than other recent close approaches . For instance , the minimum distance on August 22 , 1924 was 7010557775660904950 ♠ 0.37285 AU , and the minimum distance on August 24 , 2208 will be 7010557685902182530 ♠ 0.37279 AU .
Moon landing
The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100 % of the escape velocity of the target moon , and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon 's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur . For Earth 's Moon , the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second ( 1.48 mi / s ) . The change in velocity ( referred to as a delta - v ) is usually provided by a landing rocket , which must be carried into space by the original launch vehicle as part of the overall spacecraft . An exception is the soft moon landing on Titan carried out by the Huygens probe in 2005 . As the moon with the thickest atmosphere , landings on Titan may be accomplished by using atmospheric entry techniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability .
Moon landing
Upon approach of the target moon , a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity . In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) and be ruggedized to withstand a `` hard landing '' impact , or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a `` soft landing '' ( which is the only viable option with human occupants ) . The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard moon landing with a ruggedized seismometer package in 1962 all failed . The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966 , followed only months later by the first unmanned soft lunar landing by the U.S.
Observable universe
The comoving distance from Earth to the edge of the observable universe is about 14.26 giga parsecs ( 46.5 billion light - years or 4.40 × 10 meters ) in any direction . The observable universe is thus a sphere with a diameter of about 28.5 gigaparsecs ( 93 Gly or 8.8 × 10 m ) . Assuming that space is roughly flat ( in the sense of being a Euclidean space ) , this size corresponds to a comoving volume of about 7004122000000000000 ♠ 1.22 × 10 Gpc ( 7005422000000000000 ♠ 4.22 × 10 Gly or 7080357000000000000 ♠ 3.57 × 10 m ) .
Communications satellite
Because of their low altitude , these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) from the sub-satellite point . In addition , satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly . So even for local applications , a large number of satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity .
Earth
The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 × 10 metric tons or about 1 / 4400 of Earth 's total mass . The oceans cover an area of 361.8 million km ( 139.7 million sq mi ) with a mean depth of 3,682 m ( 12,080 ft ) , resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332 billion km ( 320 million cu mi ) . If all of Earth 's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere , the depth of the resulting world ocean would be 2.7 to 2.8 km ( 1.68 to 1.74 mi ) .
Earth
Geologic layers of Earth Earth cutaway from core to exosphere . Not to scale . Depth km Component layer Density g / cm 0 -- 60 Lithosphere -- 0 -- 35 Crust 2.2 -- 2.9 35 -- 60 Upper mantle 3.4 -- 4.4 35 -- 2890 Mantle 3.4 -- 5.6 100 -- 700 Asthenosphere -- 2890 -- 5100 Outer core 9.9 -- 12.2 5100 -- 6378 Inner core 12.8 -- 13.1
Moon landing
The Soviet Union achieved the first unmanned lunar soil sample return with the Luna 16 probe on 24 September 1970 . This was followed by Luna 20 and Luna 24 in 1972 and 1976 , respectively . Following the failure at launch in 1969 of the first Lunokhod , Luna E-8 No. 201 , the Luna 17 and Luna 21 were successful unmanned lunar rover missions in 1970 and 1973 .
Earth
Earth 's major plates Plate name Area 10 km Pacific Plate 103.3 African Plate 78.0 North American Plate 75.9 Eurasian Plate 67.8 Antarctic Plate 60.9 Indo - Australian Plate 47.2 South American Plate 43.6 Main
Moon landing
Mission Mass ( kg ) Booster Launch date Goal Result Landing zone Lat / Lon Luna - 9 1580 Semyorka -- 8K78 31 January 1966 Landing Success -- first lunar soft landing , numerous photos Oceanus Procellarum 7.13 ° N 64.37 ° W Luna - 13 1580 Semyorka -- 8K78 21 December 1966 Landing Success -- second lunar soft landing , numerous photos Oceanus Procellarum 18 ° 52'N 62 ° 3'W Proton 19 February 1969 Lunar rover Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Proton 14 June 1969 Sample return Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Luna - 15 5,700 Proton 13 July 1969 Sample return Failure -- lunar crash impact Mare Crisium unknown Cosmos - 300 Proton 23 September 1969 Sample return Failure -- stranded in low Earth orbit Cosmos - 305 Proton 22 October 1969 Sample return Failure -- stranded in low Earth orbit Proton 6 February 1970 Sample return Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Luna - 16 5,600 Proton 12 September 1970 Sample return Success --
Mars
The point at which Mars 's geocentric longitude is 180 ° different from the Sun 's is known as opposition , which is near the time of closest approach to Earth . The time of opposition can occur as much as 8.5 days away from the closest approach . The distance at close approach varies between about 54 and about 103 million km due to the planets ' elliptical orbits , which causes comparable variation in angular size . The last Mars opposition occurred on May 22 , 2016 at a distance of about 76 million km . The next Mars opposition occurs on July 27 , 2018 at a distance of about 58 million km . The average time between the successive oppositions of Mars , its synodic period , is 780 days ; but the number of days between the dates of successive oppositions can range from 764 to 812 .
Equator
An equator is the intersection of the surface of a rotating spheroid ( such as a planet ) with the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation and midway between its poles . On Earth , the Equator is an imaginary line on the surface , equidistant from the North and South Poles , dividing the Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres . It is about 40,075 kilometres ( 24,901 mi ) long , of which 78.7 % lies across water and 21.3 % over land .
Moon landing
Failure -- stranded in low Earth orbit Semyorka -- 8K78 3 February 1963 Landing Failure -- booster malfunction at T+ 105 s Luna - 4 1422 Semyorka -- 8K78 2 April 1963 Landing Failure -- lunar flyby at 8,000 kilometres ( 5,000 mi ) Semyorka -- 8K78 21 March 1964 Landing Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Semyorka -- 8K78 20 April 1964 Landing Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Cosmos - 60 Semyorka -- 8K78 12 March 1965 Landing Failure -- stranded in low Earth orbit Semyorka -- 8K78 10 April 1965 Landing Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit Luna - 5 1475 Semyorka -- 8K78 9 May 1965 Landing Failure -- lunar impact Luna - 6 1440 Semyorka -- 8K78 8 June 1965 Landing Failure -- lunar flyby at 160,000 kilometres ( 99,000 mi ) Luna - 7 1504 Semyorka -- 8K78 4 October 1965 Landing Failure -- lunar impact Luna - 8 1550 Semyorka -- 8K78 3 December 1965 Landing Failure -- lunar impact during landing attempt
Moon landing
Lunar Prospector was launched on 7 January 1998 . The mission ended on 31 July 1999 , when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected .
Precambrian
It is thought that the Earth coalesced from material in orbit around the Sun at roughly 4,543 Ma , and may have been struck by a very large ( Mars - sized ) planetesimal shortly after it formed , splitting off material that formed the Moon ( see Giant impact hypothesis ) . A stable crust was apparently in place by 4,433 Ma , since zircon crystals from Western Australia have been dated at 4,404 ± 8 Ma .
Jupiter
Jupiter is the only planet whose barycenter with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun , though by only 7 % of the Sun 's radius . The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km ( about 5.2 times the average distance between Earth and the Sun , or 5.2 AU ) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years . This is approximately two - fifths the orbital period of Saturn , forming a near orbital resonance between the two largest planets in the Solar System . The elliptical orbit of Jupiter is inclined 1.31 ° compared to Earth . Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.048 , Jupiter 's distance from the Sun varies by 75 million km between its nearest approach ( perihelion ) and furthest distance ( aphelion ) .
Earth's location in the Universe
Cited distance is derived by doubling the aphelion of Eris , the farthest known scattered disc object . As of now , Eris 's aphelion marks the farthest known point in the scattered disc . Oort cloud 100,000 -- 200,000 AU 0.613 -- 1.23 pc Spherical shell of over a trillion ( 10 ) comets . Existence is currently hypothetical , but inferred from the orbits of long - period comets . Solar System 1.23 pc The Sun and its planetary system . Cited diameter is that of the Sun 's Hill sphere ; the region of its gravitational influence . Local Interstellar Cloud 9.2 pc Interstellar cloud of gas through which the Sun and a number of other stars are currently travelling . Local Bubble 2.82 -- 250 pc Cavity in the interstellar medium in which the Sun and a number of other stars are currently travelling . Caused by a past supernova . Gould Belt 1,000 pc Ring of young stars through which the Sun is currently travelling . Orion Arm 3000 pc ( length ) The spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy through which the Sun is currently travelling . Orbit of the Solar System 17,200 pc The average diameter of the orbit of the Solar System relative to the Galactic Center . The Sun 's orbital radius is roughly 8,600 parsecs , or slightly over half way to the galactic edge . One orbital period of the Solar System lasts between 225 and 250 million years . Milky Way Galaxy 30,000 pc Our home galaxy , composed of 200 billion to 400 billion stars and filled with the interstellar medium . Milky Way subgroup 840,500 pc The Milky Way and those satellite dwarf galaxies gravitationally bound to it . Examples include the Sagittarius Dwarf , the Ursa Minor Dwarf and the Canis Major Dwarf . Cited distance is the orbital diameter of the Leo T Dwarf galaxy , the most distant galaxy in the Milky Way subgroup . Local Group 3 Mpc Group of at least 47 galaxies of which the Milky Way is a part . Dominated by Andromeda ( the largest ) , the Milky Way and Triangulum ; the remainder are dwarf galaxies .
Earth
The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of − 418 m ( − 1,371 ft ) at the Dead Sea , to a maximum altitude of 8,848 m ( 29,029 ft ) at the top of Mount Everest . The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m ( 2,615 ft ) .
Earth
The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's continental surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes . The total arable land is 10.9 % of the land surface , with 1.3 % being permanent cropland . Close to 40 % of Earth 's land surface is used for agriculture , or an estimated 16.7 million km ( 6.4 million sq mi ) of cropland and 33.5 million km ( 12.9 million sq mi ) of pastureland .
Earth
The total surface area of Earth is about 510 million km ( 197 million sq mi ) . Of this , 70.8 % , or 361.13 million km ( 139.43 million sq mi ) , is below sea level and covered by ocean water . Below the ocean 's surface are much of the continental shelf , mountains , volcanoes , oceanic trenches , submarine canyons , oceanic plateaus , abyssal plains , and a globe - spanning mid-ocean ridge system . The remaining 29.2 % , or 148.94 million km ( 57.51 million sq mi ) , not covered by water has terrain that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains , deserts , plains , plateaus , and other landforms . Tectonics and erosion , volcanic eruptions , flooding , weathering , glaciation , the growth of coral reefs , and meteorite impacts are among the processes that constantly reshape the Earth 's surface over geological time .
Global Positioning System
Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km ( 12,600 mi ) ; orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km ( 16,500 mi ) , each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day , repeating the same ground track each day . This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites , correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day . For military operations , the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones .
Speed of light
Astronomical distances are sometimes expressed in light - years , especially in popular science publications and media . A light - year is the distance light travels in one year , around 9461 billion kilometres , 5879 billion miles , or 0.3066 parsecs . In round figures , a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles . Proxima Centauri , the closest star to Earth after the Sun , is around 4.2 light - years away .
Earth
The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within the Earth . Near the Earth 's surface , gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m / s ( 32 ft / s ) . Local differences in topography , geology , and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad , regional differences in the Earth 's gravitational field , known as gravitational anomalies .
Astronomical spectroscopy
where v ( \ displaystyle v ) is the velocity ( or Hubble Flow ) , H 0 ( \ displaystyle H_ ( 0 ) ) is the Hubble Constant , and d ( \ displaystyle d ) is the distance from Earth .
Moon landing
U.S.S.R. mission Mass ( kg ) Booster Launched Mission goal Mission result Cosmos -- 111 Molniya - M 1 March 1966 Lunar orbiter Failure -- stranded in low Earth orbit Luna - 10 1,582 Molniya - M 31 March 1966 Lunar orbiter Success -- 2,738 km x 2,088 km x 72 deg orbit , 178 m period , 60 - day science mission Luna - 11 1,640 Molniya - M 24 August 1966 Lunar orbiter Success -- 2,931 km x 1,898 km x 27 deg orbit , 178 m period , 38 - day science mission Luna - 12 1,620 Molniya - M 22 October 1966 Lunar orbiter Success -- 2,938 km x 1,871 km x 10 deg orbit , 205 m period , 89 - day science mission Cosmos - 159 1,700 Molniya - M 17 May 1967 Prototype test Success -- high Earth orbit manned landing communications gear radio calibration test Molniya - M 7 February 1968 Lunar orbiter Failure -- booster malfunction , failed to reach Earth orbit -- attempted radio calibration test ? Luna - 14 1,700 Molniya - M 7 April 1968 Lunar orbiter Success -- 870 km x 160 km x 42 deg orbit , 160 m period , unstable orbit , radio calibration test ? Luna - 19 5,700 Proton 28 September 1971 Lunar orbiter Success -- 140 km x 140 km x 41 deg orbit , 121 m period , 388 - day science mission Luna - 22 5,700 Proton 29 May 1974 Lunar orbiter Success -- 222 km x 219 km x 19 deg orbit , 130 m period , 521 - day science mission
Earth
The first human to orbit Earth was Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961 . In total , about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit as of 30 July 2010 , and , of these , twelve have walked on the Moon . Normally , the only humans in space are those on the International Space Station . The station 's crew , made up of six people , is usually replaced every six months . The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is 400,171 km ( 248,655 mi ) , achieved during the Apollo 13 mission in 1970 .
Jupiter
In 1892 , E.E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36 - inch ( 910 mm ) refractor at Lick Observatory in California . The discovery of this relatively small object , a testament to his keen eyesight , quickly made him famous . This moon was later named Amalthea . It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by visual observation . Infrared
Mount Everest
The summit of Everest is the point at which earth 's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level . Several other mountains are sometimes claimed to be the `` tallest mountains on earth '' . Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base ; it rises over 10,200 m ( 33,464.6 ft ) when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor , but only attains 4,205 m ( 13,796 ft ) above sea level .
Space Race
The trip to the Moon took just over three days . After achieving orbit , Armstrong and Aldrin transferred into the Lunar Module , named Eagle , and after a landing gear inspection by Collins remaining in the Command / Service Module Columbia , began their descent . After overcoming several computer overload alarms caused by an antenna switch left in the wrong position , and a slight downrange error , Armstrong took over manual flight control at about 180 meters ( 590 ft ) , and guided the Lunar Module to a safe landing spot at 20 : 18 : 04 UTC , July 20 , 1969 ( 3 : 17 : 04 pm CDT ) . The first humans on the Moon waited six hours before they left their craft . At 02 : 56 UTC , July 21 ( 9 : 56 pm CDT July 20 ) , Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the Moon .
Moon landing
Launched on 24 January 1990 , 11 : 46 UTC . At the end of its mission , the Japanese lunar orbiter Hiten was commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18 : 03 : 25.7 UT ( 11 April 03 : 03 : 25.7 JST ) .
Jupiter
The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist en route to Pluto . Its closest approach was on February 28 , 2007 . The probe 's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail , as well as making long - distance observations of the outer moons Himalia and Elara . Imaging of the Jovian system began September 4 , 2006 . Galileo
Eyepiece
D ( \ displaystyle D ) is the distance of closest distinct vision ( usually 250 mm ) D E O ( \ displaystyle D_ ( \ mathrm ( EO ) ) ) is the distance between the back focal plane of the objective and the back focal plane of the eyepiece ( called tube length ) , typically 160 mm for a modern instrument . f O ( \ displaystyle f_ ( O ) ) is the objective focal length and f E ( \ displaystyle f_ ( E ) ) is the eyepiece focal length .
Speed of light
An astronomical unit ( AU ) is approximately the average distance between the Earth and Sun . It was redefined in 2012 as exactly 7011149597870700000 ♠ 149 597 870 700 m . Previously the AU was not based on the International System of Units but in terms of the gravitational force exerted by the Sun in the framework of classical mechanics . The current definition uses the recommended value in metres for the previous definition of the astronomical unit , which was determined by measurement . This redefinition is analogous to that of the metre , and likewise has the effect of fixing the speed of light to an exact value in astronomical units per second ( via the exact speed of light in metres per second ) .
Moon landing
After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 , historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts . Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch , the Soviets assigned a public `` Luna '' mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit . The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view . If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon , it was frequently ( but not always ) given a `` Sputnik '' or `` Cosmos '' Earth - orbit mission number to hide its purpose . Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all .
Moon landing
Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with unmanned spacecraft . To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon . These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming manned landers with their much greater weight .