vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
First Nations
The Squamish history is a series of past events , both passed on through oral tradition and recent history , of the Squamish indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast . Prior to colonization , they recorded their history through oral tradition as a way to transmit stories , law , and knowledge across generations . This was common among all the peoples . The writing system established in the 1970s used the Latin alphabet as a base . Knowledgeable elders had the responsibility to pass historical knowledge to the next generation . People lived and prospered for thousands of years until the Great Flood . In another story , after the Flood , they would repopulate from the villages of Schenks and Chekwelp , located at Gibsons . When the water lines receded , the first Squamish came to be . The first man , named Tseḵánchten , built his longhouse in the village , and later on another man named Xelálten , appeared on his longhouse roof and sent by the Creator , or in the Squamish language keke7nex siyam . He called this man his brother . It was from these two men that the population began to rise and the Squamish spread back through their territory . A
Maya civilization
Unlike the Aztecs and the Inca , the Maya political system never integrated the entire Maya cultural area into a single state or empire . Rather , throughout its history , the Maya area contained a varying mix of political complexity that included both states and chiefdoms . These polities fluctuated greatly in their relationships with each other and were engaged in a complex web of rivalries , periods of dominance or submission , vassalage , and alliances . At times , different polities achieved regional dominance , such as Calakmul , Caracol , Mayapan , and Tikal . The first reliably evidenced polities formed in the Maya lowlands in the 9th century BC . During the Late Preclassic , the Maya political system coalesced into a theopolitical form , where elite ideology justified the ruler 's authority , and was reinforced by public display , ritual , and religion . The divine king was the centre of political power , exercising ultimate control over the administrative , economic , judicial , and military functions of the polity . The divine authority invested within the ruler was such that the king was able to mobilize both the aristocracy and commoners in executing huge infrastructure projects , apparently with no police force or standing army . Some polities engaged in a strategy of increasing administration , and filling administrative posts with loyal supporters rather than blood relatives . Within a polity , mid-ranking population centres would have played a key role in managing resources and internal conflict .
Dead Sea
Beginning in the 1960s , water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large - scale irrigation and generally low rainfall . By 1975 , the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer . Nevertheless , the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense . When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer , the waters mixed ( 1978 -- 79 ) . For the first time in centuries , the lake was a homogeneous body of water . Since then , stratification has begun to redevelop .
Maya civilization
The ceremonial centre of the Maya city was where the ruling elite lived , and where the administrative functions of the city were performed , together with religious ceremonies . It was also where the inhabitants of the city gathered for public activities . Elite residential complexes occupied the best land around the city centre , while commoners had their residences dispersed further away from the ceremonial centre . Residential units were built on top of stone platforms to raise them above the level of the rain season floodwaters .
Siege
Most conquerors before him had found Tyre , a Phoenician island - city about 1 km from the mainland , impregnable . The Macedonians built a mole , a raised spit of earth across the water , by piling stones up on a natural land bridge that extended underwater to the island , and although the Tyrians rallied by sending a fire ship to destroy the towers , and captured the mole in a swarming frenzy , the city eventually fell to the Macedonians after a seven - month siege . In complete contrast to Tyre , Sogdian Rock was captured by stealthy attack . Alexander used commando - like tactics to scale the cliffs and capture the high ground , and the demoralized defenders surrendered . Roman
Siege
Ancient cities in the Middle East show archaeological evidence of having had fortified city walls . During the Warring States era of ancient China , there is both textual and archaeological evidence of prolonged sieges and siege machinery used against the defenders of city walls . Siege machinery was also a tradition of the ancient Greco - Roman world . During the Renaissance and the early modern period , siege warfare dominated the conduct of war in Europe . Leonardo da Vinci gained as much of his renown from the design of fortifications as from his artwork .
St. Johns River
The advent of regional types of pottery and stone tools made of flint or limestone marked further advancements around 500 BCE . The Archaic people transitioned into settled groups around Florida . From the central part of the state north , along the Atlantic Coast lived people in the St. Johns culture , named for the most significant nearby natural formation . Around 750 CE , the St. Johns culture learned to cultivate corn , adding to their diet of fish , game , and gourds . Archeologists and anthropologists date this agricultural advancement to coincide with a spread of archeological sites , suggesting that a population increase followed . When European explorers arrived in north Florida , they met the Timucua , numbering about 14,000 , the largest group of indigenous people in the region . The later Seminole people called the river Welaka or Ylacco . These forms may derive from the Creek wi - láko , `` big water '' , a compound usually applied to large rivers that run through lakes ; the St. Johns forms and borders numerous lakes . Alternately , the Seminole name may derive from walaka ( from wi - alaka , `` water '' and `` coming '' ) , perhaps a reference to the river 's slow discharge and the tidal effects on it . The name is sometimes rendered as `` Chain of Lakes '' in English .
Abu Simbel temples
In 1959 , an international donations campaign to save the monuments of Nubia began : the southernmost relics of this ancient human civilization were under threat from the rising waters of the Nile that were about to result from the construction of the Aswan High Dam .
History of agriculture
Wheat , barley , and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9,000 BC , soon followed by sheep and goats . Barley and wheat cultivation -- along with the domestication of cattle , primarily sheep and goats -- followed in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000 -- 6,000 BC . This period also saw the first domestication of the elephant . Pastoral farming in India included threshing , planting crops in rows -- either of two or of six -- and storing grain in granaries . By the 5th millennium BC , agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir . Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4,500 BC . The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation , leading to more thoroughly planned settlements which used drainage and sewers . Archeological evidence of an animal - drawn plough dates back to 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization .
Carthage
The urban landscape of Carthage is known in part from ancient authors , augmented by modern digs and surveys conducted by archeologists . The `` first urban nucleus '' dating to the seventh century , in area about 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) , was apparently located on low - lying lands along the coast ( north of the later harbors ) . As confirmed by archaeological excavations , Carthage was a `` creation ex nihilo '' , built on ' virgin ' land , and situated at the end of a peninsula ( per the ancient coastline ) . Here among `` mud brick walls and beaten clay floors '' ( recently uncovered ) were also found extensive cemeteries , which yielded evocative grave goods like clay masks . `` Thanks to this burial archaeology we know more about archaic Carthage than about any other contemporary city in the western Mediterranean . '' Already in the eighth century , fabric dyeing operations had been established , evident from crushed shells of murex ( from which the ' Phoenician purple ' was derived ) . Nonetheless , only a `` meager picture '' of the cultural life of the earliest pioneers in the city can be conjectured , and not much about housing , monuments or defenses . The Roman poet Virgil ( 70 -- 19 BC ) imagined early Carthage , when his legendary character Aeneas had arrived there : Walled
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
During the siege of Echinus by Philip V of Macedon in 211 BC , the besiegers built underground tunnels to protect the soldiers and sappers as they went back and forth from the camp to the siege works . These included two siege towers connected by a makeshift wickerwork curtain wall mounted with stone - shooting ballistae , and sheds to protect the approach of the battering ram . Despite the early reputation of Macedon as a leader in siege technology , Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt became the center for technological improvements to the catapult by the 3rd century BC , as evidenced by the writings of Philo of Alexandria .
River Thames
Since Roman times and perhaps earlier , the isostatic rebound from the weight of previous ice sheets , and its interplay with the eustatic change in sea level , have resulted in the old valley of the River Brent , together with that of the Thames , silting up again . Thus , along much of the Brent 's present - day course , one can make out the water meadows of rich alluvium , which is augmented by frequent floods . Conversion
Carthage
`` Aeneas found , where lately huts had been , marvelous buildings , gateways , cobbled ways , and din of wagons . There the Tyrians were hard at work : laying courses for walls , rolling up stones to build the citadel , while others picked out building sites and plowed a boundary furrow . Laws were being enacted , magistrates and a sacred senate chosen . Here men were dredging harbors , there they laid the deep foundations of a theatre , and quarried massive pillars ... ``
Water in California
California recognizes water rights granted to pueblos ( settlements ) under the Spanish and Mexican governments , prior to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . Under the doctrine , pueblos organized under the laws of Mexico or Spain have a water right to the yield of all streams and rivers flowing through the city and the groundwater aquifers lying below . Pueblo water rights are superior to all riparian and appropriative rights and can not be lost by a failure to assert an interest or use the water . In addition , the pueblo 's claim expands with the needs of the city and may be used to supply the needs of areas that are later annexed to the city . Los Angeles and San Diego are the only original pueblos to exercise their pueblo water rights in the courts .
Environmental issues in India
According to a World Health Organization study , out of India 's 3,119 towns and cities , just 209 have partial sewage treatment facilities , and only 8 have full wastewater treatment facilities . Over 100 Indian cities dump untreated sewage directly into the Ganges River . Investment is needed to bridge the gap between 29000 million litre per day of sewage India generates , and a treatment capacity of mere 6000 million litre per day .
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
In the U.S , in 2015 , about 2.7 million people still lacked access to `` improved '' water . Regarding sanitation , in 2015 , only around 36,000 people did not have access to `` improved '' sanitation .
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
However , more than 1.6 million people in the United States , in 630,000 households , still lack basic plumbing facilities . More than a third of them have household incomes below the federal poverty level . They are spread across all racial and ethnic categories , but they are more prominent in the minority groups . Most of the people who lacked plumbing services were elderly , poor , and living in rural areas . Alaska has the highest percentage of households without plumbing -- 6.32 percent of all its households .
Human rights and development
Of note a staggering 2.5 billion people still do not have access to toilets or latrines . Open defecation is a practice that poses serious health and environmental risks and stopping it is a key factor in the progress of sanitation goals . In 2013 , UN Member States adopted the Sanitation for All resolution calling for increased efforts to improve access to proper sanitation . The number of slum dwellers however continues to grow , due to the fast pace of urbanization . The number of urban residents living in slum conditions was estimated at 863 million in 2012 , compared to 650 million in 1990 and 760 million in 2000 .
Venezuela
Venezuela had a total of 150 plants for sewage treatment . However , 13 % of the population lacked access to drinking water , but this number had been dropping .
Caribbean Sea
Human activity in the area also accounts for a significant amount of pollution , The Pan American Health Organization estimated in 1993 that only about 10 % of the sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries is properly treated before being released into the sea .
Environmental issues in India
India has major water pollution issues . Discharge of untreated sewage is the single most important cause for pollution of surface and ground water in India . There is a large gap between generation and treatment of domestic waste water in India . The problem is not only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also that the sewage treatment plants that exist do not operate and are not maintained . The majority of the government - owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time due to improper design or poor maintenance or lack of reliable electricity supply to operate the plants , together with absentee employees and poor management . The waste water generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates . The uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban areas cause unhygienic conditions and release pollutants that leaches to surface and groundwater .
Philippines
In 2015 it was reported by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation by WHO and UNICEF that 74 % of the population had access to improved sanitation and that `` good progress '' had been made . The access to improved sanitation was reported to be similar for the urban and rural population .
Zimbabwe
Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe is defined by many small scale successful programs but also by a general lack of improved water and sanitation systems for the majority of Zimbabwe . According to the World Health Organization in 2012 , 80 % of Zimbabweans had access to improved , i.e. clean , drinking - water sources , and only 40 % of Zimbabweans had access to improved sanitation facilities . Access to improved water supply and sanitation is distinctly less in rural areas . Public
Water fluoridation
As of November 2012 , a total of about 378 million people worldwide received artificially fluoridated water . The majority of those were in the United States . About 40 million worldwide received water that was naturally fluoridated to recommended levels .
Fresh water
One in eight people in the world do not having access to safe water Innapropriate use of water may contribute to this problem . The following tables provide some indicators of water use .
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
In 2007 there were about 155,000 PWSs in the United States , of which 52,000 CWSs . PWSs are either publicly owned , cooperatives or privately owned , serving a total of about 242 million people in 2000 . EPA estimates the number of beneficiaries of community water systems at 288 million in 2007 The United States Geological Survey estimates that `` About 242 million people depended on water from public suppliers '' in 2000 . Four thousand systems provide water in localities with more than 10,000 inhabitants , and the remaining 50,000 systems provide water in localities with less than 10,000 inhabitants . In 2000 15 % of Americans ( 43.5 million people ) relied on their own water source , usually a well , for drinking water .
Sustainability
According to the most recent ( July 2015 ) revision of the official United Nations World Population Prospects , the world population is projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030 , up from the current 7.3 billion ( July 2015 ) , to exceed 9 billion people by 2050 , and to reach 11.2 billion by the year 2100 . Most of the increase will be in developing countries whose population is projected to rise from 5.6 billion in 2009 to 7.9 billion in 2050 . This increase will be distributed among the population aged 15 -- 59 ( 1.2 billion ) and 60 or over ( 1.1 billion ) because the number of children under age 15 in developing countries is predicted to decrease . In contrast , the population of the more developed regions is expected to undergo only slight increase from 1.23 billion to 1.28 billion , and this would have declined to 1.15 billion but for a projected net migration from developing to developed countries , which is expected to average 2.4 million persons annually from 2009 to 2050 . Long - term estimates in 2004 of global population suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine to ten billion people , and then a slow decrease to 8.4 billion by 2100 .
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
More than 99 % of the U.S. population has access to `` complete plumbing facilities '' , defined as the following services within the housing unit :
Human rights and development
Species are moving towards extinction at an ever - faster pace , and reduced biodiversity has serious consequences for the ecosystem services upon which all people depend . The largest loss of forests occurs in South America , around 3.6 million hectares per year from 2005 to 2010 . Deforestation threatens global sustainability and the progress towards hunger and poverty reduction as forests provide food , water , wood , fuel and other services used by millions of the world 's poorest . Brazil 's northeast the most densely populated semi-arid region in the world has limited rainfall and cyclic drought forcing many of the 22 million residents to resort in illegal charcoal production , stripping the region of forests . A project by the International Fund for Agricultural Development ( IFAD ) to promote agro-ecology is showing farmers how to make a living from the land while conserving the environment .
Human rights and development
Of note a total of 83 % of least developed country exports enter developed countries duty - free . In the developing world , 31 % of the population use the Internet , compared with 77 % of the developed world . In 2012 ODA of $126 billion was 4 % less than in 2011 , which was 2 % less than in 2010 . This is the first time since 1996 - 1997 that ODA fell in two consecutive years , while essential medicines are available in only 57 % of public sector facilities and 65 % of private facilities in selected developing countries . There are over six billion mobile phone subscriptions worldwide and for every person who uses the Internet from a computer , two do so from a mobile device . In South Africa , over 25,000 students have improved their math skills through interactive exercises and quizzes on mobile phones through cooperation between government , Nokia and individual schools and teachers .
Fresh water
Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability ( or water scarcity ) . Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses , it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse . A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation , to overall health and the production of grain .
Megacity
In 1800 , only 3 % of the world 's population lived in cities , a figure that rose to 47 % by the end of the twentieth century . In 1950 , there were 83 cities with populations exceeding one million ; by 2007 , this number had risen to 468 . The UN forecasts that today 's urban population of 3.2 billion will rise to nearly 5 billion by 2030 , when three out of five people will live in cities . This increase will be most dramatic on the least - urbanized continents , Asia and Africa . Surveys and projections indicate that all urban growth over the next 25 years will be in developing countries . One billion people , almost one - seventh of the world 's population , now live in shanty towns . In many poor countries overpopulated slums exhibit high rates of disease due to unsanitary conditions , malnutrition , and lack of basic health care . By 2030 , over 2 billion people in the world will be living in slums . Over 90 % of the urban population of Ethiopia , Malawi and Uganda , three of the world 's most rural countries , already live in slums .
Megacity
According to the United Nations , the proportion of urban dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent in the developing world between 1990 and 2005 . However , due to rising population , the absolute number of slum dwellers is rising . The majority of these come from the fringes of urban margins , located in legal and illegal settlements with insufficient housing and sanitation . This has been caused by massive migration , both internal and transnational , into cities , which has caused growth rates of urban populations and spatial concentrations not seen before in history . These issues raise problems in the political , social , and economic arenas . Slum dwellers often have minimal or no access to education , healthcare , or the urban economy .
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
About 90 % of public water systems in the U.S. obtain their water from groundwater . However , since systems served by groundwater tend to be much smaller than systems served by surface water , only 34 % of Americans ( 101 million ) are supplied with treated groundwater , while 66 % ( 195 million ) are supplied with surface water .
Entamoeba histolytica
Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic parasitic amoebozoan , part of the genus Entamoeba . Predominantly infecting humans and other primates causing amoebiasis , E. histolytica is estimated to infect about 50 million people worldwide . Previously , it was thought that 10 % of the world population was infected , but these figures predate the recognition that at least 90 % of these infections were due to a second species , E. dispar . Mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected transiently , but are not thought to contribute significantly to transmission .
Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States
24 % Toilets 3 % Baths 20 % Showers 17 % Clothes Washers 1 % Dishwashers 19 % Faucets 4 % Other Domestic Uses