vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Richard III (play)
Abraham Lincoln was renowned for his love of Shakespeare , and of Richard III in particular . This fed Confederate propaganda , especially in Virginia , where residents of Richmond saw Lincoln as a Richard - like tyrant and identified their capital city with the Earl of Richmond , the hero of Shakespeare 's play . ( See photo of Richmond slaying Richard , above . ) Some interpreted Richard 's Act IV speech as an omen favorable to the South :
Forbidden City
Today , the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng ( 故 宫 ) , which means the `` Former Palace '' . The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the `` Palace Museum '' ( Chinese : 故 宫 博 物 院 ; pinyin : Gùgōng Bówùyùan ) .
Erwin Rommel
Rommel had been extraordinarily well known in his lifetime , including by his adversaries . His tactical prowess and consistent decency in the treatment of Allied prisoners earned him the respect of many opponents , including Claude Auchinleck , Archibald Wavell , George S. Patton , and Bernard Montgomery .
Qing dynasty
Ming government officials fought against each other , against fiscal collapse , and against a series of peasant rebellions . They were unable to capitalise on the Manchu succession dispute and installation of a minor as emperor . In April 1644 , the capital at Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng , a former minor Ming official , who established a short - lived Shun dynasty . The last Ming ruler , the Chongzhen Emperor , committed suicide when the city fell , marking the official end of the dynasty .
Forbidden City
The Hall of Central Harmony is a smaller , square hall , used by the Emperor to prepare and rest before and during ceremonies . Behind it , the Hall of Preserving Harmony , was used for rehearsing ceremonies , and was also the site of the final stage of the Imperial examination . All three halls feature imperial thrones , the largest and most elaborate one being that in the Hall of Supreme Harmony .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Chiang was named Allied commander - in - chief in the China theater in 1942 . American general Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang 's chief of staff , while simultaneously commanding American forces in the China - Burma - India Theater . For many reasons , relations between Stilwell and Chiang soon broke down . Many historians ( such as Barbara W. Tuchman ) have suggested it was largely due to the corruption and inefficiency of the Kuomintang ( KMT ) government , while others ( such as Ray Huang and Hans van de Ven ) have depicted it as a more complicated situation . Stilwell had a strong desire to assume total control of Chinese troops and pursue an aggressive strategy , while Chiang preferred a patient and less expensive strategy of outwaiting the Japanese . Chiang continued to maintain a defensive posture despite Allied pleas to actively break the Japanese blockade , because China had already suffered tens of millions of war casualties and believed that Japan would eventually capitulate in the face of America 's overwhelming industrial output . For these reasons the other Allies gradually began to lose confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive operations from the Asian mainland , and instead concentrated their efforts against the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean Areas and South West Pacific Area , employing an island hopping strategy .
Emperor of Japan
Originally , the ruler of Japan was known as either 大和 大王 / 大 君 ( Yamato - ōkimi , Grand King of Yamato ) , 倭 王 / 倭国 王 ( Wa - ō / Wakoku - ō , King of Wa , used externally ) or 治 天下 大王 ( Ame - no - shita shiroshimesu ōkimi or Sumera no mikoto , Grand King who rules all under heaven , used internally ) in Japanese and Chinese sources before the 7th century . The oldest documented use of the word `` Tennō '' is on a wooden slat , or mokkan , that was unearthed in Asuka - mura , Nara Prefecture in 1998 and dated back to the reign of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō .
Qing dynasty
The unbroken series of military successes by Nurhaci came to an end in January 1626 when he was defeated by Yuan Chonghuan while laying siege to Ningyuan . He died a few months later and was succeeded by his eighth son , Hong Taiji , who emerged after a short political struggle amongst other potential contenders as the new Khan .
Chinese Tributary System
Emperor Han Wudi ( r . 141 -- 87 BCE ) played a critical role in the formation of the system .
Written Chinese
From the late Shang Dynasty , Chinese writing evolved into the form found in cast inscriptions on Chinese ritual bronzes made during the Western Zhou Dynasty ( c 1066 -- 770 BC ) and the Spring and Autumn period ( 770 -- 476 BC ) , a kind of writing called 金 文 jīnwén `` metal script '' . Jinwen characters are less angular and angularized than the oracle bone script . Later , in the Warring States period ( 475 -- 221 BC ) , the script became still more regular , and settled on a form , called 六 國 文字 / 六 国 文字 liùguó wénzì `` script of the six states '' , that Xu Shen used as source material in the Shuowen Jiezi . These characters were later embellished and stylized to yield the seal script , which represents the oldest form of Chinese characters still in modern use . They are used principally for signature seals , or chops , which are often used in place of a signature for Chinese documents and artwork . Li Si promulgated the seal script as the standard throughout the empire during the Qin dynasty , then newly unified .
Silk Road
The northern route started at Chang'an ( now called Xi'an ) , an ancient capital of China that was moved further east during the Later Han to Luoyang . The route was defined around the 1st century BCE when Han Wudi put an end to harassment by nomadic tribes .
Constellation
In ancient China astronomy has had a long tradition in accurately observing celestial phenomena . Nonspecific Star names later categorized in the twenty - eight mansions have been found on oracle bones unearthed at Anyang , dating back to the middle Shang Dynasty . These Chinese constellations are one of the most important and also the most ancient structures in the Chinese sky , attested from the 5th century BC . Parallels to the earliest Babylonian ( Sumerian ) star catalogues suggest that the ancient Chinese system did not arise independently .
Emperor of Japan
The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and the head of state of Japan . Under the 1947 constitution , he is defined as `` the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people . '' Historically , he was also the highest authority of the Shinto religion . In Japanese , the Emperor is called Tennō ( 天皇 ) , literally `` heavenly sovereign '' . In English , the use of the term Mikado ( 帝 or 御門 ) for the Emperor was once common , but is now considered obsolete .
History of the Roman Empire
Born Varius Avitus Bassianus on May 16 , 205 , known later as M. Aurelius Antonius , he was appointed at an early age to be priest of the sun God , Elagabalus , represented by a large , dark rock called a baetyl , by which name he is known to historians ( his name is sometimes written `` Heliogabalus '' ) . He was proclaimed emperor by the troops of Emesa , his hometown , who were instigated to do so by Elagabalus 's grandmother , Julia Maesa . She spread a rumor that Elagabalus was the secret son of Caracalla . This revolt spread to the entire Syrian army ( which , at the time , was swollen with troops raised by the Emperor Caracalla , and not fully loyal to Macrinus ) , and eventually they were to win the short struggle that followed by defeating Macrinus at a battle just outside Antioch . Elagabalus was then accepted by the Senate , and he began the slow journey to Rome .
Chinese Buddhism
Traditional practices such as meditation , mantra recitation , mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha , asceticism , and vegetarianism were all integrated into the belief systems of ordinary people . It is known from accounts in the Ming Dynasty that lay practitioners often engaged in practices from both the Pure Land and Chán traditions , as well as the study of the Buddhist sūtras . The Heart Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra were the most popular , followed by the Lotus Sūtra and the Avataṃsaka Sūtra .
Korea under Japanese rule
Other Japanese Army officers of South Korean origin moved onto successful careers in the post-occupation period . Examples include Park Chung - hee , who became president of South Korea , Chung Il - kwon ( 정일권 , 丁 一 權 ) , prime minister from 1964 to 1970 , and Paik Sun - yup , South Korea 's youngest general , famous for his defense during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter during the Korean War . The first ten of the Chiefs of Army Staff of South Korea graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and none from the Korean Liberation Army .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Manchu General Tong Linge was killed in action by the Japanese in the Battle of Beiping -- Tianjin , which marked the beginning of the Second Sino - Japanese War .
Written Chinese
Written Chinese is not based on an alphabet or a compact syllabary . Instead , Chinese characters are glyphs whose components may depict objects or represent abstract notions . Occasionally a character consists of only one component ; more commonly two or more components are combined to form more complex characters , using a variety of different principles . The best known exposition of Chinese character composition is the Shuowen Jiezi , compiled by Xu Shen around 120 AD . Since Xu Shen did not have access to Chinese characters in their earliest forms , his analysis can not always be taken as authoritative . Nonetheless , no later work has supplanted the Shuowen Jiezi in terms of breadth , and it is still relevant to etymological research today .
Chinese Buddhism
Gateway of the Hidden Flower ( 华 藏 宗 门 Huácáng Zōngmén , popularised as `` Huazang '' ) True Awakening Tradition ( 真 佛 宗 Zhēnfó Zōng )
Chola dynasty
The Chola conquest of Kadaram ( Kedah ) and Srivijaya , and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire , enabled them to influence the local cultures . Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas . For example , the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture .
History of the Roman Empire
In the last years of his life Marcus , a philosopher as well as an emperor , wrote his book of Stoic philosophy known as the Meditations . The book has since been hailed as Marcus ' great contribution to philosophy .
Logic
The Chinese logical philosopher Gongsun Long ( c. 325 -- 250 BCE ) proposed the paradox `` One and one can not become two , since neither becomes two . '' In China , the tradition of scholarly investigation into logic , however , was repressed by the Qin dynasty following the legalist philosophy of Han Feizi .
Perry Expedition
In advance of his voyage , Perry read widely amongst available books about Japan . His research also included consultation with the renowned Japanologist Philipp Franz von Siebold . Siebold spent eight years working , teaching , and studying at the isolated Dutch island - trading post of Dejima in Nagasaki harbour , before returning to Leiden in the Netherlands .
Silk Road
Use of the term ' Silk Road ' is not without its detractors . For instance , Warwick Ball contends that the maritime spice trade with India and Arabia was far more consequential for the economy of the Roman Empire than the silk trade with China , which at sea was conducted mostly through India and on land was handled by numerous intermediaries such as the Sogdians . Going as far as to call the whole thing a `` myth '' of modern academia , Ball argues that there was no coherent overland trade system and no free movement of goods from East Asia to the West until the period of the Mongol Empire . He notes that traditional authors discussing East - West trade such as Marco Polo and Edward Gibbon never labelled any route a `` silk '' one in particular .
Chinese Buddhism
Master Wei Chueh was born in 1928 in Sichuan , mainland China , and ordained in Taiwan . In 1982 , he founded Lin Quan Temple in Taipei County and became known for his teaching on Ch'an practices by offering many lectures and seven - day Ch'an retreats .
Phoenix (constellation)
Phoenix is a minor constellation in the southern sky . Named after the mythical phoenix , it was first depicted on a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria . The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted the brighter stars and gave their Bayer designations in 1756 . The constellation stretches from roughly − 39 ° to − 57 ° declination , and from 23.5 h to 2.5 h of right ascension . The constellations Phoenix , Grus , Pavo and Tucana , are known as the Southern Birds .
Napoleon
Napoléon Bonaparte ( 15 August 1769 -- 5 May 1821 ) was a French statesman and military leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars . As Napoleon , he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814 , and again briefly in 1815 during the Hundred Days . Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars . He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles , building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815 . He is considered one of the greatest commanders in history , and his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide . Napoleon 's political and cultural legacy has endured as one of the most celebrated and controversial leaders in human history .
Ancient Egypt
Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC , following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian ( later Emperor Augustus ) in the Battle of Actium . The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt , and the Roman army , under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor , quelled rebellions , strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes , and prevented attacks by bandits , which had become a notorious problem during the period . Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient , as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome .
Islamic Golden Age
Ibn Muʿādh al - Jayyānī is one of several Islamic mathematicians to whom the law of sines is attributed ; he wrote his The Book of Unknown Arcs of a Sphere in the 11th century . This formula relates the lengths of the sides of any triangle , rather than only right triangles , to the sines of its angles . According to the law ,
Theatre of China
There are references to theatrical entertainments in China as early as the Shang Dynasty ; they often involved happiness , mimes , and acrobatic displays .
Punic Wars
The Second Punic War ( 218 BC -- 201 BC ) is most remembered for the Carthaginian Hannibal 's crossing of the Alps . His army invaded Italy from the north and resoundingly defeated the Roman army in several battles , but never achieved the ultimate goal of causing a political break between Rome and its allies .
Music of France
One of the most famous French - speaking Asian artist is Anggun , a French - naturalised singer from Indonesia , best known for her single La Neige au Sahara ( Snow on the Sahara ) written by Erick Benzi . The song was released in 1997 as her debut international single in 33 countries worldwide , and topped the charts in Europe ( # 1 in Italy ) , America ( # 16 in USA Billboard ) , and Asia ( # 1 in Indonesia , # 3 in Malaysia ) . French music also found surprising favorable reception in Japan , where the language and culture from France is often seen as romantic . Some Japanese groups use French language , as for example Malice Mizer or Versailles , named after the name of the Château de Versailles . Salvatore Adamo Charles Aznavour and Mireille Mathieu are widely recognized in Japan .
Modern history
Albert Einstein is known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity . He also made important contributions to statistical mechanics , especially his mathematical treatment of Brownian motion , his resolution of the paradox of specific heats , and his connection of fluctuations and dissipation . Despite his reservations about its interpretation , Einstein also made contributions to quantum mechanics and , indirectly , quantum field theory , primarily through his theoretical studies of the photon . Social
Silk Road
Although the Silk Road was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( 141 -- 87 BCE ) , it was reopened by the Tang Empire in 639 when Hou Junji conquered the Western Regions , and remained open for almost four decades . It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678 , but in 699 , during Empress Wu 's period , the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640 , once again connecting China directly to the West for land - based trade . The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722 , lost it to the Tibetans in 737 , and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo - Korean General Gao Xianzhi .
Warsaw
One of the most famous people born in Warsaw was Maria Skłodowska - Curie , who achieved international recognition for her research on radioactivity and was the first female recipient of the Nobel Prize . Famous musicians include Władysław Szpilman and Frédéric Chopin . Though Chopin was born in the village of Żelazowa Wola , about 60 km ( 37 mi ) from Warsaw , he moved to the city with his family when he was seven months old . Casimir Pulaski , a Polish general and hero of the American Revolutionary War , was born here in 1745 .
Classical period (music)
The best - known composers from this period are Joseph Haydn , Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , Ludwig van Beethoven , and Franz Schubert ; other notable names include Luigi Boccherini , Muzio Clementi , Antonio Salieri , Leopold Mozart , Johann Christian Bach , Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach , and Christoph Willibald Gluck . Ludwig van Beethoven is regarded either as a Romantic composer or a Classical period composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic era . Franz Schubert is also a transitional figure , as were Johann Nepomuk Hummel , Luigi Cherubini , Gaspare Spontini , Gioachino Rossini , and Carl Maria von Weber . The period is sometimes referred to as the era of Viennese Classic or Classicism ( German : Wiener Klassik ) , since Gluck , Mozart , Haydn , Salieri , and Beethoven all worked in Vienna and Schubert was born there .
Factor analysis
Charles Spearman pioneered the use of factor analysis in the field of psychology and is sometimes credited with the invention of factor analysis . He discovered that school children 's scores on a wide variety of seemingly unrelated subjects were positively correlated , which led him to postulate that a general mental ability , or g , underlies and shapes human cognitive performance . His postulate now enjoys broad support in the field of intelligence research , where it is known as the g theory .
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when the Kuomintang Hui Officer Liu Bin - Di was killed while fighting Turkic Uyghur rebels in November 1944 . The Soviet Union supported the Turkic rebels against the Kuomintang , and Kuomintang forces were fighting back .
Chinese marriage
Sororate marriage is a custom in which a man marries his wife 's sister ( s ) . Later it is expanded to include her cousins or females from the same clan . The Chinese name is 妹 媵 ( 妹 = younger sister , 媵 = co-bride / concubinage ) . It can happen at the same time as he marries the first wife , at a later time while the wife is still alive , or after she dies . This practice occurred frequently among the nobility of the Zhou Dynasty ( 1045 BC -- 256 BC ) , with cases occurring at later times .
Analects
According to Ban Gu , writing in the Book of Han , the Analects originated as individual records kept by Confucius 's disciples of conversations between the Master and them , which were then collected and jointly edited by the disciples after Confucius 's death in 479 BC . The work is therefore titled Lunyu meaning `` edited conversations '' or `` selected speeches '' ( i.e. analects ) . This broadly forms the traditional account of the genesis of the work accepted by later generations of scholars , for example the Song dynasty neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi stated that Analects is the records of Confucius 's first - and second - generation pupils . The view however was challenged by Qing dynasty philologist Cui Shu ( 崔 述 , 1740 -- 1816 ) who argued on linguistic ground that the last five books are much later than the rest of the work . Many modern scholars now believe that the work was compiled over a period of around two hundred years , with some questioning the authenticity of some of the sayings . Because no texts of the Analects have been discovered earlier , and because the Analects was not referred to by name in any existing source before the early Han dynasty , some scholars have proposed dates as late as 140 BC for the text 's compilation .
Chinese marriage
Imperial concubines , kept by emperors in the Forbidden City , were traditionally guarded by eunuchs to ensure that they could not be impregnated by anyone but the emperor . Lady Yehenara , otherwise known as Empress Dowager Cixi , was arguably one of the most successful concubines in China 's history . Cixi first entered the court as a concubine to the Xianfeng Emperor and gave birth to an illegitimate male heir , who would become the Tongzhi Emperor . The emperor passed over many legitimate male heirs and named Cixi 's son the crown prince . She would eventually become the de facto ruler of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China for 47 years after her son 's death .
Constellation
A well known map prepared during the Song Period is the Suzhou Astronomical Chart prepared with carvings of most stars on the planisphere of the Chinese Sky on a stone plate ; it is done accurately based on observations and has the supernova of the year of 1054 in Taurus carved on it .
Qing dynasty
In drama , Kong Shangren 's Kunqu opera The Peach Blossom Fan , completed in 1699 , portrayed the tragic downfall of the Ming dynasty in romantic terms . The most prestigious form became the so - called Peking opera , though local and folk opera were also widely popular .
Modern history
After the death of the Meiji Emperor , the Taishō Emperor took the throne , thus beginning the Taishō period . A key foreign observer of the remarkable and rapid changes in Japanese society in this period was Ernest Mason Satow .
Theatre of China
In the Song Dynasty , there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music . These developed in the Yuan Dynasty into a more sophisticated form known as zaju , with a four - or five - act structure . Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms , the best known of which is Beijing Opera , which is still popular today .
Silk Road
The Mongol diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma visited the courts of Europe in 1287 -- 88 and provided a detailed written report to the Mongols . Around the same time , the Venetian explorer Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk Road to China . His tales , documented in The Travels of Marco Polo , opened Western eyes to some of the customs of the Far East . He was not the first to bring back stories , but he was one of the most widely read . He had been preceded by numerous Christian missionaries to the East , such as William of Rubruck , Benedykt Polak , Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , and Andrew of Longjumeau . Later envoys included Odoric of Pordenone , Giovanni de ' Marignolli , John of Montecorvino , Niccolò de ' Conti , and Ibn Battuta , a Moroccan Muslim traveller who passed through the present - day Middle East and across the Silk Road from Tabriz between 1325 -- 54 .