vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Incandescent light bulb
Reflector ( R ) Reflective coating inside the bulb directs light forward . Flood types ( FL ) spread light . Spot types ( SP ) concentrate the light . Reflector ( R ) bulbs put approximately double the amount of light ( foot - candles ) on the front central area as General Service ( A ) of same wattage . Types : Standard reflector ( R ) , elliptical reflector ( ER ) , crown - silvered 120 V sizes : R16 , 20 , 25 and 30 230 V sizes : R50 , 63 , 80 and 95
Sundial
The Benoy Dial was invented by Walter Gordon Benoy of Collingham in Nottinghamshire . Light is used to replace the shadow - edge of a gnomon . Whereas a gnomon casts a sheet of shadow , an equivalent sheet of light can be created by allowing the Sun 's rays through a thin slit , reflecting them from a long , slim mirror ( usually half - cylindrical ) , or focusing them through a cylindrical lens . For illustration , the Benoy Dial uses a cylindrical lens to create a sheet of light , which falls as a line on the dial surface . Benoy dials can be seen throughout Great Britain , such as
Tropical cyclone
The movement of a tropical cyclone ( i.e. its `` track '' ) is typically approximated as the sum of two terms : `` steering '' by the background environmental wind and `` beta drift '' .
Great Pacific garbage patch
Plastic pollution in the form of small particles ( diameter less than 5 mm ) -- termed `` microplastic '' -- has been observed in many parts of the world ocean . They are known to interact with biota on the individual level , e.g. through ingestion , but their population - level impacts are largely unknown . One potential mechanism for microplastic - induced alteration of pelagic ecosystems is through the introduction of hard - substrate habitat to ecosystems where it is naturally rare . Here , we show that microplastic concentrations in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre ( NPSG ) have increased by two orders of magnitude in the past four decades , and that this increase has released the pelagic insect Halobates sericeus from substrate limitation for oviposition . High concentrations of microplastic in the NPSG resulted in a positive correlation between H. sericeus and microplastic , and an overall increase in H. sericeus egg densities . Predation on H. sericeus eggs and recent hatchlings may facilitate the transfer of energy between pelagic - and substrate - associated assemblages . The dynamics of hard - substrate - associated organisms may be important to understanding the ecological impacts of oceanic microplastic pollution .
Great Pacific garbage patch
Net - based surveys are less subjective than direct observations but are limited regarding the area that can be sampled ( net apertures 1 -- 2 m and ships typically have to slow down to deploy nets , requiring dedicated ship 's time ) . The plastic debris sampled is determined by net mesh size , with similar mesh sizes required to make meaningful comparisons among studies . Floating debris typically is sampled with a neuston or manta trawl net lined with 0.33 mm mesh . Given the very high level of spatial clumping in marine litter , large numbers of net tows are required to adequately characterize the average abundance of litter at sea . Long - term changes in plastic meso - litter have been reported using surface net tows : in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre in 1999 , plastic abundance was 335,000 items / km and 5.1 kg / km , roughly an order of magnitude greater than samples collected in the 1980s . Similar dramatic increases in plastic debris have been reported off Japan . However , caution is needed in interpreting such findings , because of the problems of extreme spatial heterogeneity , and the need to compare samples from equivalent water masses , which is to say that , if an examination of the same parcel of water a week apart is conducted , an order of magnitude change in plastic concentration could be observed .
Telephone exchange
On March 10 , 1891 , Almon Brown Strowger , an undertaker in Kansas City , Missouri , patented the stepping switch , a device which led to the automation of telephone circuit switching . While there were many extensions and adaptations of this initial patent , the one best known consists of 10 levels or banks , each having 10 contacts arranged in a semicircle . When used with a rotary telephone dial , each pair of digits caused the shaft of the central contact `` hand '' of the stepping switch to first step ( ratchet ) up one level for each pulse in the first digit and then to swing horizontally in a contact row with one small rotation for each pulse in the next digit .
Lead poisoning
Collecting rainwater from roof runoff used as potable water may contain lead if there are lead contaminants on the roof or in the storage tank . The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines allow a maximum of . 01 mg / L lead in water .
Cnidaria
Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries . Reefs are an important food source for low - technology fishing , both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas . However , despite their great productivity , reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing , because much of the organic carbon they produce is exhaled as carbon dioxide by organisms at the middle levels of the food chain and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen . Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands , attracting photographers , divers and sports fishermen . However , human activities damage reefs in several ways : mining for construction materials ; pollution , including large influxes of fresh water from storm drains ; commercial fishing , including the use of dynamite to stun fish and the capture of young fish for aquariums ; and tourist damage caused by boat anchors and the cumulative effect of walking on the reefs . Coral , mainly from the Pacific Ocean has long been used in jewellery , and demand rose sharply in the 1980s . The
Great Pacific garbage patch
There is no strong scientific data concerning the origins of pelagic plastics . In a study published in 2014 , researchers sampled 1571 locations throughout the worlds oceans , and determined that discarded fishing gear such as buoys , lines , and nets accounted for more than 60 % of the mass of plastic marine debris . According to a 2011 EPA report , `` The primary source of marine debris is the improper waste disposal or management of trash and manufacturing products , including plastics ( e.g. , littering , illegal dumping ) ... Debris is generated on land at marinas , ports , rivers , harbors , docks , and storm drains . Debris is generated at sea from fishing vessels , stationary platforms , and cargo ships . '' Pollutants range in size from abandoned fishing nets to micro-pellets used in cosmetics and abrasive cleaners . Currents carry debris from the west coast of North America to the gyre in about six years , and debris from the east coast of Asia in a year or less .
Great Pacific garbage patch
The patch is characterized by exceptionally high relative pelagic concentrations of plastic , chemical sludge , and other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre . Despite the common public image of islands of floating rubbish , its low density ( 4 particles per cubic meter ) prevents detection by satellite imagery , or even by casual boaters or divers in the area . It consists primarily of an increase in suspended , often microscopic , particles in the upper water column .
Great Pacific garbage patch
There has been some controversy surrounding the use of the term `` garbage patch '' and photos taken off the coast of Manila in the Philippines in attempts to portray the patch in the media often misrepresenting the true scope of the problem and what could be done to solve it . Angelicque White , Associate Professor at Oregon State University , who has studied the `` garbage patch '' in depth , warns that `` the use of the phrase ' garbage patch ' is misleading ... It is not visible from space ; there are no islands of trash ; it is more akin to a diffuse soup of plastic floating in our oceans . '' In the article Dr. White and Professor Tamara Galloway , from the University of Exeter , call for regulation and cleanup and state that the focus should be on stemming the flow of plastic into the ocean from coastal sources .
Great Pacific garbage patch
In August 2009 , the Scripps Institution of Oceanography / Project Kaisei SEAPLEX survey mission of the Gyre found that plastic debris was present in 100 consecutive samples taken at varying depths and net sizes along a path of 1,700 miles ( 2,700 km ) through the patch . The survey also confirmed that , although the debris field does contain large pieces , it is on the whole made up of smaller items that increase in concentration toward the gyre 's centre , and these ' confetti - like ' pieces are clearly visible just beneath the surface . Although many media and advocacy reports have suggested that the patch extends over an area larger than the continental U.S. , recent research sponsored by the National Science Foundation suggests the affected area may be much smaller . Recent data collected from Pacific albatross populations suggest there may be two distinct zones of concentrated debris in the Pacific .
Great Pacific garbage patch
Animals can also become trapped in plastic nets and rings , which can cause death . Sea turtles are most affected by this .
Atlantic Ocean
Marine debris , which is also known as marine litter , describes human - created waste floating in a body of water . Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines , frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter . See
Lead poisoning
Thirty years ago , Jerome Nriagu argued in a milestone paper that Roman civilization collapsed as a result of lead poisoning . Clair Patterson , the scientist who convinced governments to ban lead from gasoline , enthusiastically endorsed this idea , which nevertheless triggered a volley of publications aimed at refuting it . Although today lead is no longer seen as the prime culprit of Rome 's demise , its status in the system of water distribution by lead pipes ( fistulæ ) still stands as a major public health issue . By measuring Pb isotope compositions of sediments from the Tiber River and the Trajanic Harbor , the present work shows that `` tap water '' from ancient Rome had 100 times more lead than local spring waters .
Great Pacific garbage patch
In 2016 , plans are in the concept stage to create floating Oceanscrapers , made from the plastic found in the Great Pacific garbage patch . Early 2018 , The Ocean Cleanup started the assembly of their first cleanup system , to be deployed in the Great Pacific garbage patch mid-2018 .
Artificial turf
Both the rubber granules ( often made from recycled waste tires ) and the synthetic fibres of artificial turf are subject to wear and can be washed into the environment . Second only to tire and road wear particles ( TRWP ) that make up a large portion of the fine road debris , the rubber granulate from artificial turf infill constitutes a significant source of rubber pollution . Fragments from the artificial reeds make their way into the environment as microplastics pollution in both marine as well as soil environments .
Great Pacific garbage patch
Current research from Scientific Reports volume 8 , Article number : 4666 shows that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic . They surveyed buoyant ocean plastic with multiple vessels in July through September 2015 and aerial surveys in 2016 . They are quoted `` Our model , calibrated with data from multi-vessel and aircraft surveys , predicted at least 79 ( 45 -- 129 ) thousand tonnes of ocean plastic are floating inside an area of 1.6 million km2 ; a figure four to sixteen times higher than previously reported . ''
Great Pacific garbage patch
Another recent Australian study focused on seafloor plastic pollution . The researchers from the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies at the University of Tasmania stated , `` while the huge volume of plastic debris accumulating in the world 's oceans and on beaches has received global attention , the amount of plastic accumulating on the seafloor is relatively unknown . ''
St. Johns River
The State of Florida implemented a program named Surface Water Improvement and Management ( SWIM ) in 1987 to assist with river cleanups , particularly with nonpoint source pollution , or chemicals that enter the river by soaking into the ground , as opposed to direct piped dumping . SWIM assists local jurisdictions with purchasing land for wetlands restoration . The St. Johns River Water Management District ( SJRWMD ) is charged by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ( DEP ) with restoring the river . The first step in restoration , particularly in the upper basin , is the purchase of public lands bordering the river ; ten different reserves and conservation areas have been implemented for such use around the St. Johns headwaters . Around Lake Griffin in the Ocklawaha Chain of Lakes , the SJRWMD has purchased 6,500 acres ( 26 km ) of land that was previously used for muck farming . More than 19,000 acres ( 77 km ) have been purchased along Lake Apopka to restore its wetlands , and the SJRWMD has removed nearly 15,000,000 pounds ( 6,800,000 kg ) of gizzard shad ( Dorosoma cepedianum ) , a fish species that stores phosphorus and adds to algae problems . The SJRWMD has also set minimum levels for the lakes and tributaries in the St. Johns watersheds to monitor permitted water withdrawals and declare water shortages when necessary .
Great Pacific garbage patch
The Great Pacific garbage patch has one of the highest levels known of plastic particulates suspended in the upper water column . As a result , it is one of several oceanic regions where researchers have studied the effects and impact of plastic photodegradation in the neustonic layer of water . Unlike organic debris , which biodegrades , the photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever smaller pieces while remaining a polymer . This process continues down to the molecular level . As the plastic flotsam photodegrades into smaller and smaller pieces , it concentrates in the upper water column . As it disintegrates , the plastic ultimately becomes small enough to be ingested by aquatic organisms that reside near the ocean 's surface . In this way , plastic may become concentrated in neuston , thereby entering the food chain .
Great Pacific garbage patch
Marine plastics also facilitate the spread of invasive species that attach to floating plastic in one region and drift long distances to colonize other ecosystems . Research has shown that this plastic marine debris affects at least 267 species worldwide .
Recycling
In a commingled or single - stream system , all recyclables for collection are mixed but kept separate from other waste . This greatly reduces the need for post-collection cleaning but does require public education on what materials are recyclable .
Great Pacific garbage patch
A similar patch of floating plastic debris is found in the Atlantic Ocean , called the North Atlantic garbage patch .
Zebra mussel
However , zebra mussels and other non-native species are credited with the increased population and size of smallmouth bass in Lake Erie and yellow perch in Lake St. Clair . They cleanse the waters of inland lakes , resulting in increased sunlight penetration and growth of native algae at greater depths . This cleansing also increases water visibility and filters out pollutants . Each quagga and zebra mussel filters about 1 US quart ( 0.95 L ) of water a day when confined to small tanks . In lakes , their filtering effects are usually spatially restricted ( near the lake bottom ) due to nonhomogeneous water column mixing .
Zebra mussel
Since their colonization of the Great Lakes , they have covered the undersides of docks , boats , and anchors . They have also spread into streams and rivers throughout the US . In some areas they completely cover the substrate , sometimes covering other freshwater mussels . They can grow so densely that they block pipelines , clogging water intakes of municipal water supplies and hydroelectric companies . Zebra mussels do not attach to cupronickel alloys , which can be used to coat intake and discharge grates , navigational buoys , boats , and motors where the species tends to congregate .
Long Island Sound
Long Island Sounds ecosystem has historically undergone negative impacts by a number of different sources delivering contaminates such as toxic substances like heavy metals ( a specific example includes mercury influx from the hatting industry in Danbury , Connecticut . ) , pathogens , debris , man - made pollution and fertilizers ( like nitrogen and phosphorus ) . Sources of contamination to the Sound consist of street run off from developed areas , waste water treatment plant effluent , and industries located within the watershed .
Wetland
Although wetlands act as natural buffers towards nutrients expelled from surrounding watersheds , excess nutrients mainly through anthropogenic sources have been shown to significantly increase the N O fluxes from their soils through denitrification and nitrification processes ( see table below ) . Anthropogenic sources of nutrients into waterways have increased substantially causing eutrophication especially in coastal systems . The main sources of coastal eutrophication are industrially made nitrogen , which is used as fertilizer in agricultural practices , as well as septic waste runoff . Nitrogen is the limiting nutrient for photosynthetic processes in saline systems , however in excess , it can lead to an overproduction of organic matter that then leads to hypoxic and anoxic zones within the water column . Without oxygen , other organisms can not survive , including economically important finfish and shellfish species . A study in the intertidal region of a New England salt marsh showed that excess levels of nutrients might increase N O emissions rather than sequester them .
Great Pacific garbage patch
While `` Great Pacific Garbage Patch '' is a term often used by the media , it does not paint an accurate picture of the marine debris problem in the North Pacific Ocean . The name `` Pacific Garbage Patch '' has led many to believe that this area is a large and continuous patch of easily visible marine debris items such as bottles and other litter -- akin to a literal island of trash that should be visible with satellite or aerial photographs . This is not the case . --
Great Pacific garbage patch
In April 2008 , Richard Sundance Owen , a building contractor and scuba dive instructor , formed the Environmental Cleanup Coalition ( ECC ) to address the issue of North Pacific pollution . ECC collaborates with other groups to identify methods to safely remove plastic and persistent organic pollutants from the oceans . The JUNK Raft Project was a trans - Pacific sailing voyage from June to August 2008 made to highlight the plastic in the patch , organized by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation .
Oyster
Bivalves , including oysters , are effective filter feeders and can have large effects on the water columns in which they occur . As filter feeders , oysters remove plankton and organic particles from the water column . Multiple studies have shown individual oysters are capable of filtering up to 50 gallons of water per day , and thus oyster reefs can significantly improve water quality and clarity . Oysters consume nitrogen - containing compounds ( nitrates and ammonia ) , phosphates , plankton , detritus , bacteria , and dissolved organic matter , removing them from the water . What is not used for animal growth is then expelled as solid waste pellets , which eventually decompose into the atmosphere as nitrogen . In Maryland , the Chesapeake Bay Program plans to use oysters to reduce the amount of nitrogen compounds entering the Chesapeake Bay by 8,600 t ( 19,000,000 lb ) per year by 2010 . Several studies have shown that oysters and mussels have the capacity to dramatically alter nitrogen levels in estuaries . In the U.S. , Delaware is the only East Coast state without aquaculture , but making aquaculture a state - controlled industry of leasing water by the acre for commercial harvesting of shellfish is being considered . Supporters of Delaware 's legislation to allow oyster aquaculture cite revenue , job creation , and nutrient cycling benefits . It is estimated that one acre can produce nearly 750,000 oysters , which could filter between 57,000 to 150,000 m ( 15,000,000 to 40,000,000 US gal ) of water daily . Also see nutrient pollution for an extended explanation of nutrient remediation .
Zebra mussel
Lake floor food supplies are enriched by zebra mussels as they filter pollution out of the water . This biomass becomes available to bottom - feeding species and to the fish that feed on them . The catch of yellow perch increased 5 fold after the invasion of zebra mussels into Lake St. Clair .
Recycling
For a recycling program to work , having a large , stable supply of recyclable material is crucial . Three legislative options have been used to create such a supply : mandatory recycling collection , container deposit legislation , and refuse bans . Mandatory collection laws set recycling targets for cities to aim for , usually in the form that a certain percentage of a material must be diverted from the city 's waste stream by a target date . The city is then responsible for working to meet this target .
Environmental issues in Delhi
The Supreme Court of India took up the issue in 1994 after reports in the press , and since 2001 is actively monitoring the river and the city 's efforts to clean it ; in 2011 , the national government announced a Rs 1,357 crore drain interceptor plan ( all waste water is to be cleaned before it reaches the river ) that would clean up the river by 2014 .
Loggerhead sea turtle
Nearly 24,000 metric tons of plastic are dumped into the ocean each year . Turtles ingest a wide array of this floating debris , including bags , sheets , pellets , balloons and abandoned fishing line . Loggerheads may mistake the floating plastic for jellyfish , a common food item . The ingested plastic causes numerous health concerns , including intestinal blockage , reduced nutrient absorption and malnutrition , suffocation , ulcerations , or starvation . Ingested plastics release toxic compounds , including polychlorinated biphenyls , which may accumulate in internal tissues . Such toxins may lead to a thinning of eggshells , tissue damage , or deviation from natural behaviors .
Barn swallow
The barn swallow drinks by skimming low over lakes or rivers and scooping up water with its open mouth . This bird bathes in a similar fashion , dipping into the water for an instant while in flight .
Long Island Sound
Starting in the 1990s , Connecticut and federal Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) officials created no - dumping areas in which commercial or recreational boat users were prohibited from releasing untreated sewage into the Sound near the coastline . In 2007 state and federal officials announced the ban had extended to the entire Connecticut coast and applied to both treated and untreated sewage . New Hampshire and Maine have similar bans , but Massachusetts , Maine and New York do not ( all are with int the contributing watersheds ) . From the 1990s to 2007 , the number of pumping stations for boat sewage tripled to 90 at marinas up and down the coast . Violators may be charged with a state misdemeanor and face $250 fines , or a federal civil penalty , with fines of up to $2,000 .