vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
Some scholars employ the idea that identity is fluid and constructed , especially national identity of modern nation - states , to argue that the post-colonial countries have no real claims to the artifacts plundered from their borders since their cultural connections to the artifacts are indirect and equivocal . This argument asserts that artifacts should be viewed as universal cultural property and should not be divided among artificially created nation - states . Moreover , that encyclopedic museums are a testament to diversity , tolerance and the appreciation of many cultures . Other scholars would argue that this reasoning is a continuation of colonialist discourse attempting to appropriate the ancient art of colonized states and incorporate it into the narrative of Western history .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
^ Miller , Edward . The Sun . Academic Press , 2005 , p. 1 . ^ Smith , John . The Sun 's Heat . Academic Press , 2005 , p. 2 .
Medieval theatre
Due to a lack of surviving records and texts , a low literacy rate of the general population , and the opposition of the clergy to some types of performance , there are few surviving sources on Medieval drama of the Early and High Medieval periods . However , by the late period , drama and theatre began to become more secularized and a larger number of records survive documenting plays and performances .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Listed below is the information that a typical inline citation or general reference will provide , though other details may be added as necessary . This information is included in order to identify the source , assist readers in finding it , and ( in the case of inline citations ) indicate the place in the source where the information is to be found . ( If an article uses parenthetical referencing or short citations , then the inline citations will refer to this information in abbreviated form , as described in the relevant sections above . )
Acts of the Apostles
There are two major textual variants of Acts , the Western text - type and the Alexandrian . The oldest complete Alexandrian manuscripts date from the 4th century and the oldest Western ones from the 6th , with fragments and citations going back to the 3rd . Western texts of Acts are 6.2 -- 8.4 % longer than Alexandrian texts , the additions tending to enhance the Jewish rejection of the Messiah and the role of the Holy Spirit , in ways that are stylistically different from the rest of Acts . These conflicts suggest that Acts was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century . The majority of scholars prefer the Alexandrian ( shorter ) text - type over the Western as the more authentic , but this same argument would favour the Western over the Alexandrian for the Gospel of Luke , as in that case the , Western version is the shorter . The debate therefore continues .
Maya civilization
These complexes were usually located in the site core , beside a principal plaza . Maya palaces consisted of a platform supporting a multiroom range structure . The term acropolis , in a Maya context , refers to a complex of structures built upon platforms of varying height . Palaces and acropoleis were essentially elite residential compounds . They generally extended horizontally as opposed to the towering Maya pyramids , and often had restricted access . Some structures in Maya acropoleis supported roof combs . Rooms often had stone benches , used for sleeping , and holes indicate where curtains once hung . Large palaces , such as at Palenque , could be fitted with a water supply , and sweat baths were often found within the complex , or nearby . During the Early Classic , rulers were sometimes buried underneath the acropolis complex . Some rooms in palaces were true throne rooms ; in the royal palace of Palenque there were a number of throne rooms that were used for important events , including the inauguration of new kings .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
Inline citations allow the reader to associate a given bit of material in an article with the specific reliable source ( s ) that support it . Inline citations are added using either footnotes ( long or short ) or parenthetical references . This section describes how to add either type , and also describes how to create a list of full bibliography citations to support shortened footnotes or parenthetical references .
Historian
Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities , archival centers , government agencies , museums , and as freelance writers and consultants . The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse , with many relegated to part - time `` adjunct '' teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits .
Maya civilization
A sajal was ranked below the ajaw , and indicated a subservient lord . A sajal would be lord of a second - or third - tier site , answering to an ajaw , who may himself have been subservient to a kalomte . A sajal would often be a war captain or regional governor , and inscriptions often link the sajal title to warfare ; they are often mentioned as the holders of war captives . Sajal meant `` feared one '' . The titles of ah tz'ihb and ah ch'ul hun are both related to scribes . The ah tz'ihb was a royal scribe , usually a member of the royal family ; the ah ch'ul hun was the Keeper of the Holy Books , a title that is closely associated with the ajaw title , indicating that an ajaw always held the ah ch'ul hun title simultaneously . Other courtly titles , the functions of which are not well understood , were yajaw k'ahk ' ( `` Lord of Fire '' ) , ti'huun and ti'sakhuun . These last two may be variations on the same title , and Mark Zender has suggested that the holder of this title may have been the spokesman for the ruler . Courtly titles are overwhelmingly male - oriented , and in those relatively rare occasions where they are applied to a woman , they appear to be used as honorifics for female royalty . Titled elites were often associated with particular structures in the hieroglyphic inscriptions of Classic period cities , indicating that such office holders either owned that structure , or that the structure was an important focus for their activities . A lakam was possibly the only non-elite post-holder in the royal court . The lakam was only found in larger sites , and they appear to have been responsible for the taxation of local districts .
Lectionary
Those churches ( Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic ) which follow the Rite of Constantinople , provide an epistle and Gospel reading for most days of the year , to be read at the Divine Liturgy ; however , during Great Lent there is no celebration of the liturgy on weekdays ( Monday through Friday ) , so no epistle and Gospel are appointed for those days . As a historical note , the Greek lectionaries are a primary source for the Byzantine text - type used in the scholarly field of textual criticism . Epistle
Maya civilization
The Spanish conquest stripped away most of the defining features of Maya civilization . However , many Maya villages remained remote from Spanish colonial authority , and for the most part continued to manage their own affairs . Maya communities and the nuclear family maintained their traditional day - to - day life . The basic Mesoamerican diet of maize and beans continued , although agricultural output was improved by the introduction of steel tools . Traditional crafts such as weaving , ceramics , and basketry continued to be practised . Community markets and trade in local products continued long after the conquest . At times , the colonial administration encouraged the traditional economy in order to extract tribute in the form of ceramics or cotton textiles , although these were usually made to European specifications . Maya beliefs and language proved resistant to change , despite vigorous efforts by Catholic missionaries . The 260 - day tzolk'in ritual calendar continues in use in modern Maya communities in the highlands of Guatemala and Chiapas , and millions of Mayan - language speakers inhabit the territory in which their ancestors developed their civilization .
Ancient Greek architecture
There is a clear division between the architecture of the preceding Mycenaean culture and Minoan cultures and that of the ancient Greeks , the techniques and an understanding of their style being lost when these civilisations fell .
Evidence of common descent
A succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil discoveries . By studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different stratigraphic levels , it has been shown that older fossil - bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms , and they all have a simpler structure , whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils , often with increasingly complex structures .
Celts
To the extent that sources are available , they depict a pre-Christian Iron Age Celtic social structure based formally on class and kingship , although this may only have been a particular late phase of organization in Celtic societies . Patron - client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the 1st century BC .
History of chemistry
These first metals were single ones or as found . By combining copper and tin , a superior metal could be made , an alloy called bronze , a major technological shift which began the Bronze Age about 3500 BC . The Bronze Age was period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking ( at least in systematic and widespread use ) included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcroppings of copper ores , and then smelting those ores to cast bronze . These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity . Copper / tin ores are rare , as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in western Asia before 3000 BC .
Colonies in antiquity
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Wikipedia:Citing sources
In some instances , the verso of a book may record , `` Reprinted with corrections XXXX '' or similar , where ' XXXX ' is a year . This is a different version of a book in the same way that different editions are different versions . In such a case , record : the year of the particular reprint , the edition immediately prior to this particular reprint ( if not the first edition ) and a note to say `` Reprint with corrections '' . If ( ( cite ) ) ( or similar ) is being used , the notation , `` Reprint with corrections '' , can be added immediately following the template . Reprints of older publications gives an example of appending a similar textual note . Journal
First Nations
North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years . Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events , such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700 and the 18th century Tseax Cone eruption . Written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery , beginning in the late 15th century . European accounts by trappers , traders , explorers , and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture . In addition , archeological and anthropological research , as well as linguistics , have helped scholars piece together an understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples .
Elgin Marbles
A range of different arguments have been presented by scholars , political leaders and British Museum spokespersons over the years in defence of retention of the Elgin Marbles by the British Museum . The main points include :
Moose
Libralces existed until the middle Pleistocene epoch and were followed briefly by a species called Cervalces carnutorum . The main differences between the two consisted of shortening of the horizontal bar in the antlers and broadening of the palmations , indicating a likely change from open plains to more forested environments , and skeletal changes that suggest an adaptation to marshy environments .
Sociology
Post-structuralist thought has tended to reject ' humanist ' assumptions in the conduct of social theory . Michel Foucault provides a potent critique in his Archaeology of the Human Sciences , though Habermas and Rorty have both argued that Foucault merely replaces one such system of thought with another . The dialogue between these intellectuals highlights a trend in recent years for certain schools of sociology and philosophy to intersect . The anti-humanist position has been associated with `` postmodernism '' , a term used in specific contexts to describe an era or phenomena , but occasionally construed as a method .
Origin of language
Anatomically modern humans begin to appear in the fossil record in Ethiopia some 200,000 years ago . Although there is still much debate as to whether behavioural modernity emerged in Africa at around the same time , a growing number of archaeologists nowadays invoke the southern African Middle Stone Age use of red ochre pigments -- for example at Blombos Cave -- as evidence that modern anatomy and behaviour co-evolved . These archaeologists argue strongly that if modern humans at this early stage were using red ochre pigments for ritual and symbolic purposes , they probably had symbolic language as well .
Cradle of civilization
The earliest evidence of agriculture in the Andean region dates to around 4700 BC at Huaca Prieta and Paredones . The oldest evidence of canal irrigation in South America dates to 4700 to 2500 BC in the Zaña Valley of northern Peru . The earliest urban settlements of the Andes , as well as North and South America , are dated to 3500 BC at Huaricanga , in the Fortaleza area , and Sechin Bajo near the Sechin River .
Murti
The earliest mention of the term Murti occurs in primary Upanishads composed in the 1st millennium BCE , particularly in verse 3.2 of Aitareya Upanishad , verse 1.13 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad , verse 6.14 of Maitrayaniya Upanishad and verse 1.5 of Prashna Upanishad . For example , the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the term to mean a `` form , manifestation of time '' . The section sets out to prove Time exists , acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana ( epistemology in Indian philosophy ) , then inserts a theory of inductive inference for epistemological proof as follows ,
Emperor of Japan
Archaeological information about the earliest historical rulers of Japan may lie within the ancient tombs known as kofun , constructed between the early 3rd century and the early 7th century AD . However , since the Meiji period , the Imperial Household Agency has refused to open the kofun to the public nor to archaeologists , citing their desire not to disturb the spirits of the past Emperors . In December 2006 , the Imperial Household Agency reversed its position and decided to allow researchers to enter some of the kofun with no restrictions .
Mycenaean Greece
The Mycenaean economy , given its pre-monetary nature , was focused on the redistribution of goods , commodities and labor by a central administration . The preserved Linear B records in Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring a variety of industries and commodities , the organization of land management and the rations given to the dependent personnel . The Mycenaean palaces maintained extensive control of the nondomestic areas of production through careful control and acquisition and distribution in the palace industries , and the tallying of produced goods . For instance , the Knossos tablets record c. 80,000 - 100,000 sheep grazing in central Crete , and the quantity of the expected wool from these sheep and their offspring , as well as how this wool was allocated . The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce , where each worker belonged to a precise category and was assigned to a specific task in the stages of production , notably in textiles .
History of Mexico
Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico , containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas . Apart from the pyramidal structures , Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes , the Avenue of the Dead , and numerous colorful , well - preserved murals . Additionally , Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica . Teotihuacan
Lake District
With its wealth of rock types and their abundance in the landscape , mining and quarrying have long been significant activities in the Lake District economy . In Neolithic times , the Lake District was a major source of stone axes , examples of which have been found all over Britain . The primary site , on the slopes of the Langdale Pikes , is sometimes described as a `` stone axe factory '' of the Langdale axe industry . Some of the earliest stone circles in Britain are connected with this industry .
Mesopotamia
The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC . The most extensive Babylonian medical text , however , is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū , or chief scholar , Esagil - kin - apli of Borsippa , during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad - apla - iddina ( 1069 - 1046 BC ) .
Sahara
By 6000 BCE predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings . Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture : cattle , goats , pigs and sheep . Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone . Tanning of animal skins , pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also . There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BCE , with food activities centering on fishing , hunting and food - gathering . Stone arrowheads , knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found . Burial items included pottery , jewelry , farming and hunting equipment , and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit . Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites , and the dead were buried facing due west .
Parthenon
One difficulty in dating the proto - Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed ; the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuable information . An attempt to discuss and make sense of the potsherds found on the Acropolis came with the two - volume study by Graef and Langlotz published in 1925 -- 33 . This inspired American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to attempt to supply limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis . Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier than 495 BC , contradicting the early date given by Dörpfeld . Further , Dinsmoor denied that there were two proto - Parthenons , and held that the only pre-Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II . Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the American Journal of Archaeology in 1935 .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
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Pottery of ancient Greece
In recent decades many scholars have questioned the conventional relationship between the two materials , seeing much more production of painted vases than was formerly thought as made to be placed in graves , as a cheaper substitute for metalware in both Greece and Etruria . The painting itself may also copy that on metal vessels more closely than was thought .
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an edit that does not imply that the new material is sourced by the same reference is
Origin of language
Because the emergence of language lies so far back in human prehistory , the relevant developments have left no direct historical traces ; neither can comparable processes be observed today . Despite this , the emergence of new sign languages in modern times -- Nicaraguan Sign Language , for example -- may potentially offer insights into the developmental stages and creative processes necessarily involved . Another approach inspects early human fossils , looking for traces of physical adaptation to language use . In some cases , when the DNA of extinct humans can be recovered , the presence or absence of genes considered to be language - relevant -- FOXP2 , for example -- may prove informative . Another approach , this time archaeological , involves invoking symbolic behavior ( such as repeated ritual activity ) that may leave an archaeological trace -- such as mining and modifying ochre pigments for body - painting -- while developing theoretical arguments to justify inferences from symbolism in general to language in particular .
North Africa
While Egypt and Sudan due to the early civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Nubia entered historicity by the Bronze Age , the Maghreb remained in the prehistoric period longer . Some Phoenician and Greek colonies were established along the Mediterranean coast during the 7th century BC .
Mesolithic
The first period , known as Mesolithic 1 ( Kebarian culture ; from 20,000 -- 18,000 BCE until 12,150 BCE ) , followed the Aurignacian or Levantine Upper Paleolithic periods throughout the Levant . By the end of the Aurignacian , gradual changes took place in stone industries . Small stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time . The microliths of this culture period differ greatly from the Aurignacian artifacts . This period is more properly called Epipaleolithic .
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