vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Carbon dioxide
Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism , low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing . Rather , breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels . As a result , breathing low - pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all ( such as pure nitrogen ) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger . This is especially perilous for high - altitude fighter pilots . It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers , in case of loss of cabin pressure , to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others ; otherwise , one risks losing consciousness .
Respiratory system
A further minor complication exists at altitude . If the volume of the lungs were to be instantaneously doubled at the beginning of inhalation , the air pressure inside the lungs would be halved . This happens regardless of altitude . Thus , halving of the sea level air pressure ( 100 kPa ) results in an intrapulmonary air pressure of 50 kPa . Doing the same at 5500 m , where the atmospheric pressure is only 50 kPa , the intrapulmonary air pressure falls to 25 kPa . Therefore , the same change in lung volume at sea level results in a 50 kPa difference in pressure between the ambient air and the intrapulmonary air , whereas it result in a difference of only 25 kPa at 5500 m . The driving pressure forcing air into the lungs during inhalation is therefore halved at this altitude . The rate of inflow of air into the lungs during inhalation at sea level is therefore twice that which occurs at 5500 m . However , in reality , inhalation and exhalation occur far more gently and less abruptly than in the example given . The differences between the atmospheric and intrapulmonary pressures , driving air in and out of the lungs during the breathing cycle , are in the region of only 2 -- 3 kPa . A doubling or more of these small pressure differences could be achieved by only very minor adjustments to the breathing effort at high altitudes .
MAP sensor
Condition 1 : An engine operating at wide open throttle ( WOT ) on top of a very high mountain has a manifold pressure of about 50 kPa ( essentially equal to the barometer at that high altitude ) . Condition 2 : The same engine at sea level will achieve 50 kPa ( 7.25 psi , 14.7 inHG ) of manifold pressure at less than WOT due to the higher barometric pressure .
Soil respiration
Open systems are also not as sensitive to soil structure variation , or to boundary layer resistance issues at the soil surface . Air flow in the chamber at the soil surface , is designed to minimize boundary layer resistance phenomenon .
Space Race
In 1967 , both nations faced serious challenges that brought their programs to temporary halts . Both had been rushing at full - speed toward the first piloted flights of Apollo and Soyuz , without paying due diligence to growing design and manufacturing problems . The results proved fatal to both pioneering crews . Charred
Mount Everest
Journalist Jon Krakauer , on assignment from Outside magazine , was in one of the affected parties , and afterwards published the bestseller Into Thin Air , which related his experience . Anatoli Boukreev , a guide who felt impugned by Krakauer 's book , co-authored a rebuttal book called The Climb . The dispute sparked a debate within the climbing community .
Global Positioning System
Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition . Vendor interpretations differ . The rule refers to operation at both the target altitude and speed , but some receivers stop operating even when stationary . This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach 30 km ( 100,000 feet ) .
Copy editing
The nearly universal adoption of computerized systems for editing and layout in newspapers and magazines has also led copy editors to become more involved in design and the technicalities of production . Technical knowledge is therefore sometimes considered as important as writing ability , though this is truer in journalism than it is in book publishing . Hank Glamann , co-founder of the American Copy Editors Society , made the following observation about ads for copy editor positions at American newspapers :
Civil–military relations
Huntington 's answer to the control dilemma was `` objective civilian control . '' This was in contrast to `` subjective control , '' in which direction would be more intrusive and detailed . To put it simply , the more `` objective civilian control , '' the more military security . Civilian control , then , is the independent variable for the subsequent dependent variable of military effectiveness .
History of photography
Scheele also noted that red light did not have much effect on silver chloride ( a feature that would later be applied to be able to see while printing black and white photographs in darkrooms ) .
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption
Studies comparing intermittent and continuous exercise consistently show a greater EPOC response for higher intensity , intermittent exercise .
Mass versus weight
Objects on the surface of the Earth have weight , although sometimes this weight is difficult to measure . An example is a small object floating in water , which does not appear to have weight since it is buoyed by the water ; but it is found to have its usual weight when it is added to water in a container which is entirely supported by and weighed on a scale . Thus , the `` weightless object '' floating in water actually transfers its weight to the bottom of the container ( where the pressure increases ) . Similarly , a balloon has mass but may appear to have no weight or even negative weight , due to buoyancy in air . However the weight of the balloon and the gas inside it has merely been transferred to a large area of the Earth 's surface , making the weight difficult to measure . The weight of a flying airplane is similarly distributed to the ground , but does not disappear . If the airplane is in level flight , the same weight - force is distributed to the surface of the Earth as when the plane was on the runway , but spread over a larger area .
History of photography
Talbot 's early silver chloride `` sensitive paper '' experiments required camera exposures of an hour or more . In 1841 , Talbot invented the calotype process , which , like Daguerre 's process , used the principle of chemical development of a faint or invisible `` latent '' image to reduce the exposure time to a few minutes . Paper with a coating of silver iodide was exposed in the camera and developed into a translucent negative image . Unlike a daguerreotype , which could only be copied by rephotographing it with a camera , a calotype negative could be used to make a large number of positive prints by simple contact printing . The calotype had yet another distinction compared to other early photographic processes , in that the finished product lacked fine clarity due to its translucent paper negative . This was seen as a positive attribute for portraits because it softened the appearance of the human face . Talbot patented this process , which greatly limited its adoption , and spent many years pressing lawsuits against alleged infringers . He attempted to enforce a very broad interpretation of his patent , earning himself the ill will of photographers who were using the related glass - based processes later introduced by other inventors , but he was eventually defeated . Nonetheless , Talbot 's developed - out silver halide negative process is the basic technology used by chemical film cameras today . Hippolyte Bayard had also developed a method of photography but delayed announcing it , and so was not recognized as its inventor .
Copy editing
Each medium ( in print and on screen ) has its own affordances , and although a copyeditor may prefer one editing process over the other , copyeditors are practically required to use both techniques .
Sound barrier
In 1942 , the United Kingdom 's Ministry of Aviation began a top - secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world 's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier . The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M. 52 turbojet powered aircraft , which was designed to reach 1,000 mph ( 417 m / s ; 1,600 km / h ) ( over twice the existing speed record ) in level flight , and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft ( 11 km ) in 1 minute 30 sec .
Communications satellite
In addition , there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions .
New Deal
The FSA photography project is most responsible for creating the image of the Depression in the U.S. Many of the images appeared in popular magazines . The photographers were under instruction from Washington as to what overall impression the New Deal wanted to give out . Director Roy Stryker 's agenda focused on his faith in social engineering , the poor conditions among cotton tenant farmers and the very poor conditions among migrant farm workers -- above all he was committed to social reform through New Deal intervention in people 's lives . Stryker demanded photographs that `` related people to the land and vice versa '' because these photographs reinforced the RA 's position that poverty could be controlled by `` changing land practices '' . Though Stryker did not dictate to his photographers how they should compose the shots , he did send them lists of desirable themes , such as `` church '' , `` court day '' , `` barns '' .
Global Positioning System
The FCC and LightSquared have each made public commitments to solve the GPS interference issue before the network is allowed to operate . However , according to Chris Dancy of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association , airline pilots with the type of systems that would be affected `` may go off course and not even realize it . '' The problems could also affect the Federal Aviation Administration upgrade to the air traffic control system , United States Defense Department guidance , and local emergency services including 911 .
Respiratory system
However , as one rises above sea level the density of the air decreases exponentially ( see Fig. 14 ) , halving approximately with every 5500 m rise in altitude . Since the composition of the atmospheric air is almost constant below 80 km , as a result of the continuous mixing effect of the weather , the concentration of oxygen in the air ( mmols O per liter of ambient air ) decreases at the same rate as the fall in air pressure with altitude . Therefore , in order to breathe in the same amount of oxygen per minute , the person has to inhale a proportionately greater volume of air per minute at altitude than at sea level . This is achieved by breathing deeper and faster ( i.e. hyperpnea ) than at sea level ( see below ) . Fig.
Sound barrier
In October 2012 Felix Baumgartner , with a team of scientists and sponsor Red Bull , attempted the highest sky - dive on record . The project would see Baumgartner attempt to jump 120,000 ft ( 36,580 m ) from a helium balloon and become the first parachutist to break the sound barrier . The launch was scheduled for October 9 , 2012 , but was aborted due to adverse weather ; subsequently the capsule was launched instead on October 14 . Baumgartner 's feat also marked the 65th anniversary of U.S. test pilot Chuck Yeager 's successful attempt to break the sound barrier in an aircraft .
Captain America: The First Avenger
In July 2010 , Marvel Studios head Kevin Feige said that both this film and Thor would be released in 3 - D. Johnston did a one - day test shooting with a 3 - D rig , rather than shooting in 2 - D and converting , and found it `` a nightmare '' due to bulky gear , calibration issues and restricted filmmaking options . Nevertheless , he said he believes 3 - D is `` a new challenge and it 's exciting '' . Feige insisted that the conversion would not compromise the film 's image quality , as the decision to release the film in 3 - D was made early in development , and that `` an unprecedented amount of time '' would be devoted to the conversion process , to render all the film 's visual effects in true 3 - D .
LASIK
Still , surgeons claim patients are generally more satisfied with this technique than with previous methods , particularly regarding lowered incidence of `` halos , '' the visual artifact caused by spherical aberration induced in the eye by earlier methods . A meta - analysis of eight trials showed a lower incidence of these higher order aberrations in patients who had wavefront - guided LASIK compared to non-wavefront - guided LASIK . Based on their experience , the United States Air Force has described WFG - Lasik as giving `` superior vision results '' .
Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights
`` Covering seems a more complex form of assimilation than conversion or passing . At the most basic level , it raises thornier issues of classification . I 'm sometimes asked , for instance , whether I consider same - sex marriage to be an act of covering or flaunting . I think it is both . ''
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
This article needs attention from an expert in Transport . The specific problem is : the article fails to clearly set forth what is being presented in the bulk rules presentation of the article , and how this rules content was sourced ( see TALK ) , confusing matters all the more by providing sporadic inline citations to one or another document without page or rule numbers . See the talk page for details . WikiProject Transport may be able to help recruit an expert . ( February 2017 )
Scientific method
Both of these constraints indirectly require scientific method -- work that violates the constraints will be difficult to publish and difficult to get funded . Journals require submitted papers to conform to `` good scientific practice '' and to a degree this can be enforced by peer review . Originality , importance and interest are more important -- see for example the author guidelines for Nature .
Sound barrier
As the science of high - speed flight became more widely understood , a number of changes led to the eventual understanding that the `` sound barrier '' is easily penetrated , with the right conditions . Among these changes were the introduction of swept wings , the area rule , and engines of ever - increasing performance . By the 1950s , many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight , although they often suffered from control problems when doing so , such as Mach tuck . Modern aircraft can transit the `` barrier '' without control problems .
Actor
Film actors have to learn to get used to and be comfortable with a camera being in front of them . Film actors need to learn to find and stay on their `` mark . '' This is a position on the floor marked with tape . This position is where the lights and camera focus are optimized . Film actors also need to learn how to prepare well and perform well on screen tests . Screen tests are a filmed audition of part of the script .
LASIK
No good data can be found that compare the percentage of LASIK procedures that employ wavefront guidance versus the percentage that do not , nor the percentage of refractive surgeons who have a preference one way or the other . Wavefront technology continues to be positioned as an `` advance '' in LASIK with putative advantages ; however , it is clear that not all LASIK procedures are performed with wavefront guidance .
Adobe Photoshop
With the Camera Raw plug - in , raw images can be processed without the use of Adobe Photoshop Lightroom , along with other image file formats such as JPEG , TIFF , or PNG . The plug - in allows users to remove noise without the side - effect of over-sharpening , add grain , and even perform post-crop vignetting .
Long jump
The penultimate stride is longer than the last stride . The competitor begins to lower his or her center of gravity to prepare the body for the vertical impulse . The final stride is shorter because the body is beginning to raise the center of gravity in preparation for takeoff .
Carburetor
The fuel and air mixture is too rich when it has an excess of fuel , and too lean when there is not enough . The mixture is adjusted by one or more needle valves on an automotive carburetor , or a pilot - operated lever on piston - engined aircraft ( since the mixture changes with air density and therefore altitude ) . Independent of air density the ( stoichiometric ) air to gasoline ratio is 14.7 : 1 , meaning that for each mass unit of gasoline , 14.7 mass units of air are required . There are different stoichiometric ratios for other types of fuel .
Air Jordan
A fusion between the Air Jordan IV and the Air Force One model . Air
Sound barrier
Speeds of 950 km / h ( 590 mph ) are reported to have been attained in a shallow dive 20 ° to 30 ° from the horizontal . No vertical dives were made . At speeds of 950 to 1,000 km / h ( 590 to 620 mph ) the air flow around the aircraft reaches the speed of sound , and it is reported that the control surfaces no longer affect the direction of flight . The results vary with different airplanes : some wing over and dive while others dive gradually . It is also reported that once the speed of sound is exceeded , this condition disappears and normal control is restored .
Sound barrier
Nevertheless , propeller aircraft were able to approach the speed of sound in a dive . Unfortunately , doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons . Most infamously , in the Mitsubishi Zero , pilots flew full power into the terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the control surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them . In this case , several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse . Likewise , the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire 's wings caused them , in turn , to counteract aileron control inputs , leading to a condition known as control reversal . This was solved in later models with changes to the wing . Worse still , a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P - 38 Lightnings made `` pulling out '' of dives difficult ; however , the problem was later solved by the addition of a `` dive flap '' that upset the airflow under these circumstances . Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem , which led most famously to the breakup of de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot , Geoffrey de Havilland , Jr. in 1946 . A similar problem is thought to have been the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union .
History of photography
The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that emerged from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution . This demand , which could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting , added to the push for the development of photography .
LASIK
The pathway to `` super vision '' thus may require a more customized approach to corneal astigmatism than is usually attempted , and any remaining astigmatism ought to be regular ( as opposed to irregular ) , which are both fundamental principles of vector planning overlooked by a purely wavefront - guided treatment plan . This was confirmed by the 2008 study mentioned above , which found a greater reduction in corneal astigmatism and better visual outcomes under mesopic conditions using wavefront technology combined with vector analysis than using wavefront technology alone , and also found equivalent higher - order aberrations ( see below ) . Vector planning also proved advantageous in patients with keratoconus .
Thor (film)
BUF Compagnie served as the lead visual effects vendor working on the film , with Digital Domain also providing work on the film . Branagh stated that BUF , who developed the effects for the race through space , were inspired by Hubble photography and other images of deep space . Branagh stated he sent paintings from classic studies by J.M.W. Turner to Digital Domain when creating Jotunheim . Peter Butterworth , VFX supervisor and co-founder of Fuel VFX , said the most challenging task was interpreting what the Bifröst would look like , `` You ca n't Google what these things look like -- they are totally imagined and within the heads of the stakeholders . So to extract that and interpret it for the big screen was an interesting challenge creatively . Technically , probably creating fluid simulations that could be art - directed and used for both the Bifröst and Odin 's chamber shots . Part of the difficulty with solving these is that we had to ensure they would work in stereo . In the film , Odin enters what is known as the `` Odinsleep '' in his chamber to regenerate . Butterworth stated , `` For Odin 's Chamber , we developed a dome and curtain of light rays that hover over Odin 's bed . This dome of light suggests harnessed power and energy that revitalizes him as he sleeps . We took a lot of reference from the natural world such as the corona of the sun and gave the sleep effect plenty of volume and space '' .
Wetland
For example , Detroit Lakes Wetland Management District assessed area wetlands in Michigan , USA , using remote sensing . Through using this technology , satellite images were taken over a large geographic area and extended period . In addition , using this technique was less costly and time - consuming compared to the older method using visual interpretation of aerial photographs . In comparison , most aerial photographs also require experienced interpreters to extract information based on structure and texture while the interpretation of remote sensing data only requires analysis of one characteristic ( spectral ) .
Mount Everest
Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step , and they did so using primitive ice climbing equipment and ropes . Nowadays , climbers ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas . Once above the step , it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes -- though the exposure on the ridge is extreme , especially while traversing large cornices of snow . With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain in recent years , the Step has frequently become a bottleneck , with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes , leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain .
Project Runway (season 16)
The models become much more than runway eye candy as they serve for inspiration to the designers to create a street style look , to be featured in a photo shoot . But ceding creative control to the models proves to be a difficult chore for some designers .
Theory of mind
The `` false - photograph '' task is another task that serves as a measure of theory of mind development . In this task , children must reason about what is represented in a photograph that differs from the current state of affairs . Within the false - photograph task , either a location or identity change exists . In the location - change task , the examiner puts an object in one location ( e.g. , chocolate in an open green cupboard ) , whereupon the child takes a Polaroid photograph of the scene . While the photograph is developing , the examiner moves the object to a different location ( e.g. , a blue cupboard ) , allowing the child to view the examiner 's action . The examiner asks the child two control questions : `` When we first took the picture , where was the object ? '' and `` Where is the object now ? '' . The subject is also asked a `` false - photograph '' question : `` Where is the object in the picture ? '' The child passes the task if he / she correctly identifies the location of the object in the picture and the actual location of the object at the time of the question . However , the last question might be misinterpreted as : `` Where in this room is the object that the picture depicts ? '' and therefore some examiners use an alternative phrasing .
Air Jordan
A fusion between the Air Jordan III model and the Air Force One model . Air