vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
South Africa
The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1884 in the interior started the Mineral Revolution and increased economic growth and immigration . This intensified British efforts to gain control over the indigenous peoples . The struggle to control these important economic resources was a factor in relations between Europeans and the indigenous population and also between the Boers and the British .
History of West Africa
The prehistoric and ancient history of the Serer people of modern - day Senegambia has been extensively studied and documented over the years . Much of it comes from archaeological discoveries and Serer tradition rooted in the Serer religion .
Indo-Roman trade relations
The discoveries found on Bet Dwarka and on other areas on the western coast of India strongly indicate that there were strong Indo - Roman trade relations during the first two centuries of the Common Era . The 3rd century , however , was the demise of the Indo - Roman trade . The sea - route between Rome and India was shut down , and as a result , the trading reverted to the time prior to Roman expansion and exploration .
Conquistador
They had benefited from Guinea 's connections with neighbouring Iberians and north African Muslim states . Due to these connections , mathematicians and experts in naval technology appeared in Portugal . Portuguese and foreign experts made several breakthroughs in the fields of mathematics , cartography and naval technology .
Ancient Egypt
The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare , exotic goods not found in Egypt . In the Predynastic Period , they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense . They also established trade with Palestine , as evidenced by Palestinian - style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs . An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty . Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt .
European colonization of the Americas
Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed . In their paper on institutions and long - run growth , economists Daron Acemoglu , Simon Johnson , and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production . Densely settled populations , for example , were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor . In these regions , landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms . French and British colonial leaders , conversely , were incentivized to develop capitalist markets , property rights , and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor .
Trading post
European colonialism traces its roots to ancient Carthage . Originally a trading settlement of Phoenician colonists , Carthage grew into a vast economic and political power throughout the Mediterranean , accumulating wealth and influence through its economic ( trading ) prowess . Numerous cities of importance once started their history as trading posts : Venice , New York City , Shanghai , Singapore , Hong Kong , Naples , Rotterdam , Kansas City , etc .
Olmec
Matthew Stirling of the Smithsonian Institution conducted the first detailed scientific excavations of Olmec sites in the 1930s and 1940s . Stirling , along with art historian Miguel Covarrubias , became convinced that the Olmec predated most other known Mesoamerican civilizations .
Nubia
One interpretation is that Nubian A-Group rulers and early Egyptian pharaohs used related royal symbols . Similarities in rock art of A-Group Nubia and Upper Egypt support this position . Ancient Egypt conquered Nubian territory in various eras , and incorporated parts of the area into its provinces . The Nubians in turn were to conquer Egypt under its 25th Dynasty .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
The great public interest in art repatriation helped fuel the expansion of public museums in Europe and launched museum - funded archaeological explorations . The concept of art and cultural repatriation gained momentum through the latter decades of the twentieth century and began to show fruition by the end of the century when key works were ceded back to claimants .
European exploration of Africa
European exploration of Sub-Saharan Africa begins with the Age of Discovery in the 15th century , pioneered by Portugal under Henry the Navigator . The Cape of Good Hope was first reached by Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488 , opening the important sea route to India and the Far East , but European exploration of Africa itself remained very limited during the 16th and 17th centuries . The European powers were content to establish trading posts along the coast while they were actively exploring and colonizing the New World . Exploration of the interior of Africa was thus mostly left to the Arab slave traders , who in tandem with the Muslim conquest of the Sudan established far - reaching networks and supported the economy of a number of Sahelian kingdoms during the 15th to 18th centuries .
Modern history
Human history ↑ Prehistory Recorded history Ancient Earliest records Africa Americas East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia West Asia Mediterranean Postclassical Africa Americas Central Asia East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia West Asia Europe Modern Early modern Late modern See also Contemporary Modernity Futurology ↓ Future
European exploration of Africa
Vasco da Gama ( and discovered sea route to India ) Diogo Dias ( and Indian Ocean , discovered Madagascar ) Pêro da Covilhã ( 15th / 16th century diplomat and explorer in Ethiopia ) Pedro Álvares Cabral ( discovered Brazil , explored India along the African coast ) Sancho de Tovar and Vicente Pegado among others ( also among the first Europeans ever to contemplate and to describe the ruins of Great Zimbabwe , then referred to by the Portuguese as Monomotapa ) .
Olmec
Little is directly known about the societal or political structure of Olmec society . Although it is assumed by most researchers that the colossal heads and several other sculptures represent rulers , nothing has been found like the Maya stelae ( see drawing ) which name specific rulers and provide the dates of their rule .
Pre-Columbian era
As skilled artisans , the Moche were a technologically advanced people . They traded with distant peoples such as the Maya . What has been learned about the Moche is based on study of their ceramic pottery ; the carvings reveal details of their daily lives . The Larco Museum of Lima , Peru has an extensive collection of such ceramics . They show that the people practiced human sacrifice , had blood - drinking rituals , and that their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices ( such as fellatio ) . Tiwanaku
History of Mexico
Other controversy relating to the Toltecs include how best to understand reasons behind the perceived similarities in architecture and iconography between the archaeological site of Tula and the Maya site of Chichén Itzá -- no consensus has emerged yet about the degree or direction of influence between the two sites .
North America
During the Age of Discovery , Europeans explored and staked claims to various parts of North America . Upon their arrival in the `` New World '' , the Native American population declined substantially , because of violent conflicts with the invaders and the introduction of European diseases to which the Native Americans lacked immunity . Native culture changed drastically and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed . Several linguistic groups died out , and others changed quite quickly . The names and cultures that Europeans recorded were not necessarily the same as the names they had used a few generations before , or the ones in use today .
Colonial history of the United States
Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military , naval , governmental , and entrepreneurial capabilities . The Spanish and Portuguese centuries - old experience of conquest and colonization during the Reconquista , coupled with new oceanic ship navigation skills , provided the tools , ability , and desire to colonize the New World . These efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia .
Colonies in antiquity
Colonies in antiquity were city - states founded from a mother - city ( its `` metropolis '' ) , not from a territory - at - large . Bonds between a colony and its metropolis remained often close , and took specific forms . However , unlike in the period of European colonialism during the early and late modern era , ancient colonies were usually sovereign and self - governing from their inception .
History of West Africa
The construction of the stone monuments shows evidence of a prosperous and organised society based on the amount of labour required to build such structures . The builders of these megaliths are unknown , but some believe that the Serer people are the builders . This hypothesis comes from the fact that the Serer still use funerary houses like those found at Wanar . Sahelian
First Nations
The relationship between the Canadian Crown and the First Nations , Inuit , and Métis peoples of Canada stretches back to the first interactions between European colonialists and North American indigenous people . Over centuries of interaction , treaties were established , and Canada 's First Nations have , like the Māori and the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand , come to generally view these agreements as being between them and the Crown of Canada , and not the ever - changing governments .
European exploration of Africa
The Portuguese ( and later also the Dutch ) also became involved in the local slave economy , supporting the state of the Jaggas , who performed slave raids in the Congo . Queen
Carthage
The archaeological site was first surveyed in 1830 , by Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe . Excavations were performed in the second half of the 19th century by Charles Ernest Beulé and by Alfred Louis Delattre . The Carthage National Museum was founded in 1875 by Cardinal Charles Lavigerie . Excavations performed by French archaeologists in the 1920s attracted an extraordinary amount of attention because of the evidence they produced for child sacrifice , in Greco - Roman and Biblical tradition associated with the Canaanite god Baal Hammon . The open - air Carthage Paleo - Christian Museum has exhibits excavated under the auspices of UNESCO from 1975 to 1984 .
History of West Africa
The known objects found in Serer countries are divided into two types , the remnants of earlier populations , and the laterite megaliths carved planted in circular structures with stones directed towards the east are found only in small parts of the ancient Serer kingdom of Saloum . Senegambian
Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza
Within this first chapter , Anzaldua begins her book by arguing against the Anglos notion that the land belongs to the descendants of European families . The first recorded evidence of `` humankind in the U.S. - the Chicanos ' ancient Indian ancestors - was found in Texas and has been dated to 3500 B.C. '' Furthermore , she argues that the Anglos imposed themselves and took the land from indigenous people . Because of the fiction of `` White Superiority '' the only legitimate inhabitants are those in power , the whites and those who align themselves with whites . The invasion of land and privacy has displaced families and communities . the `` border '' did n't stop in the US and carried into Mexico where Indigenous communities were displaced by powerful landowners in partnership with US colonizing companies . Yet , despite all the barriers , Chicanos have been able to make a living and support their communities . Slowly , but progressively they continue to prosper .
Amazon rainforest
Since the 1970s , numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land dating between AD 1 -- 1250 , furthering claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations . Ondemar Dias is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977 and Alceu Ranzi with furthering their discovery after flying over Acre . The BBC 's Unnatural Histories presented evidence that the Amazon rainforest , rather than being a pristine wilderness , has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and terra preta . Terra preta is found over large areas in the Amazon forest ; and is now widely accepted as a product of indigenous soil management . The development of this fertile soil allowed agriculture and silviculture in the previously hostile environment ; meaning that large portions of the Amazon rainforest are probably the result of centuries of human management , rather than naturally occurring as has previously been supposed . In the region of the Xingu tribe , remains of some of these large settlements in the middle of the Amazon forest were found in 2003 by Michael Heckenberger and colleagues of the University of Florida . Among those were evidence of roads , bridges and large plazas .
History of Kenya
In the initial stage of colonial rule , the administration relied on traditional communicators , usually chiefs . When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought , partly because of settler pressure , newly educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils .
New Spain
The Villa of Tehuantepec , the largest settlement on the isthmus , was an important prehispanic Zapotec trade and religious center , which was not under the jurisdiction of the Aztecs . The early colonial history of Tehuantepec and the larger province was dominated by Cortés and the Marquesado , but the crown realized the importance of the area and concluded an agreement in 1563 with the second Marqués by which the crown took control of the Tehuantepec encomienda . The Marquesado continued to have major private holdings in the province . The Villa of Tehuantepec became a center of Spanish and mixed - race settlement , crown administration , and trade .
Indo-Roman trade relations
The Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade with Indian kingdoms using the Red Sea ports . With the establishment of Roman Egypt , the Romans took over and further developed the already existing trade using these ports .
History of agriculture
From the time of British colonization of Australia in 1788 , Indigenous Australians were characterised as nomadic hunter - gatherers who did not engage in agriculture , despite evidence to the contrary . In 1969 , the archaeologist Rhys Jones proposed that Indigenous Australians engaged in systematic burning as a way of enhancing natural productivity , what has been termed fire - stick farming . In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological research in south west Victoria established that the Gunditjmara and other groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping systems over a period of nearly 5,000 years . The archaeologist Harry Lourandos suggested in the 1980s that there was evidence of ' intensification ' in progress across Australia , a process that appeared to have continued through the preceding 5,000 years . These concepts led the historian Bill Gammage to argue that in effect the whole continent was a managed landscape .
Indo-Roman trade relations
Indo - Roman trade relations ( see also the spice trade and incense road ) was trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire in Europe and the Mediterranean . Trade through the overland caravan routes via Asia Minor and the Middle East , though at a relative trickle compared to later times , antedated the southern trade route via the Red Sea and monsoons which started around the beginning of the Common Era ( CE ) following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE .
Meroë
The period following Petronius ' punitive expedition is marked by abundant trade finds at sites in Meroë . L.P. Kirwan provides a short list of finds from archeological sites in that country . However , the kingdom of Meroë began to fade as a power by the 1st or 2nd century CE , sapped by the war with Roman Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries .
First Fleet
Although the official policy of the British Government was to establish friendly relations with Aboriginal people , and Arthur Phillip ordered that the Aboriginal people should be well treated , it was not long before conflict began . The colonists did not sign treaties with the original inhabitants of the land . Between 1790 and 1810 , Pemulwuy of the Bidjigal clan led the local people in a series of attacks against the British colonisers .
History of West Africa
Traditional African medicine is a holistic discipline involving indigenous herbalism and African spirituality . Practitioners claim to be able to cure various and diverse conditions . Modern science has , in the past , considered methods of traditional knowledge as primitive and backward . Under colonial rule , traditional diviner - healers were outlawed because they were considered by many nations to be practitioners of witchcraft and declared illegal by the colonial authorities , creating a war against witchcraft and magic . During this time , attempts were also made to control the sale of herbal medicines . As colonialism and Christianity spread through Africa , colonialists built general hospitals and Christian missionaries built private ones , with the hopes of making headway against widespread diseases . Little was done to investigate the legitimacy of these practices , as many foreigners believed that the native medical practices were pagan and superstitious and could only be suitably fixed by inheriting Western methods . During times of conflict , opposition has been particularly vehement as people are more likely to call on the supernatural realm . Consequently , doctors and health practitioners have , in most cases , continued to shun traditional practitioners despite their contribution to meeting the basic health needs of the population . In recent years , the treatments and remedies used in traditional African medicine have gained more appreciation from researchers in Western science . Developing countries have begun to realise the high costs of modern health care systems and the technologies that are required , thus proving Africa 's dependence to it . Due to this , interest has recently been expressed in integrating traditional African medicine into the continent 's national health care systems .
European exploration of Africa
Although the Napoleonic Wars distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa , those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent , both in Egypt and South Africa . The occupation of Egypt ( 1798 -- 1803 ) , first by France and then by Great Britain , resulted in an effort by the Ottoman Empire to regain direct control over that country . In 1811 , Mehemet Ali established an almost independent state , and from 1820 onward established Egyptian rule over the eastern Sudan . In South Africa , the struggle with Napoleon caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape . In 1814 , Cape Colony , which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806 , was formally ceded to the British crown .
Atlantic slave trade
Historians have widely debated the nature of the relationship between these African kingdoms and the European traders . The Guyanese historian Walter Rodney ( 1972 ) has argued that it was an unequal relationship , with Africans being forced into a `` colonial '' trade with the more economically developed Europeans , exchanging raw materials and human resources ( i.e. slaves ) for manufactured goods . He argued that it was this economic trade agreement dating back to the 16th century that led to Africa being underdeveloped in his own time . These ideas were supported by other historians , including Ralph Austen ( 1987 ) . This idea of an unequal relationship was contested by John Thornton ( 1998 ) , who argued that `` the Atlantic slave trade was not nearly as critical to the African economy as these scholars believed '' and that `` African manufacturing ( at this period ) was more than capable of handling competition from preindustrial Europe '' . However , Anne Bailey , commenting on Thornton 's suggestion that Africans and Europeans were equal partners in the Atlantic slave trade , wrote :
Indo-Roman trade relations
Apart from the recent explorations , close trade relations as well as the development of ship building were supported by the discovery of several Roman coins . On these coins were depictions of two strongly constructed masted ships . Thus , these depictions of Indian ships , originating from both coins and literature ( Pliny and Pluriplus ) , indicate Indian development in seafaring due to the increase in Indo - Roman commerce . In addition , the silver Roman coins discovered in western India primarily come from the 1st , 2nd , and 5th centuries . These Roman coins also suggest that the Indian peninsula possessed a stable sea borne trade with Rome during 1st and 2nd century AD . Land routes , during the time of Augustus , were also used for Indian embassies to reach Rome .
Colonies in antiquity
Two waves of new colonists set out from Greece at the transition between the `` Dark Ages '' and the start of the Archaic Period , one in the early 8th century BC and a second burst of the colonizing spirit in the 6th century . Population growth and cramped spaces at home seem an insufficient explanation , while the economical and political dynamics produced by the competitive spirit between the frequently kingless , newly introduced concept of the Greek city - states , striving to expand their sphere of economical influence better fits as their true incentive . Through this Greek expansion the use of coins flourished throughout the Mediterranean Basin .
Jamestown, Virginia
The site gained renewed importance when in 1996 the Jamestown Rediscovery project began excavations in search of the original James Fort site , originally in preparation for the quadricentennial of Jamestown 's founding . The primary goal of the archaeological campaign was to locate archaeological remains of `` the first years of settlement at Jamestown , especially of the earliest fortified town ; ( and the ) subsequent growth and development of the town '' .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
Napoleon continued his art conquests in 1798 when he invaded Egypt in an attempt to safeguard French trade interests and to undermine Britain 's access to India via Egypt . His expedition in Egypt is noted for the 167 `` savants '' he took with him including scientists and other specialists equipped with tools for recording , surveying and documenting ancient and modern Egypt and its natural history . Among other things , the expedition discoveries included the Rosetta Stone and the Valley of the Kings near Thebes . The French military campaign was short - lived and unsuccessful and the majority of the collected artifacts ( including the Rosetta Stone ) were seized by British troops , ending up in the British Museum . Nonetheless , the information gathered by the French expedition was soon after published in the several volumes of Description de l'Égypte , which included 837 copperplate engravings and over 3,000 drawings . In contrast to the disapproving public reaction to the looting of Italian works of art , the appropriation of Egyptian art saw widespread interest and fascination throughout Europe , inciting a phenomenon which came to be called `` Egyptomania '' .
European exploration of Africa
Beginning in the 17th century , the Netherlands began exploring and colonizing Africa . While the Dutch were waging a long war of independence against Spain , Portugal had temporarily united with Spain , starting in 1580 and ending in 1640 . As a result , the growing colonial ambitions of the Netherlands were mostly directed against Portugal .