vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Mesolithic
By the time of Vere Gordon Childe 's work , The Dawn of Europe ( 1947 ) , which affirms the Mesolithic , sufficient data had been collected to determine that a transitional period between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic was indeed a useful concept . However , the terms `` Mesolithic '' and `` Epipalaeolitic '' remain in competition , with varying conventions of usage . In the archaeology of Northern Europe , for example for archaeological sites in Great Britain , Germany , Scandinavia , Ukraine , and Russia , the term `` Mesolithic '' is almost always used . In the archaeology of other areas , the term `` Epipaleolithic '' may be preferred by most authors , or there may be divergences between authors over which term to use or what meaning to assign to each . In the New World , neither term is used ( except provisionally in the Arctic ) .
Historian
The Romans adopted the Greek tradition . While early Roman works were still written in Greek , the Origines , composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder ( 234 -- 149 BCE ) , was written in Latin , in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence . Strabo ( 63 BCE -- c. 24 CE ) was an important exponent of the Greco - Roman tradition of combining geography with history , presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era . Livy ( 59 BCE -- 17 CE ) records the rise of Rome from city - state to empire . His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history .
Easter Island
Midden contents show that the main source of protein was tuna and dolphin . With the loss of the trees , there was a sudden drop in the quantities of fish bones found in middens as the islanders lost the means to construct fishing vessels , coinciding with a large increase in bird bones . This was followed by a decrease in the number of bird bones as birds lost their nesting sites or became extinct . A new style of art from this period shows people with exposed ribs and distended bellies , indicative of malnutrition , and it is around this time that many islanders moved to living in fortified caves and the first signs of warfare and cannibalism appear .
History of the Roman Empire
The Augustan Age is not as well documented as the age of Caesar and Cicero . Livy wrote his history during Augustus 's reign and covered all of Roman history through 9 BC , but only epitomes survive of his coverage of the late Republican and Augustan periods . Important primary sources for the Augustan period include :
Cradle of civilization
The following timeline shows the approximate dates of the emergence of civilization ( as discussed in the article ) in the featured areas and the primary cultures associated with these early civilizations . It is important to note that the timeline is not indicative of the beginning of human habitation , the start of a specific ethnic group , or the development of Neolithic cultures in the area ; which often occurred significantly earlier than the emergence of civilization proper .
Primary source
For centuries , Popes used the forged Donation of Constantine to bolster the Papacy 's secular power . Among the earliest forgeries are false Anglo - Saxon charters , a number of 11th - and 12th - century forgeries produced by monasteries and abbeys to support a claim to land where the original document had been lost or never existed . One particularly unusual forgery of a primary source was perpetrated by Sir Edward Dering , who placed false monumental brasses in a parish church . In 1986 , Hugh Trevor - Roper `` authenticated '' the Hitler Diaries , which were later proved to be forgeries . Recently , forged documents have been placed within the UK National Archives in the hope of establishing a false provenance . However , historians dealing with recent centuries rarely encounter forgeries of any importance .
Primary source
`` Original material may be ... prejudiced , or at least not exactly what it claims to be . '' --
Primary source
What is the tone ? Who is the intended audience ? What is the purpose of the publication ? What assumptions does the author make ? What are the bases of the author 's conclusions ? Does the author agree or disagree with other authors of the subject ? Does the content agree with what you know or have learned about the issue ? Where was the source made ? ( questions of systemic bias )
Ancient Greece
The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography , while earlier ancient history or proto - history is known by much more circumstantial evidence , such as annals or king lists , and pragmatic epigraphy .
Maya civilization
Maya textiles are very poorly represented in the archaeological record , although by comparison with other pre-Columbian cultures , such as the Aztecs and the Andean region , it is likely that they were high - value items . A few scraps of textile have been recovered by archaeologists , but the best evidence for textile art is where they are represented in other media , such as painted murals or ceramics . Such secondary representations show the elite of the Maya court adorned with sumptuous cloths , generally these would have been cotton , but jaguar pelts and deer hides are also shown . Painted
Cradle of civilization
Scholars have defined civilization using various criteria such as the use of writing , cities , a class - based society , agriculture , animal husbandry , public buildings , metallurgy , and monumental architecture . The term cradle of civilization has frequently been applied to a variety of cultures and areas , in particular the Ancient Near Eastern Chalcolithic ( Ubaid period ) and Fertile Crescent , Ancient India and Ancient China . It has also been applied to ancient Anatolia , the Levant and Iran , and used to refer to culture predecessors -- such as Ancient Greece as the predecessor of Western Civilization -- even when such sites are not understood as an independent development of civilization , as well as within national rhetoric .
Pre-Columbian era
Many pre-Columbian civilizations established hallmarks which included permanent settlements , cities , agriculture , civic and monumental architecture , major earthworks , and complex societal hierarchies . Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European colonies and the arrival of enslaved Africans ( c. late 16th -- early 17th centuries ) , and are known only through archaeological investigations and oral history . Other civilizations were contemporary with the colonial period and were described in European historical accounts of the time . A few , such as the Maya civilization , had their own written records . Because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical , men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres , even while seeking to preserve native histories . Only a few hidden documents have survived in their original languages , while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish , giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge .
Whiskey Rebellion
Much primary source historical material has been preserved and exists in archives . A list of institutions that possess holdings and examples are :
Ancient Egypt
In the 20th century , the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations . The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations , which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure . The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt .
Mesolithic
`` Epipaleolithic '' is sometimes also used alongside `` Mesolithic '' for the final end of the Upper Paleolithic immediately followed by the Mesolithic . As `` Mesolithic '' suggests an intermediate period , followed by the Neolithic , some authors prefer the term `` Epipaleolithic '' for hunter - gatherer cultures who are not succeeded by agricultural traditions , reserving `` Mesolithic '' for cultures who are clearly succeeded by the Neolithic Revolution , such as the Natufian culture . Other authors use `` Mesolithic '' as a generic term for post-LGM hunter - gatherer cultures , whether they are transitional towards agriculture or not . In addition , terminology appears to differ between archaeological sub-disciplines , with `` Mesolithic '' being widely used in European archaeology , while `` Epipalaeolithic '' is more common in Near Eastern archaeology .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
To help prevent dead links , persistent identifiers are available for some sources . Some journal articles have a digital object identifier ( DOI ) ; some online newspapers and blogs , and also Wikipedia , have permalinks that are stable . When permanent links are n't available , consider archiving the referenced document when writing the article ; on - demand web archiving services such as WebCite ( http://www.webcitation.org ) or the Wayback Machine ( http://www.archive.org/web ) are fairly easy to use ( see pre-emptive archiving ) .
Angel of the Lord
A different approach comes from the cultural studies which argue that the ancient commissioners during their proclamations used the first person point of view and spoke as if they had been the consigner himself . Both approaches however resort to additional theoretical concepts retroactively introduced to the source text itself .
Historian
Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece , a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region . The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories , composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( 484 -- c. 425 BCE ) who later became known as the `` father of history '' ( Cicero ) . Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts , and personally conducted research by travelling extensively , giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures . Although Herodotus ' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men , he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events . Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta , establishing a rationalistic element that set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings . He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event , while his successor Xenophon ( c. 431 -- 355 BCE ) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis . Leonardo
Maya civilization
Palaces are usually arranged around one or more courtyards , with their façades facing inwards ; some examples are adorned with sculpture . Some palaces possess associated hieroglyphic descriptions that identify them as the royal residences of named rulers . There is abundant evidence that palaces were far more than simple elite residences , and that a range of courtly activities took place in them , including audiences , formal receptions , and important rituals . Pyramids
Olmec
Instead , archaeologists relied on the data that they had , such as large - and small - scale site surveys . These provided evidence of considerable centralization within the Olmec region , first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta -- no other Olmec sites come close to these in terms of area or in the quantity and quality of architecture and sculpture .
History of Mexico
The Aztec oral and pictographic tradition also described the history of the Toltec empire giving lists of rulers and their exploits . Among modern scholars it is a matter of debate whether the Aztec narratives of Toltec history should be given credence as descriptions of actual historical events . While all scholars acknowledge that there is a large mythological part of the narrative some maintain that by using a critical comparative method some level of historicity can be salvaged from the sources , whereas others maintain that continued analysis of the narratives as sources of actual history is futile and hinders access to actual knowledge of the culture of Tula , Hidalgo .
Historian
Specifically , he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom , and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents . Beginning with his first book in 1824 , the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514 , Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for an historian of the age , including `` memoirs , diaries , personal and formal missives , government documents , diplomatic dispatches and first - hand accounts of eye - witnesses '' . Over a career that spanned much of the century , Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing , introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources ( empiricism ) , an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics ( aussenpolitik ) . Sources had to be hard , not speculations and rationalizations . His credo was to write history the way it was . He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity .
Novel
Fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography . However this can be a problematic criterion . Throughout the early modern period authors of historical narratives would often include inventions rooted in traditional beliefs in order to embellish a passage of text or add credibility to an opinion . Historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes . Novels can , on the other hand , depict the social , political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity and detail not found in works of history .
Mesopotamia
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence , pictorial representation of buildings , and texts on building practices . Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples , palaces , city walls and gates , and other monumental buildings , but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well . Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities .
Siege
The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization showed less effort in constructing defences , as did the Minoan civilization on Crete . These civilizations probably relied more on the defence of their outer borders or sea shores . Unlike the ancient Minoan civilization , the Mycenaean Greeks emphasized the need for fortifications alongside natural defences of mountainous terrain , such as the massive Cyclopean walls built at Mycenae and other adjacent Late Bronze Age ( c. 1600 -- 1100 BC ) centers of central and southern Greece .
Neolithic Revolution
These developments provided the basis for densely populated settlements , specialization and division of labour , more trade , the development of non-portable art and architecture , centralized administrations and political structures , hierarchical ideologies , depersonalized systems of knowledge ( e.g. writing ) , and property ownership . The earliest known civilization developed in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia ( c . 5,500 BP ) ; its emergence also heralded the beginning of the Bronze Age .
Maya civilization
The history of Maya civilization is divided into three principal periods : the Preclassic , Classic , and Postclassic periods . These were preceded by the Archaic Period , during which the first settled villages and early developments in agriculture emerged . Modern scholars regard these periods as arbitrary divisions of Maya chronology , rather than indicative of cultural evolution or decline . Definitions of the start and end dates of period spans can vary by as much as a century , depending on the author .
Maya civilization
Maya stone sculpture emerged into the archaeological record as a fully developed tradition , suggesting that it may have evolved from a tradition of sculpting wood . Because of the biodegradability of wood , the corpus of Maya woodwork has almost entirely disappeared . The few wooden artefacts that have survived include three - dimensional sculptures , and hieroglyphic panels . Stone Maya stelae are widespread in city sites , often paired with low , circular stones referred to as altars in the literature . Stone sculpture also took other forms , such as the limestone relief panels at Palenque and Piedras Negras . At Yaxchilan , Dos Pilas , Copán , and other sites , stone stairways were decorated with sculpture . The hieroglyphic stairway at Copán comprises the longest surviving Maya hieroglyphic text , and consists of 2,200 individual glyphs .
Agatha Christie
Murder in Mesopotamia ( 1936 ) -- the most archaeologically influenced of all her novels , as it is set in the Middle East at an archaeological dig site and associated expedition house . The main characters include archaeologist Dr. Eric Leidner , his wife , many specialists and assistants , and the men working on the site . The novel is noted most for its careful description of the dig site and house , which showed that the author had spent much of her time in very similar situations . The characters in this book in particular are also based on archaeologists whom Christie knew from her personal experiences on excavation sites . Death on the Nile ( 1937 ) -- takes place on a tour boat on the Nile . Many archaeological sites are visited along the way and one of the main characters , Signor Richetti , is an archaeologist . Appointment with Death ( 1938 ) -- set in Jerusalem and its surrounding area . The death itself occurs at an old cave site in Petra and offers some very descriptive details of sites which Christie herself could have visited in order to write the book . They Came to Baghdad ( 1951 ) -- inspired by Christie 's own trips to Baghdad with Mallowan , and involves an archaeologist as the heroine 's love interest .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
As a direct reaction and resistance to colonial oppression , archaeology was also used for the purpose of legitimating the existence of an independent nation - state . For example , Egyptian Nationalists utilized its ancient history to invent the political and expressive culture of `` Pharaonism '' as a response to Europe 's `` Egyptomania '' . Masada
Maya civilization
The Maya script was in use up to the arrival of the Europeans , its use peaking during the Classic Period . In excess of 10,000 individual texts have been recovered , mostly inscribed on stone monuments , lintels , stelae and ceramics . The Maya also produced texts painted on a form of paper manufactured from processed tree - bark generally now known by its Nahuatl - language name amatl used to produce codices . The skill and knowledge of Maya writing persisted among segments of the population right up to the Spanish conquest . The knowledge was subsequently lost , as a result of the impact of the conquest on Maya society .
Historian
The process of historical analysis involves investigation and analysis of competing ideas , facts , and purported facts to create coherent narratives that explain `` what happened '' and `` why or how it happened '' . Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences , including economics , sociology , politics , psychology , anthropology , philosophy , and linguistics . While ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices , their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times . An important part of the contribution of many modern historians is the verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources and recent scholarship or through parallel disciplines like archaeology .
Ancient Egypt
Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with Arabic . The word order is predicate -- subject in verbal and adjectival sentences , and subject -- predicate in nominal and adverbial sentences . The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun . Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n , but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences . Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable , which can be open ( CV ) or closed ( CVC ) .
Maya civilization
Marketplaces are difficult to identify archaeologically . However , the Spanish reported a thriving market economy when they arrived in the region . At some Classic period cities , archaeologists have tentatively identified formal arcade - style masonry architecture and parallel alignments of scattered stones as the permanent foundations of market stalls . A 2007 study analysed soils from a modern Guatemalan market and compared the results with those obtained from analysis at a proposed ancient market at Chunchucmil . Unusually high levels of zinc and phosphorus at both sites indicated similar food production and vegetable sales activity . The calculated density of market stalls at Chunchucmil strongly suggests that a thriving market economy already existed in the Early Classic . Archaeologists have tentatively identified marketplaces at an increasing number of Maya cities by means of a combination of archaeology and soil analysis . When the Spanish arrived , Postclassic cities in the highlands had markets in permanent plazas , with officials on hand to settle disputes , enforce rules , and collect taxes .
Wikipedia:Citing sources
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Carthage
Most ancient literature concerning Carthage comes from Greek and Roman sources as Carthage 's own documents were destroyed by the Romans . Apart from inscriptions , hardly any Punic literature has survived , and none in its own language and script . A brief catalogue would include :
History of the Roman Empire
Secondary ancient sources on the Augustan Age include Tacitus , Dio Cassius , Plutarch and Lives of the Twelve Caesars by Suetonius . Josephus 's Jewish Antiquities is the important source for Judea , which became a province during Augustus 's reign .