vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of the Church of England
The formal history of the Church of England is traditionally dated by the Church to the Gregorian mission to Spain by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in AD 597 . As a result of Augustine 's mission , Christianity in England , from Anglican ( English ) perspective , came under the authority of the Pope . However , in 1534 King Henry VIII declared himself to be supreme head of the Church of England . This resulted in a schism with the Papacy . As a result of this schism , many non-Anglicans consider that the Church of England only existed from the 16th century Protestant Reformation .
Western Roman Empire
With the assassination of the Emperor Alexander Severus on 18 March 235 , the Roman Empire sank into a 50 - year period of civil war , now known as the Crisis of the Third Century . The rise of the bellicose Sasanian Empire in Parthia posed a major threat to Rome in the east . Demonstrating the increased danger , Emperor Valerian was captured by Shapur I in 259 . His eldest son and heir - apparent , Gallienus , succeeded and took up the fight on the eastern frontier . Gallienus ' son , Saloninus , and the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus were residing in Colonia Agrippina ( modern Cologne ) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions . Nevertheless , Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus - the local governor of the German provinces -- rebelled ; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect . In the confusion that followed , an independent state known in modern historiography as the Gallic Empire emerged .
Crusades
The 13th century saw popular outbursts of ecstatic piety in support of the Crusades such as that resulting in the Children 's Crusade in 1212 . Large groups of young adults and children spontaneously gathered , believing their innocence would enable success where their elders had failed . Few , if any at all , journeyed to the Eastern Mediterranean . Though little reliable evidence survives for these events , they provide an indication of how hearts and minds could be engaged for the cause . Frederick
Middle Ages
Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages . Although Italian cities remained inhabited , they contracted significantly in size . Rome , for instance , shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century . Roman temples were converted into Christian churches and city walls remained in use . In Northern Europe , cities also shrank , while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials . The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for the towns chosen as capitals . Although there had been Jewish communities in many Roman cities , the Jews suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity . Officially they were tolerated , if subject to conversion efforts , and at times were even encouraged to settle in new areas .
Crusades
In 1095 , at the Council of Piacenza , Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested military aid from Pope Urban II , probably in the form of a small body of mercenary reinforcements he could direct and control . Alexios had restored the Empire 's finances and authority , but he still faced a number of foreign enemies , particularly the migrating Turks who had colonised the sparsely populated areas of Anatolia . At the Council of Clermont later that year , Urban raised the issue again and preached for a Crusade . Many historians consider that Urban also hoped that aiding the Eastern Church would lead to its reunion with the Western under his leadership .
Crusades
Under the papacies of successive Popes smaller groups of Crusaders continued to travel to the Eastern Mediterranean to fight the Muslims and aid the Crusader States in the early 12th century . The third decade saw campaigns by Fulk V of Anjou , the Venetians , and Conrad III of Germany and the foundation of the Knights Templar . The period also saw the innovation of granting indulgences to those who opposed papal enemies , and this marked the beginning of politically motivated Crusades . The loss of Aleppo in 1128 and Edessa ( Urfa ) in 1144 to Imad ad - Din Zengi , governor of Mosul , led to preaching for what subsequently became known as the Second Crusade . King Louis VII and Conrad III led armies from France and Germany to Jerusalem and Damascus without winning any major victories . As in the First Crusade , the preaching led to attacks on Jews including massacres in the Rhineland , Cologne , Mainz , Worms and Speyer amid claims that the Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land . Bernard of Clairvaux , who had encouraged the Second Crusade in his preaching , was so perturbed by the violence that he journeyed from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problem .
History of the Catholic Church
Before the council , in 1854 Pope Pius IX with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic Bishops , whom he had consulted between 1851 -- 1853 , proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception . Eight years earlier , in 1846 , the Pope had granted the unanimous wish of the bishops from the United States , and declared the Immaculata the patron of the USA .
Middle Ages
Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian basilicas of the 4th century and the 8th century , although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries . By the beginning of the 8th century , the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture . One feature of the basilica is the use of a transept , or the `` arms '' of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave . Other new features of religious architecture include the crossing tower and a monumental entrance to the church , usually at the west end of the building .
Christianity in Africa
However , new scholarship has appeared that disputes this . There are reports that the Roman Catholic faith persisted in the region from Tripolitania ( present - day western Libya ) to present - day Morocco for several centuries after the completion of the Arab conquest by 700 . A Christian community is recorded in 1114 in Qal'a in central Algeria . There is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 to tombs of Catholic saints outside the city of Carthage , and evidence of religious contacts with Christians of Muslim Spain . In addition , calendar reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated amongst the indigenous Christians of Tunis , which would have not been possible had there been an absence of contact with Rome .
History of the Catholic Church
During this period , the Bible as it has come down to the 21st century was first officially laid out in Church Councils or Synods through the process of official ' canonization ' . Prior to these Councils or Synods , the Bible had already reached a form that was nearly identical to the form in which it is now found . According to some accounts , in 382 the Council of Rome first officially recognized the Biblical canon , listing the accepted books of the Old and New Testament , and in 391 the Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible was made . Other accounts list the Council of Carthage of 397 as the Council that finalized the Biblical canon as it is known today . The Council of Ephesus in 431 clarified the nature of Jesus ' incarnation , declaring that he was both fully man and fully God . Two decades later , the Council of Chalcedon solidified Roman papal primacy which added to continuing breakdown in relations between Rome and Constantinople , the seat of the Eastern Church . Also sparked were the Monophysite disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus which led to the first of the various Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church .
History of the Catholic Church
The 11th century saw the Investiture Controversy between Emperor and Pope over the right to make church appointments , the first major phase of the struggle between Church and state in medieval Europe . The Papacy were the initial victors , but as Italians divided between Guelphs and Ghibellines in factions that were often passed down through families or states until the end of the Middle Ages , the dispute gradually weakened the Papacy , not least by drawing it into politics . The Church also attempted to control , or exact a price for , most marriages among the great by prohibiting , in 1059 , marriages involving consanguinity ( blood kin ) and affinity ( kin by marriage ) to the seventh degree of relationship . Under these rules , almost all great marriages required a dispensation . The rules were relaxed to the fourth degree in 1215 ( now only the first degree is prohibited by the Church - a man can not marry his stepdaughter , for example ) . Pope
Parthenon
The Parthenon was converted into a Christian church in the final decade of the sixth century AD to become the Church of the Parthenos Maria ( Virgin Mary ) , or the Church of the Theotokos ( Mother of God ) . The orientation of the building was changed to face towards the east ; the main entrance was placed at the building 's western end , and the Christian altar and iconostasis were situated towards the building 's eastern side adjacent to an apse built where the temple 's pronaos was formerly located . A large central portal with surrounding side - doors was made in the wall dividing the cella , which became the church 's nave , from the rear chamber , the church 's narthex . The spaces between the columns of the opisthodomus and the peristyle were walled up , though a number of doorways still permitted access . Icons were painted on the walls and many Christian inscriptions were carved into the Parthenon 's columns . These renovations inevitably led to the removal and dispersal of some of the sculptures . Those depicting gods were either possibly re-interpreted according to a Christian theme , or removed and destroyed .
Crusades
During the 16th century Reformation and Counter-Reformation , Western historians saw the Crusades through the lens of their own religious beliefs . Protestants saw them as a manifestation of the evils of the papacy , and Catholics viewed them as forces for good . 18th century Enlightenment historians tended to view the Middle Ages in general , and the Crusades in particular , as the efforts of barbarian cultures driven by fanaticism . These scholars expressed moral outrage at the conduct of the Crusaders and criticised the Crusades ' misdirection -- that of the Fourth in particular , which attacked a Christian power ( the Byzantine Empire ) instead of Islam . The Fourth Crusade had resulted in the sacking of Constantinople , effectively ending any chance of reconciling the East -- West Schism and leading to the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans . In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , 18th - century English historian Edward Gibbon wrote that the Crusaders ' efforts could have been more profitably directed towards improving their own countries .
Pope
During the Western Schism , Avignon Pope Benedict XIII ( 1394 -- 1423 ) ruled for 28 years , seven months and 12 days , which would place him third in the above list . However , since he is regarded as an anti-pope , he is not mentioned in the list above .
Pope
In 1929 , the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See established Vatican City as an independent city - state , guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule .
History of the Catholic Church
At the end of the 19th century , Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools , hospitals , monasteries and churches .
New Year
In the Middle Ages in Europe a number of significant feast days in the ecclesiastical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church came to be used as the beginning of the Julian year :
Middle Ages
During the tumultuous 14th century , disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the Avignon Papacy of 1309 -- 76 , also called the `` Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy '' ( a reference to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews ) , and then to the Great Schism , lasting from 1378 to 1418 , when there were two and later three rival popes , each supported by several states . Ecclesiastical officials convened at the Council of Constance in 1414 , and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes , leaving only two claimants . Further depositions followed , and in November 1417 the council elected Martin V ( pope 1417 -- 31 ) as pope .
Crusades
The Crusades consolidated the papal leadership of the Latin Church , reinforcing the link between Western Christendom , feudalism , and militarism and increased the tolerance of the clergy to violence . The growth of the system of indulgences became a catalyst for the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th century . The Crusades also had a role in the creation and institutionalisation of the military and the Dominican orders as well as the Medieval Inquisition .
History of the Catholic Church
Pope Pius XI aimed to end the long breach between the papacy and the Italian government and to gain recognition once more of the sovereign independence of the Holy See . Most of the Papal States had been seized by the armies of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy ( 1861 -- 1878 ) in 1860 seeking Italian unification . Rome itself was seized by force in 1870 and the pope became the `` prisoner in the Vatican . '' The Italian government 's policies had always been anti-clerical until the First World War , when some compromises were reached . Boundary
Western Roman Empire
Constantius Chlorus was elevated to caesar in 293 , under Maximiam . Constantius became the Western Emperor in 305 , after the abdication of Maximian . Constantius died on 25 July 306 , leaving a highly contested succession in his wake .
Julian calendar
The Gregorian calendar was soon adopted by most Catholic countries ( e.g. , Spain , Portugal , Poland , most of Italy ) . Protestant countries followed later , and some countries of eastern Europe even later . In the British Empire ( including the American colonies ) , Wednesday 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday 14 September 1752 . For 12 years from 1700 Sweden used a modified Julian calendar , and adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753 .
History of the Catholic Church
In June 2004 , the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I 's visited Rome on the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul ( 29 June ) for another personal meeting with Pope John Paul II , for conversations with the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity and for taking part in the celebration for the feast day in St. Peter 's Basilica .
Russian Orthodox Church
Beginning in the late 1980s , under Mikhail Gorbachev , the new political and social freedoms resulted in many church buildings being returned to the church , to be restored by local parishioners . A pivotal point in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church came in 1988 , the millennial anniversary of the Baptism of Kievan Rus ' . Throughout the summer of that year , major government - supported celebrations took place in Moscow and other cities ; many older churches and some monasteries were reopened . An implicit ban on religious propaganda on state TV was finally lifted . For the first time in the history of the Soviet Union , people could see live transmissions of church services on television .
Israel
In 634 -- 641 CE , the region , including Jerusalem , was conquered by the Arabs who had just recently adopted Islam . Control of the region transferred between the Rashidun Caliphs , Umayyads , Abbasids , Fatimids , Seljuks , Crusaders , and Ayyubids throughout the next three centuries .
Israel
With successive Persian rule , the autonomous province Yehud Medinata was gradually developing back into urban society , largely dominated by Judeans . The Greek conquests largely skipped the region without any resistance or interest . Incorporated into Ptolemaic and finally Seleucid empires , the southern Levant was heavily hellenized , building the tensions between Judeans and Greeks . The conflict erupted in 167 BCE with the Maccabean Revolt , which succeeded in establishing an independent Hasmonean Kingdom in Judah , which later expanded over much of modern Israel , as the Seleucids gradually lost control in the region .
Israel
In 586 BCE , King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon conquered Judah . According to the Hebrew Bible , he destroyed Solomon 's Temple and exiled the Jews to Babylon . The defeat was also recorded in the Babylonian Chronicles . The Babylonian exile ended around 538 BCE under the rule of the Persian Cyrus the Great after he captured Babylon . The Second Temple was constructed around 520 BCE . As part of the Persian Empire , the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah ( Yehud Medinata ) with different borders , covering a smaller territory . The population of the province was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom , archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE .
History of the Roman Empire
Despite his own excellence as a military administrator , Hadrian 's reign was marked more by the defense of the empire 's vast territories , rather than major military conflicts . He surrendered Trajan 's conquests in Mesopotamia , considering them to be indefensible . There was almost a war with Vologases III of Parthia around 121 , but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace . Hadrian 's army crushed the Bar Kokhba revolt , a massive Jewish uprising in Judea ( 132 -- 135 ) .
Middle Ages
An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor Maurice ( r . 582 -- 602 ) in Persian politics when he intervened in a succession dispute . This led to a period of peace , but when Maurice was overthrown , the Persians invaded and during the reign of Emperor Heraclius ( r . 610 -- 641 ) controlled large chunks of the empire , including Egypt , Syria , and Anatolia until Heraclius ' successful counterattack . In 628 the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered all of its lost territories .
Lebanon
During the 7th century the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria establishing a new regime to replace the Byzantines . Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime , the general populace still took time to convert from Christianity and the Syriac language . The Maronite community in particular managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Lebanon and Syria .
Biblical judges
However , other scholars have abandoned the idea that Joshua carried out a conquest of Canaan similar to that described in the Book of Joshua . Likewise , there is doubt among scholars that a period resembling the one described in the Book of Judges existed in ancient Israel .
Sea of Galilee
In 135 CE , Bar Kokhba 's revolt was put down . The Romans responded by banning all Jews from Jerusalem . The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of the Galilee and the Kinneret , particularly the city of Tiberias . It was in this region that the Jerusalem Talmud was compiled .
Hellenistic period
Between 301 and 219 BC the Ptolemies ruled Judea in relative peace , and Jews often found themselves working in the Ptolemaic administration and army , which led to the rise of a Hellenized Jewish elite class ( e.g. the Tobiads ) . The wars of Antiochus III brought the region into the Seleucid empire ; Jerusalem fell to his control in 198 and the Temple was repaired and provided with money and tribute . Antiochus IV Epiphanes sacked Jerusalem and looted the Temple in 169 BC after disturbances in Judea during his abortive invasion of Egypt . Antiochus then banned key Jewish religious rites and traditions in Judea . He may have been attempting to Hellenize the region and unify his empire and the Jewish resistance to this eventually led to an escalation of violence . Whatever the case , tensions between pro and anti-Seleucid Jewish factions led to the 174 -- 135 BC Maccabean Revolt of Judas Maccabeus ( whose victory is celebrated in the Jewish festival of Hanukkah ) .
Israel
In 1165 , Maimonides visited Jerusalem and prayed on the Temple Mount , in the `` great , holy house . '' In 1141 the Spanish - Jewish poet Yehuda Halevi issued a call for Jews to migrate to the Land of Israel , a journey he undertook himself . In 1187 Sultan Saladin , founder of the Ayyubid dynasty , defeated the Crusaders in the Battle of Hattin and subsequently captured Jerusalem and almost all of Palestine . In time , Saladin issued a proclamation inviting Jews to return and settle in Jerusalem , and according to Judah al - Harizi , they did : `` From the day the Arabs took Jerusalem , the Israelites inhabited it . '' Al - Harizi compared Saladin 's decree allowing Jews to re-establish themselves in Jerusalem to the one issued by the Persian king Cyrus the Great over 1,600 years earlier . The
Hellenistic period
Modern interpretations see this period as a civil war between Hellenized and orthodox forms of Judaism . Out of this revolt was formed an independent Jewish kingdom known as the Hasmonaean Dynasty , which lasted from 165 BC to 63 BC . The Hasmonean Dynasty eventually disintegrated in a civil war , which coincided with civil wars in Rome . The last Hasmonean ruler , Antigonus II Mattathias , was captured by Herod and executed in 37 BC . In spite of originally being a revolt against Greek overlordship , the Hasmonean kingdom and also the Herodian kingdom which followed gradually became more and more hellenized . From 37 BC to 4 BC , Herod the Great ruled as a Jewish - Roman client king appointed by the Roman Senate . He considerably enlarged the Temple ( see Herod 's Temple ) , making it one of the largest religious structures in the world . The style of the enlarged temple and other Herodian architecture shows significant Hellenistic architectural influence . His son , Herod Archelaus , ruled from 4 BC to 6 AD when he was deposed for the formation of Roman Judea .
Sea of Galilee
The lake 's importance declined when the Byzantines lost control and the area was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate and subsequent Islamic empires . Apart from Tiberias , the major towns and cities in the area were gradually abandoned . The palace Khirbat al - Minya was built by the lake during the reign of the Umayyad caliph al - Walid I ( 705 -- 715 CE ) . In 1187 , Saladin defeated the armies of the Crusades at the Battle of Hattin , largely because he was able to cut the Crusaders off from the valuable fresh water of the Sea of Galilee .
Desert
The Arabs were probably the first organized force to conduct successful battles in the desert . By knowing back routes and the locations of oases and by utilizing camels , Muslim Arab forces were able to successfully overcome both Roman and Persian forces in the period 600 to 700 AD during the expansion of the Islamic caliphate .
Israel
While it is unclear if there was ever a United Monarchy , there is well accepted archeological evidence referring to `` Israel '' in the Merneptah Stele which dates to about 1200 BCE ; and the Canaanites are archeologically attested in the Middle Bronze Age . There is debate about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power , but historians agree that a Kingdom of Israel existed by ca . 900 BCE and that a Kingdom of Judah existed by ca . 700 BCE . The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE , when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire .