vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Superfecundation
Koen and Teun Stuart , Dutch boys who were the result of in vitro fertilization ( IVF ) . In a mixup at the laboratory , equipment had been used twice , causing another man 's sperm to be mixed with the intended father 's .
Germ cell
The mutation frequencies for cells throughout the different stages of spermatogenesis in mice is similar to that in female germline cells , that is 5 to 10-fold lower than the mutation frequency in somatic cells Thus low mutation frequency is a feature of germline cells in both sexes . Homologous recombinational repair of double - strand breaks occurs in mouse during sequential stages of spermatogenesis , but is most prominent in spermatocytes . The lower frequencies of mutation in germ cells compared to somatic cells appears to be due to more efficient removal of DNA damages by repair processes including homologous recombination repair during meiosis . Mutation frequency during spermatogenesis increases with age . The mutations in spermatogenic cells of old mice include an increased prevalence of transversion mutations compared to young and middle - aged mice .
X chromosome
This results when each of a female 's cells has one normal X chromosome and the other sex chromosome is missing or altered . The missing genetic material affects development and causes the features of the condition , including short stature and infertility . About half of individuals with Turner syndrome have monosomy X ( 45 , X ) , which means each cell in a woman 's body has only one copy of the X chromosome instead of the usual two copies . Turner syndrome can also occur if one of the sex chromosomes is partially missing or rearranged rather than completely missing . Some women with Turner syndrome have a chromosomal change in only some of their cells . These cases are called Turner syndrome mosaics ( 45 , X / 46 , XX ) . Other
Semen
Gland ( s ) Approximate fraction Description testes 2 -- 5 % Approximately 200 - to 500 - million spermatozoa ( also called sperm or spermatozoans ) , produced in the testes , are released per ejaculation . If a man has undergone a vasectomy , he will have no sperm in the ejaculation . seminal vesicles 65 -- 75 % amino acids , citrate , enzymes , flavins , fructose ( 2 -- 5 mg per mL semen , the main energy source of sperm cells , which rely entirely on sugars from the seminal plasma for energy ) , phosphorylcholine , prostaglandins ( involved in suppressing an immune response by the female against the foreign semen ) , proteins , vitamin C prostate 25 -- 30 % acid phosphatase , citric acid , fibrinolysin , prostate specific antigen , proteolytic enzymes , zinc ( the zinc level is about 135 ± 40 micrograms / ml for healthy men . Zinc serves to help to stabilize the DNA - containing chromatin in the sperm cells . A zinc deficiency may result in lowered fertility because of increased sperm fragility . Zinc deficiency can also adversely affect spermatogenesis . ) bulbourethral glands < 1 % galactose , mucus ( serve to increase the mobility of sperm cells in the vagina and cervix by creating a less viscous channel for the sperm cells to swim through , and preventing their diffusion out of the semen . Contributes to the cohesive jelly - like texture of semen . ) , pre-ejaculate , sialic acid
Infertility
Primary infertility is defined as the absence of a live birth for women who desire a child and have been in a union for at least 12 months , during which they have not used any contraceptives . The World Health Organisation also adds that ' women whose pregnancy spontaneously miscarries , or whose pregnancy results in a still born child , without ever having had a live birth would present with primarily infertility ' .
Semen
Depending on the species , spermatozoa can fertilize ova externally or internally . In external fertilization , the spermatozoa fertilize the ova directly , outside of the female 's sexual organs . Female fish , for example , spawn ova into their aquatic environment , where they are fertilized by the semen of the male fish .
Testosterone
There are some differences between a male and female brain ( possibly the result of different testosterone levels ) , one of them being size : the male human brain is , on average , larger . Men were found to have a total myelinated fiber length of 176,000 km at the age of 20 , whereas in women the total length was 149,000 km ( approx. 15 % less ) .
Moss
Having the males growing as dwarfs on the female is expected to increase the fertilization efficiency by minimizing the distance between male and female reproductive organs . Accordingly , it has been observed that fertilization frequency is positively associated with the presence of dwarf males in several phyllodioicous species .
Estrogen
Estrogens affect liver protein synthesis and thereby influence the cardiovascular system . They have been found to affect the production of a variety of coagulation and fibrinolytic factors , including increased factor IX , von Willebrand factor , thrombin -- antithrombin complex ( TAT ) , fragment 1 + 2 , and D - dimer and decreased fibrinogen , factor VII , antithrombin , protein S , protein C , tissue plasminogen activator ( t - PA ) , and plasminogen activator inhibitor - 1 ( PAI - 1 ) . Although this is true for oral estrogen , transdermal estradiol has been found only to reduce PAI - 1 and protein S , and to a lesser extent than oral estrogen . Due to its effects on liver protein synthesis , oral estrogen is procoagulant , and has been found to increase the risk of venous thromboembolism ( VTE ) such as deep vein thrombosis ( DVT ) and pulmonary embolism ( PE ) . Conversely , modern oral contraceptives are not associated with an increase in the risk of stroke and myocardial infarction ( heart attack ) in healthy , non-smoking premenopausal women of any age , except in those with hypertension ( high blood pressure ) . However , a small but significant increase in the risk of stroke , though not of myocardial infarction , has been found in menopausal women taking hormone replacement therapy . An increase in the risk of stroke has also been associated with older high - dose oral contraceptives that are no longer used .
Caenorhabditis elegans
The hermaphroditic worm is considered to be a specialized form of self - fertile female , as its soma is female . The hermaphroditic germline produces male gametes first , and lays eggs through its uterus after internal fertilization . Hermaphrodites produce all their sperm in the L4 stage ( 150 sperm per gonadal arm ) and then produce only oocytes . The sperm cells are stored in the same area of the gonad as the oocytes until the first oocyte pushes the sperm into the spermatheca ( a chamber wherein the oocytes become fertilized by the sperm ) .
Female reproductive system
This is a vaginal infection in women . It differs from vaginitis in that there is no inflammation . Bacterial vaginosis is polymicrobial , consisting of many bacteria species . The diagnosis for bacterial vaginosis is made if three of the following four criteria are present : ( 1 ) Homogenous , thin discharge , ( 2 ) a pH of 4.5 in the vagina , ( 3 ) epithelial cells in the vagina with bacteria attached to them , or ( 4 ) a fishy odor . It has been associated with an increased risk of other genital tract infections such as endometritis .
Lead poisoning
Lead affects both the male and female reproductive systems . In men , when blood lead levels exceed 40 μg / dL , sperm count is reduced and changes occur in volume of sperm , their motility , and their morphology . A pregnant woman 's elevated blood lead level can lead to miscarriage , prematurity , low birth weight , and problems with development during childhood . Lead is able to pass through the placenta and into breast milk , and blood lead levels in mothers and infants are usually similar . A fetus may be poisoned in utero if lead from the mother 's bones is subsequently mobilized by the changes in metabolism due to pregnancy ; increased calcium intake in pregnancy may help mitigate this phenomenon . Nervous
BRCA1
As women age , their reproductive performance declines , leading to menopause . This decline is tied to a reduction in the number of ovarian follicles . Although about 1 million oocytes are present at birth in the human ovary , only about 500 ( about 0.05 % ) of these ovulate , and the rest are wasted . The decline in ovarian reserve appears to occur at a constantly increasing rate with age , and leads to nearly complete exhaustion of the reserve by about age 52 . As ovarian reserve and fertility decline with age , there is also a parallel increase in pregnancy failure and meiotic errors , resulting in chromosomally abnormal conceptions .
Superfecundation
Heteropaternal superfecundation is common in animals such as cats and dogs . Stray dogs can produce litters in which every puppy has a different sire . Though rare in humans , cases have been documented . In one study on humans , the frequency was 2.4 % among dizygotic twins whose parents had been involved in paternity suits .
Luteinizing hormone
Gonadal steroids ( estrogens and androgens ) generally have negative feedback effects on GnRH - 1 release at the level of the hypothalamus and at the gonadotropes , reducing their sensitivity to GnRH . Positive feedback by estrogens also occurs in the gonadal axis of female mammals and is responsible for the midcycle surge of LH that stimulates ovulation . Although estrogens inhibit kisspeptin ( Kp ) release from kiss1 neurons in the ARC , estrogens stimulate Kp release from the Kp neurons in the AVPV . As estrogens ' levels gradually increase the positive effect predominates , leading to the LH surge . GABA - secreting neurons that innervate GnRH - 1 neurons also can stimulate GnRH - 1 release . These GABA neurons also possess ERs and may be responsible for the GnRH - 1 surge . Part of the inhibitory action of endorphins on GnRH - 1 release is through inhibition of these GABA neurons . Rupture of the ovarian follicle at ovulation causes a drastic reduction in estrogen synthesis and a marked increase in secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum in the ovary , reinstating a predominantly negative feedback on hypothalamic secretion of GnRH - 1 .
Estrogen
The associations between binge eating , menstrual - cycle phase and ovarian hormones correlated . Masculinization
Estrogen
Since estrogen circulating in the blood can negatively feedback to reduce circulating levels of follicle - stimulating hormone ( FSH ) and luteinizing hormone ( LH ) , most oral contraceptives contain ethinylestradiol , along with a progestin ( synthetic progestogen ) . Even in men , the major hormone involved in LH feedback is estradiol , not testosterone .
Cell division
Cells are broadly classified into two main categories : simple , non-nucleated prokaryotic cells , and complex , nucleated eukaryotic cells . Owing to their structural differences , eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells do not divide in the same way . Also , the pattern of cell division that transforms eukaryotic stem cells into gametes ( sperm cells in males or egg cells in females ) , termed meiosis , is different from that of the division of somatic cells in the body . Cell
Infertility
Many countries have special frameworks for dealing with the ethical and social issues around fertility treatment .
Semen
Semen is typically translucent with white , grey or even yellowish tint . Blood in the semen can cause a pink or reddish colour , known as hematospermia , and may indicate a medical problem which should be evaluated by a doctor if the symptom persists .
Egg donation
However , it appears that repetitive oocyte donation cycles does not cause accelerated ovarian aging , evidenced by absence of decreased anti-Müllerian hormone ( AMH ) in such women .
Female reproductive system
The reproductive tract can be used for various transluminal procedures such as fertiloscopy , intrauterine insemination , and transluminal sterilization .
Testosterone
Effects before birth are divided into two categories , classified in relation to the stages of development .
Hormonal contraception
Another primary mechanism of action of all progestogen - containing contraceptives is inhibition of sperm penetration through the cervix into the upper genital tract ( uterus and fallopian tubes ) by decreasing the amount of and increasing the viscosity of the cervical mucus .
Infertility
These time intervals would seem to be reversed ; this is an area where public policy trumps science . The idea is that for women beyond age 35 , every month counts and if made to wait another 6 months to prove the necessity of medical intervention , the problem could become worse . The corollary to this is that , by definition , failure to conceive in women under 35 is n't regarded with the same urgency as it is in those over 35 .
Infertility
Perhaps except for infertility in science fiction , films and other fiction depicting emotional struggles of assisted reproductive technology have had an upswing first in the latter part of the 2000s decade , although the techniques have been available for decades . Yet , the number of people that can relate to it by personal experience in one way or another is ever growing , and the variety of trials and struggles is huge .
Asexual reproduction
In apicomplexans , multiple fission , or schizogony appears either as merogony , sporogony or gametogony . Merogony results in merozoites , which are multiple daughter cells , that originate within the same cell membrane , sporogony results in sporozoites , and gametogony results in micro gametes .
Fallopian tube
A cross section of Fallopian tube shows four distinct layers , from outer to inner : serosa , subserosa , lamina propria and innermost mucosal . The serosa is derived from visceral peritoneum . Subserosa is composed of loose adventitious tissue , blood vessels , lymphatics , an outer longitudinal and inner circular smooth muscle coats . This layer is responsible for the peristaltic action of the Fallopian tubes . Lamina propria is a vascular connective tissue .
Testosterone
The brain is also affected by this sexual differentiation ; the enzyme aromatase converts testosterone into estradiol that is responsible for masculinization of the brain in male mice . In humans , masculinization of the fetal brain appears , by observation of gender preference in patients with congenital diseases of androgen formation or androgen receptor function , to be associated with functional androgen receptors .
Avocado
The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars . The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon . Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day . B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day , close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning .
Estrogen
Studies have also found that fathers had lower levels of cortisol and testosterone but higher levels of estrogen ( estradiol ) compared to non-fathers . Binge
Fallopian tube
The Fallopian tubes , also known as uterine tubes or salpinges ( singular salpinx ) , are two very fine tubes lined with ciliated epithelia , leading from the ovaries of female mammals into the uterus , via the uterotubal junction . They enable the passage of egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus . In non-mammalian vertebrates , the equivalent structures are called oviducts .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
The disease is caused by bacteria that spread from the vagina and cervix . Infections by Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Chlamydia trachomatis are present in 75 to 90 percent of cases . Often multiple different bacteria are involved . Without treatment about 10 percent of those with a chlamydial infection and 40 percent of those with a gonorrhea infection will develop PID . Risk factors are similar to those of sexually transmitted infections generally and include a high number of sexual partners and drug use . Vaginal douching may also increase the risk . The diagnosis is typically based on the presenting signs and symptoms . It is recommended that the disease be considered in all women of childbearing age who have lower abdominal pain . A definitive diagnosis of PID is made by finding pus involving the fallopian tubes during surgery . Ultrasound may also be useful in diagnosis .
Infertility
ART techniques generally start with stimulating the ovaries to increase egg production . After stimulation , the physician surgically extracts one or more eggs from the ovary , and unites them with sperm in a laboratory setting , with the intent of producing one or more embryos . Fertilization takes place outside the body , and the fertilized egg is reinserted into the woman 's reproductive tract , in a procedure called embryo transfer .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Definitive criteria include histopathologic evidence of endometritis , thickened filled Fallopian tubes , or laparoscopic findings . Gram stain / smear becomes definitive in the identification of rare , atypical and possibly more serious organisms . Two thirds of patients with laparoscopic evidence of previous PID were not aware they had PID , but even asymptomatic PID can cause serious harm .
Parasympathetic nervous system
Another role that the parasympathetic nervous system plays is in sexual activity . In males , the cavernous nerves from the prostatic plexus stimulate smooth muscles in the fibrous trabeculae of the coiled helicene arteries to relax and allow blood to fill the corpora cavernosum and the corpus spongiosum of the penis , making it rigid to prepare for sexual activity . Upon emission of ejaculate , the sympathetics participate and cause peristalsis of the ductus deferens and closure of the internal urethral sphincter to prevent semen from entering the bladder . At the same time , parasympathetics cause peristalsis of the urethral muscle , and the pudendal nerve causes contraction of the bulbospongiosus ( skeletal muscle is not via PN ) , to forcibly emit the semen . During remission the penis becomes flaccid again . In the female , there is erectile tissue analogous to the male yet less substantial that plays a large role in sexual stimulation . The PN cause release of secretions in the female that decrease friction . Also in the female , the parasympathetics innervate the fallopian tubes , which helps peristaltic contractions and movement of the oocyte to the uterus for implantation . The secretions from the female genital tract aid in sperm migration . The PN ( and SN to a lesser extent ) play a significant role in reproduction .
Testosterone
The second theory is similar and is known as `` evolutionary neuroandrogenic ( ENA ) theory of male aggression '' . Testosterone and other androgens have evolved to masculinize a brain in order to be competitive even to the point of risking harm to the person and others . By doing so , individuals with masculinized brains as a result of pre-natal and adult life testosterone and androgens enhance their resource acquiring abilities in order to survive , attract and copulate with mates as much as possible . The masculinization of the brain is not just mediated by testosterone levels at the adult stage , but also testosterone exposure in the womb as a fetus . Higher pre-natal testosterone indicated by a low digit ratio as well as adult testosterone levels increased risk of fouls or aggression among male players in a soccer game . Studies have also found higher pre-natal testosterone or lower digit ratio to be correlated with higher aggression in males .
Semen
Females may benefit from absorbing seminal fluid . Such benefits include male insects transferring nutrients to females via their ejaculate ; in both humans and bovines , the fluid has antiviral and antibacterial properties ; and useful bacteria such as Lactobacillus have been detected in fluid transferred from birds and mammals .
Natural selection
Another option is to classify selection by the life cycle stage at which it acts . Some biologists recognise just two types : viability ( or survival ) selection , which acts to increase an organism 's probability of survival , and fecundity ( or fertility or reproductive ) selection , which acts to increase the rate of reproduction , given survival . Others split the life cycle into further components of selection . Thus viability and survival selection may be defined separately and respectively as acting to improve the probability of survival before and after reproductive age is reached , while fecundity selection may be split into additional sub-components including sexual selection , gametic selection , acting on gamete survival , and compatibility selection , acting on zygote formation .
Semen
In rare circumstances , humans can develop an allergy to semen , called human seminal plasma sensitivity . It appears as a typical localized or systemic allergic response upon contact with seminal fluid . There is no one protein in semen responsible for the reaction . Symptoms can appear after first intercourse or after subsequent intercourse . A semen allergy can be distinguished from a latex allergy by determining if the symptoms disappear with use of a condom . Desensitization treatments are often very successful .
Hormonal contraception
The effect of hormonal agents on the reproductive system is complex . It is believed that combined hormonal contraceptives work primarily by preventing ovulation and thickening cervical mucus . Progestogen - only contraceptives can also prevent ovulation , but rely more significantly on the thickening of cervical mucus . Ormeloxifene does not affect ovulation , and its mechanism of action is not well understood .
Testosterone
Men 's levels of testosterone , a hormone known to affect men 's mating behaviour , changes depending on whether they are exposed to an ovulating or nonovulating woman 's body odour . Men who are exposed to scents of ovulating women maintained a stable testosterone level that was higher than the testosterone level of men exposed to nonovulation cues . Testosterone levels and sexual arousal in men are heavily aware of hormone cycles in females . This may be linked to the ovulatory shift hypothesis , where males are adapted to respond to the ovulation cycles of females by sensing when they are most fertile and whereby females look for preferred male mates when they are the most fertile ; both actions may be driven by hormones .
Germ cell
Gametogenesis , the development of diploid germ cells into either haploid eggs or sperm ( respectively oogenesis and spermatogenesis ) is different for each species but the general stages are similar . Oogenesis and spermatogenesis have many features in common , they both involve :