vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Modern history
After the early 20th century revolutions , shifting alliances of China 's regional warlords waged war for control of the Beijing government . Despite the fact that various warlords gained control of the government in Beijing during the warlord era , this did not constitute a new era of control or governance , because other warlords did not acknowledge the transitory governments in this period and were a law unto themselves . These military - dominated governments were collectively known as the Beiyang government . The warlord era ended around 1927 . World
Nile
The Nile is the area 's natural navigation channel , giving access to Khartoum and Sudan by steamer . The Siege of Khartoum was broken with purpose - built sternwheelers shipped from England and steamed up the river to retake the city . After this came regular steam navigation of the river . With British Forces in Egypt in the First World War and the inter-war years , river steamers provided both security and sightseeing to the Pyramids and Thebes . Steam navigation remained integral to the two countries as late as 1962 . Sudan steamer traffic was a lifeline as few railways or roads were built in that country . Most paddle steamers have been retired to shorefront service , but modern diesel tourist boats remain on the river . Village
Favela
Since the mid-1990s , a new form of tourism has emerged in globalizing cities of several so - called developing countries or emerging nations . Visits to the most disadvantaged parts of the city are essential features of this form of tourism . It is mainly composed of guided tours , marketed and operated by professional companies , through these disadvantaged areas . This new form of tourism has often been referred to as slum tourism which can also be seen in areas of South Africa and India .
Jura Mountains
Both Le Locle and its geographical twin town La Chaux - de-Fonds are recognised as an UNESCO World Heritage Site for their horological and related cultural past . The 11th - century Fort de Joux , famously remodeled and strengthened by Vauban in 1690 and subsequently by other military engineers , is situated on a natural rock outcropping in the middle of the range not far from Pontarlier .
Quito
Quito has the largest , least - altered , and best - preserved historic center in the Americas . This center was , together with the historic centre of Kraków in Poland , the first to be declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 18 September 1978 . The Historic Centre of Quito is located in the center south of the capital on an area of 320 hectares ( 790 acres ) , and is considered one of the most important historic areas in Latin America. There are about 130 monumental buildings ( which host a variety of pictorial art and sculpture , mostly religion inspired , in a multi-faceted range of schools and styles ) and 5,000 properties registered in the municipal inventory of heritage properties .
Silk Road
The Silk Road consisted of several routes . As it extended westwards from the ancient commercial centres of China , the overland , intercontinental Silk Road divided into northern and southern routes bypassing the Taklamakan Desert and Lop Nur .
Afghanistan
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments . However , many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times . The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban , who regarded them as idolatrous . Despite that , archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country , some of them dating back to the 2nd century . This indicates that Buddhism was widespread in Afghanistan . Other historical places include the cities of Herat , Kandahar , Ghazni , Mazar - i - Sharif , and Zaranj . The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is a UNESCO World Heritage site . A cloak reputedly worn by Islam 's prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar , a city founded by Alexander and the first capital of Afghanistan . The citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction for tourists . In the north of the country is the Shrine of Ali , believed by many to be the location where Ali was buried . The National Museum of Afghanistan is located in Kabul .
Segovia
In 1985 the old city of Segovia and its Aqueduct were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO . The old city contains a multitude of historic buildings both civil and religious , including a large number of buildings of Jewish origin , notably within the old Jewish Quarter . One of the most historically important Jewish sites is the Jewish cemetery , El Pinarillo . Among the most important monuments in the city are :
Great Barrier Reef
Management of tourism in the Great Barrier Reef is geared towards making tourism ecologically sustainable . A daily fee is levied that goes towards research of the Great Barrier Reef . This fee ends up being 20 % of the GBRMPA 's income . Policies on cruise ships , bareboat charters , and anchorages limit the traffic on the Great Barrier Reef .
Berlin Wall
The International Spy Museum in Washington DC hosted a Trabant car rally where 20 Trabants gathered in recognition of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall . Rides were raffled every half - hour and a Trabant crashed through a Berlin Wall mock up . The Trabant was the East German people 's car that many used to leave DDR after the collapse .
Berlin Wall
In 1971 , with the Four Power Agreement on Berlin , agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas to enter East Berlin and East Germany regularly , comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans . However , East German authorities could still refuse entry permits .
Chola dynasty
Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty . It played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world . The market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large - scale , cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty . A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade : `` Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city , by affording them daily audience , presents and allowing them profits . Then those articles will never go to your enemies . ''
Nairobi
Nairobi has a large tourist industry , being both a tourist destination and a transport hub .
Silk Road
Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the maritime section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia , Indonesian archipelago , Indian subcontinent , Arabian peninsula , all the way to Egypt and finally Europe .
Chinese Buddhism
In April 2006 China organized the World Buddhist Forum , an event now held every two years , and in March 2007 the government banned mining on Buddhist sacred mountains . In May of the same year , in Changzhou , the world 's tallest pagoda was built and opened . In March 2008 the Taiwan - based organizations Tzu Chi Foundation and Fo Guang Shan were approved to open a branch in mainland China .
Defense of Marriage Act
The Defense of Marriage Act ( DOMA ) ( Pub. L. 104 -- 199 , 110 Stat. 2419 , enacted September 21 , 1996 , 1 U.S.C. § 7 and 28 U.S.C. § 1738C ) was a United States federal law that , prior to being ruled unconstitutional , defined marriage for federal purposes as the union of one man and one woman , and allowed states to refuse to recognize same - sex marriages granted under the laws of other states . Until Section 3 of the Act was struck down in 2013 ( United States v. Windsor ) , DOMA , in conjunction with other statutes , had barred same - sex married couples from being recognized as `` spouses '' for purposes of federal laws , effectively barring them from receiving federal marriage benefits . DOMA 's passage did not prevent individual states from recognizing same - sex marriage , but it imposed constraints on the benefits received by all legally married same - sex couples .
Defense of Marriage Act
Georgia Representative Bob Barr , then a Republican , authored the Defense of Marriage Act and introduced it in the House of Representatives on May 7 , 1996 . Senator Don Nickles , ( R ) Oklahoma , introduced the bill in the Senate . The House Judiciary Committee stated that the Act was intended by Congress to `` reflect and honor a collective moral judgment and to express moral disapproval of homosexuality '' . The Act 's congressional sponsors stated , `` ( T ) he bill amends the U.S. Code to make explicit what has been understood under federal law for over 200 years ; that a marriage is the legal union of a man and a woman as husband and wife , and a spouse is a husband or wife of the opposite sex . ''
Defense of Marriage Act
Defense of Marriage Act Long title An Act to define and protect the institution of marriage Acronyms ( colloquial ) DOMA Enacted by the 104th United States Congress Effective September 21 , 1996 Citations Public law Pub. L. 104 -- 199 Statutes at Large 110 Stat. 2419 ( 1996 ) Codification Titles amended 1 U.S.C. General Provisions 28 U.S.C. Judiciary and Judicial Procedure U.S.C. sections created 1 U.S.C. § 7 ( Struck down , June 26 , 2013 ) Legislative history Introduced in the House as H.R. 3396 by Bob Barr ( R -- GA ) on May 7 , 1996 Committee consideration by Committee on the Judiciary ( Subcommittee on the Constitution ) Passed the House on July 12 , 1996 ( Yeas : 342 ; Nays : 67 ) Passed the Senate on September 10 , 1996 ( Yeas : 85 ; Nays : 14 ) Signed into law by President Bill Clinton on September 21 , 1996 United States Supreme Court cases United States v. Windsor , No. 12 - 307 , 570 U.S. ___ ( 2013 ) , in which Section 3 ( 1 U.S.C. § 7 ) was struck down by the Supreme Court on June 26 , 2013
Defense of Marriage Act
Initially introduced in May 1996 , DOMA passed both houses of Congress by large , veto - proof majorities and was signed into law by President Bill Clinton in September 1996 . By defining `` spouse '' and its related terms to signify a heterosexual couple in a recognized marriage , Section 3 codified non-recognition of same - sex marriages for all federal purposes , including insurance benefits for government employees , social security survivors ' benefits , immigration , bankruptcy , and the filing of joint tax returns , as well as excluding same - sex spouses from the scope of laws protecting families of federal officers ( 18 U.S.C. § 115 ) , laws evaluating financial aid eligibility , and federal ethics laws applicable to opposite - sex spouses .
Defense of Marriage Act
Section 1 . Short title This Act may be cited as the `` Defense of Marriage Act '' . Section 2 . Powers reserved to the states No State , territory , or possession of the United States , or Indian tribe , shall be required to give effect to any public act , record , or judicial proceeding of any other State , territory , possession , or tribe respecting a relationship between persons of the same sex that is treated as a marriage under the laws of such other State , territory , possession , or tribe , or a right or claim arising from such relationship . Section 3 . Definition of marriage In determining the meaning of any Act of Congress , or of any ruling , regulation , or interpretation of the various administrative bureaus and agencies of the United States , the word ' marriage ' means only a legal union between one man and one woman as husband and wife , and the word ' spouse ' refers only to a person of the opposite sex who is a husband or a wife .
Defense of Marriage Act
The 1996 Republican Party platform endorsed DOMA , referencing only Section 2 of the act : `` We reject the distortion of ( anti-discrimination ) laws to cover sexual preference , and we endorse the Defense of Marriage Act to prevent states from being forced to recognize same - sex unions . '' The Democratic Party platform that year did not mention DOMA or same - sex marriage . In a June 1996 interview in the gay and lesbian magazine The Advocate , Clinton said , `` I remain opposed to same - sex marriage . I believe marriage is an institution for the union of a man and a woman . This has been my long - standing position , and it is not being reviewed or reconsidered . '' But he also criticized DOMA as `` divisive and unnecessary . ''
Defense of Marriage Act
Section 2 of DOMA states to give legal relief to any state from recognizing same - sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions . Various federal lawsuits , some filed alongside challenges to Section 3 , have challenged Section 2 .
Defense of Marriage Act
After the Supreme Court struck down DOMA Section 3 on June 26 , 2013 , Feinstein and Nadler reintroduced the Respect for Marriage Act as S. 1236 and H.R. 2523 .
Defense of Marriage Act
On July 8 , 2009 , Massachusetts Attorney General Martha Coakley filed a suit , Massachusetts v. United States Department of Health and Human Services , challenging the constitutionality of DOMA . The suit claims that Congress `` overstepped its authority , undermined states ' efforts to recognize marriages between same - sex couples , and codified an animus towards gay and lesbian people . '' Tauro , the judge also handling Gill , heard arguments on May 26 , 2010 .
Defense of Marriage Act
On February 23 , 2011 , Attorney General Eric Holder released a statement regarding lawsuits challenging DOMA Section 3 . He wrote :
Defense of Marriage Act
On September 15 , 2009 , three Democratic members of Congress , Jerrold Nadler of New York , Tammy Baldwin of Wisconsin , and Jared Polis of Colorado , introduced legislation to repeal DOMA called the Respect for Marriage Act . The bill had 91 original co-sponsors in the House of Representatives and was supported by Clinton , Barr , and several legislators who voted for DOMA . Congressman Barney Frank and John Berry , head of the Office of Personnel Management , did not support that effort , stating that `` the backbone is not there '' in Congress . Frank and Berry suggested DOMA could be overturned more quickly through lawsuits such as Gill v. Office of Personnel Management filed by Gay & Lesbian Advocates & Defenders ( GLAD ) .
Defense of Marriage Act
On November 3 , 2011 , 133 House Democrats filed an amicus brief in support of the plaintiffs in Gill and Massachusetts , asserting their belief that Section 3 of DOMA was unconstitutional . Included among the members of Congress signing the brief were 14 members who had voted for the bill in 1996 . Seventy major employers also filed an amicus brief supporting the plaintiffs . A three - judge panel heard arguments in the case on April 4 , 2012 , during which the DOJ for the first time took the position that it could not defend Section 3 of DOMA under any level of scrutiny . On May 31 , 2012 , the panel unanimously affirmed Tauro 's ruling , finding Section 3 of DOMA unconstitutional . On June 29 , BLAG filed a petition for certiorari with the Supreme Court . The DOJ did so on July 3 , while asking the Supreme Court to review Golinski as well . The Commonwealth of Massachusetts filed a response to both petitions adding the Spending Clause and Tenth Amendment issues as questions presented . The Supreme Court denied these petitions on June 27 , 2013 , following its decision in Windsor .
Defense of Marriage Act
However , political discussion of the possibility of using a constitutional amendment to restrict marriage rights was not unheard of in the 1990s . In January 1996 , for example , the House Judiciary Committee for the state of Hawaii voted 12 - 1 in favor of passing bill HB 117 , which was aimed at amending the constitution of Hawaii to define marriage as involving one man and one woman . In 1998 , the first anti-same - sex marriage amendment was added to the constitution of a U.S. state , though it was not until 2002 that a federal marriage amendment was first introduced in the U.S. Congress .
Defense of Marriage Act
Clinton 's explanation for signing DOMA has been disputed by gay rights activist Elizabeth Birch : `` In 1996 , I was President of the Human Rights Campaign , and there was no real threat of a Federal Marriage Amendment . That battle would explode about eight years later , in 2004 , when President Bush announced it was a central policy goal of his administration to pass such an amendment . ''
Defense of Marriage Act
Evan Wolfson , who , in 1996 , ran the National Freedom to Marry Coalition , while an attorney at Lambda Legal , has also criticized the suggestion that DOMA was stopping something worse : `` That 's complete nonsense . There was no conversation about something ' worse ' until eight years later . There was no talk of a constitutional amendment , and no one even thought it was possible -- and , of course , it turned out it was n't really possible to happen . So , the idea that people were swallowing DOMA in order to prevent a constitutional amendment is really just historic revisionism and not true . That was never an argument made in the ' 90s . ''
Defense of Marriage Act
On March 3 , 2009 , GLAD filed a federal court challenge , Gill v. Office of Personnel Management , based on the Equal Protection Clause and the federal government 's consistent deference to each state 's definition of marriage prior to the enactment of DOMA . The case questioned only the DOMA provision that the federal government defines marriage as the union of a man and a woman . On May 6 , 2010 , Judge Joseph L. Tauro heard arguments in the U.S. District Court in Boston .
Defense of Marriage Act
In 2004 , President George W. Bush endorsed a proposed constitutional amendment to restrict marriage to opposite - sex couples because he thought DOMA vulnerable : `` After more than two centuries of American jurisprudence and millennia of human experience , a few judges and local authorities are presuming to change the most fundamental institution of civilization . Their actions have created confusion on an issue that requires clarity . '' In January 2005 , however , he said he would not lobby on its behalf , since too many U.S. senators thought DOMA would survive a constitutional challenge .
Defense of Marriage Act
On July 18 , 2013 , the Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group ( BLAG ) , which had mounted a defense of Section 3 when the administration declined to , acknowledged that in Windsor `` ( t ) he Supreme Court recently resolved the issue of DOMA Section 3 's constitutionality '' and said `` it no longer will defend that statute . ''
Defense of Marriage Act
In United States v. Windsor ( 2013 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court declared Section 3 of DOMA unconstitutional under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment . Obergefell v. Hodges ( 2015 ) struck down the act 's provisions disallowing same - sex marriages to be performed under federal jurisdiction .
Defense of Marriage Act
The issue of legal recognition of same - sex marriage attracted mainstream attention infrequently until the 1980s . A sympathetic reporter heard several gay men raise the issue in 1967 and described it as `` high among the deviate 's hopes '' . In one early incident , gay activist Jack Baker brought suit against the state of Minnesota in 1970 after being denied a marriage license to marry another man ; the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled ( in Baker v. Nelson ) that limiting marriage to opposite - sex couples did not violate the Constitution . Baker later changed his legal name to Pat Lynn McConnell and married his male partner in 1971 , but the marriage was not legally recognized . A 1972 off - Broadway play , Nightride , depicted `` a black -- white homosexual marriage '' . In 1979 , IntegrityUSA , an organization of gay Episcopalians , raised the issue when the U.S. Episcopal Church considered a ban on the ordination of homosexuals as priests .
Defense of Marriage Act
Following Holder 's announcement that the Obama Administration would no longer defend DOMA Section 3 in court , on March 16 , 2011 , Senator Dianne Feinstein introduced the Respect for Marriage Act in the Senate again and Nadler introduced it in the House . The Senate Judiciary Committee voted 10 -- 8 in favor of advancing the bill to the Senate floor , but observers believed it would not gain the 60 votes needed to end debate and bring it to a vote .
Defense of Marriage Act
Dragovich v. Department of the Treasury , No. 10 - 1564 ( N.D. Cal . ) , a class action in which California same - sex couples seek equal access to California 's long - term care insurance program for public employees and their families . U.S. District Court Judge Claudia Wilken on May 24 , 2012 , found Section 3 of DOMA and certain IRS regulations violated the plaintiffs ' equal protection rights . Hara v. Office of Personnel Management , No. 09 - 3134 ( Fed . Cir . ) Hara is one of the plaintiffs in Gill . Torres - Barragan v. Holder , No. 10 - 55768 ( 9th Cir . ) An immigration - related DOMA challenge in which the district court rejected the constitutional challenges . Cozen O'Connor v. Tobits , No. 11 - 00045 - CDJ , Pennsylvania , in which two parties dispute who inherits the proceeds of a law firm 's profit - sharing plan under ERISA and DOMA . The DOJ filed a brief arguing the unconstitutionality of DOMA . Following the decision in Windsor , Judge C. Darnell Jones II ruled that the widow qualified as the deceased 's spouse since Illinois , their state of domicile , recognized them as spouses in a civil union as defined by Illinois . The deceased 's parents dropped their appeal on August 30 . On April 5 , 2012 , Chief Judge James Ware of the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California ordered the federal court clerk to reimburse Christopher Nathan , a court employee , for the costs of health insurance coverage for his same - sex spouse comparable to that denied him by Section 3 of DOMA . On November 21 , 2012 , the Ninth Circuit Judicial Conference affirmed Ware 's decision and ordered the court to determine the amount due Nathan and pay him within 10 days . Military
Defense of Marriage Act
On March 17 , 2011 , U.S. District Judge Jeffrey White dismissed the suit on procedural grounds but invited Golinski to amend her suit to argue the unconstitutionality of DOMA Section 3 , which she did on April 14 . Following the Attorney General 's decision to no longer defend DOMA , the Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group ( BLAG ) , an arm of the House of Representatives , took up the defense . Former United States Solicitor General Paul Clement filed , on BLAG 's behalf , a motion to dismiss raising arguments previously avoided by the Department of Justice : that DOMA 's definition of marriage is valid `` because only a man and a woman can beget a child together , and because historical experience has shown that a family consisting of a married father and mother is an effective social structure for raising children . '' On July 1 , 2011 , the DOJ filed a brief in support of Golinski 's suit , in which it detailed for the first time its case for heightened scrutiny based on `` a significant history of purposeful discrimination against gay and lesbian people , by governmental as well as private entities '' and its arguments that DOMA Section 3 fails to meet that standard .
Defense of Marriage Act
On April 2 , 2012 , five bi-national same - sex couples represented by Immigration Equality and Paul , Weiss filed a lawsuit , Blesch v. Holder , in the District Court for the Eastern District of New York , claiming that Section 3 of DOMA violated their equal protection rights by denying the U.S. citizen in the relationship the same rights in the green card application process granted a U.S. citizen who is in a relationship of partners of the opposite sex . On July 25 , Chief Judge Carol Bagley Amon stayed the case pending the resolution of Windsor by the Second Circuit .
Defense of Marriage Act
On June 26 , 2015 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that the 14th Amendment requires all U.S. state laws to recognize same - sex marriages . This left Section 2 of DOMA as superseded and unenforceable .