vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Israel
The Roman Empire invaded the region in 63 BCE , first taking control of Syria , and then intervening in the Hasmonean Civil War . The struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian factions in Judea eventually led to the installation of Herod the Great and consolidation of the Herodian kingdom as a vassal Judean state of Rome . With the decline of the Herodian dynasty , Judea , transformed into a Roman province , became the site of a violent struggle of Jews against Greco - Romans , culminating in the Jewish -- Roman wars , ending in wide - scale destruction , expulsions , and genocide . Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE .
Axis powers
Mussolini by mid-1941 recognized that Italy 's war objectives had failed . Mussolini henceforth believed that Italy was left with no choice in such a subordinate status other than to follow Germany in its war and hope for a German victory . However Germany supported Italian propaganda of the creation of a `` Latin Bloc '' of Italy , Vichy France , Spain , and Portugal to ally with Germany against the threat of communism , and after the German invasion of the Soviet Union , the prospect of a Latin Bloc seemed plausible . From 1940 to 1941 , Francisco Franco of Spain had endorsed a Latin Bloc of Italy , Vichy France , Spain and Portugal , in order to balance the countries ' powers to that of Germany ; however , the discussions failed to yield an agreement .
Axis powers
Italian East Africa was an Italian colony existing from 1936 to 1943 . Prior to the invasion and annexation of Ethiopia into this united colony in 1936 , Italy had two colonies , Eritrea and Somalia since the 1880s .
Middle Ages
The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire . Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as `` invasions '' , they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire . Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration . The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as Stilicho ( d . 408 ) , Aetius ( d . 454 ) , Aspar ( d . 471 ) , Ricimer ( d . 472 ) , or Gundobad ( d . 516 ) , who were partly or fully of non-Roman background . When the line of Western emperors ceased , many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background . Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common . This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes , including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state . Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar , and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects . Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions . An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities . Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes , instead relying on granting them land or rents . This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed . Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms . Slavery declined as the supply weakened , and society became more rural . A
Axis powers
Italy 's only strategic natural resource was an abundance of aluminum . Petroleum , iron , copper , nickel , chrome , and rubber all had to be imported . The Fascist government 's economic policy of autarky and a recourse to synthetic materials was not able to meet the demand . Prior to entering the war , the Fascist government sought to gain control over resources in the Balkans , particularly oil from Romania . The agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union to invade and partition Poland between them resulted in Hungary that bordered the Soviet Union after Poland 's partition , and Romania viewing Soviet invasion as an immediate threat , resulting in both countries appealing to Italy for support , beginning in September 1939 . Italy - then still officially neutral - responded to appeals by the Hungarian and Romanian governments for protection from the Soviet Union , by proposing a Danube - Balkan neutrals bloc . The proposed bloc was designed to increase Italian influence in the Balkans : it met resistance from France , Germany , and the Soviet Union that did not want to lose their influence in the Balkans ; however Britain , who believed that Italy would not enter the war on Germany 's side , supported the neutral bloc . The efforts to form the bloc failed by November 1939 after Turkey made an agreement that it would protect Allied Mediterranean territory , along with Greece and Romania .
Napoleon
Napoleon , expecting to win the war , delayed too long and lost this opportunity ; by December the Allies had withdrawn the offer . When his back was to the wall in 1814 he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals . The Allies now had new , harsher terms that included the retreat of France to its 1791 boundaries , which meant the loss of Belgium . Napoleon would remain Emperor , however he rejected the term . The British wanted Napoleon permanently removed , and they prevailed , but Napoleon adamantly refused . Napoleon
Italian nationalism
The origins of Italian nationalism have been traced to the Renaissance where Italy led a European revival of classical Greco - Roman style of culture , philosophy , and art . Renaissance - era diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli in his work The Prince ( 1532 ) appealed to Italian patriotism urging Italians `` to seize Italy and free her from the Barbarians '' , the `` Barbarians '' he referred to were foreign powers occupying the Italian Peninsula .
Axis powers
Hitler attempted to break the impasse with Italy over Austria by sending Hermann Göring to negotiate with Mussolini in 1933 to convince Mussolini to press the Austrian government to appoint members of Austria 's Nazis to the government . Göring claimed that Nazi domination of Austria was inevitable and that Italy should accept this , as well as repeating to Mussolini of Hitler 's promise to `` regard the question of the South Tyrol frontier as finally liquidated by the peace treaties '' . In response to Göring 's visit with Mussolini , Dollfuss immediately went to Italy to counter any German diplomatic headway . Dollfuss claimed that his government was actively challenging Marxists in Austria and claimed that once the Marxists were defeated in Austria , that support for Austria 's Nazis would decline .
Ancient Roman architecture
Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known , such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius , at that time on the edge of Rome , and which can be also seen outside the city walls of Pompeii , including the Villa of the Mysteries , famous for its frescos . These early suburban villas , such as the one at Rome 's Auditorium site or at Grottarossa in Rome , demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the villa suburbana in Central Italy . It is possible that these early , suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power ( maybe even palaces ) of regional strongmen or heads of important families ( gentes ) .
North Africa
The distinction between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa is historically and ecologically significant because of the effective barrier created by the Sahara Desert for much of modern history . From 3500 BC , following the abrupt desertification of the Sahara due to gradual changes in the Earth 's orbit , this barrier has culturally separated the North from the rest of the continent . As the seafaring civilizations of the Phoenicians , Greeks , Romans , Muslims and others facilitated communication and migration across the Mediterranean Sea , the cultures of North Africa became much more closely tied to Southwestern Asia and Europe than Sub-Saharan Africa . The Islamic influence in the area is also significant , and North Africa is a major part of the Muslim world .
Italian language
During the Middle Ages , the established written language in Europe was Latin . With the overwhelming majority of people illiterate , however , only a tiny handful were well versed in the language . In Italy , as in all other countries , the majority would instead speak the vernacular ( native tongue ) of their region . These dialects ( as they are commonly referred to as ) were derived from Vulgar Latin over the course of centuries , evolving naturally unaffected by formal standards and teachings . However , it should be noted that these Languages of Italy are not truly `` dialects '' of Standard Italian , evolving independently ( and alongside ) of the predecessor of Standard Italian . They are often mutually unintelligible , and are better classified as distinct languages .
Renaissance
Some historians have begun to consider the word Renaissance to be unnecessarily loaded , implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive `` Dark Ages '' , the Middle Ages . Most historians now prefer to use the term `` early modern '' for this period , a more neutral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era . Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general , and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation .
Italian Australians
This attitude was also present in other English speaking countries , as Porter reported for Canada . In his classical study of Italians in North Queensland , Douglass suggests other factors affecting such racist attitudes , and reports a summary of the Commonwealth Parliamentary debate of 1927 : `` The image of the Italian was nourished by the stereotype of the southerner , and particularly the Sicilian . Regardless of its veracity , it could be applied to only a minority of the new arrivals since , by Italian Government estimates , fully two - fifths of its emigrants to Australia were from the Veneto and another two - fifths were drawn from the Piedmont , Lombardy and Tuscany regions . Only one - fifth were from Sicily and Calabria '' . Here it is only necessary to add that such disposition was hard to change if , as O'Connor reports by citing a previous work by Bromley , `` darkness , smallness , noisiness , fatness and smelliness formed an Australian stereotype of the Italians '' .
History of democracy
Even though Rome is classified as a Republic and not a democracy , its history has helped preserve the concept of democracy over the centuries . The Romans invented the concept of classics and many works from Ancient Greece were preserved . Additionally , the Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries , and today 's modern ( representative ) democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models . The
Romance languages
During the political decline of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century , there were large - scale migrations into the empire , and the Latin - speaking world was fragmented into several independent states . Central Europe and the Balkans were occupied by Germanic and Slavic tribes , as well as by Huns . These incursions isolated the Vlachs from the rest of Romance - speaking Europe .
Western Roman Empire
Some territories of Roman control continued to exist in the West in some form even after 480 . The Domain of Soissons , a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by Syagrius , survived until 486 when it was conquered by the Franks under King Clovis I after the Battle of Soissons . Syagrius was known as the `` King of the Romans '' by the Germanic peoples of the region but continually claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province , not an independent realm .
Italian Australians
Conversely , in Australian cities , the Italian village or the region of origin have been significant in the formation of separate settlements or neighbourhood groupings of Italians . The way in which a population ' subgroup ' is distributed across an area is of importance because not only can it tell us a great deal about the pattern of life of that group , but it is also crucial in any planning of service delivering to such a community . The Italian community has very distinctive patterns of distribution that differentiate it from the total population .
Economic history of Italy
Prior to unification , the economy of the many Italian statelets was overwhelmingly agrarian ; however , the agricultural suprlus produced what historians call a `` pre-industrial '' transformation in North - western Italy starting from the 1820s , that led to a diffuse , if mostly artisanal , concentration of manufacturing activities , especially in Piedmont - Sardinia under the liberal rule of the Count of Cavour .
Axis powers
In October 1938 in the aftermath of the Munich Agreement , Italy demanded concessions from France to yield to Italy : a free port at Djibouti , control of the Addis Ababa - Djibouti railroad , Italian participation in the management of Suez Canal Company , some form of French - Italian condominium over Tunisia , and the preservation of Italian culture in French - held Corsica with no French assimilation of the people . Italy opposed the French monopoly over the Suez Canal because under the French - dominated Suez Canal Company all Italian merchant traffic to its colony of Italian East Africa was forced to pay tolls upon entering the canal . Mussolini hoped that in light of Italy 's role in settling the Munich Agreement that prevented the outbreak of war , that Britain would react by putting pressure on France to yield to Italy 's demands to preserve the peace . France refused to accept Italy 's demands as it was widely suspected that Italy 's true intentions were territorial acquisition of Nice , Corsica , Tunisia , and Djibouti and not the milder official demands put forth . Relations between Italy and France deteriorated with France 's refusal to accept Italy 's demands . France responded to Italy 's demands with threatening naval maneuvers as a warning to Italy . As tensions between Italy and France grew , Hitler made a major speech on 30 January 1939 in which he promised German military support in the case of an unprovoked war against Italy .
Federalist No. 10
Greece and Rome were looked to as model republics throughout this debate , and authors on both sides took Roman pseudonyms . Brutus points out that the Greek and Roman states were small , whereas the U.S. is vast . He also points out that the expansion of these republics resulted in a transition from free government to tyranny .
Geography of China
Chinese history is often explained in terms of several strategic areas , defined by particular topographic limits . Starting from the Chinese central plain , the former heart of the Han populations , the Han people expanded militarily and then demographically toward the Loess Plateau , the Sichuan Basin , and the Southern Hills ( as defined by the map on the left ) , not without resistance from local populations . Pushed by its comparatively higher demographic growth , the Han continued their expansion by military and demographic waves . The far - south of present - day China , the northern parts of today 's Vietnam , and the Tarim Basin were first reached and durably subdued by the Han dynasty 's armies . The Northern steppes were always the source of invasions into China , which culminated in the 13th century by Mongolian conquest of the whole China and creation of Mongolian Yuan dynasty . Manchuria , much of today 's Northeast China , and Korean Peninsula were usually not under Chinese control , with the exception of some limited periods of occupation . Manchuria became strongly integrated into the Chinese empire during the late Qing dynasty , while the west side of the Changbai Mountains , formerly the home of Korean tribes , thus also entered China .
Mississippi River
In the 18th century , the river was the primary western boundary of the young United States , and since the country 's expansion westward , the Mississippi River has been widely considered a convenient if approximate dividing line between the Eastern , Southern , and Midwestern United States , and the Western United States . This is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase `` Trans - Mississippi '' as used in the name of the Trans - Mississippi Exposition .
Geography of Asia
The three - continent system was an idea devised in Archaic Greece , a time of Greek colonial expansion and trade throughout the Mediterranean and the spread of writing again . Writing is a prerequisite of written geography . It had been lost during the preceding Greek Dark Ages , a period of piracy at sea and defensive parochialism on land . The preceding Mycenaean Greece left scant record of some serving women from a locality in the later Asia Minor called Asia . Europe was mainly Greece , while Libya was a small region to the west of Egypt . There was no systematic definition of `` continent ; '' however , the Greek mariners did make a distinction that was to become one : the islands , nēsoi , versus the mainland , ēpeiros . One etymology relates ēpeir - to the same Indo - European root from which English `` over '' came . The Armenian form means `` bank , coast . '' The Greek form must be some sort of `` overland , '' whether continuous land or a coast that looms over . In Latin it became continens terra , `` the continuous land , '' shortened to just continens , stem continent - .
History of the Catholic Church
At first , Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers , which historians refer to as Jewish Christianity , but within twenty years of Jesus 's death , Sunday was being regarded as the primary day of worship . As preachers such as Paul of Tarsus began converting Gentiles , Christianity began growing away from Jewish practices to establish itself as a separate religion , though the issue of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism is still debated today . To resolve doctrinal differences among the competing factions within the Church , in or around the year 50 , the apostles convened the first Church council , the Council of Jerusalem . This council affirmed that Gentiles could become Christians without adopting all of the Mosaic Law . Growing tensions soon led to a starker separation that was virtually complete by the time Christians refused to join in the Bar Kokhba Jewish revolt of 132 , however some groups of Christians retained elements of Jewish practice .
Renaissance
The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil . The late Middle Ages was a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy , culminating in the Western Schism , in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop of Rome . While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance ( 1414 ) , a resulting reform movement known as Conciliarism sought to limit the power of the pope . Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran ( 1511 ) , it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption , most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI , who was accused variously of simony , nepotism and fathering four children ( most of whom were married off , presumably for the consolidation of power ) while a cardinal .
Catalonia
Conversion to Christianity , attested in the 3rd century , was completed in urban areas in the 4th century . Although Hispania remained under Roman rule and did not fall under the rule of Vandals , Swabians and Alans in the 5th century , the main cities suffered frequent sacking and some deurbanization .
Pope
From the 7th century it became common for European monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms , their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy . This practice had become common because often the prelates and secular rulers were also participants in public life . To combat this and other practices that had corrupted the Church between the years 900 and 1050 , centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform , the most important being the Abbey of Cluny , which spread its ideals throughout Europe . This reform movement gained strength with the election of Pope Gregory VII in 1073 , who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the Gregorian Reform , in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline , including clerical celibacy . The conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Henry I of England , known as the Investiture Controversy , was only resolved in 1122 , by the Concordat of Worms , in which Pope Callixtus II decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders , and temporal rulers by lay investiture . Soon after , Pope Alexander III began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law .
Crusades
Pope Innocent III also began preaching what became the Fourth Crusade in 1200 , primarily in France but also in England and Germany . After gathering in Venice , the Crusade was used by Doge Enrico Dandolo and Philip of Swabia to further their secular ambitions . Dandolo 's aim was to expand Venice 's power in the Eastern Mediterranean , and Philip intended to restore his exiled nephew , Alexios IV Angelos , along with Angelos 's father , Isaac II Angelos , to the throne of Byzantium . This would require overthrowing the present ruler , Alexios III Angelos , the uncle of Alexios IV . When an insufficient number of knights arrived in Venice , the Crusaders were unable to pay the Venetians for a fleet , so they agreed to divert to Constantinople and share what could be looted as payment . As collateral , the Crusaders seized the Christian city of Zara ; Innocent was appalled , and promptly excommunicated them . However , the French Crusaders eventually had their excommunications lifted . When the original purpose of the campaign was defeated by the assassination of Alexios IV Angelos , they conquered Constantinople , not once but twice . Following upon their initial success , the Crusaders captured Constantinople again and this time sacked it , pillaging churches and killing many citizens . The Fourth Crusade never came within 1,000 miles of its objective of Jerusalem .
Eastern Orthodox Church
9 . The Fifth Council of Constantinople was actually a series of councils held between 1341 and 1351 . It affirmed the hesychastic theology of St. Gregory Palamas and condemned the philosopher Barlaam of Calabria .
History of the Catholic Church
The Fifth Lateran Council issued some but only minor reforms in March 1517 . A few months later , on October 31 , 1517 , Martin Luther posted his Ninety - Five Theses in public , hoping to spark debate . His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences . Huldrych Zwingli , John Calvin , and others also criticized Catholic teachings . These challenges , supported by powerful political forces in the region , developed into the Protestant Reformation . In Germany , the Reformation led to war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V . The first nine - year war ended in 1555 but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict , the Thirty Years ' War , which broke out in 1618 . In France , a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League . A series of popes sided with and became financial supporters of the Catholic League . This ended under Pope Clement VIII , who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV 's 1598 Edict of Nantes , which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants .