vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Treaty of Versailles
In February and March 1920 , the Schleswig Plebiscites were held . The people of Schleswig were presented with only two choices : Danish or German sovereignty . The northern Danish - speaking area voted for Denmark while the southern German - speaking area voted for Germany , resulting in the province being partitioned . The East Prussia plebiscite was held on 11 July 1920 . There was a 90 % turn out with 99.3 % of the population wishing to remain with Germany . Further plebiscites were held in Eupen , Malmedy , and Prussian Moresnet . On 20 September 1920 , the League of Nations allotted these territories to Belgium . These latter plebiscites were followed by a boundary commission in 1922 , followed by the new Belgian - German border being recognized by the German Government on on 15 December 1923 . The transfer of the Hultschin area , of Silesia , to Czechoslovakia was completed on 3 February 1921 .
Western Front (World War I)
Germany in 1919 was bankrupt , the people living in a state of semi-starvation and having no commerce with the remainder of the world . The Allies occupied the Rhine cities of Cologne , Koblenz and Mainz , with restoration dependent on payment of reparations . In Germany a Stab - in - the - back myth ( Dolchstoßlegende ) was propagated by Hindenburg , Ludendorff and other defeated generals , that the defeat was not the fault of the ' good core ' of the army but due to certain left - wing groups within Germany who signed a disastrous armistice ; this would later be exploited by nationalists and the Nazi party propaganda to excuse the overthrow of the Weimar Republic in 1930 and the imposition of the Nazi dictatorship after March 1933 .
History of Germany (1945–90)
West Germany 's relations with East Germany posed particularly difficult questions . Though anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction , West Germany under Brandt 's Ostpolitik was intent on holding to its concept of `` two German states in one German nation . '' Relations gradually improved . In the early 1970s , the Ostpolitik led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany . The Treaty of Moscow ( August 1970 ) , the Treaty of Warsaw ( December 1970 ) , the Four Power Agreement on Berlin ( September 1971 ) , the Transit Agreement ( May 1972 ) , and the Basic Treaty ( December 1972 ) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both states joining the United Nations , in September 1973 . The two German states exchanged permanent representatives in 1974 , and , in 1987 , East German head of state Erich Honecker paid an official visit to West Germany .
Times Square
On May 8 , 1945 , a massive crowd celebrated Victory in Europe Day in Times Square ; and on August 15 , 1945 , the largest crowd in the history of Times Square gathered to celebrate Victory over Japan Day . The victory itself was announced by a headline on the `` zipper '' news ticker at One Times Square , which read `` * * * OFFICIAL TRUMAN ANNOUNCES JAPANESE SURRENDER * * * '' , the six asterisks representing the branches of the U.S. Armed Forces .
World War II
The Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . On 19 July , Hitler again publicly offered to end the war , saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire . The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum . The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command , and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort . German
History of Germany (1945–90)
In early February 1990 , the Modrow government 's proposal for a unified , neutral German state was rejected by Chancellor Kohl , who affirmed that a unified Germany must be a member of NATO . Finally , on 18 March , the first free elections were held in East Germany , and a government led by Lothar de Maizière ( CDU ) was formed under a policy of expeditious unification with West Germany . The freely elected representatives of the Volkskammer held their first session on 5 April , and East Germany peacefully evolved from a communist to a democratically elected government . Free and secret communal ( local ) elections were held in the GDR on 6 May , and the CDU again won most of the available seats . On 1 July , the two German states entered into an economic and monetary union .
Manhattan Project
The prospect of sabotage was always present , and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures . While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees , there were no confirmed instances of Axis - instigated sabotage . However , on 10 March 1945 , a Japanese fire balloon struck a power line , and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down . With so many people involved , security was a difficult task . A special Counter Intelligence Corps detachment was formed to handle the project 's security issues . By 1943 , it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project . Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash , the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command , investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley . Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley , Haakon Chevalier , about passing information to the Soviet Union .
Victory in Europe Day
The former Soviet Union , Israel , and Eastern Bloc countries have historically celebrated the end of World War II on 9 May . In Ukraine since 2015 , 8 May is designated as a day of Remembrance and Reconciliation , but it is not a public holiday .
Victoria Falls
In 1964 , Northern Rhodesia became the independent state of Zambia . The following year , Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence . This was not recognized by Zambia , the United Kingdom nor the vast majority of states and led to United Nations - mandated sanctions . In response to the emerging crisis , in 1966 Zambia restricted or stopped border crossings ; it did not re-open the border completely until 1980 . Guerilla warfare arose on the southern side of the Zambezi from 1972 : the Rhodesian Bush War . Visitor numbers began to drop , particularly on the Rhodesian side . The war affected Zambia through military incursions , causing the latter to impose security measures including the stationing of soldiers to restrict access to the gorges and some parts of the falls .
Bauhaus
The school existed in three German cities : Weimar from 1919 to 1925 , Dessau from 1925 to 1932 and Berlin from 1932 to 1933 , under three different architect - directors : Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928 , Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 until 1933 , when the school was closed by its own leadership under pressure from the Nazi regime , having been painted as a centre of communist intellectualism . Although the school was closed , the staff continued to spread its idealistic precepts as they left Germany and emigrated all over the world .
Allies of World War II
Poland : 1 September 1939 France : 3 September 1939 -- On 22 June 1940 , Vichy France under Marshal Pétain formally capitulated to Germany , and became neutral . This capitulation was denounced by General de Gaulle , who established the Free France government - in - exile , which continued to fight against Germany . This led to the Provisional Government of the French Republic , which was officially recognized by the other Allies as the legitimate government of France on 23 October 1944 . Pétain 's 1940 surrender was also legally nullified , so France is considered an Ally throughout the war . United Kingdom : 3 September 1939 India : 3 September 1939 Australia : 3 September 1939 New Zealand : 3 September 1939 Union of South Africa : 6 September 1939 Canada : 10 September 1939 Nepal : 4 September 1939
World War I
Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919 , which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned to their home countries ; by contrast , most commemorations of the war 's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918 . Legally , the formal peace treaties were not complete until the last , the Treaty of Lausanne , was signed . Under its terms , the Allied forces left Constantinople on 23 August 1923 .
World War II
On 11 July , Allied leaders met in Potsdam , Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany , and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan , specifically stating that `` the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction '' . During this conference , the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister .
Erwin Rommel
In the wake of the successful British offensive in November 1942 and other military reverses , the Propaganda Ministry directed the media to emphasize Rommel 's invincibility . The charade was maintained until the spring of 1943 , even as the German situation in Africa became increasingly precarious . To ensure that the inevitable defeat in Africa would not be associated with Rommel 's name , Goebbels had the Supreme High Command announce in May 1943 that Rommel was on a two - month leave for health reasons . Instead , the campaign was presented , by Berndt , who resumed his role in the Propaganda Ministry , as a ruse to tie down the British Empire while Germany was turning Europe into an impenetrable fortress , with Rommel at the helm of this success . After the radio program ran in May 1943 , Rommel sent Berndt a case of cigars as a sign of his gratitude . One
Munich Agreement
On 26 September , Chamberlain sent Sir Horace Wilson to carry a personal letter to Hitler declaring that the Allies wanted a peaceful resolution to the Sudeten crisis . Later that evening , Hitler made his response in a speech at the Sportpalast in Berlin ; he gave Czechoslovakia a deadline of 28 September at 2 : 00pm to cede the Sudetenland to Germany or face war .
End of World War II in Europe
Liberation of Nazi Concentration Camps and refugees : Allied forces began to discover the scale of The Holocaust . The advance into Germany uncovered numerous Nazi concentration camps and forced labor facilities . Up to 60,000 prisoners were at Bergen - Belsen when it was liberated on 15 April 1945 , by the British 11th Armoured Division . Four days later troops from the American 42nd ( Rainbow ) Infantry Division found Dachau . Allied troops forced the remaining SS guards to gather up the corpses and place them in mass graves . Due to the prisoners ' poor physical condition , thousands continued to die after liberation . Captured SS guards were subsequently tried at Allied war crimes tribunals where many were sentenced to death . However , up to 10,000 Nazi war criminals eventually fled Europe using ratlines such as ODESSA .
Berlin Wall
The title character of the movie has a team break into a missile silo in Smith Center , Kansas to obtain independent launch capability , then he and an Israeli security agent drive an automobile from West Germany over the Berlin Wall into East Germany where he informs the KGB agents that if the nuke goes off in Saudi Arabia , his team in Kansas will nuke Moscow . The Innocent , 1993 -- About the joint CIA / MI6 operation to build a tunnel under East Berlin in the 1950s . Directed by John Schlesinger The Tunnel , 2001 -- Dramatization of a collaborative tunnel under the Wall . Film by Roland Suso Richter In the 2015 film Bridge of Spies , Frederic Pryor , an American economics graduate student , visits his German girlfriend in East Berlin just as the Berlin Wall is being built . He tries to bring her back into West Berlin , but is stopped by Stasi agents and arrested as a spy . Some novels specifically about the Berlin Wall : John le Carré , The Spy Who Came in from the Cold , 1963 -- Classic Cold War spy fiction Len Deighton , Berlin Game , 1983 -- Classic Cold War spy fiction T.H.E. Hill , The Day Before the Berlin Wall : Could We Have Stopped It ? -- An Alternate History of Cold War Espionage , 2010 -- based on a legend told in Berlin in the 1970s John Marks , The Wall , 1999 NYT Review -- an American spy defects to the East just hours before the Wall falls Marcia Preston , West of the Wall ( published as Trudy 's Promise in North America ) , 2008 -- Left behind in East Berlin , the heroine waits for news of her husband after he makes his escape over the Berlin Wall Peter Schneider , The Wall Jumper , 1984 ( German : Der Mauerspringer , 1982 ) -- the Wall plays a central role in this novel set in Berlin of the 1980s Music related to the Berlin Wall `` West of the Wall , a 1962 top 40 hit by Toni Fisher , told the tale of two lovers separated by the newly - built Berlin Wall . `` Holidays in the Sun '' , a song by the English punk rock band The Sex Pistols prominently mentions the Wall , specifically singer Johnny Rotten 's fantasy of digging a tunnel under it .
End of World War II in Europe
Paris Peace Conference ended on 10 February 1947 with the signing of peace treaties by the wartime Allies with the minor European Axis powers ( Italy , Romania , Hungary , Bulgaria , and Finland ; although Italy by some was considered a major power ) .
Military history of the United States during World War II
The second European front that the Soviets had pressed for was finally opened on 6 June 1944 , when the Allies attacked the heavily fortified Atlantic Wall . Supreme Allied commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower had delayed the attack because of bad weather , but finally the largest amphibious assault in history began .
Modern history
The Cold War saw periods of both heightened tension and relative calm . International crises arose , such as the Berlin Blockade ( 1948 -- 1949 ) , the Korean War ( 1950 -- 1953 ) , the Berlin Crisis of 1961 , the Vietnam War ( 1955 -- 1975 ) , the Cuban Missile Crisis ( 1962 ) , the Soviet war in Afghanistan ( 1979 -- 1989 ) and NATO exercises in November 1983 . There were also periods of reduced tension as both sides sought détente . Direct military attacks on adversaries were deterred by the potential for mutual assured destruction using deliverable nuclear weapons .
Golden Gate Bridge
Strauss remained head of the project , overseeing day - to - day construction and making some groundbreaking contributions . A graduate of the University of Cincinnati , he placed a brick from his alma mater 's demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured . He innovated the use of movable safety netting beneath the construction site , which saved the lives of many otherwise - unprotected ironworkers . Of eleven men killed from falls during construction , ten were killed on February 17 , 1937 , when the bridge was near completion when the net failed under the stress of a scaffold that had fallen . The workers ' platform that was attached to a rolling hanger on a track collapsed when the bolts that were connected to the track were too small and the amount of weight was too great to bear . The platform fell into the safety net , but was too heavy and the net gave way . Two out of the twelve workers survived the 200 - foot ( 61 m ) fall into the icy waters , including the 37 - year - old foreman , Slim Lambert . Nineteen others who were saved by the net over the course of construction became members of their Half Way to Hell Club .
History of Germany (1945–90)
The Cold War divided Germany between the Allies in the west and Soviets in the east . Germans had little voice in government until 1949 when two states emerged :
Soviet Union in World War II
By April 1945 , Germany faced its last days with 1.9 million German soldiers in the East fighting 6.4 million Red Army soldiers while 1 million German soldiers in the West battled 4 million Western Allied soldiers . While initial talk existed of a race to Berlin by the Allies , after Stalin successfully lobbied for Eastern Germany to fall within the Soviet `` sphere of influence '' at Yalta , no plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation . Stalin still remained suspicious that western Allied forces holding at the Elbe River might move on the capital and , even in the last days , that the Americans might employ their two airborne divisions to capture the city .
Operation Barbarossa
On 21 June , at 13 : 00 Army Group North received the codeword Düsseldorf , indicating Barbarossa would commence the next morning , and passed down its own codeword , Dortmund . At around 03 : 15 on 22 June 1941 , the Axis Powers commenced the invasion of the Soviet Union with the bombing of major cities in Soviet - occupied Poland and an artillery barrage on Red Army defences on the entire front . Air - raids were conducted as far as Kronstadt near Leningrad , Ismail in Bessarabia , and Sevastopol in the Crimea . Meanwhile , ground troops crossed the border , accompanied in some locales by Lithuanian and Ukrainian fifth columnists . Roughly three million soldiers of the Wehrmacht went into action and faced slightly fewer Soviet troops at the border .
Bauhaus
In late 1932 , Mies rented a derelict factory in Berlin ( Birkbusch Street 49 ) to use as the new Bauhaus with his own money . The students and faculty rehabilitated the building , painting the interior white . The school operated for ten months without further interference from the Nazi Party . In 1933 , the Gestapo closed down the Berlin school . Mies protested the decision , eventually speaking to the head of the Gestapo , who agreed to allow the school to re-open . However , shortly after receiving a letter permitting the opening of the Bauhaus , Mies and the other faculty agreed to voluntarily shut down the school .
History of Germany (1945–90)
The initial demand for housing , the growing demand for machine tools , chemicals , and automobiles and a rapidly increasing agricultural production were the initial triggers to this ' Wirtschaftswunder ' ( economic miracle ) as it was known , although there was nothing miraculous about it . The era became closely linked with the name of Ludwig Erhard , who led the Ministry of Economics during the decade . Unemployment at the start of the decade stood at 10.3 % , but by 1960 it had dropped to 1.2 % , practically speaking full employment . In fact , there was a growing demand for labor in many industries as the workforce grew by 3 % per annum , the reserves of labor were virtually used up . The millions of displaced persons and the refugees from the eastern provinces had all been integrated into the workforce . At the end of the decade , thousands of younger East Germans were packing their bags and migrating westwards , posing an ever - growing problem for the GDR nomenklatura . With the construction of the Berlin wall in August 1961 they hoped to end the loss of labor and in doing so they posed the West German government with a new problem -- how to satisfy the apparently insatiable demand for labor . The answer was to recruit unskilled workers from Southern European countries ; the era of the Gastarbeiter ( foreign laborers ) began .
World War II
In September 1944 , Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off . By this point , the Communist - led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941 , controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south . In northern Serbia , the Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces , assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October . A few days later , the Soviets launched a massive assault against German - occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945 . Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans , bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet - Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions , although Finland was forced to fight their former allies . General
Appeasement
On 1 September 1939 , German forces invaded Poland ; Britain and France joined the war against Germany . Following the German invasion of Norway , opinion turned against Chamberlain 's conduct of the war ; he resigned , and on 10 May 1940 Winston Churchill became Prime Minister . In July , following the Fall of France , when Britain stood almost alone against Germany , Hitler offered peace . Some politicians inside and outside the government were willing to consider the offer but Churchill would not . Chamberlain died on 9 November the same year . Churchill delivered a tribute to him in which he said , `` Whatever else history may or may not say about these terrible , tremendous years , we can be sure that Neville Chamberlain acted with perfect sincerity according to his lights and strove to the utmost of his capacity and authority , which were powerful , to save the world from the awful , devastating struggle in which we are now engaged . ''
France–United Kingdom relations
After guaranteeing the independence of Poland , both declared war on Germany on the same day , 3 September 1939 , after the Germans ignored an ultimatum to withdraw from the country . When Germany began its attack on France in 1940 , British troops and French troops again fought side by side . Eventually , after the Germans came through the Ardennes , it became clear that France would not be able to fend off the German attack , and Winston Churchill pledged that the United Kingdom would continue to fight for France 's freedom , even if it must do so alone . The final bond between the two nations was so strong that members of the British cabinet had proposed a temporary union of the two countries for the sake of morale : the plan was drawn up by Jean Monnet , who later created the Common Market . The idea was not popular with a majority on either side , and the French government felt that , in the circumstances , the plan for union would reduce France to the level of a British Dominion . The proposal was turned down , shortly before France fell to the Germans . The Free French resistance , led by Charles de Gaulle , were formed in London , after de Gaulle gave his famous ' Appeal of the 18th of June ' , widely broadcast by the BBC . De Gaulle declared himself to be the head of the one and only true government of France , and gathered the Free French Forces around him . One by one he took control of the French colonies and gained recognition from Britain but not the United States . Washington maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy ( until October 1942 ) and avoided recognition of de Gaulle . Churchill , caught between the U.S. and de Gaulle , tried to find a compromise . Prime