vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
English Reformation
When Henry died in 1547 , his nine - year - old son , Edward VI , inherited the throne . Edward was a precocious child who had been brought up as a Protestant , but was initially of little account politically . Edward Seymour was made Lord Protector . He was commissioned as virtual regent with near sovereign powers . Now made Duke of Somerset , he proceeded at first hesitantly , partly because his powers were not unchallenged . When he acted it was because he saw the political advantage in doing so . Edward
Trent Affair
The Duke of Somerset , the First Lord of the Admiralty , opposed Palmerston 's inclination to reinforce Milne . He felt that the existing force made up largely of steam ships was superior to the primarily sail ships of the Union fleet , and he was reluctant to incur additional expenses while Britain was in the process of rebuilding her fleet with iron ships . This resistance by Parliament and the cabinet led historian Kenneth Bourne to conclude , `` When , therefore the news of the Trent outrage arrived in England the British were still not properly prepared for the war which almost everyone agreed was inevitable if the Union did not back down . '' Land
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Each created a different public image of himself and his party . Disraeli , who expanded the Empire to protect British interests abroad , cultivated the image of himself ( and the Conservative Party ) as `` Imperialist '' , making grand gestures such as conferring the title `` Empress of India '' on Queen Victoria in 1876 . Gladstone , who saw little value in the Empire , proposed an anti-Imperialist policy ( later called `` Little England '' ) , and cultivated the image of himself ( and the Liberal Party ) as `` man of the people '' by circulating pictures of himself cutting down great oak trees with an axe as a hobby .
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
In 1910 , Prime Minister H.H. Asquith introduced a bill `` for regulating the relations between the Houses of Parliament '' which would eliminate the Lords ' veto power over legislation . Passed by the Commons , the Lords rejected it . In a general election fought on this issue , the Liberals were weakened but still had a comfortable majority . At Asquith 's request , King George V then threatened to create a sufficient number of new Liberal Peers to ensure the bill 's passage . Rather than accept a permanent Liberal majority , the Conservative Lords yielded , and the bill became law .
English Civil War
The English Civil War ( 1642 -- 1651 ) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians ( `` Roundheads '' ) and Royalists ( `` Cavaliers '' ) over , principally , the manner of England 's government . The first ( 1642 -- 1646 ) and second ( 1648 -- 1649 ) wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament , while the third ( 1649 -- 1651 ) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament . The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651 .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
From 1603 , when the Scottish monarch James VI inherited the English throne as James I , both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign . From 1649 to 1660 , the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England , which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . The Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics , or those who married Catholics , from succession to the English throne . In 1707 , the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain , and in 1801 , the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire , which covered a quarter of the world 's surface at its greatest extent in 1921 .
Franklin D. Roosevelt
When World War II began in September 1939 with Germany 's invasion of Poland and Britain and France 's subsequent declaration of war upon Germany , Roosevelt sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily . Isolationist leaders like Charles Lindbergh and Senator William Borah successfully mobilized opposition to Roosevelt 's proposed repeal of the Neutrality Act , but Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the sale of arms on a cash - and - carry basis . He also began a regular secret correspondence with Britain 's First Lord of the Admiralty , Winston Churchill , in September 1939 -- the first of 1,700 letters and telegrams between them . Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill , who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in May 1940 . Foreign
Edward VIII abdication crisis
Churchill did not support the government , however . In July , he had advised the King 's legal counsel , Walter Monckton , against the divorce , but his advice was ignored . As soon as the affair became public knowledge , Churchill started to pressure Baldwin and the King to delay any decisions until parliament and the people had been consulted . In a private letter to Geoffrey Dawson , the editor of The Times newspaper , Churchill suggested that a delay would be beneficial because , given time , the King might fall out of love with Simpson . Baldwin rejected the request for delay , presumably because he preferred to resolve the crisis quickly . Supporters of the King alleged a conspiracy between Baldwin , Geoffrey Dawson , and Cosmo Gordon Lang , the Archbishop of Canterbury . The royal physician Bertrand Dawson was possibly involved in a plan to force the prime minister to retire on the grounds of heart disease , but he eventually accepted , on the evidence of an early electrocardiograph , that Baldwin 's heart was sound .
Bill of Rights 1689
The Bill of Rights , also known as the English Bill of Rights , is an Act of the Parliament of England that sets out certain basic civil rights and clarifies who would be next to inherit the Crown . It received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689 , inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England . The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament , including the requirement for regular parliaments , free elections , and freedom of speech in Parliament . It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the right of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law . Furthermore , the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England .
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Walpole demonstrated for the first time how a chief minister -- a Prime Minister -- could be the actual Head of the Government under the new constitutional framework . First , recognising that the Sovereign could no longer govern directly but was still the nominal head of the government , he insisted that he was nothing more than the `` King 's Servant '' . Second , recognising that power had shifted to the Commons , he conducted the nation 's business there and made it dominant over the Lords in all matters . Third , recognising that the Cabinet had become the executive and must be united , he dominated the other members and demanded their complete support for his policies . Fourth , recognising that political parties were the source of ministerial strength , he led the Whig party and maintained discipline . In the Commons , he insisted on the support of all Whig members , especially those who held office . Finally , he set an example for future Prime Ministers by resigning his offices in 1742 after a vote of confidence , which he won by just 3 votes . The slimness of this majority undermined his power , even though he still retained the confidence of the Sovereign .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
In 1950 the King 's Private Secretary Sir Alan `` Tommy '' Lascelles , writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention : according to the Lascelles Principles , if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position , the monarch could refuse , and would do so under three conditions . When Harold Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974 , the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition . The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority . The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister , but a Prime Minister 's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat , death , or resignation . The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV , who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834 . The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch 's authority to dissolve Parliament ; the Act specifically retained the monarch 's power of prorogation however , which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
In a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority , the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support , though it would usually be the leader of the largest party . Since 1945 , there have only been three hung parliaments . The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition . Although Wilson 's Labour Party did not have a majority , they were the largest party . The second followed the May 2010 general election , in which the Conservatives ( the largest party ) and Liberal Democrats ( the third largest party ) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II . The third occurred shortly thereafter , in June 2017 , when the Conservative Party lost its majority in a snap election , though the party remained in power as a minority government .
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
In 1720 , the South Sea Company , created to trade in cotton , agricultural goods and slaves , collapsed , causing the financial ruin of thousands of investors and heavy losses for many others , including members of the royal family . King George I called on Robert Walpole , well known for his political and financial acumen , to handle the emergency . With considerable skill and some luck , Walpole acted quickly to restore public credit and confidence , and led the country out of the crisis . A year later , the King appointed him First Lord of the Treasury , Chancellor of the Exchequer , and Leader of the House of Commons -- making him the most powerful minister in the government . Ruthless , crude , and hard - working , he had a `` sagacious business sense '' and was a superb manager of men . At the head of affairs for the next two decades , Walpole stabilised the nation 's finances , kept it at peace , made it prosperous , and secured the Hanoverian Succession .
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
One of the most significant geopolitical actions of the time was the slow movement towards Imperial unity in North America started by the Albany Congress , although a Plan of Union proposed by Benjamin Franklin was rejected by delegates .
United Kingdom
On 1 May 1707 , the united Kingdom of Great Britain came into being , the result of Acts of Union being passed by the parliaments of England and Scotland to ratify the 1706 Treaty of Union and so unite the two kingdoms .
Trent Affair
It was at sea that the British had their greatest strength and their greatest ability to bring the war to the United States if necessary . The Admiralty , on December 1 , wrote to Russell that Milne `` should give his particular attention to the measures that may be necessary for the protection of the valuable trade between America , the West Indies , and England . '' However Somerset issued provisional orders to British naval units around the world to be prepared to attack American shipping wherever it might be found . The Cabinet was also agreed that establishing and maintaining a tight blockade was essential to British success .
English Civil War
The overall outcome of the war was threefold : the trial and execution of Charles I ( 1649 ) ; the exile of his son , Charles II ( 1651 ) ; and the replacement of English monarchy with , at first , the Commonwealth of England ( 1649 -- 1653 ) and then the Protectorate under the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell ( 1653 -- 1658 ) and subsequently his son Richard ( 1658 -- 1659 ) . The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors ' consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland . Constitutionally , the wars established the precedent that an English monarch can not govern without Parliament 's consent , although the idea of Parliament as the ruling power of England was only legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688 .
Factory Acts
This law was successfully passed due to the contributions of the Ten Hours Movement . This campaign was established during the 1830s and was responsible for voicing demands towards limiting the work week in textile mills . The core of the movement was the ' Short Time Committees ' set up ( by millworkers and sympathisers ) in the textile districts , but the main speakers for the cause were Richard Oastler ( who led the campaign outside Parliament ) and Lord Ashley , 7th Earl of Shaftesbury ( who led the campaign inside Parliament ) . John Fielden , although no orator , was indefatigable in his support of the cause , giving generously of his time and money and - as the senior partner in one of the great cotton firms - vouching for the reality of evils of a long working day and the practicality of shortening it .
Kingdom of England
After the trial and execution of Charles I in January 1649 , the Rump Parliament passed an act declaring England to be a Commonwealth on 19 May 1649 . The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished , and so the House of Commons became a unitary legislative chamber with a new body , the Council of State becoming the executive . However the Army remain the dominant institution in the new republic and the most prominent general was Oliver Cromwell . The Commonwealth fought wars in Ireland and Scotland which were subdued and placed under Commonwealth military occupation .
United Kingdom and the American Civil War
The Union victory emboldened the forces in Britain that demanded more democracy and public input into the political system . The resulting Reform Act 1867 enfranchised the urban male working class in England and Wales and weakened the upper - class landed gentry , who identified more with the Southern planters . Influential commentators included Walter Bagehot , Thomas Carlyle , John Stuart Mill , and Anthony Trollope .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
The Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers , regulate the civil service , issue passports , declare war , make peace , direct the actions of the military , and negotiate and ratify treaties , alliances , and international agreements . However , a treaty can not alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom ; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases . The monarch is the Head of the Armed Forces ( the Royal Navy , the British Army , and the Royal Air Force ) , and accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors , and receives heads of missions from foreign states .
English Civil War
The term `` English Civil War '' appears most often in the singular form , although historians often divide the conflict into two or three separate wars . These wars were not restricted to England as Wales was a part of the Kingdom of England and was affected accordingly , and the conflicts also involved wars with , and civil wars within , both Scotland and Ireland . The war in all these countries is known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms .
Trent Affair
I fear the traitors will prove to be white elephants . We must stick to American principles concerning the rights of neutrals . We fought Great Britain for insisting ... on the right to do precisely what Captain Wilkes has done . If Great Britain shall now protest against the act , and demand their release , we must give them up , apologize for the act as a violation of our doctrines , and thus forever bind her over to keep the peace in relation to neutrals , and so acknowledge that she has been wrong for sixty years .
English Reformation
In case any of this should be resisted , Parliament passed the Treasons Act 1534 , which made it high treason punishable by death to deny Royal Supremacy . The following year , Thomas More and John Fisher were executed under this legislation . Finally , in 1536 , Parliament passed the Act against the Pope 's Authority , which removed the last part of papal authority still legal . This was Rome 's power in England to decide disputes concerning Scripture .
Townshend Acts
On the 5th of March 1770 -- the same day as the Boston Massacre although news travelled slowly at the time , and neither side of the Atlantic were aware of this coincidence -- Lord North , the new Prime Minister , presented a motion in the House of Commons that called for partial repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act . Although some in Parliament advocated a complete repeal of the act , North disagreed , arguing that the tea duty should be retained to assert `` the right of taxing the Americans '' . After debate , the Repeal Act received the Royal Assent on 12 April 1770 .
History of Australia (1788–1850)
In early colonial times , Church of England clergy worked closely with the governors . Richard Johnson , Anglican chaplain to the First Fleet , was charged by the governor , Arthur Phillip , with improving `` public morality '' in the colony , but he was also heavily involved in health and education . The Reverend Samuel Marsden ( 1765 -- 1838 ) had magisterial duties , and so was equated with the authorities by the convicts . He became known as the ' floging parson ' for the severity of his punishments
English Civil War
Hobbes held the belief that clerical pretensions had contributed significantly to the trouble during the civil war -- `` whether those of puritan fundamentalists , papal supremacists or divine right Episcopalians '' . Hobbes wanted to revoke all of independent power of the clergy and to change the civil system such that they were controlled by the state .
American Revolution
A new ministry under Lord North came to power in 1770 , and Parliament withdrew all taxes except the tax on tea , giving up its efforts to raise revenue while maintaining the right to tax . This temporarily resolved the crisis , and the boycott of British goods largely ceased , with only the more radical patriots such as Samuel Adams continuing to agitate . This
Battle of Towton
On receiving news of their army 's defeat , Henry fled into exile in Scotland with his wife and son . They were later joined by Somerset , Roos , Exeter , and the few Lancastrian nobles who escaped from the battlefield . The Battle of Towton severely reduced the power of the House of Lancaster in England ; the linchpins of their power at court ( Northumberland , Clifford , Roos , and Dacre ) had died or fled the country , ending the house 's domination over the north of England . Edward further exploited the situation , naming 14 Lancastrian peers as traitors . Approximately 96 Lancastrians of the rank of knight and below were also attainted -- 24 of them members of parliament . The new king preferred winning over his enemies to his cause ; the nobles he attainted either died in the battle or had refused to submit to him . The estates of a few of these nobles were confiscated by the crown but the rest were untouched , remaining in the care of their families . Edward also pardoned many of those he attainted after they submitted to his rule .
Trent Affair
President Abraham Lincoln and his top advisors did not want to risk war with Britain over this issue . After several tense weeks , the crisis was resolved when the Lincoln administration released the envoys and disavowed Captain Wilkes 's actions without a formal apology . Mason and Slidell resumed their voyage to Britain but failed in their goal of achieving diplomatic recognition .
Tariff
Edward III ( 1312 -- 1377 ) was the first king who deliberately tried to expand the wool cloth manufacture . He brought Flemish weavers , centralized the raw wool trade and banned the importation of wool fabrics .
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
Following the British victory at Madras , their forces took the offensive . A force under Francis Forde capturing the port of Masulipatam . Although he still had significant forces in India the French commander Lally had expected greater support from his own navy , but he was constantly frustrated by the cautious D'Ache . Fresh British reinforcements arrived , tilting the balance in their favour . The failure of the French navy to secure command of the sea opened their own territory to capture .
Cornwallis in India
In 1792 , King Rana Bahadur Shah of Nepal , with whom the company had established trade relations , requested military assistance . Shah had been expanding his territory militarily by taking over smaller adjacent principalities , but a 1791 invasion of Tibet was met with a stiff Chinese response . Cornwallis declined the king 's request , sending instead Colonel William Kirkpatrick to mediate the dispute . Kirkpatrick was the first Englishman to see Nepal ; by the time he reached Kathmandu in 1793 , the parties had already resolved their dispute .
Trent Affair
The commissioners met informally with Foreign Secretary Lord Russell on May 3 . Although word of Fort Sumter had just reached London , the immediate implications of open warfare were not discussed at the meeting . Instead the envoys emphasized the peaceful intent of their new nation and the legality of secession as a remedy to Northern violations of states ' rights . They closed with their strongest argument : the importance of cotton to Europe . Slavery was discussed only when Russell asked Yancey whether the international slave trade would be reopened by the Confederacy ( a position Yancey had advocated in recent years ) ; Yancey 's reply was that this was not part of the Confederacy 's agenda . Russell was noncommittal , promising the matters raised would be discussed with the full Cabinet .
Trent Affair
After several days of discussion , on November 30 Russell sent to Queen Victoria the drafts of the dispatches intended for Lord Lyons to deliver to Seward . The Queen in turn asked her husband and consort , Prince Albert , to review the matter . Although ill with typhoid that would shortly take his life , Albert read through the dispatches , decided the ultimatum was too belligerent , and composed a softened version . In his November 30 response to Palmerston , Albert wrote :
Edward VIII abdication crisis
Baldwin blocked the speech , saying that it would shock many people and would be a grave breach of constitutional principles . By modern convention , the sovereign could only act with the advice and counsel of ministers . In seeking the people 's support against the government , Edward was opting to oppose binding ministerial advice and instead act as a private individual . Edward 's British ministers felt that , in proposing the speech , Edward had revealed his disdainful attitude towards constitutional conventions and threatened the political neutrality of the Crown .
Trent Affair
The government got its first solid information on the Trent from Commander Williams who went directly to London after he arrived in England . He spent several hours with the Admiralty and the prime minister . Initial reaction among political leaders was firmly opposed to the American actions . Lord Clarendon , a former foreign secretary , expressed what many felt when he accused Seward of `` trying to provoke us into a quarrel and finding that it could not be effected at Washington he was determined to compass it at sea . ''