Earth, Life & Social Sciences
Anna van Buerenplein 1
2595 DA Den Haag
P.O. Box 96800
2509 JE The Hague
The Netherlands

TNO report

www.tno.nl

TNO 2017 R11473

NOx emissions of eighteen diesel Light
Commercial Vehicles: Results of the Dutch
Light-Duty road vehicle emission testing
programme 2017

Date

6 December 2017

Author(s)

Gerrit Kadijk
Robin Vermeulen
Edo Buskermolen
Mitch Elstgeest
Declan van Heesen
Veerle Heijne
Norbert Ligterink
Peter van der Mark

Copy no
No. of copies
Number of pages
Number of
appendices
Sponsor

2017-STL-RAP-0100310530

Project name
Project number

103
Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management
PO Box 20901
2500 EX THE HAGUE
The Netherlands
In Use Compliance Light & Heavy Duty Vehicles
060.04301 and 060.21429

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the relevant agreement concluded between the contracting parties. Submitting the report for
inspection to parties who have a direct interest is permitted.
© 2017 TNO

T +31 88 866 00 00

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Samenvatting
Dit rapport beschrijft de resultaten van metingen aan de praktijkemissies van Euro 5
en Euro 6/VI dieselbestelauto’s en busjes voor personenvervoer. Praktijkemissies
zijn emissies zoals deze optreden, rijdend met het voertuig, op de openbare weg.
Het project waarbinnen deze metingen zijn verricht wordt door TNO uitgevoerd in
opdracht van het Nederlandse Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Waterstaat.
TNO heeft dit soort metingen eerder uitgevoerd aan Euro 6 dieselpersonenauto’s
en aan Euro 5 dieselbestelauto’s [TNO 2016c, TNO 2016d].
Net als bij Euro 6 personenauto’s is gebleken dat de NOx-uitstoot van Euro 6/VI
dieselbestelauto’s in de praktijk gemiddeld flink hoger is dan de NOx-uitstoot
gemeten tijdens de officiële typekeuringstest op de rollenbank. Voor Euro 6 liggen
de NOx-emissies van bestelauto’s in absolute zin wel op een lager niveau dan voor
Euro 5. Er blijkt een grote spreiding te zijn in de NOx-emissies van de geteste
voertuigen. Een aantal van de geteste Euro 6/VI bestelauto’s liet in de praktijk NOxemissies zien die op of onder de voor de typekeuring geldende grenswaarden
liggen. Ook de CO2-uitstoot is gemeten. Gebleken is dat de CO2-uitstoot in
praktijktesten hoger ligt dan de typekeurwaarde.
De verwachting is dat de nieuwe ‘Real Driving Emissions’ (RDE) test, waarbij voor
de typekeuring de emissies met mobiele meetapparatuur op de weg worden
gemeten, zal leiden tot een lagere NOx-uitstoot in de praktijk. Vanaf september
2017 wordt deze test met bijbehorende limietwaarden geleidelijk verplicht. In 2021
moeten alle nieuwe voertuigen aan de uiteindelijke RDE-norm voor de praktijk NOxemissies voldoen.
Het meetprogramma
Om negatieve effecten van de uitstoot van luchtverontreinigende stoffen en het
broeikasgas CO2 door het wegverkeer te verminderen, zijn er Europese normen
voor de uitlaatgasemissies van wegvoertuigen. Ook is er Nederlands beleid om de
toepassing van schone en zuinige voertuigtechnieken te stimuleren. Om de
effectiviteit van dit beleid te kunnen beoordelen, voert TNO sinds 1987 in opdracht
van het Nederlandse Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Waterstaat emissiemetingen
uit aan wegvoertuigen. Daar waar in de beginjaren de aandacht vooral uitging naar
controle van de emissies van nieuwe auto’s tijdens de officiële typekeuringstest op
de rollenbank, is de aandacht het laatste decennium verschoven naar het
verzamelen van betrouwbare informatie over de emissies van voertuigen in de
praktijk.
De resultaten van deze metingen worden door het Ministerie met de Tweede Kamer
gedeeld. TNO legt de testresultaten van individuele geteste voertuigen ter
commentaar voor aan de fabrikanten van de geteste voertuigen. Na eventuele
bespreking van de testresultaten met de fabrikant, stuurt TNO de gevonden
resultaten door naar de RDW. De RDW stuurt de resultaten ter informatie weer
door naar de typekeuringsautoriteit van het land dat de emissiegoedkeuring voor
het betreffende voertuig heeft afgegeven. Daarnaast worden de meetresultaten
verwerkt in emissiefactoren, die worden gebruikt voor het modelleren van de
luchtkwaliteit ten behoeve van het Nationaal Samenwerkingsprogramma
Luchtkwaliteit (NSL) en voor de nationale emissieregistratie. Tot slot worden de uit

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de meetprogramma’s verkregen inzichten gebruikt om in Brussel en Genève
wetgeving en testprocedures met betrekking tot voertuigemissies te verbeteren.
In het huidige meetprogramma voor personen- en bestelvoertuigen gaat de
aandacht vooral uit naar de NOx-praktijkemissies van voertuigen met een
dieselmotor. Gebleken is dat deze emissies veel hoger zijn dan de NOxpraktijkemissies van moderne voertuigen met benzinemotoren.
In dit rapport wordt verslag gedaan van een meetprogramma voor screening van de
NOx-praktijkemissies van achttien dieselbestelauto’s. Hiervoor zijn tien Euro 6b en
drie Euro VI bestelvoertuigen, alsook drie Euro 5b bestelvoertuigen getest.
Daarnaast zijn nog twee Euro 6b 9-persoons busjes voor personenvervoer getest.
Om de metingen te kunnen doen zijn de voertuigen uitgerust met mobiele
emissiemeetapparatuur, in dit geval het door TNO ontwikkelde Smart Emission
Measurement System (SEMS), en zijn de voertuigen getest tijdens meerdere
praktijkritten op de openbare weg.
Praktijkemissies op de weg, de samengevatte resultaten
a) Algemeen
De gemiddelde NOx-uitstoot van de op de weg geteste Euro 6/VI dieselbestelvoertuigen ligt in de praktijk één tot acht maal hoger dan de op de
typekeuringstest geldende Euro 6 limietwaarde van 105 of 125 mg/km. De gemeten
NOx-emissie van deze voertuigen in stadsverkeer varieert in de praktijk van 130 tot
850 mg/km. Eerder werd gerapporteerd dat de uitstoot van Euro 5 bestelauto’s in
de stad 650 tot 2300 mg/km is [TNO 2016d].
b) Effect van beladingsgraad en rijgedrag op emissies.
Acht voertuigen zijn in RDE-testen met verschillende beladingen en rijstijlen getest.
De CO2-emissies blijken 25 tot 35% toe te nemen bij toenemende belading en meer
dynamische rijstijlen. De bijbehorende NOx-emissies blijken echter niet eenduidig
van belading en dynamiek af te hangen. Sommige voertuigen hebben een stabiel
NOx-emissiegedrag, maar bij andere voertuigen blijkt de NOx-emissie t.g.v.
verschillende beladingsgraden en rijstijlen wel een factor 4 tot 6 te variëren. Bij
hogere beladingen in combinatie met een sportieve rijstijl kan de NOx-emissie wel
800 tot 1000 mg/km zijn.
c) Vergelijking van de NOx-emissies van zware bestelbussen met een LD of
HD typegoedkeuring
Voor bestelwagens in de zware categorie (klasse III) met een referentiemassa
tussen 2380 en 2840 kg mogen fabrikanten kiezen welke typegoedkeuringsregime
wordt gevolgd: light-duty (LD) of heavy-duty (HD). Omdat beide wetgevingen van
elkaar verschillen in normstelling en testeisen, is het de vraag hoe bestelbussen
van beide categorieën ten opzichte van elkaar presteren op het gebied van NOxemissies. Om die vraag te beantwoorden zijn zowel voertuigen met een Euro 6 (LD)
typegoedkeuring als met een Euro VI (HD) typegoedkeuring getest over dezelfde
ritten. Ter referentie zijn testen uitgevoerd aan vergelijkbare voertuigen met een
Euro 5b (LD) typegoedkeuring.
Uit de vergelijking van de NOx-emissies van voertuigen met een Euro 6 LD en Euro
VI HD typegoedkeuring blijkt dat er gemiddeld geen significant verschil is tussen de
NOx-emissies in de praktijk van voertuigen van beide typegoedkeuringsregimes.
Wel is er verschil in de spreiding van testresultaten binnen de beide

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voertuigcategorieën. De voertuigen met een HD keuring hadden consistent lage
NOx-emissies terwijl de Euro 6 voertuigen meer spreiding lieten zien. Mogelijk wordt
de lagere spreiding onder praktijktestcondities van de HD gekeurde typen
veroorzaakt door de praktijktest die voor deze categorie al vanaf 2014 verplicht is.
Voor één model bleek dat zowel de Euro 6 als de Euro VI variant een NOx-emissie
had in het bereik van 30 tot 90 mg/km. Een ander Euro 6 voertuig vertoonde ook
dergelijk lage NOx-emissies. Dit geeft aan dat een laag emissieniveau beneden dat
van de typegoedkeuringslimiet (125 mg/km) haalbaar is in praktijktesten.
d) SCR en LNT technologieën
De gemeten hogere NOx-praktijkemissies lijken niet toegeschreven te kunnen
worden aan de keuze voor een bepaalde uitlaatgasnabehandelingstechnologie.
Zowel voertuigen met LNT- als SCR-technologie blijken in de praktijk NOx-emissies
te hebben die tot wel een factor vier kunnen variëren.
e) Koude start emissies
Van de huidige Euro 6 dieselvoertuigen (modeljaar 2016) blijken de NOx-emissies
bij de koude start gerelateerd te zijn aan de toegepaste voertuigtechnologie. De
opwarmfase bij koude start in de voor het meetprogramma uitgevoerde RDE testen
duurt voor voertuigen met een SCR-katalysator gemiddeld 600 seconde. De
geteste voertuigen met SCR-katalysator hebben gemiddeld een 400 milligram
hogere NOx-uitstoot in de opwarmfase dan de gemiddelde emissies in een
vergelijkbare test met een warme start. De voertuigen met LNT-katalysator stoten
gemiddeld in hun RDE-opwarmfase van 300 seconde 50 milligram extra NOx uit. Dit
verschil kan worden verklaard uit het feit dat LNT-katalysatoren NOx-gas
absorberen boven een werktemperatuur van 80-100°C terwijl SCR-katalysatoren
pas boven een temperatuur van 150-200°C actief worden
f) Trends in emissiegedrag moderne dieselvoertuigen
Het emissieonderzoek aan deze voertuigen bevestigt resultaten gevonden in
eerdere studies: dieselauto’s kunnen in het laboratorium aan de typekeuringsnorm
voldoen maar in de praktijk ligt de NOx-uitstoot vaak fors hoger. Onderzoek naar de
oorzaak hiervan valt buiten de scope van het hier gerapporteerde
emissiemeetprogramma. Tegelijkertijd laten resultaten voor sommige geteste
voertuigen zien dat lage praktijkemissies, op of onder de voor de labtest geldende
limietwaarde, wel mogelijk zijn met bestaande technologie.
Al jaren laten onderzoeken van TNO zien dat de beoogde reducties van de NOxemissies van dieselpersonenauto’s en dieselbestelauto’s, op basis van de
aanscherping van de emissielimieten, in de praktijk niet worden gehaald. Uit de in
dit rapport gepresenteerde resultaten wordt duidelijk dat het verschil tussen normen praktijkemissies ook bij Euro 6/VI voor veel voertuigen hoog blijft.
Ontwikkelingen van de EU emissiewetgeving
De verwachting is dat een aanpassing van de testcyclus voor de rollenbank, zoals
in de nieuwe WLTP (Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures), weinig
soelaas biedt voor dit probleem. Het op de weg meten en monitoren van voertuigen
met mobiele meetapparatuur en eisen stellen aan de uitkomsten van dergelijke
metingen, is cruciaal om de praktijkemissies onder controle te brengen. Metingen
op de weg zijn onderdeel van de nieuwe RDE (Real Driving Emissions) wetgeving,
die in Brussel is ontwikkeld en per 1 september 2017 voor nieuwe typekeuringen

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van personen- en N1 klasse I en II bestelwagens is ingevoerd en twee jaar later in
2019 voor alle nieuwe voertuigen van deze categorie verplicht wordt.
Emissiefactoren
Naar aanleiding van de in dit rapport gepresenteerde meetresultaten zal de
Taakgroep Verkeer en Vervoer van de Nationale Emissieregistratie de NOxemissiefactoren voor Euro 6 dieselpersonenwagens in 2018 opnieuw bepalen.
Emissiefactoren zijn op basis van meetgegevens berekende gemiddelde emissies
voor specifieke voertuigcategorieën onder specifieke gemiddelde verkeerscondities.
Deze worden o.a. gebruikt voor luchtkwaliteitsberekeningen in Nederland.

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Summary
This report describes the results of real-world emission measurements of Euro 5
and Euro 6/VI diesel light commercial vehicles and passenger vans. Real-world
emissions are emissions derived from driving with a vehicle on public roads. TNO is
ccommissioned by the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management to
carry out the real-world emission measurements. Such measurements have been
performed before on Euro 6 diesel passenger cars and Euro 5 diesel light
commercial vehicles [TNO 2016c, TNO 2016d].
In line with the results of the Euro 6 passenger cars, the NOx emissions of most
Euro 6/VI diesel light commercial vehicles (LCVs) are much higher in real-world
driving on the road than on the official type-approval tests performed on a
dynamometer. However, the NOx values of Euro 6 LCVs are lower than the Euro 5
results. It appears there is a large spread in the NOx emission results of the tested
vehicles. In real-world driving, some of the Euro 6/VI vehicles performed at or below
the type-approval limits, others showing up to eight times higher results. The CO2
emissions were measured as well, revealing higher real-world CO2 emissions than
the type-approval values.
It is expected that the new Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test, which requires onroad type-approval testing with mobile measurement equipment, will lead to lower
real-world NOx emissions. This test and the associated limit values are introduced
gradually, starting in September 2017 with type-approvals for new models. In 2021,
all newly registered light duty vehicles will have to comply with the RDE test and
limits for on-road NOx emissions.
The measurement programme
In order to reduce the negative impacts of the pollutant and greenhouse gas
emissions of road transport, the European Commission has implemented emission
regulations that set limits for various pollutant components (and targets for CO2) in
the exhaust emissions of road vehicles. In addition, Dutch policies are implemented
with the aim to promote the application of clean and energy-efficient vehicle
technologies. To enable evaluation of the effectiveness of these policies, the Dutch
Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management has commissioned TNO to carry
out road vehicle emission tests. These test programmes have been executed since
1987. In the early years, the focus was on validation of the emissions of new road
vehicles on the type-approval test. In the last decades, however, the focus has
shifted towards obtaining reliable information on the emission performance of
vehicles in real-world operation on the road.
The Ministry regularly shares results of these measurements with the Dutch
Parliament. Since 2015 TNO also sends test results of individual vehicles to the
vehicle manufacturer for comments and after that to the Dutch type-approval
authority RDW (Rijksdienst voor het Wegverkeer). These test results are forwarded
by the RDW to the granting type-approval authority that is responsible for the Whole
Vehicle Type Approval of that particular vehicle. Furthermore, the results are used
to determine national vehicle emission factors, that are used for air quality
modelling and the national emission registration. Insights derived from the

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measurement are used in Brussels and Geneva to improve emission legislation and
emission test procedures.
The current measurement programme for passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles focuses on vehicles with diesel engines, as their real-world NOx emissions
are found to be significantly higher than those of petrol engines.
This report describes real-world emission test results of eighteen diesel vehicles.
Ten Euro 6b and three Euro VI light commercial vehicles, two Euro 6b passenger
vans and three Euro 5b LCVs were tested. The vehicles were equipped with TNO’s
Smart Emission Measurement System (SEMS) and their emission performance was
screened while driving representative routes on public roads.
Real-world emissions, summarised results
a) General
The tested Euro 6/VI vehicles showed NOx emission levels that are 1 to 8 times
higher than the type-approval emission limit values of 105 and 125 mg/km,
depending on vehicle reference mass: their average NOx emissions in urban traffic
ranged from 130-850 mg/km. In an earlier study on Euro 5 LCV’s the NOx
emissions in urban traffic were reported ranging from 650-2300 mg/km [TNO
2016d].
b) The effect of different payloads and driving styles on emissions
Eight vehicles were tested in RDE tests with different payloads in combination with
three different driving styles. The main trend of the CO2 emission per vehicle is
related to more demanding conditions of the RDE tests. Higher payloads and a
dynamic driving style result for most vehicles in a CO2 increase up to 25-35%.
However, the NOx trends corresponding to different driving styles and payloads are
more diverse. Some vehicles have very stable NOx emissions, but others vary
widely (up to a factor 4 to 6) between test trips. With high payloads and a sportive
driving style these NOx emissions can be 800 to 1000 mg/km.
c) Comparison of NOx emissions of class III LCVs with a type-approval
according the LD or the HD regime
For LCVs in the heavy class (III) with a reference mass between 2380 and 2840 kg
manufacturers may choose for either the Euro 6 LD (vehicle certified) or the Euro VI
HD (engine certified) regime for the emissions type-approval. Both regimes differ
with regard to emission limits and test procedures. The question is, therefore, how
vehicles type-approved according to the two regimes compare in terms of NOx
emissions levels. To answer this question, vehicles of both regimes were selected
and tested over the same trips. As a reference, vehicles that were type-approved
according to the Euro 5 LD requirements were tested as well.
With regard to the comparison of the real-world NOx emissions of vehicles with a
Euro 6 and Euro VI type-approval, the average of the two regimes showed no
significant difference. However, the Euro 6 vehicles clearly show a large spread in
the NOx emissions, whereas the NOx emissions of Euro VI vehicles are more
consistently low. The larger consistency of low NOx emissions of the Euro VI
vehicles may be attributed to the on-road In-Service Conformity test that is a
mandatory as of 2014 for Euro VI engines and vehicles.

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Low NOx emissions in the range of 30-90 mg/km were measured for both the Euro
6 and the VI variant of a particular vehicle model. Another Euro 6 vehicle showed
similar low values. This indicates that low emission levels, below the type-approval
limit value of 125 g/km, can be achieved in real-world tests.
d) SCR and LNT technologies and emission controls
Higher real-world NOx emissions appear not to be correlated with the applied
exhaust after treatment technologies: the ranges of NOx emissions of the two
groups of vehicles (SCR or LNT technology) both span a factor 4 between the best
and the worst emission performance.
e) Cold start emissions
For current Euro 6 diesel vehicles (models from 2016) the amount of additional NOx
emissions during a cold start is found to be related to the applied after-treatment
technology. The tested SCR vehicles have a cold start period that lasts on average
about 600 seconds in the performed RDE trips. The SCR vehicles emit on average
400 mg extra NOx, compared to the expected emissions under the same conditions
with a hot start. In the first 300 seconds of the urban part of RDE trips with a cold
start the three tested vehicles with a LNT have an average NOx emission of 50 mg.
This may be explained by the fact that the NOx absorption of an LNT typically starts
at 80-100 °C, while the light-off temperature of SCR catalysts is 150-200 °C.
f) Trends in NOx emissions of modern diesel cars
These test results confirm the results of earlier studies: Diesel cars can comply with
type-approval emission limits in the standardized laboratory test, but real-world NOx
emissions of many vehicles are far higher. In this project, the causes for this
difference in NOx emissions have not been investigated as this would require
another type of research. At the same time, the results of some tested vehicles
show that on-road emission values at or below the type-approval limit values are
already possible with existing technologies.
Developments of EU emission legislation
It is expected that a modification of the test cycle, like in the WLTP (Worldwide
harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures), will not resolve the issue of high realworld NOx emissions. The upcoming Real Driving Emission (RDE) legislation, which
prescribes emissions testing with portable emission measurement systems during
normal on-road driving, is crucial for closing the gap between the type-approval
pollutant emission limits and the real-world values. The RDE legislation developed
by the European Commission is mandatory for new types of passenger and class I
and II light commercial vehicles since 1 September 2017 and will become so two
years later, in 2019, for all new vehicles of these categories.
Emission factors
The new emission data presented in this report will be used in 2018 by TNO to
update the Dutch emission factors for Euro 6 diesel light commercial vehicles.
These emission factors are used to feed Dutch air quality models. Since no Euro 6
light commercial vehicles were available before 2016, the emission factors of Euro
6 LCVs were based on the emission performance of Euro 5 LCVs and the
difference of Euro 6 passenger car emission results compared to Euro 5 passenger
cars. Hence, the new 2018 emission factors for Euro 6 LCVs will give the first
insight in the actual performance of these vehicles.

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Contents
Samenvatting ........................................................................................................... 2
Summary .................................................................................................................. 6
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 10
Context .................................................................................................................... 10
Aim and approach.................................................................................................... 12
TNO policy with respect to publication of data ........................................................ 13
Remark on RDE legislation and subsequent validity of test results ........................ 14
Structure of the report .............................................................................................. 14

2
2.1
2.2
2.3

Test programme..................................................................................................... 15
Tested vehicles ........................................................................................................ 15
On-road test trips ..................................................................................................... 16
Measurement equipment ......................................................................................... 17

3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

Emission test results............................................................................................. 19
Emission test results per vehicle ............................................................................. 19
Overview of test results for all 18 vehicles .............................................................. 74
Overview of RDE test results with different payloads and driving styles ................. 78
Comparison of NOx emissions levels of Euro 6 and VI LCVs ................................. 79

4

Cold start effects ................................................................................................... 81

5

Driving behaviour and RDE boundaries.............................................................. 90

6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

Discussion .............................................................................................................. 94
Insights into the emission behaviour of Euro 6/VI light commercial vehicles .......... 94
Impact of ambient temperatures on the comparability of test results ...................... 94
Comparison of NOx emissions levels of Euro 6 and Euro VI LCVs ......................... 95
Driving behaviour at 80 km/h on the motorway ....................................................... 96

7
7.1
7.2
7.3

Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 98
General caveats regarding interpretation of the test results ................................... 98
Impact of accuracy of the measurement method on the significance of results...... 98
Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 99

8

References ........................................................................................................... 101

9

Signature .............................................................................................................. 103

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1

Introduction
This document contains results from emission tests carried out by TNO in the
period autumn 2016 until summer 2017. The focus is on NOx emissions of Euro 6
light commercial vehicles (LCVs). The emission tests were carried out as part of a
project for the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management.
This report presents a detailed overview of test results for the individual vehicles.
With this report TNO intends to provide clarity and understanding on the measured
data and what the results do and do not imply. TNO and the Dutch Ministry of
Infrastructure and Water Management aspire to provide maximum transparency on
the information that feeds into policy decisions regarding air quality and emission
legislation. The results presented in this report are consistent with results presented
in previous reports.

1.1

Context
To minimize air pollutant emissions of light-duty vehicles, in 1992 the European
Commission introduced the Euro emission standards. In the course of time, these
standards have become more stringent. Currently-produced light commercial
vehicles of category N1 must comply with the Euro 6b standard. The Euro 6d
standard, that further limits the emissions of light-duty vehicles, has become
mandatory from September 2017.
The standards apply to vehicles with spark ignition engines and to vehicles with
compression ignition engines and cover the following gaseous and particulate
emissions:
•
•
•
•
•

CO (carbon monoxide);
THC (total hydrocarbons);
NOx (nitrogen oxides);
PM (particulate mass), and;
PN (particulate number).

As a result of the Euro emission standards, the pollutant emissions of light-duty
vehicles as observed in type-approval tests have reduced significantly over the past
decades. However, under real driving conditions some emissions substantially
exceed the type-approval values. The real driving emissions of nitrogen oxides, or
NOx, from diesel vehicles are currently the most important issue with regard to
pollutant emissions, as many cities fail to satisfy the European NO2 air-quality
standards mainly through the poor real-world performance of diesel cars. As NOx
represents the sum of NO and NO2 emitted, and much of the NO is converted to
NO2 in ambient conditions, reducing NOx emissions of vehicles is important for
bringing down the ambient NO2 concentration in cities. In the Netherlands, the
ambient NO2 concentration still exceeds European limits at a limited number urban
road-side locations1.

1

http://www.atlasleefomgeving.nl/en/meer-weten/lucht/stikstofdioxide

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Commissioned by the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management,
TNO regularly performs emission measurements within the “in-use compliance
programme for light-duty vehicles”. In the early years, i.e. from 1987 to 2000, the
focus was on performing a number of standard type-approval tests on a large
number of vehicles in the lab. In recent years, however, the emphasis has shifted
towards gathering emission data under conditions that are more representative for
real-world driving, by using various non-standard, i.e. real-world, driving cycles in
the lab and by increasingly testing cars on the road with mobile emission
measurement equipment.
All real-world investigations considered, urban emission factors derived for the NOx
emissions of Euro 3, 4 and 5 diesel light commercial vehicles are a lot higher than
the legislative emission limit values, as illustrated in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1: Emission limits and 2016 real-world emission factors in urban traffic for N1 class III
diesel light commercial vehicles.

TNO has performed real-world tests on multiple Euro 6 diesel vehicles over the
years. In recent years common production models with Euro 6 type-approval have
entered the market and emissions of those vehicles have been determined and
reported [TNO 2016c].
In this report the test results of eighteen Euro 5, 6 and VI light commercial vehicles
(model year 2015 to 2017) are presented and discussed. For all N1 class I vehicles
the Euro 6b emission limit values entered into force in September 2015 and one
year later the N1 class II and III vehicles followed. The Euro VI limit for heavy duty
vehicles applies since 31 December 2013.
From September 2016, vans under the N1 class III Euro 6 legislation became
generally available for most brands and models. Several laboratories and
commercial parties started testing these vehicles. Among the laboratories that test
for emission factors and emission inventories, the preliminary findings indicate that

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the results are in most cases similar across the laboratories, for the same vehicle
models that have been tested more than once. In general, on-road testing includes
an RDE test. The results of different RDE tests are not necessarily the same
because of the variation in on-road test conditions, such as ambient temperature,
and test execution, including driving styles. However, the RDE test emission results
are generally very similar, also among the different laboratories in the European
collaboration network of ERMES.
On the contrary the emission results from other, commercial parties (such as the
Emissions Analytics EQUA index, http://equaindex.com/equa-air-quality-index/) are
often deviating. It is not possible to trace back the cause of these differences, as
little information is supplied by these parties on the test execution, the details of the
executed test trips and vehicle condition. The LCV testing at TNO includes the
determination of the variations of vehicle emissions with the variation in on-road test
execution. This span is typically much larger than a factor two. Hence, it makes no
sense to report the emission result of on-road testing without reporting, or agreeing
on, the test execution and test conditions. It is therefore not surprising that deviating
results are reported. Within the bounds of RDE testing, the variation in emission
results is much smaller. In the case of RDE tests, it seems that results can often be
compared with the limitations described above.
Based on the performed emission measurements, TNO develops, and annually
updates, vehicle emission factors that represent the average real-world emissions
for various specific vehicle categories under different driving / traffic conditions.
Vehicle emission factors are used for emission inventories, air quality monitoring
and air-quality studies. TNO is one of the few institutes in Europe that perform
independent emission tests. Dutch generic emission factors are based on these
tests. The emission factors, and the underlying test results, are one of the few
independent sources of evidence for the growing difference between legislative
emission limits and real-world emission performance of cars.
1.2

Aim and approach
The project, of which the results are presented in this report, is one in a long
sequence of projects, carried out by TNO for the Dutch government, to investigate
the emission behaviour of road vehicles. The primary purpose of these projects is to
gain an understanding of the emissions of road vehicles in real-world situations
under varying operating conditions. The results provide input for the process of
establishing generic emission factors which are used in the Netherlands for policies
at the national, regional and municipal level related to air quality and overall
emissions of air-polluting substances.
Furthermore, the insights obtained in the project serve as input for the activities of
the Dutch government and the RDW in the context of regulation and legislative
processes in Brussels (European Commission) and Geneva (GRPE) to improve
emission legislation and the associated test procedures for light and heavy duty
vehicles, all with the aim to reduce real-world emissions and improve air quality.
The aim of the research, presented in this report, was to assess the real-world
emission performance of Euro 6 light commercial vehicles and to provide input for
generating emission factors for this vehicle category. This was done by performing

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emission measurements on the road with TNO’s Smart Emission Measurement
System (SEMS). Although less accurate than laboratory measurements on a
chassis dynamometer or measurements with well-known Portable Emission
Measurement Systems (PEMS), SEMS allows for a quick and low-cost assessment,
or screening, of the emission performance of vehicles and for determining
deviations in emission performance with sufficient accuracy. Moreover, the SEMS
equipment allows operation in normal use, as no special operator or protocol for the
test equipment is required to perform emission tests. Hence, vehicles can be tested
for thousands of kilometres in normal operation. The SEMS equipment is calibrated
and validated to achieve optimal accuracy.
A second aim of this test programme, of which results are reported here, was to
build up further experience with RDE test practices. The legislative requirements for
a valid RDE test are more limited than the complete spectrum of driving
characteristics occurring in normal use. Therefore, tests are frequently invalid
according to one or more of the RDE boundary conditions. On the other hand, RDE
legislation does allows for variation in test execution. It is therefore relevant to
uncover the range of valid testing within RDE boundaries.
This study involves SEMS measurements on eighteen Euro 5, 6 and VI light
commercial vehicles. Most vehicles were tested in a three-day test programme
encompassing 20 different trips over 780 km. This relatively large number of
vehicles and trips provides a sufficient basis to observe trends in their emission
behaviour and to generate representative average emission factors for this vehicle
category for the most relevant traffic situations.
1.3

TNO policy with respect to publication of data
TNO takes the utmost care in generating data and in communication on the findings
of its studies, taking into account the interests of the various stakeholders. In the
projects, of which the work presented in this document is a part, importers and
manufacturers of tested vehicles are informed of the test results of their vehicles
before publication, and are given the opportunity to reflect on them. This is
beneficial to ensure that no errors are made in the testing and to address possible
technical problems, that might affect the test results, in an early stage.
In the evaluation and interpretation of test results on individual vehicles the
llowing considerations need to be taken into account:
•

The tests performed by TNO are intended to determine the levels and trends
of emissions of various categories of vehicles. The tests are not intended for
enforcement, and they are not suitable for identifying or claiming fraud or
other vehicle-related irregularities in a scientifically and legally watertight
way.

•

For each make or model, only a single vehicle or a small number of vehicles
is/are tested a limited number of times. This means that the results correlate
to the specific condition of the tested vehicles or to specific test conditions.
The latter is especially the case in road-world testing on the road in which a
large number of conditions, that have a strong influence on test results, vary
from trip to trip.

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In publications about the emission test results on light duty vehicles TNO has up to
March 2016, for reasons as indicated above, chosen to present test results in a way
that does not allow makes and models to be identified. In case results of individual
vehicles were reported, these were always anonymized.
As part of TNO’s constructive contribution to the on-going public debate about the
real-world NOx emissions of diesel cars, TNO has decided in 2016 to present test
results with references to makes and models. This decision also meets a desire
expressed by the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management. By
presenting results from the complete sample of vehicle models tested, covering a
wide range of makes and models, and by providing the necessary background
information on test procedures and test conditions as well as caveats with respect
to what can be concluded from these data, the test results on individual vehicle
models are presented in a context that allows a well-balanced interpretation of the
meaning of the results.
Finally, TNO would like to emphasize that as an independent knowledge institute,
TNO is, has been, and will be open to constructive dialogue with industry and
governments. This is part of TNO’s efforts to work together with relevant
stakeholders in finding and supporting the implementation of effective solutions to
reduce real-world emissions of harmful substances from vehicles, as well to
determine and demonstrate the effects of implemented measures in an objective
way.
1.4

Remark on RDE legislation and subsequent validity of test results
In 2017 RDE legislation has entered into force in Europe. While this legislation was
being prepared, TNO already started to build up experience and knowledge of RDE
test practices and data evaluation tools. The on-road test results in this report are
primarily meant to determine emission factors and they are not fully RDE-compliant.
Although the trips on which the RDE measurements have been performed are often
RDE-compliant, the SEMS measurement method is not.
All test results and information about test conditions are reported to the Dutch typeapproval authority RDW (Rijksdienst voor het Wegverkeer). It is the responsibility of
RDW to assess whether the information provides indications of possible noncompliance of vehicles and to decide about forwarding of the test results to other
Type-approval Authorities.

1.5

Structure of the report
Chapter 2 first describes the characteristics of the sample of tested vehicles and the
applied test trips. Then, in Chapter 3, the test results are reported. In Chapter 4 the
topic of cold start effects is investigated and in Chapter 5 RDE test trip parameters
are analysed. After a discussion of various issues related to the reported results in
Chapter 6, conclusions are presented in Chapter 7.

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2

Test programme
This chapter presents the most important characteristics of the test programme as
performed. The measurement methods are described in more detail in the TNO
methodology report [TNO2016a].

2.1

Tested vehicles

2.1.1

Vehicle selection
The Euro 6 diesel engines in LCVs of the different manufacturer groups were
identified based on engine volume and power, using Dutch new car sales data up to
January 2017. For these engines, the vehicle models with the highest sales
volumes were identified. A limited sample of vehicles was selected, to represent the
largest representation of Euro 6 engines, and the largest representation of vehicles
in which these engines are used. Most selected test vehicles of Table 2-1 belong to
the group of the highest sales vehicles. Three N1 class III vehicle types were tested
in a LD and HD variant. It is expected that the same engine in another vehicle
model or vehicle brand will perform similarly. For this reason, it is expected that
current test results are representative for the current Dutch Euro 6 LCV fleet.

2.1.2

Vehicle specifications
In Table 2-1 some basic data of the vehicles are specified, including the applied
after treatment technologies (AT).
Table 2-1: Sixteen tested Euro 5/6/VI light commercial vehicles and two Euro 6 M1 vans.

No

Brand

Model

Category
N1 class

Euro
Class

Power
[kW]

Aftertreatment

Odometer
[km]

Test mass
empty [kg]

1

Peugeot

2

Renault

Partner

II

6b

73

Oxicat+DPF+ SCR

21,263

1,460

Trafic

III

6b

92

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

3,200

2,065

3
4

Ford

Transit Connect

II

6b

74

Oxicat+DPF+LNT+pSCR

15,353

1,596

Volkswagen

Caddy

II

6b

55

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

4,498

1,486

5
6

Volkswagen

Kombi Transporter

M1

6b

62

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

20,004

1,894

Mercedes-Benz

Citan

II

6b

55

Oxicat+DPF+LNT

17

7

Mercedes-Benz

1,448

Vito

M1

6b

100

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

44,875

2,477

8
9

Peugeot

Expert

III

6b

90

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

12,878

1,817

Ford

Transit

III

5b

74

Oxicat+DPF

56,356

10

2,167

Ford

Transit

III

6b

96

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

11,751

2,383

11

Ford

Transit

III

VI

114

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

37152

3181

12

Mercedes-Benz

Sprinter

III

5b

95

Oxicat+DPF

23,878

2,535

13

Mercedes-Benz

Sprinter

III

6b

105

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

12,770

2,695

14

Mercedes-Benz

Sprinter

III

VI

120

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

30,734

2,960

15

Volkswagen

Crafter

III

5b

100

Oxicat+DPF

60,544

2,146

16

Volkswagen

Crafter

III

6b

80

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

2,694

2,158

17

Volkswagen

Crafter

III

VI

120

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

70,780

2,146

18

Iveco

New Daily

III

6b

114

Oxicat+DPF+SCR

4,488

2,366

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2.2

On-road test trips
Eighteen vehicles were tested based on a standard trip schedule with a total length
of more than 800 km. Some information of the test trips of this 3-day test
programme is presented in Table 2-2. The average velocity of the trips varies
between 12 – 83 km/h and the length of the trips varies between 4 – 123 km. Some
vehicles were subjected to a more restricted test programme. The Euro 5 and Euro
VI vehicles were not subjected to the full measurement progrmame, but only to a
limited number of trips, enough to compare their results with the Euro 6 variants.
All trips were carried out with a ‘normal’ driving style except for trip 1, which was
carried out with the driving style ‘economy’, and trip 8, which was performed with a
‘sportive’ driving style. The details of the applied driving styles are presented in
Table 2-3. To test vehicles in congested traffic, the trips 4 and 5 were started during
evening and morning traffic at motorways. Most RDE trips were carried out in the
region of The Hague (RDE_H). The In-Service Conformity (ISC) trip is defined
along the heavy duty official in-service conformity test protocol.
Table 2-2: On-road test trips in the three-days test programme in the region of The Hague
Distance
[km]

Average
velocity
[km/h]

Economic

74.7

43

28

Regular

89.5

79

1

28

Regular

74.7

43

Hot start

1

28

Regular

84.3

56

Motorway, morning traffic

Cold start

2

95

Dynamic

85.3

83

City

Urban

Hot start

2

95

Regular

27.8

21

7

Rural

Rural

Hot start

2

95

Regular

64.5

50

8

RDE_H

Urban / rural / motorway

Hot start

2

55

Regular

74.7

43

9

City to City

Urban / rural / motorway

Hot start

2

95

Regular

21.2

36

10

RDE_C

Urban / rural / motorway

Cold start

3

95

Dynamic

74.7

43

11

Short trip

Urban/rural

Hot start

3

55

Regular

4.3

28

12

Delivery trip

Urban

Hot start

3

55

Regular

17.4

12

13

ISC_H

Urban / rural / motorway

Hot start

3

55

Regular

122.7

57

14

City to City

Urban / rural / motorway

Hot start

3

55

Regular

21.2

36

1-14

Total

No.

Trip Name

Road Type(s)

Start
condition

Test
Day

Payload
[%]

1

RDE_C

Urban / rural / motorway

Cold start

1

28

2

Motorway

Motorway

Hot start

1

3

RDE_H

Urban / rural / motorway

Hot start

4

Congest_H

Motorway, evening traffic

5

Congest_C

6

Driving
style

837.1

One initial vehicle, the Peugeot Partner, was used to investigate RDE boundaries
and the effect of the EMROAD evaluation tool that is part of the RDE procedures.
The test programme with this vehicle was more extensive, and the results were
used in discussions with stakeholders about RDE and the EMROAD tool.

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Table 2-3: Parameters of the three applied driving styles.
Driving style
Driving behaviour

Normal

Sportive

careful

regular

dynamic

Gearshift engine speed

[rpm]

2000

2500

3500

Distance to target at start of braking

[m]

90

60

30

Delay time speed to brake pedal

[s]

30

3

0

Start-stop system active

Yes

Yes

No

Vehicle stops of 120-180 s

0

0

2

80

90

100

slow

normal

fast

110

120

140

Maximum position speed pedal

[%]

Speed pedal activation speed
Maximum speed on the motorway

2.3

Economy

[km/h]

Measurement equipment
Emission measurements on the road were performed using a sensor-based Smart
Emission Measurement System (SEMS). The NOx and O2 measuring signals of the
sensors as well as the Mass Air Flow sensors of the vehicles were calibrated
(except for two cases). All test results were corrected using these calibrations.
To assess the accuracy of the SEMS equipment, SEMS measurements have been
carried out on a roller bench, simultaneously recording the readings of the SEMS
and of the regular laboratory equipment. A first impression of the performance of a
SEMS system in four different chassis dynamometer tests in comparison with the
type-approval method (CVS – bags) is given in Figure 2-1 and Figure 2-2. In four
different tests the CO2 emission measurements of SEMS deviate from the standard
lab measurements by -2.4 to +0.8 g/km (-1.6% to +0.3%). For NOx emissions, the
deviation is -0.7 to +54.7 mg/km (-0.1 to +8.8%). The accuracy of the SEMS
equipment relies on the accuracy of the calibrated concentration measurements,
the exhaust flow accuracy and the engine signals used.
For further information on the measurement methods used by TNO, the reader is
referred to the TNO methodology report [TNO2016a].

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Figure 2-1: CO2 emissions of a Euro 6 diesel passenger car on a chassis dynamometer test:
comparison of simultaneously executed measurements with the CVS/bag method of
the chassis dynamometer and SEMS.

Figure 2-2: NOx emissions of a Euro 6 diesel passenger car on a chassis dynamometer test:
comparison of simultaneously executed measurements with the CVS/bag method of
the chassis dynamometer and SEMS.

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3

Emission test results
This chapter provides the test results per vehicle. For each vehicle, the following
data are reported:
1 Executed test trips
2 Binned on-road NOx emissions per trip
3 NOx emission map of the engine plus exhaust after treatment system
Furthermore, several overviews with results of all tested vehicles are given in
sections 3.2 to 3.4.

3.1

Emission test results per vehicle
The emission test results for each tested vehicle are summarized in the following
paragraphs. First, the emission results per trip are summarized in a table, along
with the average of all measurement data, weighted with the trip time. The results
per trip can vary due to the traffic conditions, such as congestion, and ambient
conditions. In addition, three graphs per vehicle are reported with average
emissions per velocity bin, the amount of data per bin and the average emissions
as function of velocity and acceleration.
Emissions per velocity bin
Emissions are measured second by second, simultaneously with vehicle speed. In
order to compare the different vehicles, the data of all trips per vehicle is grouped
into velocity bins of 10 km/h each. An important quantity is the spread of the
emission results within a velocity bin. This is indicated by the error bars, which
represent +/- one standard deviation from the median NOx value. If for a given
speed bin both very high and very low emissions occur, the error bars are far apart,
indicating a large spread. If all the NOx emissions in one velocity bin are close
together, the spread is small. For example, the bin at 110-120 km/h in
Figure 3-7 has a large spread, so both very high and low emissions occurred at this
velocity.
Amount of data per velocity bin
For a correct interpretation of the binned results, it is important to keep in mind that
not all velocity bins are filled with the same amount of data. For some bins in Figure
3-1 for example, at velocities over 120 km/h, a limited amount of data is available.
This is illustrated by the blue bars in Figure 3-2, that represent the number of
seconds the vehicle is driving in that specific velocity regime. In this figure, most
data are collected in the bin 100-110 km/h. The amount of data is an indication of
the reliability of the average NOx emission value.
Emissions as function of velocity and acceleration
An even better illustration of the emission behaviour of the vehicle can be given by
not only grouping the data into bins of similar velocity, but into bins of similar
velocity and acceleration, as shown in Figure 3-3. This requires a large amount of
data, as is collected in the multiple-day test programme. The emissions typically
increase with higher velocities, and with higher accelerations. The combination of

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both high velocity and high acceleration yields the largest increase in emissions. By
comparing these figures for different vehicles, the emission behaviour of the
vehicles as function of speed and acceleration can be compared. To read the scale
in these plots it helps to note that an emission rate of 10 mg/s (green colour in the
plots) results in 720 mg/km at 50 km/h and 360 mg/km at 100 km/h.
3.1.1

Peugeot Partner (73 kW)
Table 3-1: Vehicle specifications of the Peugeot Partner.

Trade Mark

[-]

Peugeot

Type

[-]

Partner

Body

[-]

B9/FRG/BHY/M5/B13

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class II

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Engine Code

[-]

DV6FD 9810543080

Swept Volume

[cm3]

1560

Max. Power

[kW]

73

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Type Approval Authority

[-]

France

Type Approval Number

[-]

e2*715/2007*2015/45X*14247*02

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

1292

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

110

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

VF3 7BBHY6 FJ663981

Vehicle Test Mass

[kg]

1482 - 1936

Odometer

[km]

21263

Registration Date

[dd-mm-yy] 31-08-15

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Table 3-2: Emission results per trip of a Peugeot Partner Euro 6 diesel.
No. Trip ID + payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[°C]

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_C 28%

2016-12-1

9:23

6487

75.2

47.3

8

7

8

130.4

274.5

0.7

2

Motorway 28%

2016-12-1

12:57

4384

103.1

86.3

10

9

10

116.1

268.1

0.9

3

RDE_H 28%

2016-12-1

11:18

5795

70.3

45.4

9

8

10

146.2

389.5

2.6

4

Congest_H 28%

2016-12-1

15:38

3287

57.3

64.3

10

10

10

109.2

168.4

0.7

5

Congest_C 95%

2016-12-2

7:50

4019

83.6

76.6

5

4

6

113.4

230.3

0.8

6

City 95%

2016-12-2

9:00

4611

22.4

18.8

6

6

7

206.8

618.4

0.7

7

Rural 95%

2016-12-2

10:22

6371

83.9

50.2

8

7

9

137.8

376.6

0.5

8

RDE_H 95%

2016-12-2

13:03

6110

72.6

45

10

9

10

134.2

364.8

0.5

9

City to City 95%

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

10

RDE_C 55%

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

11

Short trip 55%

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

12

Delivery trip 55%

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

13

ISC_H 55%

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

14

City to City 55%

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

137

336

1.0

Total

568

Remarks:
• RDE trips 1, 3 and 8 comply with the boundary conditions and trip dynamics
criteria.
• Regeneration of the DPF took place at trip 3.
• In this test programme of 600 km (incl. commissioning) the fuel consumption of
the vehicle was 5.35 l/100 km and the AdBlue consumption 5.21 l/10,000 km.

Figure 3-1: Average NOx emissions of a Peugeot Partner Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all trips.
The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

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Figure 3-2: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-3: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Peugeot Partner Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

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3.1.2

Renault Trafic (92 kW)
Table 3-3: Vehicle specifications of the Renault Trafic.

Trade Mark

[-]

Renault

Type

[-]

Trafic

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

1598

Max. Power

[kW]

92

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

1835

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

159

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

VF1FL000456216521

Vehicle Test Mass

[kg]

2320-2990

Odometer

[km]

3078

[dd-mm-yy]

30/09/16

Registration Date

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Table 3-4: Emission results per trip of a Renault Trafic Euro 6 diesel.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient
temperature
Avg

CO2

NOx

NH3

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_C 28%

2016-12-13

9:07

6453

69.1

38.6

7

211

266

-

2

Short4 28%

2016-12-13

10:57

680

4.2

22.2

7

265

477

-

3

RDE_H 28%

2016-12-13

11:21

5619

69.9

44.8

7

203

294

-

4

Motorway 28%

2016-12-13

12:59

4561

103.0

81.3

7

173

131

-

5

Congest_H 28% 2016-12-13

15:26

4274

57.1

48.1

8

177

199

-

6

ISC_H 95%

2016-12-14

13:06

8191

121.8

53.5

10

188

245

2.4

7

Short4 95%

2016-12-14

15:27

369

4.1

40.5

10

216

305

2.0

8

Delivery trip 95% 2016-12-14

15:36

3118

15.5

17.9

10

263

375

3.5

9

Congest_C 55% 2016-12-15

7:51

5312

83.0

56.3

6

190

207

0.9

10

City 55%

2016-12-15

9:21

4132

20.7

18.1

6

294

497

2.6

11

Rural 55%

2016-12-15

10:30

6321

84.0

47.9

6

207

211

0.9

12

RDE_H 55%

2016-12-15

12:31

5626

69.8

44.6

7

225

377

7.4

13

Short5 55%

2016-12-15

14:07

899

5.4

21.6

7

274

484

0.5

201

249

2.7

Total

707.6

Remarks:
• RDE trips 1, 3 and 12 comply with the boundary conditions.
• RDE trip 1 complies with the trip dynamics criteria.
• RDE trips 3 and 12 comply not with the trip dynamics criteria because the
motorway part has a too static speed profile.
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 12.
• In this test programme of 825 km (incl. commissioning) the fuel consumption of
the vehicle was 7.98 l/100 km and the AdBlue consumption was not measured.

Figure 3-4: Average NOx emissions of a Renault Trafic Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all trips. The
error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is excluded.

25/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-5: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-6: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Renault Trafic Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

26/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.3

Ford Transit Connect (74.2 kW)

Table 3-5: Vehicle specifications of the Ford Transit Connect.

Trade Mark

[-]

Ford

Type

[-]

Transit Connect

Body

[-]

Light Commercial vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 2

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Swept Volume

3

[cm ]

1499

Max. Power

[kW]

74.2

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

1596

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

124

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WF0SXXWPGSGC06510

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

1747-2131

Odometer

[km]

15353

[dd-mm-yy]

28/07/16

Registration Date

27/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-6: Emission results per trip of a Ford Transit Connect Euro 6 diesel.
No. Trip ID + payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[°C]

hh:ss

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_C 28%

2017-5-5

12:53

6317

72.4

41.3

12

10

13

155

432

-

2

Motorway 28%

2017-5-3

9:39

4153

89.9

77.9

10

9

11

154

358

-

3

RDE_H 28%

2017-5-3

10:57

5728

72.3

45.4

11

10

15

160

504

-

4

Congest_H 28%

2017-5-3

13:39

4774

86.1

64.9

14

12

18

135

274

-

5

Congest_C 95%

2017-5-4

8:01

3965

83.0

75.3

11

9

13

164

504

-

6

City 95%

2017-5-4

9:11

4235

24.3

20.7

12

10

15

215

533

-

7

Rural 95%

2017-5-4

10:24

4653

65.0

50.3

13

11

16

147

588

-

8

RDE_H 95%

2017-5-4

11:52

6204

72.3

42.0

15

13

17

209

1038

-

9

City to City 95%

2017-5-4

13:38

2090

21.1

36.4

15

14

16

176

588

-

10

RDE_C 55%

2017-5-8

8:17

6596

72.2

39.4

10

9

12

175

572

-

11

Short trip 55%

2017-5-8

10:13

594

4.5

27.5

11

10

12

192

842

-

12

Delivery trip 55%

2017-5-8

10:25

4700

16.1

12.3

12

10

14

246

576

-

13

ISC_H 55%

2017-5-8

11:44

7133

112.3

56.7

14

11

17

150

448

-

14

City to City 55%

2017-5-8

13:45

2445

20.9

30.7

16

13

19

172

419

-

164

514

-

Total

812.4

Remarks:
• RDE trips 1, 3, 8 and 10 comply with the boundary conditions.
• RDE trips 1,3 comply with the trip dynamics criteria.
• RDE trip 8 does not comply with the trip dynamics criteria because the v*a(pos)
value in the urban part is too high.
• RDE trip 10 does not comply with the trip criteria because the idling time in the
urban part is too long (traffic jam).
• Start/stop not functional during trip 1 to 7
• Regeneration of the DPF took place at trip 8.
• In this test programme of 1107 km (incl. commissioning) the fuel consumption of
the vehicle was 6.38 l/100 km.

Figure 3-7: Average NOx emissions of a Ford Transit Connect Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all
trips.The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

28/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-8: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-9: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Ford Transit Connect Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity
and acceleration.

29/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.4

Volkswagen Caddy (55 kW)
Table 3-7: Vehicle specifications of the Volkswagen Caddy.

Trade Mark

[-]

Volkswagen

Type

[-]

Caddy

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 2

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

1968

Max. Power

[kW]

55

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

1473

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

117

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WV1ZZZ2KZHX070008

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

1678-2136

Odometer

[km]

4498

[dd-mm-yy]

10/03/17

Registration Date

30/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-8: Emission results per trip of a Volkswagen Caddy Euro 6 diesel.
No. Trip ID + payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[°C]

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_C 28%

2017-5-11

8:25

5998

73.0

43.8

16

13

18

115

39

0.6

2

Motorway 28%

2017-5-8

10:49

3800

87.4

82.8

12

10

16

110

38

0.1

3

RDE_H 28%

2017-5-8

12:51

5690

72.7

46.0

15

14

17

120

57

0.2

4

Congest_H 28%

2017-5-8

15:01

6153

85.0

49.7

16

13

20

113

52

0.2

5

Congest_C 95%

2017-5-9

7:43

5736

82.9

52.0

12

9

13

113

48

0.2

6

City 95%

2017-5-9

9:28

4871

28.5

21.1

12

11

14

157

96

0.6

7

Rural 95%

2017-5-9

11:14

4813

64.6

48.3

13

12

15

113

45

0.3

8

RDE_H 95%

2017-5-9

12:56

6276

70.6

40.5

14

12

17

172

217

0.9

9

City to City 95%

2017-5-9

14:46

2672

21.5

28.9

15

13

18

140

101

2.4

10

RDE_C 55%

2017-5-10

7:54

6000

72.6

43.5

10

9

12

133*

70

1.1

11

Short trip 55%

2017-5-10

9:45

424

4.2

35.5

12

11

15

136

100

1.0

12

Delivery trip 55%

2017-5-10

10:05

1943

13.4

18.2

12

11

14

169

128

1.2

13

ISC_H 55%

2017-5-10

11:33

8107

121.0

53.7

15

13

20

114

38

0.4

14

City to City 55%

2017-5-10

13:53

2668

21.5

28.9

15

13

17

135

88

0.5

127

70

0.5

Total

818.9

Remarks:
• RDE trips 1, 3, 8 and 10 comply with the boundary conditions.
• RDE trip 1 and 3 comply not with the trip dynamics criteria because the RPA
value in the motorway part is too low.
• RDE trip 8 does not comply with the trip dynamics criteria because the v*a(pos)
value in the urban part is too high.
• RDE trip 10 does not comply with the trip criteria because the number of
accelerations in the motorway part are too low.
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 8.
• In this test programme of 1054 km (incl. commissioning) the fuel consumption of
the vehicle was 5.71 l/100 km and the AdBlue consumption 7.00 l/10,000 km.

Figure 3-10: Average NOx emissions of a Volkswagen Caddy Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all trips.
The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is excluded.

31/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-11: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-12: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Volkswagen Caddy Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

32/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.5

Volkswagen Kombi Transporter (62 kW)
Table 3-9: Vehicle specifications of the Volkswagen Kombi Transporter.

Trade Mark

[-]

Volkswagen

Type

[-]

Kombi Transporter

Body

[-]

Passenger Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

M1

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

1968

Max. Power

[kW]

62

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

1894

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

155

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WV2ZZZ7HZHH042010

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2413-2959

Odometer

[km]

20,004

[dd-mm-yy]

16/11/16

Registration Date

33/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-10: Emission results per trip of a Volkswagen Kombi Transporter Euro 6 diesel.
No. Trip ID + payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[°C]

[mg/km]

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_C 28%

2017-5-9

8:26

5943

73.4

44.4

12

10

14

157

84

2.6

2

Motorway 28%

2017-5-9

10:09

4071

90.3

79.8

13

11

14

178*

293

22.4

3

RDE_H 28%

2017-5-9

11:37

5645

73.9

47.1

14

12

15

162

111

1.8

4

Congest_H 28%

2017-5-9

14:15

4817

85.7

64.1

14

12

16

151

72

1.2

5

Congest_C 95%

2017-5-10

8:09

4372

83.1

68.4

10

8

12

157

116

2.3

6

City 95%

2017-5-10

9:26

4407

25.7

20.9

11

9

13

264*

425

5.1

7

Rural 95%

2017-5-10

10:57

4709

64.8

49.5

12

9

14

155

85

1.3

8

RDE_H 95%

2017-5-10

12:27

5971

71.9

43.4

15

12

18

195

113

3.9

9

City to City 95%

2017-5-10

14:09

1543

23.7

55.3

15

12

17

159

64

1.3

10

RDE_C 55%

2017-5-11

8:03

5906

73.3

44.7

14

11

18

200*

270

3.8

11

Short trip 55%

2017-5-11

9:44

627

4.7

26.8

17

17

17

223

232

2.5

12

Delivery trip 55%

2017-5-11

9:57

4381

17.0

14.0

17

16

19

236

180

2.4

13

ISC_H 55%

2017-5-11

11:11

7455

120.6

58.3

21

16

24

168

70

1.6

14

City to City 55%

2017-5-11

13:17

2607

25.1

34.6

22

16

24

183

104

1.2

178

151

4.4

Total

833.2

Remarks:
• RDE trips 1, 3, 8 and 10 comply with the boundary conditions.
• RDE trips 3, 8 and 10 comply with the trip dynamics criteria.
• RDE trip 1 does not comply with the trip criteria because the number of
accelerations in the motorway part are too low.
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 2, 6 and 10.
• In this test programme of 900 km (incl. commissioning) the fuel consumption of
the vehicle was 7.69 l/100 km and the AdBlue consumption 16.75 l/10,000 km.

34/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-13: Average NOx emissions of a Volkswagen Kombi Transporter Euro 6 diesel per
velocity bin for all trips. The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the
median. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-14: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-15: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Volkswagen Kombi Transporter Euro 6 diesel in bins of
velocity and acceleration.

35/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.6

Mercedes-Benz Citan (55 kW)
Table 3-11: Vehicle specifications of the Mercedes Citan.

Trade Mark

[-]

Mercedes-Benz

Type

[-]

Citan

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 2

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

1461

Max. Power

[kW]

55

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

1330

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

112

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WDF4156031U212577

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

1589-1925

Odometer

[km]

17

[dd-mm-yy]

05/05/17

Registration Date

36/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-12: Emission results per trip of a Mercedes Citan Euro 6 diesel.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Start
time

Date

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_C 28%

2017-5-12

8:47

6206

72.7

42.2

12

11

13

134

302

-

2

Motorway 28%

2017-5-12

10:46

4080

89.5

79.0

14

13

16

129

108

-

3

RDE_H 28%

2017-5-12

12:25

6386

72.3

40.8

17

16

18

135*

407

-

4

Congest_H 28%

2017-5-12

14:45

5204

85.3

59.0

20

18

21

111

129

-

5

Congest_C 95%

2017-5-17

7:23

5685

82.2

52.0

21

19

23

129

206

-

6

City 95%

2017-5-17

9:07

4322

26.8

22.4

23

21

24

153

883

-

7

Rural 95%

2017-5-17

10:34

4853

64.4

47.8

26

23

29

122

394

-

8

RDE_H 95%

2017-5-17

12:17

5888

71.8

43.9

29

26

31

174*

959

-

9

City to City 95%

2017-5-17

13:59

2774

21.3

27.6

31

29

33

156

458

-

10

RDE_C 55%

2017-5-16

7:52

6149

72.2

42.3

20

19

21

144

502

-

11

Short trip 55%

2017-5-16

9:40

466

4.2

32.3

22

21

23

157

389

-

12

Delivery trip 55% 2017-5-16

9:51

4181

15.3

13.1

23

21

26

165

838

-

121.2

59.6

25

23

29

131*

387

-

21.4

28.2

27

25

30

147

349

-

137

412

-

13

ISC_H 55%

2017-5-16

11:15

7323

14

City to City 55%

2017-5-16

13:24

2733

Total

844.7

Remarks:
• RDE trips 1, 3, 8 and 10 comply with the boundary conditions.
• RDE trips 1,3 and 10 do not comply with the trip criteria because the number of
accelerations in the motorway part is too low.
• RDE trip 8 does not comply with the trip criteria because the v*a(pos) value in
the urban part is too high.
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 3, 8 and 13.
• In this test programme of 1160 km (incl. commissioning) the fuel consumption of
the vehicle was 5.65 l/100 km.

Figure 3-16: Average NOx emissions of a Mercedes Citan Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all trips. The
error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is excluded.

37/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-17: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-18: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Mercedes Citan Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

38/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.7

Mercedes-Benz Vito (100 kW)
Table 3-13: Vehicle specifications of the Mercedes Vito.

Trade Mark

[-]

Mercedes-Benz

Type

[-]

Vito

Body

[-]

Passenger Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

M1

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Swept Volume

3

[cm ]

2143

Max. Power

[kW]

100

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

1910

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

158

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WDF44770513102251

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2637-3021

Odometer

[km]

44,875

[dd-mm-yy]

29/04/17

Registration Date

39/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-14: Emission results per trip of a Mercedes Vito Euro 6 diesel.
No. Trip ID + payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[°C]

[g/km]

NOx

NH3

[mg/km] [mg/km]

1

RDE_C 28%

2017-5-16

8:17

5968

72.2

43.5

20

18

22

167

471

0.4

2

Motorway 28%

2017-5-16

10:00

3859

90.0

84.0

22

20

24

155

232

0.3

3

RDE_H 28%

2017-5-16

11:23

5689

72.2

45.7

24

21

28

179

429

0.3

4

Congest_H 28%

2017-5-16

13:56

4597

86.3

67.6

27

23

30

136

239

0.3

5

Congest_C 95%

2017-5-30

7:05

5652

82.0

52.2

18

16

21

149

171

0.7

6

City 95%

2017-5-30

8:49

4139

26.1

22.7

18

16

22

253*

332

2.7

7

Rural 95%

2017-5-30

10:18

5101

64.1

45.2

17

15

19

180*

273

0.7

8

RDE_H 95%

2017-5-30

12:12

5770

71.5

44.6

18

16

24

217

456

0.3

9

City to City 95%

2017-5-30

13:52

3002

21.0

25.2

21

18

28

202

272

0.6

10

RDE_C 55%

2017-5-31

8:04

5808

72.6

45.0

18

15

23

170

180

0.3

11

Short trip 55%

2017-5-31

9:45

405

4.2

37.0

20

19

24

194

407

0.8

12

Delivery trip 55%

2017-5-31

10:03

4324

14.7

12.2

22

19

29

285

660

1.2

13

ISC_H 55%

2017-5-31

11:16

7628

120.1

56.7

21

19

27

156

236

0.3

14

City to City 55%

2017-5-31

13:27

2614

21.4

29.5

20

17

26

181

295

0.5

170

294

0.5

Total

851.7

Remarks:
• RDE trips 1, 3, 8 and 10 comply with the boundary conditions.
• RDE trips 1,3 and 8 comply with the trip dynamics criteria.
• RDE trip 10 does not comply with the trip criteria because the RPA value in the
motorway part is too low.
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 6 and 7.
• In this test programme of 1484 km (incl. commissioning) the fuel consumption of
the vehicle was 7.98 l/100 km and the AdBlue consumption 14.43 l/10,000 km.

Figure 3-19: Average NOx emissions of a Mercedes Vito Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all trips. The
error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is excluded.

40/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-20: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-21: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Mercedes Vito Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

41/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.8

Peugeot Expert (90 kW)
Table 3-15: Vehicle specifications of the Peugeot Expert.

Trade Mark

[-]

Peugeot

Type

[-]

Expert

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

1997

Max. Power

[kW]

90

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

1688

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

139

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

VF3VFAHKHGZ032078

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2176-2523

Odometer

[km]

12878

[dd-mm-yy]

09/09/16

Registration Date

42/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-16: Emission results per trip of a Peugeot Expert Euro 6 diesel.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Start
time

Date

Duration Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

1

RDE_C 28%

2017-5-19

8:42

6309

72.6

41.5

12

-

15

158

201

2.2

2

Motorway 28%

2017-5-19

10:45

4150

89.6

77.7

14

-

15

154

297

1.5

3

RDE_H 28%

2017-5-19

12:21

6767

71.8

38.2

15

-

16

164

343

1.4

4

Congest_H 28%

2017-5-19

14:45

6755

84.4

45.0

16

-

18

152*

228

4.5

5

Congest_C 95%

2017-5-22

7:42

5126

82.7

58.1

19

-

21

156

247

0.9

6

City 95%

2017-5-22

9:17

4137

26.6

23.1

22

-

23

217

778

0.8

7

Rural 95%

2017-5-22

10:44

4980

64.2

46.4

23

-

25

166

441

0.7

8

RDE_H 95%

2017-5-22

12:44

5563

71.9

46.5

26

-

27

200

878

0.8

9

City to City 95%

2017-5-22

14:25

2918

21.4

26.4

27

-

29

191

641

0.5

10

RDE_C 55%

2017-5-23

7:34

6214

72.7

42.1

17

-

19

174

365

1.0

11

Short trip 55%

2017-5-23

9:20

405

4.2

37.6

19

-

21

188

465

1.1

12

Delivery trip 55% 2017-5-23

9:41

4563

16.0

12.6

18

-

20

217

610

1.2

13

ISC_H 55%

2017-5-23

11:05

7546

121.1

57.8

19

-

21

159

284

1.3

14

City to City 55%

2017-5-23

13:17

3015

21.3

25.5

19

-

24

198

443

0.8

171

395

1.5

Total

820.5

Remarks:
• RDE trips 1, 8 and 10 comply with the boundary conditions.
• RDE trip 3 does not comply with the boundary conditions because the idling
time in the urban part is too long.
• RDE trip 10 complies with the trip dynamics criteria.
• RDE trips 1 and 3 do not comply with the trip criteria because the RPA value in
the motorway part is too low.
• RDE trip 8 does not comply with the trip criteria because the v*a(pos) value in
the urban part is too high.
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 4.
• In this test programme of 978 km (incl. commissioning) the fuel consumption of
the vehicle was 6.64 l/100 km and the AdBlue consumption 7.54 l/10,000 km.

Figure 3-22: Average NOx emissions of a Peugeot Expert Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all trips. The
error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is excluded.

43/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-23: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-24: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Peugeot Expert Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

44/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.9

Ford Transit Euro 5 (74 kW)
Table 3-17: Vehicle specifications of the Ford Transit

Trade Mark

[-]

Ford

Type

[-]

Transit

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

2198

Max. Power

[kW]

74

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 5b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2167

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

196

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WF0XXXTTGXEG56201

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2620-2945

Odometer

[km]

56,356

[dd-mm-yy]

30-01-15

Registration Date

45/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-18: Emission results per trip of a Ford Transit Euro 5 diesel. The ambient temperature is
not measured at the vehicle, but retrieved from the local weather station database.
No.

Trip ID + payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_16.2%%

13-06-2016

14:36

6335

71.9

40.8

16

-

-

253.8

1279.3

-

13

ISC_42.6%

14-06-2016

9:42

8002

122

58.4

16

-

-

221.2

942.4

-

12

Delivery trip_16.2%

14-06-2016

11:57

3452

21.6

22,5

17

-

-

318.4

1228.4

-

17789

215.5

43.6

-

-

-

241.8

1083.5

-

Total

Figure 3-25: Average NOx emissions of a Ford Transit Euro 5 diesel per velocity bin for all trips.
The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

Figure 3-26: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

46/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-27: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Ford Transit Euro 5 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

47/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.10

Ford Transit Euro 6 (96 kW)
Table 3-19: Vehicle specifications of the Ford Transit.

Trade Mark

[-]

Ford

Type

[-]

Transit

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

1995

Max. Power

[kW]

96

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2383

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

187

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WF0XXXTTGXGD29962

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2768-3042

Odometer

[km]

11,751

[dd-mm-yy]

29-09-16

Registration Date

48/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-20: Emission results per trip of a Ford Transit Euro 6 diesel. The ambient temperature is
not measured at the vehicle, but retrieved from the local weather station database.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_28%

16-03-2017

12:19

5794

71.6

44.5

15

-

-

237.8

533.6

1.5

12

Delivery trip_28%

16-03-2017

14:18

3021

16.99

20.2

16

-

244.6

569.8

2.3

13

ISC_55%

17-03-2017

09:30

8106

121.1

53.8

8

-

-

211.9*

287.6

2.5

16921

209.7

44.6

-

-

-

223.4

394.4

2.1

Total

Remarks:
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 13.

Figure 3-28: Average NOx emissions of a Ford Transit Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all trips.
The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

49/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-29: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-30: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Ford Transit Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

50/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.11

Ford Transit Euro VI (114 kW)
Table 3-21: Vehicle specifications of the Ford Transit

Trade Mark

[-]

Ford

Type

[-]

Transit

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Swept Volume

3

[cm ]

1995

Max. Power

[kW]

114

Euro Class

[-]

Euro VI

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

3181

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

n.a.

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WF0HXXTTGHGS10833

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

3281

Odometer

[km]

36624

[dd-mm-yy]

13-01-2017

Registration Date

51/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-22: Emission results per trip of a Ford Transit Euro VI diesel. The ambient temperature is
not measured at the vehicle, but retrieved from the local weather station database.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

1

RDE_28%

9-8-2017

10:56

5647

72

45.9

18

-

-

292

220

-

12

Delivery trip_28%

9-8-2017

12:47

2708

17

22.6

19

-

-

317

413

-

13

ISC_55%

10-8-2017

9:29

7978

121

54.6

18

-

-

250

112

-

18133

210

46

-

-

-

276

199

-

Total

Figure 3-31: Average NOx emissions of a Ford Transit Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all trips.
The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

Figure 3-32: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded

52/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-33: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Ford Transit Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

53/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.12

Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro 5 (95 kW)
Table 3-23: Vehicle specifications of the Mercedes-Benz Sprinter.

Trade Mark

[-]

Mercedes-Benz

Type

[-]

Sprinter

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

2143

Max. Power

[kW]

95

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 5b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2535

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

195

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WDB9061351N658359

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2900-3125

Odometer

[km]

23,878

[dd-mm-yy]

18-3-16

Registration Date

54/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-24: Emission results per trip of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro 5 diesel. In some cases
the minimum temperature is unknow due to read-out errors in the sensor resulting in
temperature 0.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

12

Delivery trip_28%

05-09-2016

10:11

1

RDE_28%

05-09-2016

11:33

13

ISC_55%

06-09-2016

19:16

Total

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

358.1

1834.3

-

26

353.6

1563.2

-

-

23

315.5

1276.8

-

-

26

331.9

1418.6

-

Distance

Average
velocity

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

2910

16.6

20.5

20.1

-

28

6000

71.6

43

21.6

-

7861

121.6

55.7

22.2

16771

209.9

45

21.7

Figure 3-34: Average NOx emissions of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro 5 diesel per velocity bin
for all trips. The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median.
Idling is excluded.

55/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-35: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-36: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro 5 diesel in bins of
velocity and acceleration.

56/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.13

Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro 6 (105 kW)

Table 3-25: Vehicle specifications of the Mercedes-Benz Sprinter.

Trade Mark

[-]

Mercedes-Benz

Type

[-]

Sprinter

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Swept Volume

3

[cm ]

2143

Max. Power

[kW]

105

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2695

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

192

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WDB9061351N694522

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2992-3183

Odometer

[km]

12,770

[dd-mm-yy]

09-11-16

Registration Date

57/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-26: Emission results per trip of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro 6 diesel.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

13

ISC_55%

03-02-2017

09:26

12

Delivery trip_28%

06-02-2017

10:12

1

RDE_28%

06-02-2017

11:33

Total

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

[°C]

[g/km]
289.3

[mg/km]
266.7

[mg/km]
1.1

14

359.7

401.9

5.5

11

331.3

261.8

4.3

309.4*

275.9

2.6

Distance

Average
velocity

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

7631

119.5

56.4

9.5

9

14

2697

16.7

22.3

7.1

-

5660

71.4

45.4

7.1

6

15988

207.6

46.8

8.2

-

14

Remarks:
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 1.

Figure 3-37: Average NOx emissions of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin
for all trips. The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median.
Idling is excluded.

58/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-38: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-39: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro 6 diesel in bins of
velocity and acceleration.

59/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.14

Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro VI (120 kW)
Table 3-27: Vehicle specifications of the Mercedes-Benz Sprinter

Trade Mark

[-]

Mercedes-Benz

Type

[-]

Sprinter

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Swept Volume

3

[cm ]

2143

Max. Power

[kW]

120

Euro Class

[-]

Euro VI

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2960

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

212

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WDB9061551N641849

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

3185-3310

Odometer

[km]

30,734

[dd-mm-yy]

06-11-16

Registration Date

60/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-28: Emission results per trip of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro VI diesel
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

12

Delivery trip_28%

24-08-2016

1

RDE_28%

13

ISC_55%

Total

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max

CO2

NOx

NH3

29

[°C]
-

34

[g/km]
311.9

[mg/km]
648.5

[mg/km]
1.5

41.7

32

29

34

331.6

224

3.1

121

51.2

26

22

30

289.4

103.1

1.5

209.4

42.9

28

-

34

305.6

188.5

2

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

10:16

[s]
2875

[km]
17

[km/h]
21.2

24-08-2016

11:50

6171

71.5

26-08-2016

09:24

8504
17550

Figure 3-40: Average NOx emissions of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro VI diesel per velocity bin
for all trips. The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median.
Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-41: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

61/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-42: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Euro VI diesel in bins of
velocity and acceleration.

62/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.15

Volkswagen Crafter Euro 5 (100 kW)
Table 3-29: Vehicle specifications of the Volkswagen Crafter

Trade Mark

[-]

Volkswagen

Type

[-]

Crafter

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Swept Volume

3

[cm ]

1968

Max. Power

[kW]

100

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 5b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2146

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

229

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WV1ZZZ2EZE601214

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2860-2935

Odometer

[km]

60,544

[dd-mm-yy]

20-01-14

Registration Date

Table 3-30: Emission results per trip of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro 5 diesel. The ambient
temperature is not measured at the vehicle, but retrieved from the local weather
station database.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

CO2

NOx

NH3

[km/h]

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max
[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

45.6

17

-

-

257.3

1022.7

-

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

[s]

[km]
72.4

1

RDE_28%

13-06-2016

11:02

5714

12

Delivery trip_28%

13-06-2016

12:38

3157

20.2

23

18

-

-

254.7

860.2

-

13

ISC_55%

14-06-2016

13:51

8340

121.3

52.4

19

-

-

197.6

524.4

-

17211

213.9

44.7

19

-

-

223.2

724.7

-

Total

63/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Remarks:
• Regeneration of the DPF took place during trip 1.

Figure 3-43: Average NOx emissions of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro 5 diesel per velocity bin for all
trips. The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

Figure 3-44: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

64/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-45: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro 5 diesel in bins of velocity
and acceleration.

65/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.16

Volkswagen Crafter Euro 6 (80 kW)
Table 3-31: Vehicle specifications of the Volkswagen Crafter

Trade Mark

[-]

Volkswagen

Type

[-]

Crafter

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel
3

Swept Volume

[cm ]

1968

Max. Power

[kW]

80

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2158

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

220

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WV1ZZZ2EZG6050989

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2522-2773

Odometer

[km]

2,694

[dd-mm-yy]

23-02-17

Registration Date

66/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-32: Emission results per trip of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro 6 diesel
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

[s]

[km]

[km/h]

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max
[°C]

CO2

NOx

NH3

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

13

ISC_55%

30-03-2017

10:16

8115

121.4

53.9

18.8

17

21

202.9

28.8

0.9

12

Delivery trip_28%

31-03-2017

8:19

2741

16.9

22.2

15.8

-

17

267.4

129.1

1.7

1

RDE_28%

31-03-2017

11:39

5666

72.1

45.8

20.8

-

23

225.9

35.8

1.3

16522

210.5

45.9

19

-

23

216

39.3

1.1

Total

Figure 3-46: Average NOx emissions of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all
trips. The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

Figure 3-47: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

67/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Figure 3-48: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity
and acceleration.

68/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

3.1.17

Volkswagen Crafter Euro VI (120 kW)
Table 3-33: Vehicle specifications of the Volkswagen Crafter

Trade Mark

[-]

Volkswagen

Type

[-]

Crafter

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Swept Volume

3

[cm ]

1968

Max. Power

[kW]

120

Euro Class

[-]

Euro VI

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2146

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

205

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

WV1ZZZ2FZE7005629

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

3068-3230

Odometer

[km]

70,780

[dd-mm-yy]

17-11-14

Registration Date

69/103
TNO report | TNO 2017 R11473 | 6 December 2017

Table 3-34: Emission results per trip of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro VI diesel. The ambient
temperature is not measured at the vehicle, but retrieved from the local weather
station database.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

CO2

NOx

NH3

[km/h]

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max
[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

[s]

[km]

13

ISC_55%

01-03-2017

09:22

7779

121.4

56.2

6

-

-

246.8

89.9

3

12

Delivery trip_28%

01-03-2017

14:12

2761

16.7

21.8

8

-

-

284.7

446.6

2.9

1

RDE_28%

02-03-2017

11:13

5575

72.2

46.6

8

-

-

289.2

146.7

7

16115

210.3

47

7

-

-

264.4

137.7

4.4

Total

Figure 3-49: Average NOx emissions of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro VI diesel per velocity bin for all
trips. The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

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Figure 3-50: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-51: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Volkswagen Crafter Euro VI diesel in bins of velocity
and acceleration.

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3.1.18

Iveco New Daily 35S16 (114 kW)
Table 3-35: Vehicle specifications of the Iveco New Daily 35S16.

Trade Mark

[-]

Iveco

Type

[-]

New Daily 35S16

Body

[-]

Light Commercial Vehicle

Vehicle Category

[-]

N1 Class 3

Fuel

[-]

Diesel

Swept Volume

3

[cm ]

2287

Max. Power

[kW]

114

Euro Class

[-]

Euro 6b

Vehicle Empty Mass

[kg]

2366

Declared CO2 emission

[g/km]

202

Vehicle Identification Number

[-]

ZCFC135B405139372

Vehicle Test Euro

[kg]

2756-3035

Odometer

[km]

4,488

[dd-mm-yy]

15/03/17

Registration Date

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Table 3-36: Emission results per trip of an Iveco New Daily Euro 6 diesel. The ambient
temperature is not measured at the vehicle, but retrieved from the local weather
station database.
No.

Trip ID +
payload%

Date

Start
time

CO2

NOx

NH3

[km/h]

Ambient
temperature
Avg/min/max
[°C]

[g/km]

[mg/km]

[mg/km]

Duration

Distance

Average
velocity

[s]

[km]

13

ISC_55%

22-06-2017

8:09

7322

138.7

21.4

27

-

-

248.8

190.1

0.8

1

RDE_28%

22-06-2017

11:52

5486

70.9

46.6

27

-

-

297.4

520.5

0.7

12

Delivery trip_28%

22-06-2017

13:48

2944

17.5

68.2

20

-

-

376.7

644.5

0.5

15749

227.2

51.9

-

-

-

273.9

328.4

0.7

Total

Figure 3-52: Average NOx emissions of an Iveco New Daily Euro 6 diesel per velocity bin for all
trips. The error bars represent +/- one standard deviation from the median. Idling is
excluded.

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Figure 3-53: Number of seconds per velocity bin, over all trips. Idling is excluded.

Figure 3-54: NOx emission rate [mg/s] of a Iveco New Daily Euro 6 diesel in bins of velocity and
acceleration.

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3.2

Overview of test results for all 18 vehicles
In Figure 3-55 and Figure 3-56 the NOx and CO2 emissions of RDE tests with a
warm start and 28% payload of all vehicles are shown. The NOx emissions of Euro
6/VI vehicles on this trip are in the range of approximately 40 to 500 mg/km and
have no direct relationship with the size of these vehicles; The performance of the
applied emission control systems seems to be more decisive for the NOx emissions.
The Euro 5 vehicles have NOx emissions in the range of 1000 to 1600 mg/km.
In Figure 3-57 and Figure 3-58 the NOx and CO2 emissions of In Service Conformity
tests (along the heavy duty testing protocol) with a warm start and 55% payload of
all vehicles are shown for all tested vehicles. For this test the NOx emissions of
Euro 6/VI vehicles are in the range of 30 to 450 mg/km and seem not to be related
to the vehicle size. The two Euro 6 vehicles with LNT (Citan and Transit Connekt)
have relatively high NOx emissions (387 and 448 mg/km) while the NOx emission of
the vehicles with SCR are in the range of 29 to 288 mg/km. All NOx emissions of
Euro 6/VI vehicles are substantially lower than of the Euro 5 variants, which are in
the range of 500 to 1300 mg/km.
In Figure 3-59 and Figure 3-60 the NOx and CO2 emissions of delivery trips with a
warm start and 55% payload are shown for all vehicles. The NOx emissions of Euro
6/VI vehicles on these trips are in the range of 100 to 800 mg/km and seem not to
be related to the vehicle size. All NOx emissions of Euro 6/VI vehicles are lower
than of the Euro 5 variants, which are in the range of 900 to 1800 mg/km.

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Figure 3-55: CO2 emissions of RDE tests (74.7 km) of 18 vehicles with 28% payload. The vehicles
are ordered by increasing NOx emissions on this trip.

Figure 3-56: NOx emissions of RDE tests (74.7 km) of 18 vehicles with 28% payload

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Figure 3-57: CO2 emissions of ISC tests (122.7 km) of 18 vehicles with 55% payload

Figure 3-58: NOx emissions of ISC tests (122.7 km) of 18 vehicles with 55% payload

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Figure 3-59: CO2 emissions of delivery trips (17.4 km) of 18 vehicles with 55% payload

Figure 3-60: NOx emissions of delivery trips (17.4 km) of 18 vehicles with 55% payload

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3.3

Overview of RDE test results with different payloads and driving styles
In Figure 3-61 and Figure 3-62 the CO2 and NOx results of different RDE tests per
vehicle are shown. Variations were set in payloads (28%, 55% and 95%) and three
different driving styles were executed (economic, normal and sportive). The main
target of these variations was to cover the whole RDE operating range with respect
to payload, driving style and vehicle speeds. Although the driver instructions in
terms of driving style and maximum vehicle speeds were strict, due to traffic
situations the actual execution of the RDE test may deviate.
CO2 emission per vehicle tend to increase with more demanding test conditions on
the RDE trips. Higher payloads and a dynamic driving style result for most vehicles
in a CO2 increase of 25 to 35%, see Figure 3-61. However the corresponding NOx
trends in Figure 3-62 are more diverse. Some vehicles have very stable NOx
emissions but other vehicles vary widely (up to a factor 4 to 6) depending on test
conditions. With high payloads and a sportive driving style NOx emissions can be
800 to 1000 mg/km. It must be noted that the emissions of these vehicles are
optimized for fixed chassis dynamometer tests and not for on-road tests.

Figure 3-61: CO2 emissions of RDE trips with different payloads and driving styles of 8 vehicles

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Figure 3-62: NOx emissions of RDE trips with different payloads and driving styles of 8 vehicles

3.4

Comparison of NOx emissions levels of Euro 6 and VI LCVs
For LCVs in the heavy class (III) with a reference mass between 2380 and 2840 kg,
manufacturers may choose for either the Euro 6 LD or the Euro VI HD regime for
the emissions type-approval. Both regimes differ with regard to emission limits and
test procedures. The question is therefore, how vehicles type-approved according
the two regimes compare in terms of real-world NOx emissions levels. To answer
this question, vehicles of both regimes were selected and tested driving the same
trips. Euro 5 LD vehicles have been tested as reference.
Three of the best sold vehicle types in the heavy-class (III) were selected. For each
type, three comparable vehicles were sought with a Euro 5 LD, Euro 6 LD and Euro
VI HD type-approval. All nine vehicles had to drive a set of three trips, being an LD
RDE trip an HD in-service conformity trip and a real-world trip in which parcel
delivery is simulated by five stops during the trip with engine off.
Overall, the vehicles with Euro 6 and VI type-approvals have substantially lower
NOx emissions than the ones with a Euro 5 LD type-approval. For the Euro 5
vehicles, NOx emissions levels vary from vehicle to vehicle and from trip to trip in
the range of 500 mg/km to 1800 mg/km. The emissions levels of NOx for Euro 6 and
VI are in the range of 30 to 650 mg/km which shows that the NOx emissions of the
Euro 6 and VI vehicles are not consistently low. On average the NOx emissions of
Euro 6 and VI vehicles are lower than for Euro 5, but they also vary from vehicle to
vehicle and trip to trip. For one vehicle model, both the Euro 6 and the Euro VI
variant manage to obtain comparably low NOx emissions over most trips. For
another vehicle model, the NOx emission of the Euro VI variant is lower than of the
Euro 6 LD variant over all trips. In general, the delivery trip with a low average
speed and regular ‘stops’, with engine off to simulate parcel delivery, is the most

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severe with regard to NOx emissions. For all Euro 5, 6 and VI vehicles the NOx
emissions are higher over this trip than over the RDE (LD) and ISC (HD) trips.

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4

Cold start effects
The resultant effect of driving behaviour, vehicle preconditioning, and ambient
conditions comes to expression in the tailpipe emissions measured during an RDE
test trip. Therefore, a more complex analysis is needed to separate the individual
effect of the cold start from other effects. Here it is shown that the cold start effect is
substantial in magnitude and duration in most SCR-equipped vehicles, while the
effect is limited in LNT-equipped vehicles.
For the larger part, primary emissions are still the result of the instantaneous driving
behaviour: the velocity and acceleration of the vehicle and the required power
demand from the engine. Emission models and emission legislation rely somewhat
on this basic assumption. Nowadays different emission control strategies and
buffering of emissions have become more important in determining the secondary
(tailpipe) emissions, sometimes causing unexpected variations. Consequently, the
emissions are less directly related to the velocity or acceleration of the vehicle. The
cold start emissions are a well-known effect of catalytic after-treatment technologies
and is only weakly related to the driving behaviour. For example, for petrol vehicles
with a three-way catalyst, the cold start is dominant in the total emissions in normal
use. Hence, a complex situation arises where emission control strategies can vary
not only with the catalyst temperature but also with many other physical
parameters. In this chapter an attempt is made to quantify the variation of emissions
for the tested diesel LCVs in case of cold start conditions, keeping the driving
behaviour constant. The generic emission behaviour of the vehicle is guiding in this
analysis.
Cold starts are an integral part of normal driving and, therefore, they are an integral
part of the RDE test. The cold start should constitute an appropriate part to the total
result, as compared to normal vehicle usage. In order to investigate the relative
contribution of the cold start in the RDE test, its impact must be specified in the
results. This separation of the cold start contribution is done by performing a
residual analysis of the results, i.e. the variation in emissions on top of the variation
due to driving behaviour.
To evaluate the impact of cold starts, the cold start effects need to be distinguished
from the normal emission behaviour, averaged over all measurement data. The
latter can be determined by parametrizing the NOx emissions in terms of velocity
and CO2 using all the emission data, in order to account for different velocity
profiles, driving behaviour and payload. Figure 4-1 shows the resulting
instantaneous NOx emissions as a function of velocity (x-axis) and CO2 (y-axis).
The emission behaviour differs between the different generations of vehicles. The
Euro 5 vehicle has high emissions for all high load situations, whereas the Euro 6
and VI vehicles clearly perform better at high load when the velocity is also high.

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Euro 5

Euro VI

Euro 6

Figure 4-1: NOx emissions as a function of velocity and CO2, for the Mercedes Sprinter Euro 5
(top left), Euro VI (top right) and Euro 6 (bottom)

This parameterization provides a prediction for the most likely (primary) NOx
emission at a certain velocity and CO2. Applying this average emission map to the
second-by-second speed and acceleration values of all the recorded trips yields a
prediction of the average second-by-second emissions. These predictions deviate
from the actual recorded second-by-second emissions. If these deviations are either
systematically below or above the average results, they may be attributed to
specific causes other than the engine load defined by the combination of speed and
acceleration. Such systematic deviations are observed for some time after a cold
start: on top of the emissions associated with the driving dynamics additional
emissions are observed.
For 17 of the 18 tested vehicles the residual NOx emission is plotted against the
exhaust gas temperature in Figure 4-2.This shows that for most vehicles, lower
exhaust gas temperatures result in higher residuals, hence higher NOx emissions
than expected just from the velocity and CO2 emission at that time. At high exhaust

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gas temperatures, there are often large fluctuations that can be attributed to a
limited amount of underlying data (shown as the histogram), and high absolute NOx
emissions.

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Figure 4-2 Residual NOx emission per vehicle (in mg/s, left axis) with respect to the prediction
from a parameterization using velocity and CO2, plotted against the exhaust gas
temperature. The shaded band reflects the standard deviation. The histogram displays
the number of seconds of data available in each temperature bin (right axis).

A similar analysis can be performed for the residual varying over time. When this is
done for the cold-start RDE trips, the time-dependent effects of the cold start will
become visible, as explained in [TNO2016a]. The results of such analyses are
shown for all vehicles in Figure 4-4. To explain these figures, Figure 4-3 shows a
zoom-in, with the measured instantaneous velocity, engine coolant temperature and
exhaust gas temperature over time. The result of the NOx residual analysis is
shown as the blue line, with an error band showing the standard deviation of the
underlying residual values If there is a large spread in the values of the residuals,
i.e. some measurements are close to the average and some are far away, the error
band will increase. In this example, there are additional emissions (positive
residual) at the start that decrease after some minutes, while the exhaust gas
temperature is still rising. Cold starts, DPF regenerations and particular aspects of
the LNT control strategy can be observed as large residuals, i.e. differences
between the actual emissions and the predicted average instantaneous emissions
with warm engine operation.
The duration of the cold start is determined from the exhaust gas temperature
(EGT). The NOx residuals are recorded until the EGT reaches 85% of the mean
EGT during urban driving. The sum of the residuals over this time equals the extra
NOx emission during the cold start period of this trip. The duration and summed
residuals of the cold start periods are reported for all vehicles in Table 4-1. One
cannot, however, take these numbers as characteristic of each vehicle, since the
cold start conditions were not similar for all trips and all vehicles. For example, the
Ford Transit Connect was idling for several minutes during the cold start, which
resulted in a higher than usual cold start NOx-emission.

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Figure 4-3: A detail plot of the time-dependent residual analysis: A clear initial peak of additional
emissions is seen which decreases while the temperatures ECT and EGT increase.
The area under the blue line yields the total estimated cold start contribution.

If a characteristic cold start effect per vehicle needs to be defined, it can best be
described by the residual versus exhaust gas temperature (see Fout!
Verwijzingsbron niet gevonden. to Fout! Verwijzingsbron niet gevonden.),
combined with the typical warm-up time of the vehicle. One can integrate over the
warm-up time, multiplying each exhaust gas temperature encountered with its
corresponding NOx residual, resulting in a total sum of residual NOx in grams. The
warm-up time can be different per trip, hence a different cold start effect occurs for
every trip, as is evident in Table 4-1. Despite these small variations, from Fout!
Verwijzingsbron niet gevonden. to Fout! Verwijzingsbron niet gevonden. it
becomes clear that for most vehicles with SCR, all driving at lower exhaust gas
temperatures results in higher emissions. The high residuals that sometimes appear
at high exhaust gas temperatures have only a small amount of underlying data
(counts). These points can often be associated with regenerations, where the
output emissions are not only dependent on the input velocity and CO2.
The warm-up times of the tested vehicles range from 340 to 878 seconds (6 to 15
minutes), see Table 4-1. The standard 5 minutes associated with the cold start in
the RDE legislation is thus somewhat arbitrary. These 5 minutes are excluded in a
warm RDE test, when starting with a cold engine. For SCR systems, the duration of
the cold start is often longer than 5 minutes. The residual analysis shows a
distinction between the LNT-equipped and the SCR-equipped vehicles.
The tested SCR vehicles emit on average 0.4 g extra NOx during the RDE cold
starts which last on average about 600 seconds. In the first 300 seconds of the
urban part of RDE trips with a cold start the three tested vehicles with an LNT have
an average 0.05 g extra NOx-emission. This may be explained by the fact that the
NOx absorption of an LNT typically starts at 80-100 °C while the light-off
temperature of SCR catalysts is 150-200 °C.

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The cold start contribution to the emissions during urban driving in the RDE test is
shown in Table 4-1. When the extra NOx emissions are spread out over the (on
average) 29 km urban driving, they result in about 5% extra emissions (in mg/km)
on the urban part of a cold start trip compared to a hot start RDE trip. Note that the
variation between vehicles and between trips is so large that these average
numbers are not representative for individual vehicles. For example, some trips
result in negative cold start contributions.

Table 4-1: The RDE trips with a cold start, with the additional emissions due to the cold start
separated from the emissions associated with warm engine operation. The extra NOx
emission is compared to the total urban NOx emissions of the trip. Only 7 vehicles
were tested in cold start trips.
Vehicle

Trip

AT

LNT

Time before
warm Exhaust
Gas [s]
453

Sum residual
NOx [g] during
cold start
-0.3

Urban
NOx
[mg/km]
466

Extra NOx
during urban
RDE [mg/km]
-10

Extra NOx
during urban
RDE (%)
-2%

Mercedes Citan Euro 6

RDE_C 28%

Mercedes Citan Euro 6

RDE_C 55%

LNT

340

-0.7

676

-24

-4%

Ford Transit Connect
Euro 6
Ford Transit Connect
Euro 6
Mercedes Vito Euro 6

RDE_C 28%

LNT

664

-0.1

382

-3

-1%

RDE_C 55%

LNT

827*

1.3

561

45

8%

RDE_C 28%

SCR

761

0.2

902

7

1%

Mercedes Vito Euro 6

RDE_C 55%

SCR

529

-1.2

231

-41

-18%

Peugeot Expert Euro 6

RDE_C 28%

SCR

793

-0.3

299

-10

-3%

Peugeot Expert Euro 6

RDE_C 55%

SCR

559

-0.1

530

-3

-1%

Peugeot Partner Euro 6

RDE_C 28%

SCR

878

0.1

338

3

1%

Renault Trafic Euro 6

RDE_C 28%

SCR

648

1.5

495

52

11%

Renault Trafic Euro 6

RDE_C 55%

SCR

612

1.9

662

65

10%

VW Caddy Euro 6

RDE_C 28%

SCR

636

0.1

76

3

4%

VW Caddy Euro 6

RDE_C 55%

SCR

456

0.5

133

17

13%

VW Caddy Euro 6

RDE_C 28%

SCR

574

0.2

69

7

10%

VW Transporter Euro 6

RDE_C 28%

SCR

555

1.1

161

38

24%

VW Transporter Euro 6

RDE_C 55%

SCR

780

0.7

415

24

6%

*) engine idling during warmup

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Figure 4-4:

Residual NOx versus time for all cold-start RDE trips of the seven Euro 6 light
commercial vehicles of which the test programme included a cold start RDE trip.

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5

Driving behaviour and RDE boundaries
The RDE boundaries specify the required characteristics of a valid RDE test. These
specifications allow for some variation in the execution of the test. Variations in the
driving behaviour during an RDE test, that are within these boundaries, are
normalized by the RDE evaluation methods. Nevertheless, it is not trivial to drive a
valid RDE test. In general, tests are executed on a standard trip, with moderate, i.e.,
“normal” driving behaviour. At the start of the 2017 test programme, it was
investigated to what extent the range of all possible driving behaviours on a given
route falls within the RDE boundaries.
Table 5-1 shows the results of 13 test trips on the same RDE-compatible route,
executed with different driving styles and vehicle payloads. The route, the vehicle
condition, and the ambient conditions were kept the same. Out of these 13 trips, 6
were valid according to the RDE requirements for driving dynamics and the
EMROAD evaluation. Three “eco”-tests failed, as well as five tests with an
aggressive driving style. However, the failures were for a multitude of reasons, as
indicated in Table 5-1.
In response to the variation in driving styles and vehicle loads, the measured
emissions show a very large variation, from 172 mg/km to 908 mg/km, which is
more than a factor 5. In valid RDE tests the range is much smaller; from 280 mg/km
to 513 mg/km, i.e. little under a factor 2. Interestingly, exclusion of invalid trips
removes the tests with the lowest as well as well as with the highest NOx emissions
with this vehicle.
The driving behaviour investigations with this vehicle show a large variation of
emissions with the details of the test execution. In the subsequent testing with the
other vehicles, similar variations in emission with driving style and payload were
observed.

2.3
2.3
2.7

2.3
137
138
311
203

2.3

2.6
151
151
345
235

2.6

3
183
185
425
304

2.5

3.1
160
159
504
346

3.3

2.5

170

462

269

2.7

154

302

162

2

Urb EMROAD CO2

Urb NOx [mg/km]

Urb EMROAD NOx
Urb NOx/CO2
[g/kg] from
EMROAD total

2.8

173

3.1

2.4

187
235
329

2

3.5

145
291
152
367
199
513

159

4.7

172

53.2
127
57.6
140
58.4
166
56.1
175

Urb CO2 [g/km]

3

2.2

2.3

1.8

291

52.3
116

44.9
49.4
48.8

44

557

46.3

12
eco
1680
11
normal
1820

ok

Not
sufficient
dynamics
on
highway
13
eco
1700

10
sport
1960

EMROAD NOx
NOx/CO2 [g/kg]
per second
NOx/CO2 [g/kg]
from EMROAD
total
3.2

240

174

734

281

159
452

579

178
392

159
280

EMROAD CO2
NOx [mg/km]
908

57.5
180

53.1
122

57.9
142

56.5
194

55.9
179

52.1
175

54.3
157

52.8
140
623

44.2

46.5

49.6

39.6

38.5

38.5

6
normal
1820

45.4

ok

47.3

Urban part too agressive
5
4
3
sport
sport
sport
1960
1940
1940

2
normal
1482

ok

1
normal
1482

1% to
Urban much stop
skewed
time in
road type part too
fractions agressive urban part
9
8
7
sport
sport
eco
1940
1940
1660

(N1 Class II)
Trip
Style
Weight [kg]
Average velocity
[km/h]
Average velocity
(v>0) [km/h]
CO2 [g/km]

RDE compliant?

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Table 5-1: The RDE test trips, with variations in driving behaviour and payload, as carried out
with the Peugeot Partner.

The valid RDE results were also evaluated with EMROAD. Results are presented in
Figure 5-1. It is found that in this case EMROAD always corrects the results

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downward, both for the whole trip and for the urban part. Given that the valid trips
also contain one trip with an economic driving style, and that there is also variation
between the trips with a “normal” driving style, it would be expected that some of
the tests are corrected upward. The tests with this vehicle therefore seem to
indicate a systematic effect in the corrections of the EMROAD evaluation method.
With only two valid tests, according to CLEAR, no such analyses could be
performed for the CLEAR evaluation tool.
These results have been shared with the stakeholders in the RDE-LDV group in
Brussels. The systematic downward corrections are a matter of concern about the
functionality of EMROAD. If the test were all too aggressive, then downward
corrections are logical. Since the NOx emissions in valid trips range from 280
mg/km to 513 mg/km, it is hard to maintain the assumption that all trips were
executed aggressively.
The above-described findings with respect to RDE boundaries and different driving
behaviours have led to driver instructions, as specified in Table 5-2, which were
applied in the 2017 test programme.

Figure 5-1: The measured total trip result set against the EMROAD evaluation results. The results
are always corrected downward. The correction for the total trip is about 35%. For the
urban part of the trips, the results are corrected downward by about 45%.

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Table 5-2: Parameters of the three different driving styles
Driving style
Driving behaviour

Economic

Normal

Sportive

careful

regular

dynamic

Gearshift engine speed

[rpm]

2000

2500

3500

Distance to target at start of braking

[m]

90

60

30

Delay time speed to brake pedal

[s]

Start-stop system active
Vehicle stops of 120-180 s
Maximum position speed pedal

[%]

Speed pedal activation speed
Maximum speed on the motorway

[km/h]

30

3

0

Yes

Yes

No

0

0

2

80

90

100

slow

normal

fast

110

120

140

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6

Discussion

6.1

Insights into the emission behaviour of Euro 6/VI light commercial vehicles
A large spread is observed in the on-road NOx emission performance of the tested
Euro 6/VI vehicles (with SCR and LNT technology). NOx emissions in RDE tests
were in the range of 40 to 500 mg/km. In ISC tests they varied from 30 to 450
mg/km and in delivery trips from 130 to 800 mg/km. These NOx emissions of Euro
6/VI vehicles are substantially lower than the three tested Euro 5b samples, which
have NOx emissions in the range of 500 to 1800 mg/km.
The NOx emissions seem to be independent from the vehicle size because the
class II types have similar results as the class III types. Given the fact that the best
performing vehicles have NOx emissions lower than 130 mg/km while other models
emit up to 650 mg/km in the same trips, it becomes evident that the real-world
emission performance of a Euro 6/VI vehicle mainly depends on the applied
hardware and emission control strategies.
It is expected that upcoming RDE legislation will decrease this range of NOx
emission as well as the maximum emissions because on-road (RDE) testing will
become part of the type-approval procedure.

6.2

Impact of ambient temperatures on the comparability of test results
There are many factors affecting the results of on-road emission testing. These
include driving patterns (determined by e.g. road type, traffic conditions and driving
style) and weather conditions such as ambient temperature. Since variations in
ambient conditions between different tests cannot be fully avoided, ambient
temperature remains one of the main factors that limit the comparability between
on-road emission test results obtained on different vehicles.
In this test programme, most vehicles were tested on the road at average ambient
temperatures between 5 and 32 °C. It is expected that the emission behaviour of
different vehicle models depends differently on ambient temperatures.
Consequently, every test result must be judged with respect to the specific test
conditions, and a comparison of the results for different vehicles cannot be directly
used to rank vehicles in terms or their environmental performance. The current test
temperatures lie well within the range of the most common ambient temperatures in
the Netherlands. Hence it is expected the test results are representative for Dutch
circumstances.
Similar to the cold start analysis in Section 4, emission residuals can be correlated
with ambient temperature after calculating the expected emissions given the
velocity and CO2 emission. For most vehicles, no correlation is seen within the
temperature range that was covered by the test programme. One of the vehicles,
that did show an effect, is illustrated in Figure 6-1. The extra NOx emission
decreases with ambient temperature.

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Figure 6-1: NOx emission residual (blue line) versus ambient air temperature (AAT) of one Euro 6
light commercial vehicle. The amount of data per temperature bin is shown as the
histogram.

6.3

Comparison of NOx emissions levels of Euro 6 and Euro VI LCVs
For Euro 6 (LD) and Euro VI (HD) there is a clear difference in requirements with
regard to type-approval and in-service conformity. For LD emission tests needs to
be performed with a vehicle on a chassis dynamometer and for HD with an engine
on an engine test bed. Emission limits are different and expressed in different units
(LD class III N1 and N2: 125 g/km versus HD 0.46 g/kWh). Also, for the first
generation of Euro 6 LD vehicles (2015 – September 2017), that were subject to the
tests reported here, there is no real-driving test prescribed, whereas for Euro VI HD
vehicles in-service conformity (ISC) needs to be checked with PEMS over a realworld test (as of December 2013). Such a difference might have led to a different
approach of manufacturers in the design and layout of the concept of emission
control for both type-approval regimes.
Given the mixed results of the tests, however, no conclusions could be drawn in this
respect. With regard to the comparison of the NOx emissions of vehicles with a Euro
6 and Euro VI type-approval there was no clear indication from the test performed
that on average one regime is significantly more effective in achieving low real
world NOx emissions than another. For one type the Euro VI variant indeed showed
lower NOx emissions than the Euro 6 variant. Another type has comparably low NOx
emissions levels for both the Euro 6 and VI model and a third type showed a mixed
result over the test trips. However, the Euro 6 vehicles show a lager spread than the
Euro VI vehicles. The Euro VI vehicles show a more consistent low level of NOx
emissions. This may be caused by the real-world test that is mandatory for Euro VI
engines and vehicles as of 2014.
The tests however demonstrate that at least for one type, vehicles of both regimes
could achieve NOx emissions levels in the range 30-90 mg/km over RDE and ISC
trips.

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6.4

Driving behaviour at 80 km/h on the motorway
In the Netherlands, emission factors of different vehicle categories are used to
calculate the fleet emissions for e.g. air quality assessment. Emission factors exist
for different road types, such as urban, urban congested, rural, motorway
congested and motorway at different speed limits. Due to the increased
dependency on dynamics of the emissions of Euro 6 vehicles, the necessity to
distinguish between specific road types and speed limits increases. In the test
programme, measurements were made at motorways with different speed limits,
one of which was the A10 west of Amsterdam, where a limit of 80 km/h applies.
To illustrate the importance of distinguishing emission factors by road type, Table
6-1 shows the difference between emissions measured on rural roads and
motorways where on both roads the maximum speed limit is mostly 80 km/h. The
test programme showed that emissions on a motorway with 80 km/h speed limit are
about three times lower than on an 80 km/h rural road. The reason is that on the
motorway, the dynamics are minimal, whereas on rural roads much variation in
velocity occurs due to e.g. roundabouts and road crossings.
The emission factors are calculated using average driving behaviour in terms of
velocity and acceleration, and corresponding emissions. By matching the trip
trajectories with map information, dependencies on road circumstances can be
distilled. From the comparison of the emission factor model outcomes with the
actual recorded emissions on certain trajectories, it became clear that the current
emission factors for motorways with 80 km/h speed limit are not in line with the
measurements. In fact, the emission factors were up to a factor 3 higher. To solve
this, two measures were taken.
First, the driving behaviour parameters underlying the 80 km/h motorway emission
factor were adjusted using the measurements for vans and passenger cars from the
past three years on the trajectory A10 west of Amsterdam. This solved part of the
problem because dynamics decreased and the average velocity was closer to 80
km/h than before. However, a gap remained, probably because driving at a
constant velocity for a longer time has a positive influence on the emission
reduction. This effect cannot be sufficiently represented by the current emission
factor model which uses only instantaneous acceleration and velocity, without any
history information.
To handle this issue, a second measure was taken, namely to use only the
emission data recorded on the 80 km/h motorway trajectory for the calculation of
emission factors for this specific road type. This brought the emission factors in line
with the measured values.

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Table 6-1: NOx emissions of Euro 6 LCVs on the motorway with 80 km/h speed limit (= 80 MSH)
with an average velocity of 80 km/h, and on rural roads with varying speed limits and
average velocity around 50 km/h.
Vehicle

NOx emission
motorway 80 MSH
[mg/km]

NOx emission
rural
[mg/km]

Ford Transit Euro 6

137

587

Volkswagen Caddy Euro 6

14

45

Peugeot Partner Euro 6

103

377

Renault Trafic Euro 6

170

210

Volkswagen Transit Euro 6

34

86

Mercedes-Benz Vito Euro 6

150

130

Peugeot Expert Euro 6

59

441

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7

Conclusions

7.1

General caveats regarding interpretation of the test results
•

The tests performed by TNO are not intended nor suitable for enforcement
purposes and are not suitable for identifying or claiming fraud or other vehiclerelated irregularities in a technically and legally watertight way. The observed
high NOx emissions under real-world test conditions can and should therefore
not be interpreted as an indication for the use of so-called “defeat devices”,
“cycle beating” or other strategies that are prohibited by European vehicle
emission legislation. Instead the test programme has been designed to
generate insight in the overall real-world emission behaviour of vehicles,
required for environmental policy making and evaluation, as well as inputs for
the activities of the Dutch government in the context of decision making
processes for improving vehicle emission legislation and the associated test
procedures.

•

For each make or model, only a single vehicle or a small number of vehicles are
tested, which means that it cannot be ruled out that the results correlate to the
specific condition of the tested vehicles.

•

The results for individual vehicle models cannot be interpreted or used as
emission factors. Emission factors are estimates of the overall average
emissions of a specific vehicle category, or of the average emissions of a
specific vehicle category under specific average driving conditions on a
specified road type.

•

Because of the myriad of factors that determine the outcome of a real-world
emission test, the values reported cannot easily be used to rank vehicles with
respect to their emission performance. The influence of differences in the tests
executed on two vehicles may be larger than the difference in actual
performance of engine, exhaust aftertreatment and control systems.

Numbers and bandwidths mentioned in the conclusions below are based on the
data as presented in sections 3 and 4.
7.2

Impact of accuracy of the measurement method on the significance of results
In the on-road measurement method with SEMS, as used in this project, the NOx
and CO2 mass emission rates are calculated based on measured concentrations,
fuel parameters, and the mass-air-flow (MAF) signal from the vehicle’s CAN bus.
For most vehicles, the air mass flow signals are calibrated and deviations are
corrected. If the air mass flow signal is not calibrated it may deviate from actual
values (i.e. +/- 10%), leading to inaccuracies in the overall test result. However, a
comparison of the CO2 and NOx emission results from SEMS with results obtained
with the chassis dynamometer measuring equipment yields typical deviations of
less than 2% for the accumulated CO2 and up to 0-8% for NOx over a few trips.
It can therefore be concluded that the observed deviations between on-road and
type-approval NOx emissions of the tested Euro 5, 6 and VI diesel vehicles are up

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to two orders of magnitude higher than the inaccuracy of the SEMS-based
measurement method.
7.3

Conclusions
In this research project the real-world NOx and CO2 emission performance of
eighteen Euro 5, 6 or VI compliant diesel vehicles of legislative class N1 (lightcommercial vehicles) and M1 (passenger vans) has been determined on the road in
several test trips. The emissions were measured by means of TNO’s Smart
Emission Measurement System, which contains an automotive O2/NOx and NH3
sensor. Combined with CAN bus data of the vehicle and a dedicated emission
calculation method, the mass emission rates were determined.
Real-world NOx emission levels of Euro 6/VI vehicles
On the road, the tested vehicles showed NOx emission levels that are 1 to 8 times
higher than the applicable type-approval emission limit of 105 or 125 mg/km. The
average NOx emissions in urban traffic ranged from 128 to 838 mg/km.
Despite the continuous tightening of the NOx type-approval limit values from Euro 1
to Euro 6, real-world NOx emission factors of LD light commercial vehicles have
stabilized on average at around 600-1650 mg/km in the last decade. In other words:
the difference between type-approval NOx emissions and real-world NOx has grown
significantly over the years. Compared to the current type-approval limit value of
105 or 125 mg/km, the difference between type-approval emissions and real-world
is substantial.
The results presented in this report are consistent with observations from previous
TNO studies, namely that modern diesel cars that perform well during a typeapproval test, generally have far higher NOx emissions under real-world conditions.
There is a large spread in the real-world emission results, as was observed before.
Moreover, some vehicles perform consistently poorly or well across different tests,
while other vehicles have very different emissions in different tests.
The effect of different payloads and driving styles on emission
Eight vehicles were tested in RDE tests with different payloads in combination with
three different driving styles. The CO2 emission generally increases with more
demanding conditions of the RDE tests. Higher payloads and a dynamic driving
style result for most vehicles in a CO2 increase up to 25 to 35%. However, the NOx
emissions corresponding to different driving styles and payloads are more diverse.
Some vehicles have very stable NOx emissions but for other vehicles emissions
vary widely (up to a factor 4 to 6). With high payloads and a sportive driving style
the NOx emissions can be 800 to 1000 mg/km. It must be noted that the emissions
of these vehicles are optimized in for type-approval on fixed chassis dynamometer
tests and not optimized for road tests.
Rural velocity profile and 80 km/h speed limit on the motorway
There is a clear distinction in the measured emissions on rural roads with an 80
km/h speed limit, and the 80 km/h speed limit on the motorway. The NOx emissions
on the motorway with speed limit enforcement are much lower than on rural roads.
The difference in short time dynamics does not fully explain this difference. It seems
that prolonged stable and moderate driving conditions on a motorway with 80 km/h

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speed limit and strict enforcement have a beneficial effect on the performance of
the emission control technology in Euro 6 diesel vehicles. There is almost a factor 2
difference between the 80 km/h speed limit motorway and all other traffic
conditions.
SCR and LNT technologies and emission controls
Higher real-world NOx emissions appear not to be correlated with the applied
exhaust after treatment technologies: the ranges of NOx emissions of the two
groups of vehicles (SCR or LNT technology) both span a factor 4 between the best
and the worst emission performance. This points to differences in the control
strategies that are used to manage the emission control technologies (EGR, LNT
and SCR) in real-world operation.
Cold start emissions
In order to get a view on cold start emissions all tested vehicles were subjected to
(RDE) tests with a cold start. For current Euro 6 diesel vehicles (models from 2016)
the amount of additional NOx emission during a cold start is found to be related to
the applied after-treatment technology. The tested SCR vehicles have a cold start
period that lasts on average about 600 seconds in the performed RDE trips. The
SCR vehicles emit on average 400 mg extra NOx, compared to the expected
emissions under the same conditions. In the first 300 seconds of the urban part of
RDE trips with a cold start the three tested vehicles with a LNT have an average
NOx emission of 50 mg. This may be explained by the fact that the NOx absorption
of an LNT typically starts at 80-100 °C, while the light-off temperature of SCR
catalysts is 150-200 °C.
Comparison Euro 6 and Euro VI NOx emissions levels
No significant difference was found between the NOx emissions of similar vehicles
with a Euro 6 and Euro VI type-approval. The three vehicle types tested each
showed a different trend. However, the Euro 6 vehicles clearly show a larger spread
in the NOx emissions, whereas the NOx emissions of Euro VI vehicles are more
consistently low. The larger consistency of low NOx emissions of the Euro VI
vehicles may be attributed to the real-world test that is mandatory as of 2014 for
Euro VI engines and vehicles. Low NOx emissions, in the range of 30-90 mg/km,
were measured for both the Euro 6 and the VI variant of a particular vehicle model.
Another Euro 6 vehicle showed similar low values. This indicates that low emission
levels, below the type-approval limit value of 125 g/km, can be achieved in realworld tests.

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8

References
The list below contains documents to which reference is made in this report, as well
as additional literature that is considered relevant for the interpretation of the tests
and test results described in this report.
[EU 2016a]

RDE-legislation package-1
(CELEX_32016R0427_EN_TXT).pdf alias “COMMISSION
REGULATION (EU) 2016/427 of 10 March 2016 amending
Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 as regards emissions from light
passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 6)”, pp. 98. URL:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32016R0427

[EU 2016b]

RDE-legislation package-2,
(CELEX_32016R0646_EN_TXT).pdf alias “COMMISSION
REGULATION (EU) 2016/646 of 20 April 2016 amending
Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 as regards emissions from light
passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 6)”, pp. 22. URL:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R0646&rid=3

[EU 2016c]

RDE-legislation package-3,
(CELEX_32017R1151_EN_TXT).pdf alias “COMMISSION
REGULATION (EU) 2017/1151 of 1 June 2017 amending
Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 as regards emissions from light
passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 6)”, pp. 649. URL:
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1507273829812&uri=CELEX:32017R11
51

[Ligterink 2009]

Ligterink and De Lange, Refined vehicle and driving-behaviour
dependencies in the VERSIT+ emission model, The joint 17th
Transport and Air Pollution Symposium and 3rd Environment
and Transport Symposium, 2009 Toulouse, France.

[Ligterink 2012]

Ligterink, VERSIT+ theory and fitting routines, TNO draft
report, 18 November 2012.

[TNO2016a]

Heijne et al., Assessment of road vehicle emissions:
methodology of the Dutch in-service testing programme, TNO
report 2016 R11178

[TNO 2016b]

Cuelenaere and Ligterink, Assessment of the strengths and
weaknesses of the new Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test
procedure, TNO report 2016 R11227

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[TNO 2016c]

Heijne et al., NOx emissions of fifteen Euro 6 diesel cars:
Results of the Dutch LD road vehicle emission testing
programme 2016, TNO report 2016 R11177

[TNO 2016d]

Kadijk et al., NOx emissions of Euro 5 diesel vans – test results
in the lab and on the road, TNO report 2016 R10356

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9

Signature
The Hague, 6 December 2017

TNO

Sam van Goethem
Project leader

Gerrit Kadijk
Author