330 I

CHAPTER6. RESEARCH

greatly to the
by type of cost do.e1 ngt differ
On average, the breakdown of HERD
expenditure
capital
tZ'ii of costs relate to plans
breakdown of GERD; overall around
national
to
over time in ctuntries according
(Figure 6.5). But capita'l costs can vary
capital
Poland'
and
i:ãt l*tnplt' in lawia
for building or improving physical :t-t"Í"::ti
these
in iois,'*rtich may indicate that
IÐRD
of
un 30o/o
exoendirure ,..pr.r.nr"ä'i.,årã it

ïffiïï;"ñ..ring

in expanding their research infrastructure'

Intheparticipatingjurisdictions,varyinglevelsofcapitalexpen.diturewereevidentin
"^l niÀ""|HERD on òapital costs' significantly
2015. Estonia spent rï;2"^áï cÉno
i"-n*, additionai investments under the
which
higher than the oECó ;;aie,
"ouii
Belgium, the Netherlands and
Roadmap ö;;;i;*i.
2015'
Esronian Research lnfraSrud;res
pì"p"ni"l án...ufitut expenditure ingeneral'
Norway spent below the OECD average
in
elJfr ái ñãt. i*isdicti'ons' However'
amounting to approxim;.tt t% 1n
over time'
sh3w
te*{ to
::T:.uolutility
capital expenditure in higher. education
dependingonthelevels-ofinvestmentininfrastructurerequiredandprioritiesfor
expenditure.

and

is a top pligitl for science technology
Improving physical research infrastructure
F- :.1till:;,]:
OECD r;;nd iOnCb, 20l7tr¡l)'.
innovation policymar.eÃ in most
exrstrng
improve
to
Infrastructure Roadmap
upouìãä" t,;'il;;*h

2019, Estoniu

earmarks 17 research

-oi r*ititit' ""d ú;i;ù;i:rht,T11Ï?l
infrastructur. un¿,"åiJn"*
in the coming decade'
national importancË for investment
pro¡.rt,
infrastructur"
infrastructures'
research
developmeni of 14 international
by
Estonia is also invotãJ in the
infrastructure
afpropriatio* T.l^"::l.ch
Norway also commio"¿ ,o increasing
research
for
roadmap
ánd has a national
and
NOK400 million over the period 2015-20ìb,
uiu**ril'cÑ"r*.gi"" Ministry of Education
infrastructur",

*ti"t''ir;p:;"d

Research, 2018P1)'

Expenditure bY tYPe of R&D
than
overall,appliedresearchandexperirnentaldevelopmentaccountforapproximate|y75o/o
uì"'táöin the oECD area, and for more

of gfoss domestic "*plnãitur" on R&,O
80% in eleven

on

"""";,T:.':'äfuö'trt*I,
iã, *ith

on averase u"ro.. oî-ðij."r.t
GERD in the higher education

hand'
;;d; ; Korea (Figure 6.6)' on the other53vo.of

rÀ. í01s, uppro*imatelv

";äi;bl.-iãi" research, followed by applied
sector was uin.át"¿ to basic

research (:sx) an¿öJrimentul.g..u.ronment

(10%), with marked differences across
higher education plays in

rír"-^r.lì-t"r.'that

countries (Figure 6.6). This higllg^Þ
countries'
.ääätåü"g ultic reseárch across oECD

TheproportionofGERDallocatedtobasicresearchin2015wasrelativelylowin
Estonia' at around
just above un"ö inütãÑ.trt.rlands and
Belgium (16%),*nil. irl'
77Yo on basic
was
GERD
,fi;;"kd;n for
2jo/o forboth jurisdictions. In Norway,
In France'
development'
un¿ +ó'"-on experimental
research, 360/o onapplied research,
of HERD'
70Yo
rhan
more
basic ,"r*"tr accounts for
Luxembourg un¿ sîiiir.rland,
more in
lot
a
invest
to
i¡nit"O Kü;;;;;-Kor.a tend
the
Orher countri"r, ru"i,"ãr'th"
While
sector'
develoPóåäi t¡ trtg rtigít:-'-:9:tu'ion
applied research
"J;-p";ilental
Netherlands *d E.ä;lJ"irîri,åir¿i

on

HERD
riørlv higher than average proportion ofdevoted
to

tñ-"1í"pã'ti9n:i'trq in Belgiumrhan2'o/o of
basic resear"h (.p;;;;î;i'"ti stw)'
in 2015' making up
i" OÉbo
basic research *".:,h";*.rí
'èss
"Junoi"t
spending (Figure 6'6)'

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD

2019

CIIAPTER 6. RESEARCH

Figure 6.5. Expenditure on R&D by type

I Cunentcosts

I

Panel A . GERD expendilu¡e b¡eakdown

To

of cost (2015)

Capitalexpenditure

by cost ¡n purcheslng power paríty ln

USD

100
90
80
70

S.{$"""te"So/o

Panel B . HERD expenditure breakdown

by cost purchasing powerparity in USD

100
90
80
70
60
50

40
30
20
10

U

"$.eo"i\"*'ì"*1"*"..*þ
*Participating

Note:
in the Benchmarking Higher Education
system performance exercise z0l7/201g.
Data refer to 2015 or most recently

avail;blei;;.

StatLink +ì4

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

@ OECD 2OI 9

https://doi.ore/l

0. I 7g7lg8 g93394 I 3 I 0

I szs

32s I

CHAPTERó. RESEARCH

Table 6.2. Success rates in attracting

Horizon 2020 funding (2014-2016)
% of overall applications

Number of aPPlications

Application success rate
o/o

2014.2016

9 705

Austria

1 095

11.2

44 811

GermanY

5 847

6 394

heland
4 385

The Czech RePublic

I 671

Finland

12 839

Greece
1 901

The Slovak

I 095

Lithuanía

7 901

Poland

'712018.

Yeørs On - KeY

6.2.3,Howfeseflrcl'anddevelopmenlÍundingisspent
Current and caPital costs

CurrentexpendituresinR&DalecomposedoflabourcostsofR&Dpersonnel;other
equipment) used and
as services un^d-tú; (including
current costs used in R&D, such
capital costs cover
fees for the use ofixed assets'
;;;;;äã**r
consumed within
and equipment'
n*"iär;;;h ;r Un¿ uná- UuitOingt, machinerv
of "."
in
rhe purchase

products that are used
ä "titaltliffi; Ë;p"t)'
in.r":^instv includes electronic
'"iî-;t
more tnan ä'v*, ioecD, 201;;;;:"îr'rl.
within

capitalised computer

R&D for

networks that are used
å;:îtù";;;;"ã;#äunications
Strategy
infrastructure such
rtr*"d between systems (European
"t
2017p0ù'
R&D systems or,
Group'
Long-teni'ilrrt"i*uilitv working
Forum onResearch hîr;l;;t*es

in;;;'dld;;irä.ut"t'

'1

onaverageacrosstheOECDin2015,currentcostsrepresefrtsg%ofGERD,andcapital
of expenditure dedicated to
though;"-;;";coontri..,'ihïpî"päi""
just
ll%;
therefore
costs
int.n.in. on human resources' and
i,
uuou?"g0%.^äã."*"tt
is
costs
current
(OECD' 20151u)'
labour costs are generally the

largest

of current costs

"olnpon.lt

O OECD
EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
BENCHMARKING HIGHER

2019

CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH

Figure 6.4. European commission funding

of government and higher education

selected European countries (2015)
share ofgovemment and higher education

R&D in

R&D funded by EC as a percentage

o/o

50
45
40
?Ã

30
25

20
15
10
Ã

0

""'ì.ñl"s"s'
Note: *Participating in the Benlhmarfile
Higher^d.t"
Education system performance exercise
2017/2olg.
For Ausrri4 Bergium, Denyalh_ *d
refer 1o'20r3.
France, rtar¡ Lithuania,
Luxembourg, the Netherrands, p.9rund, po.d;i
l
uiäilou.niu, data refer to 2014.
source: Adapted fiom OECD
rzon,"tl,-oiòõ3å":::r,Trr!*øs
inà iiåur,rv scoreboard 20r7: The
digital

s;;;;,

F;;¿;;;,

transþrmor,on,

.

srarl-rnkÞ>Éa@
As can be seen in Figure 6'4, funding from
intemational sources represents a small
proportion of ñrnding overall across

ógCo countries, alt¡ouîñ'it t.nd, to be more
substantial for countñes
funding frõm the European union
(EU)' Funds provided by the
"rtgtbl"ñ...""iue
'l,"tj4
EU q9
ã.p*iarv i-po.tuniîåi-nàîunderraken in a smail
group of European counrries, reaching
äho.ih¿r'th"
srovak Repubric in
2015' EC funding is also important
rtí. Êìt*i" (15% in2lr7),while ir accounts
for yvo
of Belgian funding' on the-ãther hana,Ñoiway
and the Netüerrands have some of
the
Iowest shares of their overail higher.õ*ri;"
nto
runainj*';;g
from
the
European
Commission, at around

¡"*d;,he

2% (Figle 6.4).

In recent years, countries have had varying
rates
from EC sources o1_u]e 6.2).. over ti"'-poioaof success in attracting R&D funding
2014-2016;,, e.jg,u, was rhe mosr
successful of ail European union countries
in
il;;r;friry
funds from the
Horizon 2020 framework programr.
"ri"lrir*rate
rur ñ¿¡ , wtn in líN.uJ..r,
from armost
15 000 applications' The Ñeth-erlands

and Ñá*uy also had relativery high

for their applicarions, at 17yo and t6ito

success rates

oi ip¡iätions ;.;p;Ã;ii. rn Estonia, where
approximately 2000 applications were
submitt,j¿ r"r ir"¿i"Ë'"råïäL perioa,
rhere was a
success rate of l3Vo.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

@ OECD 2OI9

I tzz

326 |

CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH

for R&D in the participating iurisdictions

Tabre 6.r. Types of funding
Estonia

NorwaY

The Netherlands

The Flemish

Professional HEls

Universities
Yes (Provided bY the
Department of

Base funding

Education and
institutions that

Training)

received a Positive

evaluation)
Performance-based
funding

Yes (base funding is
performance'based)

Yes (provided bY the
Department of
EconomY, Science

and lnnovation
through SPecial
Research Funds and
lndustrial Research

Yes (Part of the block
grant where fixed
allocations constitute
58%, another 5% is
allocated for doctoral
training)
Yes (Part of the block

Yes (to suPPort
oractice-oriented
research, Provided as
part of the lumP sum
funding for
professional HEls)

Yes (constitutes 70o/o
of the block grant
without detailed
specifìcations of its
use)

Yes (constitutes 6%
of thè bbck grant for

grant is formulabased with
performance
elements, constitutes
37% of the block

HEls Provided based
on performance)

grant)
Research+elated
indicators are also
included in the

Funds)

performance
agreements

Project and/or

Research grants for

competitive

research grouPs'
institutions or

funding/research

individuals

programme-based

Yes (Project-based
funding Provided bY
the Research
Foundation)

grants

Yes (comPetitive

project and
programme-based
bY

funding Provided
the Research Council
and the RoYal
AcademY of
Sciences)

Funding to suPPort

Yes

research

infrastructure

Yes (through the
pr0gramme
infrastructure of the

Yes (NWO
competitive funds for
practice-oriented
research; suPPorts
knowledge exchange
between SMEs and
professional HEls and

considerations
attached to funding
mechanisms

oositive evaluation in
ihe regular government
research evaluation
orocess, ln total, 95%
bf funding is awarded
based on Performance
criteria (high level
research Publications'
patents and Patent

Special Research
Funds are awarded
based on number of
master degrees'

funding, PrimarilY
provided bY Research
Council of NorwaY)

Centres for ExPertise)

Yes (it aims to

Yes (in support of the
'top sectors"
activities)

lncrease
appropriations to
research

infrastructure bY NOK
400 million bY 2018)

Research

To be eligible for
baseline funding, R&D
institutions must have a

projectbased

the creation of

Foundation)

lndicators or other

Yes (comPetitive

Formula-based
funding (37% of the
core R&D funding of

ComPetitive funding

to support co'
operation between
professional HEls and

Performance-based
funding is awarded
based on several
indicators: including

gender diversity'
publications and

universities)
considers degrees
and defended
doctoral degrees

citations.

lndicators in

funding from the

oerformance

research council and
reoional research
fuñds, funding from

defended doctorates,

lndustrial Research
Funds are awarded
based on defended
doctorates,

applications' cofinancing of R&D and
doctoral graduates);
and 5% is allocated to

publications and

humanitarian research
of national significance'

contracts, Patents

citations, revenues
from licences,
revenues from EU
and sPin-off

business.

ägreements include
research contracts
funded bY research
councils and the EU,
scientific imPact,
scores in research

scientific Production,
student credits'
degrees, exchange
students, comPetitive

the EU and other
third-Parties.

assessment
exercises, doctorate
degrees awarded.

companies.

Funding SYstems: a
the particiPating

EDUCATION SYSTEM
BENCHMARKING HIGHER

PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

CITAPTER 6. RESEARCH

higher education' This may be related

to relatively low availability of internal
funds (e.g.
income from endowments or student
fees) within the higher education sectors
of the
participating jurisdictions, compared
to some
other

countries.

Disparities of funding from different
'ECD
sources can be rerated to the funding
mechanisms in
place for research in particurar
country contexts; while some systems
may
fund R&D
from generar insriruriãnar funds,
Luy
,"..iue
a specific
allocation of R&D funding from government.
Differ"n... ur. ulro related to the relative
availability of funding frãm difierent
sour"es. For example, European countries
are
eligible to apply for rargeted R&D funding.from
the g;rõã-'u"ion, so they may have
more capacity fo aftract
.funding from ábroad. rn otlre'r- cårilt i"s, notabry canada,
$I¡Leden' tbe united Kingdom unã fltrlunited states;thelrivatc
non-profit sector is an
important source of funds-.

i;-;d ;;; ffi;rt-

Table 6' l summarises, the key funding
mechanisms for each of the four participating
jurisdictions. As can be seen
rrom tÀ? ìáu., p.rø-unõ;r.d formura
funding and
competitive funding mechanisms for
R&D,
y"rr u, uro"t giuni funding, are in prace in
I communi.r,
ail jurisdicrions' For exampre, in the rieÃisn
ìi^"åîmon to rhe brock granr
funding for research prouìd"d ty trre
óeparrment of Education and rraining,
higher
education institutions. can receive sp"ciai
r.r"u."rr-iuãJiij"ñåm

Ûre Departmenr of
Economy' science and Innovation' *t-rfuh
i, provided_based on performance (Jonkers and
zacharewicz,2016¡ßù. These "spéciar

nesearch Funds,, (BoF),are awarded
based on the
number of master's and doctórat aegrees
awarded, gender diversity, and research
productivity and impact' Institutions

ÍiïIÄ "*

cai also benefit rr,ítl-;i"¿*trial Research Funds,,
,u.1., u, l¡".nsing, patenting and

engage in technology trunrr., acriviries

The Netherlands directs a special stream
of funding towards practice-oriented research
as
part ofthe funding allocateá to
the professional HE-I sector.
.tì.urn
offunding
can
be
used to appoint associate. pro¡eqsors (reciors)
wtro speciatisãî ¿ru.roping research
projects in conjunction with stakerror¿eÀ,
wrrión ...u".in.ii,nilr"l interest. In
addition,
competitive fundinp is-available for proéssional
-tå^;;;;."g"
HBts
cenrres
of
Experrise,
public-privare partñershìpr
up
p_arrnership between higher education
institutions, industry and gouetnm*t.
rr¿ori orthe centres of Expertise
are affiliated with
one of the "top sectors", kèy sectors
of importance to the Dutch economy (Section
6.7).

riì,

to;;Äit.î

*,

Funding from international source

s

A number ofcountries rely heavily on funding
from abroad to finance higher education
R&D' including from intemationaio.g*i.uüoãr
ona .up.unuuonui.ntiti".. In five of
the
countries for which data was availa"ble
fir
201.6, funding from intemational
sources
represented over one-fifth. of total
ftrnding, ranging t o^ isil"- ir funding
in poland to
over 560/o of funding in
Srovak nepuîric ¡Ëigire 6.3). H;we;er,
1,he
for
EU countries,
some of the differences between couniries
can ãlso be'rerated-to how funding
European structurar Funds is u..ouni"J
i* in budgets. rn'.oî."'.ountries, it mavfrom
be
classifìed
direcrrv as funding.rrom auroã¿,-whire

national funds before being a'ilocat.a,,nluning-ñ

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

inîtn.r. iiääv Ë;;ö;;,"är,"iJ

ffi;hrrä;d å government funds.

O OECD 2OI 9

I tzs

324 |

CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH

Netherlands,S%ofHERDin20l6wasfinancedfromabroadandanotherSTocamefrom
from the business sector'
3o/o of HERD originating
the business .nt"rprir"'rã.t*. wiûr
in
no'n uuJnÃ'-u'iong ¡ririsdictions participating
Norway had the ro*"rt"ãántriuution
the benchmarking exercise in 2016'

ComparedtootherSourcesoffundingforHE,RD,thecontributionofthebusinesssector
these
uu..ug. ácross the oEcD in 2016)' However'
is relatively small (5% of HERD on
which
to HERD'
of Uuiinesserl ou"tutt contribution
figures may understut" i'. n ff ã*tent
as licensing
such
R&D
of
,* or ru.iiitiãr or outcomes

puv."* f";;;;

can also involve
income or investment in spin-offs'

t"frïi?I;Ïirîthe higher education sector' bv source

Figure 6.3. Expenditure on research

of

As a Percentage oftotal funds

¡ Government sector

o/o

o Higher education

sector t Abroad r¡ Business enterprise sector

tr Prìvate non-profit sector

100
90

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

Nole: *participating in the Benchmæking

Higher Education System Performance

exercis e 201'7 12018'

;;n'"::";::riåúff*'"åîåt"'"i1ä1i",5i IECD science' rechnotos" and R&D statistics'
https:/idoi.ore/1 0. 1 787lstld-data-en'

sx atLín k -=Ép https ://doi'ore/ 1 0' 1 7 87/8

8893 3 94 1 272

Inadditiontocontributionsfrombusinesses,fundingfrom,privatenon-profit
in RãD perf,ormed by the higher
of
organisarions is an i,r,po"Jånt indicator
"ngu!.;"nt
and the united Kingdom'
."1;;:;"';ït' ;c;'; ñáã*u't'ioSweden
education sector'
far exceeds that of the
HERD
'" private non-profit otg*i*tions
the contribution of
private non-profit
jurisdictions,
rou, putti"iputlng
business sector. Ho*"r"r, in tire
funding in higher

while it was the source
is not a subsþ;tial tôut"" oi funding;
up less Than 4o/o of
riade
it
"¿u"ãtiãi
funding in the Nethe,fän¿s-in ZO16'

of more ïhan 60/o of

funding in Norway and less ít'^ ty"

in Belgium and Estonia'

WhencomparedtotheOECDaverage'thehighereducationsectorsinBelgium,Estonia,
by
tesË iunoing to support R&D undertaken
the Netherlands and Norway contribute
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

O OECD 2019

CTIAPTER 6. RESEARCH
Data refer to 2016 or most recently available

ffí:i;;"'.#åiï.1rri:äf,::i

year.

Qotstiutf. orco science, rechnotost and R&D sratistics,

Srarlrnk .Ë,

hnos://doi.org/10.I7g7lggg93394I253

In Flanders

the business enterprise sector and the private
non-profit sector represented
almost 70% of GERD in2016. The business
enterprise sector provided around 50% of
GERD in Estonia, the Netherrands and Norway,
implying that HERD and GovERD are
more important in these jurisdictions. Thehighe; .ãr"ãtiån sector is particularly
important in Estonia; in2016 it was responribr"
foiu.ou
ioi)" &
"¿
"*penditure.
As Figure 6'2 shows,
higher
education
sector has been attracting an increasing
.the
proportion of GERD in
recent years in many countries, even
as GERD itself also
expands' For example, Portugal intreased
the proportion orôpRo allocated to the
higher
education sector by more thãn l0 percentag"
pôints between 2006 and20l6. In other
countries' however, such as
Hungary and Turkey, the proportion of
GERD
allocated to higher educationlreece,
has been øìring. In the NÉirr.ìruno, and
Norway,
the
of GERD spent in the higher educition r."to, in
zôìî was similar

tí )ooa

åij,:it*

6'2'2' Sources offunding

for higher educqtion reseqrch and development

Higher education draws on various domestic
and intemational funding sources for R&D
activities (OECD, 2015¡r).'wh'e R&D acriviries
i" hi;h;;iäoion may be to some
extent funded by intemal funds (e.g. income
from enãow-.Jr-o. student fees), the
majority of funding comes rrom oùtside the higher
e¿ucation s"cior. ciuen the pressures
offinancing higher education faced by the public
sector (see chapter l), higher education
institutions are increasjngly seeking tó oiu.iriry
sources òrnailãi"¿ing, as well as other
higher education activitiðs. This seõtion
u.r.r.", how well-diversified the funding sources
are for R&D across OECD higher education
systems.

on average, across OECD countries with available data,
R&D undertaken by higher
education in 2016 was, for the most part, heavily
nnunÉJiy tte govemment sector

(68%), folrowed bv funding from within

trt. niÃr,.rä¿*;;;-r.Jr"i'itserf (12%),funding
from abroad (12%), businãss enterprises
6u{, a.yd tlr" p;ir;r.;àn-pront
-ùuri*ss
sector (3%).
However, some systems are also aule to .aiìe
R noing r.oti flr"
enterprise sector,
(14% or overall runding) o."ror"u-f
táît-"ot

ËiJ-ir$:rmanv

"".r"îi

rñì;;j

Government funding accounted for more than
two-thirds of HERD in Belgium, Estonia
and the Netherlands, and close to 90yo or
upn¡ in Norway. Funding from abroad is the
second largest source

of funding of HERD in estoniJ rìizJl'rn'e the business
of funding ìn i'jgiu, (r3%).In the

enterprise sector is the second rãrgest source
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

@ OE CD 2O1g

I tzt

322 | CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH

statlink ùìtfl https://doi.ord I 0. 178?/88893

3941 234

of GDP
overall,GERDintheOECDareaamountedtol'9o/oofGDPin20l6'comparedtol.S%
expenditure as.a proportion
in¿iui¿uur
most
the
with
of GDp in 2006. A, ,rr."iãiJ oi
2016;
"o.rlniÁr,
and
GDP)'
?""4i;ã; i"' 2006
(l'4o/o
of
increased in 23 of the äiffi;i;;;ih
Korea
ilAustria di;i"ãîôppl and include
canada'Finland
significant increases #ñ;
lloelzorc
p"iiãå
Ûr.
investmenr over
countries wfth decreasing
6'1)'
and Luxembourg (Figure

2%
InFlanders,GERDishigherthanlheOECDaverage'with-investmentequivalenlto2.To/o
Ñ#*;v' GE\D was at approximatelv
t";
tît
ìi
*hil"
2016,
in
average
the
of GDP
below or at
Nor*ay have t""tã¿ ståadily from
of GDp. The Netherlaìrå, unã
while comparable data
and
ioie
,
uu.*g.i""""ìt-ii
above
to
2006
in
investment
level of
slightlv above the oEcD

üìätttd;

for 2006 for Flanders;ä; """ii"ui.,
average

dlsi;"Y;J¡'::9t

of GDP of
in 2006, *itn'ði-nn us a ptoportion

1'8%'

GERDpatternshavebeenmorevolatileinEstoniainrecentyears"thoughitmustbe
u"t*tt.".ou* and GDP can be
noled rhar in relativety small

researct ,vu.rníiri.'räio

amounts' For example'

r.#i";ü ìutg.in*tial
affecled by single in¿rìä;;i*"i"i"'g
t"ryl*ted to GERD reaching

ti;i.":iñ"f

R&D investm"n , ,.rulåäiî'uossioniuã "ll i.ixl und p.og'""ively decreasing since'
a_zlof^r.eyer
2.3o/o ofGDp in 201I (from
"i
in 2016'
GDP
t'3o/oof
of
íåáátti"g a tevel
BusinessenterpriseexpendìtureonresearchanddevelopmentreDresentsthelargest
across the OECD
over 60Yo or R&D on uut'unå
for
accãunting
GERD.
of
oortion
ile"GOVERD in OECD
is the next largest "*p.íåiti,r.'àãt"go'y,-*-f of GERD in 2016 was
HERD
inigu..6.2).
;han HEfìP;"ö;;råir,-utoind'26o/o
countries is lower ;:";;;ü;
sector alone'
UV the higher education
allocated to ..r.u"t' u"äãn""tt"
Figure 6'2' Gross domestic

expenditure on R&D by performing
I Businêss enterPri$ sætor t Privat€ non'prcft

¡Highsrêducaton6€c'ttr trGov€mmentsctor

sector (2016)

sætor ' 2006 H¡gher Edu€lion S€ctor

privat€ non'profitsctore
Business €nterprise and
ok
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

Note: *pafücipating in the Benchmæking

Higher Education System Performance

BENCHMARKING HIGHER

exercise 201712018'

EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

O OECD 2019

CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH

19.{:". expenditure rerates to the broader R&D investment in countries, where

lnvestment comes from and how it is

spent.

6.2.1. Higher education investment

within the broader R&D sector
Gross domestic expendifure on research
and experimental development (GERD)
measures all intramural expenditure
on research a"d d;""I"p;;;, ìuirt in jurisdiction.
a
It
includes expenditure on n¿àn from
outside ihe jurisdicti"",ï;;;t domestic
expenditure
which is spent in another jurisdiction,
unl* piovides u
expenditure on R&D within any one
"í"ur..ìru.. of the volume of
economy.
GERD is distributed. among the four
R&D_perfoqning sectors: business enterprise;
government, higher education and privaie
non-þrofit, as ãefined bv tt. Frascati manual
(.ECD, 20l5¡r1)' rherefore, cano. elcom;;r;åö;åiää'ärÏìrt
er Education R&D
(HERD), expenditure on research
in thf

researcf and;.;ó..:,rexpenditure("rsector' Govemment policy and targets

lr;;Xitj; å$.

jiïii'Ëir',iflJfi3ii;P,lfJ_îffi;

ii Rao ten¿ to iocus on Jtrr". the R&D sector as

pubric r.r.u."h"r.rto., ,uilr", flt""

Many countries across the OECD have

.pËriã"urrf ro.urrng on higher

set targets to

with the EU 2020 strategy ro. r.u.t,-susiainabreincrease GERD. For exampre, in line
un¿ incruriul growth, European
countries including oe11{[,.G9rmany
ánã rrun.. envisage increasing GERD
to 3%o of
GDP by 2020; whire Finrand, s*"¿.n
unJ Japan have î.t ,àrã'ambirious

spending
targets of 4%o of GDP by 2020 (OECD,
20l4ust). However, as can be seen from
Figure6.l, some OECD cãunhies ì"*riL"riderably
more in R&D than others. For
example, in Israel and Korea, GERD
uro*t,
to moró than 4%oof GDp; while Turkey,
Latvia, Mexico and Chile spend less tnaÃill"
of CDp on R&D.
Figure 6.1. Gross domestic expenditure

^",ï-i:'i,,i""1;î,"'iîiff
4.5

on R&D (2016)

,.:ï:J"î

4.0
3,5
3.0

2.0

1,5

1.0
0.5

0.0

Note: *Parlicipating in the Benchmarking

"ïröo

Higher Education system performance

ffí:i;",åå"1i:irri:i.-r?,r"-.."_ rzõiiii¿

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

exercise 2017/201s.

s,¡,i"", f;;;;;t;;' and R&D statistics,

O OECD 2OI 9

I tzt

320 |

CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH

on the 2025 vision' .narticltlty in
committed: the value of science further elaborated
Education, Culture and Science ' 2019¡gì'
terms of policy i"üiæií.t (Dutch Milistry of
and Science 2015-2025 (Dutch
Research
The S¡ategic Agenda for Higher nniü¡or,
also includes objectives to enhance
Ministry of B¿ucãti'ã¡,'ç,rftutã and Science, 2015¡rq),
education quality and build
ìo'improve
order
research into higher education practices in
research and practice (for example' through
strong, p..lnun"ni links between .¿u"uiion,
CentresofExpertisetotacklethegteatestsocietalchallenges).

IntheFlemishCommunity,thepolicynoteWork,Economy,Scienceandlnnovation
reach the EU 2020 target investment of
2014-201go,rtfin.ritt" ef",nítf't ,o*tiít"nt to
(GD¡) in research and.development, comprising l%
3o/o ofits gross domestic product
increased focus on
from governm.rt f*il;

is also

ãnd 2"/ruy tne îusiness sector' There
programmes such as
ea_u9a_ii9n institutions in European

the particip"tion oiliífrer
and aligning the Flemish research strategy
European R"r"*.t corincil and Marie curie,
with the european instruments (Flemish Government,

2014¡rr¡)'

goals
and Innovation Strategrt 2014-2020,^sets
on
place
2020 GDP target, moving t9 lOth
for the system, including achieving the3o/oEU
the
and
increasing the number of. doctoral graduates
The Estonían Research and Development

the EU Innovation Scoreboard,
aiming to increase its share of EU
impact of ,.i"niü,. þlications. Bttãnia"is also
and visible in intemational research'
research funding and become .o." active
(Estonian Ministry of Education and
development aníinnovation co-operation'initiutiu.s
Research, ZO r +r"lJ. Êttonia also häs particular

goals in relation to the levels of investment

of 2o/o of GDP from the private
in R&D by source, by targeting a level of iniestment
ftom the state and local budget'
sector, witfi l% o¡ôOf
"oi'ing
6.2.Investment in research and development
on public R&D currently represents 650/o
The combined expenditure of OECD countries
of public science systems in
of the global puUti. R&D investment,-ihough the'growth
balance of expenditure in the years to come
emerging ..onoãil, is likely to change the
performs a substantial share of public
(OECD, 2016p1). The higher education sector
alio plays 1 key role both.in performing
research activity across OECD .ount i.t, and
doctorai education. Expenditure on R&D
basic researct ääiräi"r'g *;r;h;;r iúough
sustained gro{¡, T^"-t: tP" doubling
within higher education h-as been on u pãtt"ä of
growtfi has begun to ilow in recent years (OECD
since 1995, tfrougir

'2017wt)'

ThepolicyargumentsforinvestinginR&Darecomplex.Thetimelinesaswellasthe
at the
pro.¡ects- are not always clear in advance
economic and social payoffs or ,","u,.t'
basic
in
investment
to
it
level of individual investments, purti."iurrv when _comes
of
body
the
improving
by
value
research' However, investment in,.,"u.'t'.creates
new
create
innovate,
to
draw
can
economy
knowledge un¿ n.í id"a, from which the
This increased stock of knowledge can
ones.
."itting
improve
and
products and services
knowledge, market or network spillprovide *i¿.. .lono.ic or ócial u"nãittJtnrough
ôvers (Georghiou, 20 I 5t r¿t)'

Withthegoalofpromotinginnovationhighon.thepolicyagendainmanyOECD
to. feed lnto innovation is increasingly
countries, investmónt in knowledg.-"ï"uilon
destination and distribution of expenditure
considered crucial. Indicators on the ,ou..",
are prioritising the R&D sector and
can provide insight into how -u"ft gã;.-";ents
the majority of funding' The
which subsectors and types of ,rr.ír.n are attracting
focus on the key questions of how higher
comparative data presented in this .ã.iion
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE O OECD2O1,9

CHAPTER 6. RESEARCH

Box 6.1. Pubric researeh systems in the participating jurisdictions

As of 2017, the main actors in the research system of Estonia are the six public

universities. Of these institutions, Tartu University and Tallinn University
of Technology
receive the largest share of public funding and hâve the highest nurnbei
of students aãá
staff (Kattel and Stamenov, 2017¡+). In addition, there- are seven public research
organisations and seven private R&D institutions (including one private
university) that
play an important role in the research system.

In Norway, the public research system includes universities and university colleges,
research institutes and hospitals (health trusts). The Research Council
of Norway ßõÑj
funds research over the whole range of R&D activities, and assurnes
an advisory iole tó
the government in research policy matters. The council also funds the
establishment and
operation ofspecially desigaated research centres which carry out specific
functions, such
as Centres of Excellence (SFF) in specific fields of science, Centräs
for Research-based

Innovation (sFI), and centres for Environment-friendly Energy Research (FME).

In the Netherlands, universities carry out the rnajority of public research,
though in recent
years there has been some increase in practice-oriènted research
professional

at
HEIs.
Public research institutes consist of sóientific research institutes tñat are
under the
Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and the Royal
Netherlands
Acaderny of Arts and Sciences (KNAW); government laboratories;
and ápplied research
(To2) institutes, the latter of which are the most significant oi ttr. púuri. research
institutes in terms of expenditure (OECD, 2014pt).

Research in the public system of the Fremish community is carried

out by higher

education institutions and four Strategic Research Centres (SRC). There

are also a
number of additional scientific institutes, knowledge institites and policy
research
centres. Each Strategic Research Centre focuses on ãne key specific
ur"u ór research

(nanotechnology, biotechnology, automotive and ,náchine production,

and

multidisciplinary research); centres are also active in the commerclalisation
of their
research. Belgium also has ten federal scientific establishments, which
often conduct
research in partnership with universities in the Flemish and French
Community (Flemish

Department of Economy, Science and Innovati on,2017¡ø).

In.Norway, Íhe Longlerm Planfor Research and Higher Education 20l9-2028
sets the
priorities for Norwegian higher education over thJperiod. The government
aims to
further increase investment in higher education over thé period and also
work to facilitate
the greater use of knowledge. Key measures of the plan r.lut"d to R&D
are an investment
package to improve technology (including increasing basic research
in ICT and buildin!
an e-infrastructure for open research), boosting the role of R&D for renewal
anã
restructuring of the business sector (including expanding researcher
education in new
business creation), and increasing commercialisátion, õsearch-based innovation
and
business-oriented research (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research,
20 I g vt).
The Netherlands has set.out a 2025 Vision
for Science: Choices þr the Future (Dutch
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, i}l4¡t),which aims to consolidate
the Dutch
position as a world leader in research and ensure'ihat the system
can evolve to maintain
its position amid emerging challenges. Specific commitments include considerable

investment in research projects which attract Horizon 2020 funding,

and the development

of a National Research Agenda (NwA) to set priorities. The poii"y note Curíous
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
O OECD 20I9

and

| ¡rq

318

CHAPTER6. RESEARCH

6.1. Introduction
the three key missions of higher education
(OECD 1015111), R&D comprises basic
institutions. As defined in tùe Fráscati Manual
with no specific application in view;
new knowleàge
research, which is ui*.Out
"knowledge
"."ating
iowards a specific practical
applied research, wtrictr is aimed aî creating new
new products or
developing
whicñ has the goal of

Research and development (R&D) is one of

aim; and experimentalï;";i;ñ.;t,
processes.

forms of R&D' As discussed in chapter
Higher education institutions carry out all three
research and experimental development
l, there has been " .rùt1ã"ti"f äxpansion involumes
of R&D investment and output are
The
yeats.
the OEC;;;;;"nt

activity across

onstronggrowthtrajectoriesinryanycountries,.notwithstandingareductionin
expenditure in many cases following the economic

crlsls'

in research and development can be
However, measuring the retum on investment
to economic or social gain' Indeed'
problematic, regardless of whether the return relates
education systems to assess and compare
the level of capacity *iirtin individual higher
;il; ;;"li t

of their research output is far from clear.

"rJ'uot.,nle
systems- are in terms of ensuring a
This chapter looks at how successful higher education
providing.equitable opportunities
strong foundation for investment in R&D expenditure,
co;ãti";r io. r"rr*.h.rs, and pròducing high quality research'
and attractive *o.ting

6.1.1. Research systems and strategies

diffusing knowledge is a key pillar of
research piay. l vital role in delivering
any innovarion strategy lôiCO-, 20l5pt).
Reseaich activities carried out in the
innovations that haveîoàiui un¿ ..onorni" benefits'
of public research institutes (PRIs)
public higher eOucation seão., utong with the activity
are organised differently in
systems
research
compose the public r.r""t"tt t'tt"rnî eyUtl"
three-quarters of total basic research is
the participating jurisdi,ction, igo* 6.1). Overall,

and
A strong framework for systematically creating
p.uUjic

carriedoutinthepublicresearchsystem,eventhoughnugtilR&Donlyaccountsfor30o/o
(OECD' 2016p1)'
of the overall volume of R&D in the OECD
measured, how
yet emerged on how the quality.of research can be

No consensus has

nãD is at driving innovãtion, and how research infrastructure
efficient higher
"O*uiion
to meet Jhe needs of economies and
can be designed uJ n n¿.¿ most effectively
resåarch has been to ensure research and
societies. The traditional role of public
possibilities^for societal value although they
development in areas that have long term
maynotprovideanimmediat*..o,'o,ni.gain.Currently,.thereareincreasing
the impact of
systems to transõr knowledge ánd increase
expectations on public research

reiearch (OECD, 2016t3ù'

Asresearchanddevelopmentactivityhasexpanded,OECDgovemmentsareincreasingly
research and innovation' Each of the
developing ,p."in" dát"!i", ,oué.ing. -puUti"
plans with measures aiming to improve the
participating ¡uriraictiáns-ãlso has ,p.õifi"
petørmancé óf research and innovation'

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE @ OECD2O19

CÍIAPTER 6. RESEARCH

Chapter 6. Research

Tkis chapter loolcs at the
covers

human resources that are allocated uniquely to research, the
distribution ofresearch expenditure, the profile of research personnel,
careers, the profile of doctorate holders, research activity,

productivity and impact.

The statistical data for Isiael are supplied by and under the responsibility

access to research
int ernati onal i s at i on, research

ofthe relevant Israeli authorities,
of thé Gohn Heights, East Jerusalem and
Israeli settlements in the west Bank under the terms of intemational
law.
fhe use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status

BENCHMARKING HICHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PER¡ORMANCE

@ OE CD 2O1g

Isn

316 I

CHAPTER 5, EDUCATION
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20i9

CHAPTER 5. EDUCATION

Notes

I Entry rates measure

inflow to higher education

during a specifìc period and represent the
percentage of an age cohort that is
expected to enter a highe-r
piogramme over a lifetime.
The estimates are based on the numter
oi n"* .ìt ant; in "a"äutìo"
2016 andih"-ug. distribution of this
group. Therefore, the entry rates are
based on a .bynthetic
qo¡ort. urìun,,piiån, according to which,
of enrry constitutes rhe best estimate of tne behavì-oï-o-rtoouy,,
young

:iïffi||i"1ffiî

adurts

Entry rates are sensitive to changes in the
education system, such as the introduction
of new
programmes. The rates can be very
high, even greater than I
the
there is an unexpectedly high
high entry rates may reflect a temporary phenomenon,
such
as the effects of economic cycles and crises,
higher education reforms driven by the Bologna
Process or a surge in the number of international
students. Government efforts to encourage
older
students to re-enter higher education
through second -chance programmes can also
boost entry
rates (OECD, 2018uù.
number of entrants. In some countries,

2 short-cycle

nursing and midwifery programmes are an

secondary schools, and they will not ¡e
3

exception, as they are offered by

tranúene¿ to professioiai riigh.i

Dual programmes are programmes in which

as the education-based component.

institutions.

"oururion
the work-based component has similar importance

a The

graduate mobility goals of participating jurisdictions
and the EHEA differ because the
EHEA goal includes degree-mouiíity *it¡¡n
ilt"
EHEA itseli, i.". 1t"o*t, moving from one
country to another to earn
programme abroad).
5

a full degree (and possibly

The EEA comprises the European union,

I"ff,î,:l*

""t ";á;rt"ki;g"säoy mobllity during their

Icerand, Liechtenstein and Norway.

rates to rhe EURoSTUDENT survey varv

from ro/o to 66%o across parriciparing

7 In

the uS, the rate of. stude¡ts leaving without
a qualification in the field of education is
comparatively high based on the cited ,ðf"."n".r.
In Estonia, the relatively low graduates-toentrants ratio in ICT is consistent with
the low completion rate registered at the
national
in
this field of study' About half of Estonian
lcr studenìs ur..uoy *oiîîurtli,n" ou.ing their level
srudies,
mostly in the IT sector' The availability of goodjob
oppo.tuniti.ì lero." g.uouation could be
contributing to the low completion .ut. in
ítrir rr.lo, ärtn""Àrr irt"-Jtãi." not to comprete
a
programme is likely to depend on
a wider range of facto.r
f¡a.u.] ruìlãri" àno Räis,

8

2015¡s8r).

The authors of the study estimate a 3olo increase

in the rate of students graduating within
one year
from the expected time, and a7o/oincreaseln
t¡e rate of students leaving the programme during
their first year' The authors also find iltæ, rolìà*¡ng
ttre imptemeita't'l'ãn of the study binding
advice' students perceive it as more feasible
to comple.-te tt präg.um."-*iÛrin the expected
time,
but that their generar level of
"
satisfaction withihe p.ogra,nn'. d.õ..ur"r.

e

The accuracy of labour force status indicators
as measures of higher education performance
may
be further limited if a larg^e number of graduates
move across countries. For example, information
is missing for over 10% õf Estoniu" g;õ;t".,
;;o.are most likely living abroad (Jaggo, Reinhold

ä,1,lii:åilffiLffi:ourd
l0

potãntiarrv airecì the emprovmeíL

;;';;;"y..it ãñ¿'m.tiJti

This indicator is similar to the rate of NEETs (individuals

Ïïü:tàrälgJiïäffi,iji:|Jl,i*

Not in Education, Employment or
incrude some individuars who are undergoins

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

some

O OECD 2OI 9

I ¡os

304 |

CHAPTER 5. EDUCATION

.Severalotherindicatorshavebeenidentifiedthatwouldberelevanttocrossuuál'tJl" sorn* examples are the proportion
country policy analysis, if data **r"
after completing their studies' or
u
of internation"t'Ifiå.n,r'rräyi"t ""-* "ountry
in diffeient forms of student support or
rhe proporri", ;î;ì;d"ntr'inîotu.¿
this section'
previous information gaps listed in
excellence tract-s. År;iih the
of
formulate a more complete assessment
helpto

better data ln tnä"-ur.us would
system'
the effectiveness of the higher education

Aswellasmetricdata,thebenchmarkingofhighereducation,systemsreliesonthe
education
on *tionãr policies. 3nd. on higher
in
availability of qualitalive information
presented
are
chapter
this
initiativJs itÃ""'"9 in
lt.
àï
summary
A
oracrices.
"r,he pu.ti.ifuiing jurisdìction, ¡ave been selected to
iable 3.14. These i"irî.tJ.r. on" p.,
represent'
.1,utt"ng.iiu""d.by countries; and to
policv
illusrrare responses . ;-*.t;iy åipãii.v
selected
the
to
ñ; jurisdiciion
when possible, rhe dir;i;.;ií. upproã"t "i
challenge'

Table5.l6.Selectedhighereducationpoliciesfromtheparticipatingjurisdictions(2017)
Polic¡es

Motivation
Encouraging students to enrol
in fìelds of study leading to
professions in high demand

Estonia

CommunitY

Making ParticiPation in higher
education more flexible

The Netherlands

Better matching students with

The Flemish

higher education Programmes

Encouraging enrolment in
higher education across

Norway

demograPhic grouPs

Source: Adapted from information
further information.

provided by the participating

jurisdictions' See the reader's guide for

TheinformationinTable3.T4,aswellastheotherqualitativedataonhighereducation
collected
presente¿ iä this chapter, have been
policies in the participãti"g:*irdictions
collection
dara
cttupt"r 3, a lystemaric
-iu.itität"
As mentilon"ã in
through a' ad-hoc q*;;i;fti*.
the benchrnarking of higher
on higher educarion;;tt"* would .greatly
across countries and
evidãnce iu* ,no." consistent
education systems by ;;iiõ the
time.

SYSTEM
BENCHMARKING HIGHER tsDUCATION

PERFORMANCE O OECD 2OI9

CHAPTER 5. EDUCATION

Netherlands. If data by subsector were collected
more systematicalry across
OECD countries, this discussion could reach more

specific and generarizabre

conclusions.
a

Along with-quality, equity is a fundamental attribute
systems. The equity dimension cuts across

of effective higher education

indicators ut utt .tug*. of higher
education system performance, from input to
outcome. In addition, a murtiplicity

of social conditions and background characteristics

individual's lack of educationãr, economic or

can .on.ur ilã.termining an
sociar opportunities. A limited set of

indicators have been presented for a few rerevant
il-;g.õñ;'group.
chapter, but more detailed data wourd be needed

in this

to rtrty"aciounì ror equity in
higher edueation'The available data alrea-dyshow
suuitlntiâ-gup, in u".ess to
higher education. young peopre
yhose paränts do not rruu. u ï'grrer education
qualification are between 40% and60%
ùss likely than other individuals to enter

a bachelor's progmmme, across higher systems
a

for which data are available.

Internationally comparable data on other dimensions

of

socio-economic
background (e.g. parental income and occupation)
could be useful to enhance the
understanding ofeducation inequality, but
äre not available. In addition data are
not available for the most advanced revels of
education
doctorar),
which limits the analvsis of this chapter to short-cycle,
bàchelor,s and long firsr
degree programmes.

(ili;t;"d

a

,

Intemationally comparable data on the flows

of students between types of
to study the errectiveness of different
admission systems in. guaranreeing thä u"..rribility
or alt ;ió;, educarion
programmes. The number of students
admitted through tlre' ."ffition of prior
learning could also fit this purpose.
Digitalisation and online reaming provide an
opportunity to deverop new
pedagogies, and to offer new *uyr -roi
students to pariicipate in higtrer education.
Digitalisarion offers porential toimprove the
effióiency;¡th; rri!rr", educarion
system
programmes and institutions wourd herp

a

(by doing more with.the-same inputs) and
to
across
the system. In ail the parricipating
"ãono*ir"ì.iources
ir;tituri";;
;urisåictions, some
arready offer
-Estonia,
certain modules entirery onrine. Iñ
the'nationai ü*"J';rponsibre for
digital and online leaming in higher education
,un
t-ùse modules.
However, the internationaily compaãbl* dutu
".îiÇ
on digitarisation
índ online reaming
are limited.
a

Young

higher education graduates are more like.ly
to be emproyed than peopre
with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiãry
educati"î,'*ifl, an average
employment premium of T.percentage points
across .ECD countries. They also
earn more, and are less likely to hold routine jobs
wiÍl rew opponuniti.. to learn.
Indicators on graduate outcomes focus on young.
graduates (e.g. 2s-z+
l;:;iå;j
because they are assumed to. have graáuateã-relativery
,ã".r,tty.
However,
indicators on recent graduares
¡e.g. indiviáuah *h;;;ujuä,Jïir'v.u.s before
the.reference year) would be morã accurate
as a measure of the effectiveness of
higher education system in connecting with the
labour -u.t.t- in uàdition, more
information- on graduate outcomes by type
of institution luniversities or
professional higher edrcation institutiáns; pubric,
government-dependent or
independent private) would improve our understanding

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

@ OECD 2OI9

of this connection.

| ¡o¡

302 I

CTIAPTER 5. EDUCATION

policymakersinNorwaymay.encoulagetheproliferationofwork-basedlearningby
between higher education
including it as an objêctive -r1.perf9rman".'àgt....nts
lead
uná-n.í"urrh. The government may also
institutions and the tvtinistry of Education
its
through
*ork-bured learning opportunities
by example uy .*puniing'ih; *Tb.T of
medium-sized
and
p".titip"ii"" *ong smàll
role as an employer and by facilitating
enterPrises (OECD, 201 8tr¿l)'

5.10. Conctuding remarks

Thischapterreviewedtheperformanceofhighereducationsystemsincarryingouttheir
particular focus on
higher-education policies rlitlr a
education function, di;;JJ;l"vant
base'
tight"d gaps'in the existing information
four participating dñät;i;rr, uno tigt
the

Thisconcludingsectionfocusesonsummarisingsomeofthekeymessagesofthe
and gaps in the data which prevent

current information
chapter, along with fi.itàtiã"rïi
in the chapter'
of key oerfor.un..-ut.u. discussed
a deeper analysis.
would be
base
information
the
of
an ilnpråu"r.nt
including some indicati"^ "r where
particularlY useful.

g.ro;îã;**ury

oGoodleamingoutcomesarecrucialtoestablishtheeffectivenessofhigher
in tt'tis topic has resulted in a number of
education .yrí"... A strong interest
comparable

levei, but internationally
fh" su*.v of Adult skills is not
Ãàfn.nt.
dataarer", s;ä.äily;äi"ur.äi,mr
the
å;tromes,. but it can be used to studv
designed ," lnË"rîä gr"ãräi" t.a*ing
Across
gaduates'
higher education
generic ritrru"v uiJ,rînlàru"y skills Àiyoung
.r*.v, a worrying proportion
ihi.
in
ü-t;ñlni
counrries
do
""d'.i;i#ä
;;;;;;g"J óf grud'uuidrrorn OECD higher education svstems
(around 30%,
ìot reach literacy proficiency level 3'

initiatives being carried out at ttre nationat

oThereisalackofcomparableevidenceonthepedag.ogicalpracticesusedin
in ¿iff"tent programmes and
higher .¿u"utîn"if- .îÁpf. td;;;";I"r..
projects, etc')'
, r...ar.h or-practical
modules of small tutorials, group urrigãln.nt
to identiff
used
be
this evidence^:*ld
coupled witn Jatu on learnìng òut;ñ;,
the absence of such
effective or promising teaching un¿

i."*ing practices- Given

evidence, tfri, i"pi. trãs not beãn systematiáiy

investigated in this chapter'
higher education

assessment of
o Retention and completion play a central role inasthemeasures
of the effrciency of a

performance,';;J'îh;t ,rä_óio.ty.r.sarded
average across
airyptåt;on" rates tend to be low, on
higher .¿u"utiî,i
40o/o of bachelor's new

"rí.* *itt uuuituule triore ins.ieht could be drawn from
higher .¿u"uüãn ;ñ;.
their programnl"r-oî1ifn.¡.
complete
entrants
bãth in terms of countries
coverage of'"o*pi.,i* índicators,
the
of
an extension
ofstudy)'
(e.g. uyiìgrr.r.¿ucation level and by field
and ofavailable breakdowns
in higher
still
rates (students who are
Furthermore, data on first-year retä;;;
data (around

education

";";;

after entäring it) are not yet available'

¡Thischapterdiscussedtheroleofdifferentsubseclors(universitiesand
system. DifTèrent subsectors are

profer.ionur HÈi.i;i,hi" trr. ¡e¡o education
thus making the system more
;;rág d-i"*sity. in"hieher education,
one way
wiíh available data, professional
"f
sustainable. In the participating :.ürãi.tl*.
the
HEIs tend to enrol more part-ti." *l

oftf,"it þraduates

students than universities' and

"iá.r high' The analysis by subsector
is relativety

ertoniu, the-Flemish community and
".ploy*ent"rãiä
relied on ¿"tåîpJr*ãiry"pronia"ã ãv
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

the

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD

2019

CHAPTER5. EDUCATION

mandatory professional práctice, co-operative education placements,

research, project learning and service learning.

internships, applied

Evidence suggests that work-based I eamlng can help
students obtain better labour market
outcomes. For example in the United States, one out
of five higher education graduates
participating in an internship ends up being hired
by the same organisation (Cappelli,
2015¡r:01).In Canad4 students who take part in work-based
learning are more I ikely to be
employed in their field of study (Peters, Sattler and
Kelland, 2014¡r:r1). In the EU,
students who participate in work-based leaming during
their studies are more likely to
fìnd jobs than their counterparts who did not have relevant
work experience; and workbased learning can be particularly important

for non-traditional learners

Graduate apprenticeships are a form of work-based leaming
involving graduates. Within
this apprenticeship scheme, students can combine studieswith work while earning a
salary (OECD, 20176ø).. For example, Skills Development
icotland u"gun ãri".îng
Graduate Lwel Apprenticeships in' 2016 in the rciraigiìaf
èngineering and civil
engineering fields ofstudy' Theie apprenticeships will
Ue e*fianjeo to other sectors in the

future (Skills Development Scotland, 20 1 6rr:¡l).

In Estonia, requirements to include work-based learning apply

programmes (EC/EACEA/Eurydice,

to all higher education

20l6ttzì. For tlhe ^ ieis acad"mìcally-orienteã
programmes ("professional programmes"), a minimum
of 15%o ofthe study lou¿ JouiJ
consist of work-based
leaming. This requirement in higher.du.utìon has béen

Jpp;;;
by a programme aimed¿!-d-.y?lgpjne- work-based rãamm! in
rrigrr., and vocarionar
education since 2016,.pRÕM toEbo, 2017¡søt). pRÕM
;ñ;'ìo'uuil¿ better linkages

between education and the labour market anå greater
between institutions
and enterprises. The programme is funded from EU
"o-d;;;i;n
structuraì
funds.

In the Flemish community and the Netherlands, the professional
HEIs must provide a
period of work-based leaming in bachelor's programmes.
In the Netherlands, trri, p.iloJ
of work-based leaming has Jminimum duratioi of 9 months,lut
ora total duration of
four years for the bachelor's programme. universities tnuy,
uút-u." not obliged to, offer
work-based leaming as part of their education programmes
The oECD's in-depth analysis of the labour market

outcomes and relevance of Norway,s
higher education system found that the provision of
work-baseJ i.u-ing in Norway is
quite low and not evenly distributed acrois fields
of study. I" iois, onlv 43olo of master,s
graduates reported to
practice periods
ãt ãä"auioryl

lvotuntary
¿r.ing tr,"ii
!y9 -had.
studies (støren eral.,2016¡r¡rù.
s-ome p.ogrurr.., such as health, education, and
engineering, have a long tradition of collaborãtion with
..proyor ùy integrating practice
periods into the curriculum. In contrast, work-based
t"u-ini ì.-pu.ti"uturly

humanities fields of study (Thune and Støren,20lSrr:sl).

e

r-'

low in the

Evidence shows that participation in work-based learning
helps students transition
effectively to the labour .atket and obtain good labour

ma'rket åutcomes. In Norway,
yort-þ1e-o learning is especially effective inìupporting good labour market outcomes
in
those fields of study where it is less common, such
as the arts and humanities, and the
social sciences (Thune and Støren,2015rr¡sr). Despite being
sho;n to be an effective
higher education technique, currently, there aie noexplicit poìi"y
iniiiatives
-rrr" to encourage
work-based leaming in the Norwegian higher education'syrt"..
Government of

Norway, however, plans to present iwtiteÞaper on higher
éducation and labour market
co-operation and rerevance in late 2020 0r earty zlzt.
It has been suggested that

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERTORMANCE

@ OE CD 2019

I sor

3oo I

CHAPTER 5. EDUCATION

must
proposed by higher education institutions
alumni). In addition, new programm€s.
frt wittrin the higher education and
receive a positive urrãrr,n"ni on theii ove.all

economicsystemiftheywanttoreceivepuuricfunding(asimilarassessmentisrequired
carries out this
up bi the government
-by
in the Flemish community). A committee set
other higher education
p.ogfutn*"t oifered
assessment by looking ai existing
of labour demand in sectors relevant to
institutions; evaluatingtthä.t,.riui.ài p'rojãctions
of the social partners on the match
the programme; and interviewing representatives
The
anã lunent trends in the world of work'
between the expected learning outcomes
higher
of
is a valuable addition to the existing offer
goal is to ensure th"t th;;;d;;"
The
a regional or national labo'r market need'
education progru,n*.r,-.iJîft"t it fills
expand
ttakeholders are drawing plans to
Dutch government #;h;t--high.r "ducatioi
1rig¡o education programmes in public
the scope of this ur*.r*"nt io all existini
institutions.

executive board of higher education
higher education sector, for exàmple from
institutions -ust comã rrofn-áutri¿e the
education
ã. p*ri. inititutions' ln addition' all higher
employers, cultural
with
work
which
Life'
"öi;i";t
with Working
institutions must have-Councils for Òo-operation
labour
the
of
needs
the
to
of education
academic staff to h.ip;;;;-the relevånce

In Norway, four out of eleven members of the

market.

Culture in Higher Education, released in January
The Norwegian White Paper on Qualit¿
institutions to develop study programmes
2017, empharir"= tr,.-*.ãior rrigìe,. education
goal (Norwegian
wñile also accounting for student needs
relevant to the laboui market

The main venue to encourage
Ministry of gducation and Research' 2017þsù'
,¿u"ui"i* institutions and social partners in
collaboration between individual higher
Life (RSA)' The RSAs were
the co,r*1. ø, co-opJration with v/orking
Norway are

binding
in 201I to facilitate a more structured and
created by the Norwegian government
programmes
and the world of work and ensure
collaboration u.t*..ri t igñ"r education.
education have greater labour market
and subjecrs ¿etiveïeä
are required to have an RSA' RSAs
relevance. All public higher education.inrtititionr
and higher education
uringing social

"ti;;;h àrt*,"irf

in
þartners
have played u g"n.ruäipärity"" r"19
for collaboration' and inform
ptoÃãttitttutegiei
institutions together t" íft"là information,
(OECD, 2018tr¿l)'
development at a itrategic level
programme content and

WhiletheformationofRSAsisanimportantfirststep,prgpjlimplementationisrequired
toensureeffectivene-ss.n''*.vr"uno{ræamusoritynsA.committeemembersfrom
fet ttrairtreir work on the committee did not result
outside the higher.¿u"utì"n itstiiution
employers' nor did
the interactionîti*t"n institutions and
-'iäi*rion.'
in concrete actions to improve
relevance of
strategi-es, enhance the labour market
their work influenc"e
cieation of new programmes (Tellmann etal''
existing p.ogrutnln".,'o. t.u¿ to the
2f)ltrtzst).Inordertohaveamoremeaningfulitgu"l'^arecentOECDreport
RSA sub-committees at the
recommended that ïiåît..^"ãrtution inttitutiont"establish
N:t*"y develop a mechanism for sharing best
un¿-'ugg"'tø
operational f"u.f

'!t

p'ractices between RSAs (OECD, 2018tr¿l)'

Work-bøsed learning in higher education

oneofthemostwidely-recognisedpracticestoenhancelabourmarketrelevanceand
leamile inte'rates learnTg* "
use oiío*-¡ãr.¿ feáming. Work-based
outcomes is ttre

academic programme. There are varrous

worþlace o, pru.áJ";é,tid;irh a.studãnt's
education' These include field experience'
types of work-base-J îã"Ãiîg in higher
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD2OI9

CHAPTER 5. EDUCATION

Quality assurance processes' including institutional and programme accreditation,
can
play a role in ensuring the relevance- of higher
eoucatiån irogrammes to the labour
market' Quality assurance can require or encourage
the invoiveäent of social partners
(employers and trade unions) in thË design

and devõlopm.nt oi"uoi.ulum that is relevant

to the labour market, and in the decisiõn-making prä;.;;

u;;rJf.ogrur,n. offerings.

Social partners can also help through the provisio-n
of reliable lnio.Ãution on skill needs.
social partners and external stakeñolders are required

assurance processes in all four participating jurisdictions.

Including labour market rerevance in accreditation

to participate in external quality

and progrqmme design

In- Estonia, higher education institutions

are required to take account ofthe needs ofthe
labour market whenìesigning,ew study programmes

under the standard of Higher
Education (Estonia, 2009¡zø). They also must
ensure that the objectives unJ r.urüng
outcomes of new programmes align with their respective
profes.ional standards, and take
into account graduate and employér satisfaction

,u*"y. tËrrã, ãôl r,,rnl.

The graduate employment rate is also included

assessment of study programme groups (Chapter

-among

the criteria for the quality

2) in Estõnia. Institutional accreditation

reviews evaluate the extent.to which higher educátlon
p.ogrurnr*s (and the number of
student places) are in line wjth the expec-ted labour
marËet ã"1r""ì"1 needs. Estonia also
uses suryeys to monitor graduate and employment
satisfaction.

In the Netherlands and the Flemish community, an important rationale
introduction of short-cycle tertiary programmes has

for the
been to respond to a perceived labour

market need for short, occupationally-specifÌc higher
;;;äil programmes. In the
community, short-cyòle tertiáry programmis will be
IÏyitl
delivered by professional
HEIs from 2019,but th.ey are currently ãfi"r.¿
by other institutions (section 5.2.2). The
learning outcomes of shofrcycle tertiäry programmes
need to be based on professional

qualification standards developed by representatives
ofthe labourmarket and recognised
by the Flemish government. In addiiion, one-third
of the work ioui in short-cycle tertiary
programmes must consist of work_based leaming.
Professional HEIs in the Flemish community
and the Netherlands emphasise the
connection between study programmes and thé professionul
fi;rã. common practices
across institutions include the establishment
of a professionat net¿ a¿visory board at the

institution, and of domain-specific learning outcomes,

in coilaboration

with
representatives of the professional field (Kãlster
and westerheijden, iol+rri¡^.
Professional HEIs in these jurisdictions also reôruit
teachers wittrlioressional experience
in the field, and in some cases involve professionals
in the asseå'sment of project work

and final theses.

In the Netherlands, all proerllryes applying for accreditation
have to demonstrate the
alignment between the intended.teaming-ouìcomes
and the current needs of the labour
market or the academic community' TrJalignment
with the labour market is particularly
important for programmes. offeied at piofessionar
HBrs- irre accreditation panel
ascertains the existence of this alignment bãsed
on labour market iìdicuto., unJ rnr.iing,
with representatives of study prog.ammes, social partners
un¿ oit., stakeholders (e.g.
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE

O OECD 2OI9

I zgg

2es I

CHAPTER 5. EDUCATION

In20|6,theEstoniangovernmentlaunched.osKA,aforecastinglooldevelopedwiththe
market and skills
rhe tool ir"u.i io anticipatð labour
suppofl of the EU sru¿;;i F;;ãs.
comprised
panels
expert
and recomm.náutio* based on
needs and provides information
sector'
public
the
institutions and
of representatives froä ;;t"l lurtn.rr, education and each of them is analysed inzq..ono*i.-r."iors'
Economic activity is divided ifio
general
*it¡, ,noniiotln! in ttt" following years' A over
y"u*,
nu"'år-ri*
depth once .u"ry
trends
and
d;r *äk"t developments
reporr on changes i" ñ;;;;ñilments,
(European
(see http://oska'kutsekoda'eelenl)
for
rhe nexr t0 years tö;ö;;ä-ã""t"ilí
targets
national
achieve-the
i, ."p".áï to ñ"rp
by
commission , 2[llrtzst). This tool
graduates
gs'i'
rot 20-34 vear-old
employment.*" ãr
VET
sraduate employment (e.g. an
and
education
ìrack highei
áOzo).Eslonia i,u, U.*îring. aåminisruti;1;;u-.
graduates since 20 I 3 '

ThepublicemploymentserviceofFlanders,incollaboration,withtheMinistryof
graduates
;;ü employment rales of recenta web-based
Education, annually p"ïiirrr., irformation
ln tn.î"tn.riunãt, stuoy choice 123'
by programme rather-tiä l-nli*rion.
market
5.Ðr ;;;uìá.s'inrormation on labour
student advice toot (Sections 5.6 -d
prospects by higher education

programme'

Norwaydevelopsawiderangeoflabourmarketrelevantinformationthatcanbeusedin
This website
govemm"ni *.uJ,. (www.utdanning'no)'
hisher education, including the
the
requirements'
inroìtution on.entry
põvides potential higher education students *irl't
number
the
work'
n.f¿ of study typically
from a
iypes of jobs in wtricî $aduates
".ntin
number of jobs in the future
anticipated
the
of people worKlng ,; îh;; occupations,
a given
No'*uy)'-"t¿'the median earnings for from
(based on projectio*-åi stuti'ti"
workers
of
provide, .,i¿.* with short videos
occupation. rn" *"¡rit" also
that they do'
givethem un inJi.ution ofthe type ofwork
different pror.rrionrîn'"r¿", t"
while threethat
found
i" Norway
A 2013 evaruation oï'tt" .ur""î guiaunrJr"ì"ì.Lr
actually
have
one-half
aware ãlûrir ï.urite, only
ouarters of surveyed students were
used it (IPSOS MMI,20l3)'
Table5'l5.Labourmarketdatasourcesavailableintheparticipatingjurisdictions(2016)
Labour market

Employer

worken or

Quantitative
forecasting

surveys

graduates

models

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Surveys of

The Flemish

Community
Estonia

X

The
Netherlands

X

Norway

X

X

Sector studies

Qualitative

information

methods

system
X

Other

X

Changing Skill Needs,
Skills Right' Assessíng and AnticiPating
Source: OECD (2016trzol), Getting

Policies to intprove labour market

relevance

Changingskillneedsarechallenginglabourmarketandeducationandtrainingpolicies,
while
and r^h";"g"t across. OECD countries'
large
and conrributing ro ;i.lir-;iñatãh
skills'
required
the
with
rt J ,rr"v canno] irn¿ *Irt".r
employers on.n
job
opportunities
finding
in
"o1npiàïlì
ut"át{i1 tu"t-ãirri*lties
numbers of higher
"ü;i;;
20 1 6 zot)'
(oECD'
ä;;i;; ttreir [ualifi cations
t r

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD

2019