CHAPTER IO. THE FLEMISH COMMUNITY

statl.nk >,ì¡Ép hftþsil doi.ors./ 10.17 g7 /glgg33g423l7
Higher education expenditure as percentage
a
of GDp is not precisery
Flanders spent l

measured

'3% of its GDP on higher education in 2015,"1or.
to the bottom quartile
of
counrries. However, it .h;;i; ïe
note¿ that cip ..r.., to the Region
Flanders,
'ECDwhile education expendit"." ,.r"^
of
to the education system of the Flemish
o,oi .o in.iå" .*u.t rv, ,',"ki rhí. srar i sri c not d i
rectr y
:"",äi.ä"i

;i1;iîåÏi:ï:'o

"t

wen excluding research and deveropment, spending
per student is distribured
evenly between subse ctors
Annual higher education. expenditure per
student differ between universities
professional higher education
and
inrtitrtionr.(-Hll.) it flr"¡uri.ai.tiån.
*irl, available data
(Estoni4 the Flemish community
"uîiu...ities
-.p*,
spent over
usD 24 000 in 20 r 5, professigryl n¡rr
""ã-äà'Ñ.t¡ertanasj. wtrii"
nearly hârr or thai-amount, usD
(Table l0'2). However, when.R&Þ
r 3 000
..r;ãrture is excrude¿, *rrin,ount of expenditure
becomes similar, with professiill
HEi;li;iàtng slightly more.
Table r0.2. Annuar higher education

expenditure per student, by subsector

In PPP USD, based on full+ime

equivalents

Estonia
Universities

Total expenditure
Exctuding R&D

Professional HEls

Total expenditure
R&D

Source: Adapted from OECD

(2015)

The Flemish

The

Community

Netherlands

14 394

24321

I 390

11 137

11 537

6773

12787

12972

6 595

12 173

12497

(2019¡fl, Benchmarking Higher

htlps: / / doi.org/ I 0.17 87 /be5 5 I 4d7 _en.

,;:X;:::rnd,ure on sronts and schotqrships is

29 286

Education System Perþrmance,

one of the highest amons OECD

The Flemish community places
a strong emphasis on student suppoft
when financins
higher education. pubric expen¿rtr*

basis was usD 3 000 in âors, irr"

åifi#iå,il:ans-based

,ürå,ü;n,'. on a per studeni
"1.",ø.õil;d
ni.J'rrignãri ;r"*"öö
countries. srudenrs

grants and t.rtoru.trtiprãlso pay
l"rî". t..,iti"n fees in the

Fremish

unlike the neighbouring.Netherlands,
loan system' when combjning g.untr,

ffi 'ä:#;ffi:äl ;i 3i f, ßî

the Flemish community does not
have a student
."-nãlurrrrip, un¿ roun.,'ií. äî.rug.

student
_*' b;i ;;,h. ;"p ;;;iË ä,ã"e bnroFremish
..""t,i..,

ù"i

A relatively high degree of cost sharing
compared to the Nordic countries,
but not
as high as the Netherlands
The govemment financed g5% of
higher education expenditure in 20r5,a
share that
places Flanders in the top quartile
îr ogcn countries, though below the
Nordic
countries' The share of expenãiture
from private sources on Heilrish
higher
education

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

@ OECD 201 9

I sl¡

s12 I

CHAPTER IO. THE FLEMISH

COMMUNITY

in
to the uPward fiend observed
Flemish CommunitY, contrary
the
was
in
which
2015,
decreasing
been
2008 and
decreased bY 7% between
also decreased its
most OECD countries' Expenditure
GermanY
While
among OECD countries
decreases
this period,
largest
the
during
one of
at a similar rate
expenditure per student
period.
education
same
higher
the
annual
around 6-70/o ovet
increased expenditure by
Netherlands
the
and
France
Financial
in the OECD distribution?
the Flemish t"tiåî:îiJand
Figure 10.1. Where does
Expendililre on higher educalion'

as a percentage of GDP

(201 5)

Max {2.6}

Min {0.5}
Total public expendiure
M¡n (1.2)

on hþhe¡ educalion' as a

percentage of public expendihrres

Max (s.5)

eelgium (z-it

Annual expondiüre

; *;,

(2015)

uy nbrrer educalion inettu[one'

USD PPP equivalent

(2015)
t¿$947)

M¡n (¿ro95)

for all
Annual expend-ture per sfirdent

gerv¡ces' 20{5 relalive to 2008
Mâx (237)

M¡n (78)
Ètenäsh Comñun¡tY

(93)

Higher educalion expenditr¡re
M¡n (0.1)

on R&D' ag a percentage

of GDP (20fô)
Max {0.9)

Fiemi;h community {Ô:s}
Proporton of higher educalion

insüutions expenditure on

R&D (2015)
Max (0.54)

Min {0.04}
Household expenditure on

hbher educalion inst'hlions

por student (2015)
(13890)

Min (0)
Share of non-household
Min {o}

privale expenditure on hþher educalion

communitY{0)

Expendäre Perstudent on

in¡hfutions (2015)
Max (23)

grenb and scholarships (2015)
Maxì¿ae¡l
nemishtòmmunitY iæ7r)

Min {0}

ToP quart¡le

Med¡an

Bottom quartile

is not
ô-Eco ditt'i¡uti*' The circle
Note,.TlleindicatorsrepresentedinthischartareasubsetoftheindicatorspresentedinTablel0.l.The
countries

,i'J'iì.,n,rir'aã.1"11W;1,Jüui-

ri'i'

number of

n"lrårtriöËðb countries (the minimum
(2019t2r)
un¿ meradata' see OECD
coloured when dara.r. .""ilîi.ï;;ì.;r;*
of the
information
calculation
;;'-;;
ihe
l4)'
9l fú;oöitãiìt'u"t
with available data is
î"*"iãtJttte data underlying

coloured circte represeno
and rhe references .it"¿

scorecard.

tn.ïåiÏ.ïl;;

i-h. statlinkt"

(20l9rzr)' Bencht narking Hígher
Source: Adapted from OECD
ti lr'/¡¿oi.otiI o trgr¡utss t¿¿r-"n'

Education System Perþrmance'

EDUCATION SYSTEM
BENCHMARKING HIGHER

PERFORMANCE O OECD

2019

CHAPTER IO. THE FLEMISH COMMUNITY

10.2. Financial and human

resources

Hightighr

'

The Flemish community was

in. the top quartile of OECD

iii::i åïåîî""it7zo

countries

for annual
,n:f11ril, ;;;'rr"åà, in 2ltl.Expendirure
per
berween 20òl;"J ãõì;;ï
;""trasr to an upward rrend

expenditure on higher eãucation

¡ The government contributes the majority-

of higher

education expenditure. private
funding' both househord and non-hourånord, -;J.o,]iä
d for r2o/oof expenditure
on higher educarion

ihi

insrirurions in 2015J"ääîpayqre spgnl4gjsligher
than in the Nordiecountries;but
:
rower than inthè

Netherrands.
a student ,""" ;r;.r, bur irs pubric
scho'arships p.,.r"d";;;;;

o The rte{¡rr communiry does noÌ have

Håf,.ïilffäiåff:

one-of the highest uloong

o Franders spent 0.5% of, its GDp on
R&D within higher education (HERD)
2016, a rever close ro rhe top qr*iii
in
and comparabre to
of Germany' Nearly a0%' oi

allocated to R&D aõtivities in

"öeðö'.ä"ilü.,

qgr- slrdent rrigrrl.- åáucation expendirure

rhar
was

iots. rrrir pr"""ïîruiä"., in the top quarr'e
.ECD counrries, and approxim itely
of

auh";;; d;;,

¡ The share of academic staff order thal

OECD countries in2016. Middìe-aged -!0

rhe Nerherrands.

(7%) was one of the rowest among

as-ìql â.äããmic staff represenred over

three-quarters of academrc
stair,
of'the lrígrr*t p-portions among
countries, while the share of youiger
_one
academ ¡" ítuif,- tiàl". was slightry
berow
'ECD
median.
the

q women represented nearry nuttol.T:l.mic

staff (i.e. higher education personnel
instruction.or r.r"u."h¡ in'2016,in
the top quartile
of
countriesl rrre srrare increased
ay
ouo
tóuibetween
200g and 2015,
which
'ECD
was the second highest incÀase
whose primary assignment is

among .ECD

countries, after Korea.
o over half of academic staff with teaching
duties (teaching staff) worked
permanenr contract in 2016,
with a
a rerativery i"* ,h;à;;;;g rhe
four jurisdictions
thar parricipated in
rhe bencimarking.".r.ir..

i:ffiö-

contract was particularl/ low

iî;,îuË of teaching sraff wirh a

"r"rg

ìrt."v"inger age group (34 or

o The Flemish c.ommunity spent a considerable

share (75%)of its higher education
on sraff in 2015, prá"i"e'rîiì'ri.
rop quarr'e of .ECD
ïil1iL::*nditure

I 0.2. I. Financial resn urces

Higher education exleydityre ts
reþtivetlt high on o per student
basis compared
to other OECD counîries, but
it is

ar"r"írng

rn 2015, annuar hipher education

expenditure

per student in the Flemish
community was
usD 19000' in tnË top quartile orbecu-.ounrries.
rhis is a.irìj", Iever of spending
per studenro thar of the Nethertands,
;,rA fr"111tnan neijrUoJ.äiirun..,
Germany and
the nationar average of Bergium.
Ã"""j"rrïËner education
per student has
""penditrr"
BENCHMARKING HIGHER
EDUCATION SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE @ OECD 201 9

I srr

1

6
O
N

I

o

L)
F]

ool

o\l

o

òìl
NI

o

ç
t-

o
Ð

ôì

UJ

o

Þo

d

É

b0

o
o
o

o

Êa

ol

.-il

*l
€l
>l
+l
i^l
hl
ol
5I

6

Þ¡

:il
<l

Þl fi

o
.o
o

lÈ

-l

{
<l
b{c
ot
..it
ol
:t

0)
L
d

Q

Ju

d

{J

ìl

vt

e{

\i

q)

-ô

\

Þo

H

À.

tu

(J

v)
o

o

À

I

à

òo

o
o
cg

bo

d
L

rd

u

6

{)
F-

zÞ
o
()
ct)

zF]

¡

g^

Êa

b¡

ñ

o.Ô'ì

o

d

c!

€o

F

o
o
o

U)

(J

t.¿

ol,

aðc

bo

t--

;>

.ãu
Þ0 El

o

F]

r!
F
o.

Ë L.l

o

Eq E
iì -S
õ=<
o !e .ooÈ
-f-

f¡

¿
f!
F

U)

Ø

zo

F
O

Þ
t¡.1

þl
O

o

z
v

c0

e¡

>.

&

zql

o

q)

o
r

(J

rrì

o

&

¿

o

{)

z

rl
rl
-l
et
.Ll àl

o
É

ôì

()

æl

G

E
ñ
o
ó
o
ø
o

þl

<l
ôl
ól
ôl
æl
ól

È

Òx Ø

CHAPTER IO. THE FLEMISH COMMTINITY

ceftificate upon completion of these

grants supports student from poorer

modures. In addition,
-----, a vJv
system of

households.

-

means_tested

Higher

education policy is regularly reviewed
and updated in the Flemish communitv.
Long-term plans are issued apf,roximatery
every 5 yeárs ror uotn eãucation poricy
(by the
Flemish Ministry of Educatiàn *¿
rruiningj
and innovation poricy (by the Department
of Economy, Science
Innovati""l. iñá government aims
.and
ai making the higher
education system more internationalisã
aJ
inJuriu.,
-fiOl,go,)).
.
ur;rpårent
and competitive
funding system (see Chaprer 2 of

OECó

10.1.3. The Ftemish Communit¡t,s

;ih

higher education scorecard

Table 10.1 shows
countries according to a set of 45

OECD

indicators spannrng the resourcing
and the education,
research and engagement functions
of higher education, ln a scorecard format
where each
box relates to one ofthe quartiles
of the OECD distribution. These indicators
are drawn
from the compilation of evidence in
the synthesis report of the OECD
B enchmarking
Higher

Education Systems Performance
project,r in which the Flemish
Community
participated in2017-2018.

As shown by the most recent available
dat4 the Flemish community,s
-ûr. higher education
system displays a good general
level of performance u.rãr,
indicators on the
resourcing of higher educatlon,
and on the education, i.r.u*rräd
engagement
missions.
The Flemish communify exceis in
t.rrr-orr..ess to higher education, with one
of the
highest enrry rares among
glcD higher education ,yrtä;.;"is urro

highest levels of literacy piofìciencrãiä

has one of the

ãí"å"gîrgi* educarion graduares.
"rpl"ymenr

In addition, over the last. decade, the Flemish
higher education system made great
progress in the gender barance
among acàdemic Jt"rr. i" tr"^äo.,
,...nt year with
available data, women represented
education researchers, amóng the

around 50% of u.u¿.Àir-rtuir an¿
45%o ofhigher
highesi shares in the OECD area.

Flemish higher education institutions

are wet funded,

even though expenditure per
student has decreased between zoos
andá0r5. student ii"#rfr"pport
through grants
and scholarships is arso. among
the highest in the
The decrease in the
level of funding per stud-ent i. ãpot.niiuip.ohrrn
- ----- r¡v¡
'ECD
ror
the Hemirîöorrunity, and this

;;"i.r.

'
discussed in Section 10.5.

The most recent available data show

is

that Belgium

is among the OECD countries with
the
highest level of scienrific proauctivìÇ
rn.
proauctîon-aiã-impact of academic
itË
publications); co-operarion'u¡y9."
ítrì* educätion ;; ,h. business sector; and
research intemationarisarion. Bibriometrii
u"o flrirJ p";;^ñ"dt'g ïata tor rhe Fremish
community suggest it performs ut r.uri-uitlt.
same reïer in alr thrå of these
dimensions.
However, rhe share of scientific do;;;;";-uccessibrefor
n..îv t¡. pubric (i.e. open
access) in Bergium is

rower than the median for oÈcó

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE @ OE CD 2019

member countries.

I soq

sos I

CHAPTER IO. THE FLEMISH COMMUNITY

l0.l.Highereducationsystemperformance:theFlemishCommunityofBelgium
10.1.1. Introduction

This country note draws on the evidence base

of the OECD Benchmarking Higher

education
to review the performance.of the higher
Educarion System
in
Community
putp*" is tô assist the Flemish
svstem in the Flemish Community. Its
aspects
in rålation to brco member countries on different
future national policy planning processes'
of higher education u.rã ffiouiae input into
45
note in tvvo ways' First, a scorecard of
This stocktaking exercise is supported in this
the
within
position
the Flemish community's
indicators is presented, which highlights
compiled during the benchmarking exercise
ori.uù.n..
dru*,
oEcD. This scorecard
and

p"ri;;;;;"p-j."t

ä,ä;'rä"i';i;;ä

i ãÀ

and human resources; education;
of the
rrr. first sections ormis note contain a brief discussion

and is organised in1.| the; domains: financiaf

research and engagem.nt.
three domains'
fri!f",", .Ou"utioñ system's position within these

policy scenario exercise' Topics chosen for
The final section of the note contains a
important
notes aré issues that appear to present
scenarios in the benchmarking country
Assumption

j;.iJili"r¡
*" fitefy to persist to:,1ã near future'
policy challenges f",
"10
reËent trends in the Flemish Community
choices used for the scenarios take into u."ount
policy options
presentation of the scenarios' a set of
and across the OECD. Following the
and
discussion
to the challenges under
are examined that could be feasible r.rponr.,
the
towards
u"iion might orieni the system
consideration is giuen-io ho* ,u.".r.fuf
achievement of more positive sc.enarios'
l0.l.2.ContextanclstructureofhighereducatiotnintheFlemishCommunity
over education policy for the language
The Flemish Community has responsibility
of over 4
which has ä working-age (15-64) population
community of Flemish speakers,

(data
and wãrÈin the Region of Flanders
million people, the large majority of whom-live
;;;t;;' Fr.*it'tt Ministry of Education and Training)'

Flandershasalevelofgrossdomesticproduct(GD|)wellabovetheEUaverage,both
the workforce. Its economy, strongly oriented
relative to ttre popuaiåi'""ã to *t" size of
g0% oicop in20l1),is based on a fabric of small
towards exports t*ti.-t u.rounted for
tor i1-!9u1e innovation (European
and medium enterprises with a strong capacity
Flemish higher education svstem is to
Commission, 20l9r,r;.;; i'nfã.tãni runJtionirtr'tê
economy, both in terms of skills and innovation'
support this internatiânul und in'ovative

Intotal,around300000studentsareenrolledinhighereducationintheFlemish
in universities\universiteiten) and professional
Community. Higte.eiucation is offered
public or govemmentwhich .ca-n
higher education i";tft"ti;;t (hogescholen)'
'be
Independent private institutions
dependent but fall unã.. if," same rãgulatoiyitu,nt*ork'
2003' professional higher
Sincé
17j ofstudents'
also enrol a small percentage (less than
associations, comprising at least one
education institutioîJ *"i" ì"quired to :oin
subsectors' improve
university, with the aim to build tetter

conriections between the two

efficiency or prog.äÀ" oir..ingr, and

oerretop leaming pathways across education

levels and institution tYPes'

Toencourageparticipation,theFlemishCommunityintroducedaflexiblehigher
they want (without necessarily
education system *rr.'r.!*t"¿lrt,

.- .*oi in the modules

enrollinginawholeprogramme),payaproportionateamountoftuitionfeesandreceivea

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

CTIAPTER 10. THE FLEMISH COMMUNITY

chapter 10. Benchmarking Higher Education system performance:
The
Flemish Communify of Belgium

r1

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by

and under the responsibility ofthe relevant Israeli
authorities.
to the stafus of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem
and
lsraeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms
of international law.
The use of such data by the OECD is withoui prejudice

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE

@ OE CD 2OIg

507

506

CHAPTERg. ESTONIA

degree rtudy Program
UniversitY of Tartu (n.d.), Joint
Linguistics,
General
and
Institute of Estonian
Happens
UniversitY of Tartu et al' (2015),What

Sociolinguistics and Multilinguatism I
(accessed on 1 1 February 2019)

to IT Education in Estonia?,

Sisu@UT,

Tartu, t3sl

ApprenticeshiP
(201e), Evqluation of the Degree
ics &
Warwick Economics & DeveloPment
Econom
llarwick
the Office for Students bY
DeveloPment Fund - RePort to
Bristol,
DeveloPment , Office for Students,

Williams,

and Merger among Higher
I. (2017),"Collaboration' Alliance'

o EC D Education

l2el

Educationlnstitutionsl',

l27l

[31]

;;;;;;ï ;;;if '¡" t áo' oecp publishing' Paris'

EDUCATION SYSTEM
BENCHMARKING HIGHER

PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

OECD Q019)' Benchmarking Higher

Education system perþrmance, OECD publishing,

OECD Q018\ Education at a Glance

2018: 1ECD Indicators,oEcD publishing,

httos: I / doi.or g/ I 0. t7 g7 I eag_20 I g _çÃ.

OECD (2018), )ECD Education statistics,

paris,

t3l

paris,

(accessed

20 December 201g).

I sos

t7l

on

t4l

OECD Q,tB), OECD nlyqioyt Statistics,OEcD publishing,
paris,
https: I / doi.or g^ 0. r 7 87 r edu- data-eir"*".*¿

rt')

on zo oeceir¡* åî r sr.

OECD (2018), OECD Employmenl
data-en (accessed on 5 Márch

Stafisrics,@
%

and Labour Market
rvv' u'qLlÐ"çr,

2,019).

OECD (2018), OECD National Accounts
(accessed on 20 December 20l g).

Statistics,
-'-'¿-Ù"v. r¡L!v'l/ u^'uur'ur

OECD (2018), OECO Sciyye, Tec-hnolog,,

and
- R&D

data-en(accessed on 20 DecemUer
ZOig).

OECD (2017), OECD Economic Surveys:
OECD (2016), OECD Reviews ofSchool

OECD (2015), Finat NAEC Synthesis.

I24l

Èi/

Statistics,@

Resources Estonia 2016, }ECD publishing, paris,

A Global Profile of Diasporas 2015,OECD

New Approaches to Economic Challenges

OECD (2006), Think Scenarios, Rethink

ll 6l

Estonia 20I 7, OECD publishing, paris,

OECD (201s), Connecting with Emigrants:
Publishing, Paris,

[2sl

, OECD, Paris,

Education, OECD Publishing, paris,

t1l

126l

I23l

121l

Í201

ir 8l

final.pdf.
Salmi, J. (2018), All Around the World
Higher Education Equity Policies Across
the Globe,
Lumina Foundation, Indianapolis, -

t37l

globe-.pdf.

statistics Estonia (20rg), statisticar
web'200 l/diarog/starfi Ie r.asp

*'

database, Statistics Estonia, Tarinn,

1u.".r..J on t t ranuary ão t r)

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

@ OECD 2OI9

-

r*gzpørtal_dp&

t22l

so4 I

CTIAPTER 9. ESTONIA

The Estonian Lifetong Learning

and Research (2014)'
Estonian Ministry ofEducation
and Research, Tartu,
2020,Esïonian Ministry of Education

Strategt

Policy Choices: Wat
Overview of the Slale's Migration
(20
l5),
Office
Audit
Estonian National
Audit Office,
Labour Shortage ?, Estonian National
Is the Role of Migration in Alleviating
Tallinn,
US/Default.aspx.

121

t8l

ttel

EuropeanCommission(20|8),TurningFAIRintoReality-Fin9!'RelortandActionPlanfrom
nt't, Publications office of the European
Group
co*ixiloí'Expert
the European
",r""r,qil
gl 0'27 7 7 I 5 4599'
Luxembourg' http:I I di' doi'or |
Union,

20 1 7 - Estonia,Publications

Education and Training Monitor
European Commission (20 I7),
Office of the EuroPean Union, Luxembourg'

tl ll

009-EN-N.
(2016), structural.In{,o'?" on Graduate
European commissiorvEAcBA/Eurydice.
of the European Union' Luxembourg'
Emptoyabitity tu E;;;;"-;Uã','r*ilàtiåná'oint.
gl g gg zzia
nttpI I dx. doi.or et t oi :2'7 I

u4l

:

EuropeanCommissionandOECD(2018),HowlnnovativelsYourHigherEducation
(áccess"d on 1 0 December 20 I 8)'
Ins títutíon?,t ttp'v)riåiLÑut"'À¡"t
Dyabase' European Tertiary
Register (ETER) (2018)' lfER
European Tertiary Education
(accessed on 18 January 2019)'

l33l

l32l

Education Register,, hruçy¡***'"t"'-p'oþàt-rtoø

t30l

Haaga-Helia(n,d.),Haaga-He.liaBaltio(JIHaaga-Helia'ee,http://www.haaga.helia.ee/

fã.t.tt.O on 11 FebruarY

2019)'

Gwosó
Hauschildt, K., E. Vögtle and C.

of Student Life
(2018), Social and Econ.omic Conditíons
of Indícators' Bertelsmannverlag'

t6l

and

[10]

in Europe: EURoËïî;:;;iliùiiø:zùi'-;y";;;;t'

ä'iJãr.i¿,
Success ofVocational
(2016), AnalYsis Labour Market

A. Valk
Jaggo, I., M. Reinhold and
of Education and Science, Tallinn'
Graduates
, Estonian MinistrY
Education
Hígher

Kori,

in ICT Studies, 2015
K. et al. (2015)' First-Year Dropout

IEEE Global Engineenng

Education Conference PaPers'

(2010)' The Research Missíon
Lepori , B. and S' KYvik (eds.)
outside the UniversitY Sector, SPringer,
9244-2.

of Higher Educ ation Institutions

[34]

tsl

Dordrecht,

ComPleti on Rates bY Addressing

l36l

CommunitY College
WashingtonDC,
Mann Levesque, E.(20 18),ImProving
Brown Center on Education Policy ,
Structural and Motivational Barriers ,

EDUCATION SYSTEM
BENCHMARKING HIGHER

PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

I sos

Notes

Irhis figure

includes expenditure outside higher
education institutions, such as government
loans,
grants and scholarships.
2

3

The salaries are expressed in us Dolrars

In Estonia' the data related to entrants

the data refer to new entrants ottly,

using purchasing power parities (ppps)

are for all entrants,
yvr¡!¡voù in r.usL
-¡¡r¡Þ¡¡!r, whereas
most

'r

for GDp.

other OECD countries

7

The number of people with.a certain
age in a given year is equal to the number
of people who are
one year younger in the previous year.

8 A Higher

Education Act passed the Estonian parriament
on 20 February 2019, and was
proclaimed by the president on 7
March 2019.

References

EKKA (2011)' conditions and Procedure

for Institutional Accreditation conditions and
Procedurefor Institutionar Accreditaüán
I. Generar
!r";ß;;;,;stonian euarity Agency for
Higher and Vocational Education
G¿KÐ, Tallinn,

u2l

@

Estonia Q009), Kõrgharidusstondard (Standard
Estonian Ministry for Education and
Ra hvu sv ahe I i s e Tutv u s t ami s e Str

ofHigher Education) , Official Gazetie, Tallinn, tl3l

Research and Archimedes

(20 I 5), Ees ti Kõrgharidus e
at e e gi a, Archimedes, Tallinn, http
://archimedes.eelwE

Estonian Ministry of Education and Research

Til, Q018),.summary

Ministry of Education¿nd Research,
annual analysis 201g _ summary.pdf.

Estonian Ministry of Education and

Research Q\l 4), Es tonian Res earch,

Innovation Strategt 2014-2020 " Knowledge-bas

Research, Tartu,

of the annual analysis,Estonian

Development and

ed Estonia ", Ministry of Education

BENCHMARKING HIGTIER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

@ OECD 2OI9

and

tel

t28l

lt sl

so2 |

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

ICT (University of Tartu et al., 20l5pn), can work

against the success of government

efforts.
the tuition fee structure in Estonia" which
High non-completion rates are also the result of
study would be the most suitable option
incentivises full-time ri"¿Vî"* *tten part+ime
daia, Estonian students are much more
for students. A".orOingìã'ZOráBÙnOåTUDENT
(Hauschildt'
than students in other European countries
likely to work while
ways to reduce the difference between
Vögtle and Gwosó, ZOigruli. E"stonia can consider
"t"dyi"g
the incentive to enrol full-time in
remove
and
the cost of studying fti-iút; and part-time
already charge some fees to full-time
order nor to pay f.... iiigh;; .ãråution insitutions
progress. However, this can act as an
students who do not Àite sufficient study
for students who are already not
additional impetus noi- tã .ontinue with ttuåi.tprogressing quicklY'
income stream

reduce the non-govemment
As removing part-time fees would also further
explore a-means for full-time students to
instead
could
available to insitutions;Ñ;;
*d use the income earned to incentivise
contribute financially iã*ut¿t their education,
supports' For example, Estonia could
their completion and ;;;;td. uãáition4 financial
of full-iime students to increase financial
use additionat in.oln.'i.om the contributions

student suPPort.

designed structures for guidance and
studeñts can increase completion (Mann
academic and social .rpp"î"ittiõfter education
schemes rvith dedicated human
support
New
Levesque, 20lgpott $ili, 201ír¡a).
Ueióre entry and offer academic and social
resources could help;; úi"t orient'students
counselting services) to students át risk of
support (for example,'t.Ã.¿i"f courses. anJ
Flemish Cãmmunity of Belgium' there has
non-completion. In ttr. Ñ"t¡.¡unds and the
student guidance in recent years (see Chapter
been increasing po¡c;fo.ì. on iÁp.oving

Finally, increasing evidence suggests that well

5 of (OECD,20l9Pl)).

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

Box 9.5. HElnnovate and interdisciplinary study

HElnnovate is a framework developed by the European Commission

and the OECD for

higher education institutions to self-assess how they ,unug.
resources; build
organisational capacity; collaborate with extemal stak;holders;'create
and nurture
synergies between their core functions; embed digital íechnorogy;
p.o,r,ot"
entrepreneurship; and support knowredge exchange with
the wioer woîlá 1Ëurop"an

Commission and OECD, 2018p¡l).

The framework puts a high emphasis on the value of interdisciplinary

activity, and

recognises that creating interdisciplinary lealning and
research enuironments is a core
task required to create an entrepreneuriãl universTty. Linking
inteøisciplinary education

and.research.to. important local or societal chalienges cÃ
stimulate promotion and
participation in interdisciplinary education environmJrtr.
À".Àráing to tt. framework,
interdisciplinary education activities should be publicly r..ognì.;i
and awarded, for
example cross-faculty summer schools, interdisciplinury ,.r.uñh j.oupr,
cross_campus
idea competition or campus-wide student associatiôns.

Tackling non-completion could help mitigate adverse effects
of the more
negative scenarios

An additional avenue for increasing skilled labour market supply from
the higher
education sector is to tackle the problem of non-compreton.
nfurrér completion åt.,

mean that more students achieve the maximum benËfit
from tfieir highår education
experience in terms of.skill and knowledge acquisition. Fufthermore,
in thã pr.r"n." oiu

shrinking student and working populaiion, high completion

ràtes are imporlant to

minimise the constraints that skills shortages po." to the economy.

Among OECD countries with available data, Estonia had the
lowest completion rate for
the entry cohort of 2008, as just 5 1o% of new entrants managed
to complete their bachelor

level programme within three years of the theoretical giuàuutioi

demand and labour market constraints, low completion

rate. Given falling

re"presents a serious inefficiency

and it is estimated oy the oÈc¡ to cost Estonia around
il^S: -Estonian system,
just

-uj_D_10 1]llion,
(OECD.20t9ßt)).

or

under r0o/o, of higher expenditure annuaily (see chapter g

oi

Increasing completion rates could deliver substantial
benefits to the Estonian labour
market and wider economy. National evidence suggests
that the current level of noncompletion is making it difficult to meet labour ma.Ét demand
in certain industries. Èey
reasons identified for non-completion include a lack
of comprehensive information on the
curricula, which can cause students to underestimat. irt"
..quisite and workload
associated with á programme; and the need for students
to work io financially ,rppo.t

themselves and gain experience (Kori et a1.,2015¡t+7).

The Estonian government is. already working t-o red-uce
non-completion rates through a
mixture of initiatives including incieasing ninoing for student
ru'mort; the inclusion of
non-completion rates among the indicatorJ used toãllocate
formula iunding to institutions

and set national targets;

and adopting measures to aftragtnon-completers back
into higher
education. However, continued low levels of financial
;pñ;;rbined
with labour
market demand even for non-completing students from certäin
fields of stuay, sucrr as

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
O OECD

2019

I sor

s00

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

Figureg.l6.Changeinstudentenrolmentsatthefivelargestinstitutions(2011.2015)

20ll = 100

é
universitv of Tartu (12 048)
Uiìlversity (8 256) --- -' Tallinn
-' - ìiüü'itö"iivórÀpplie'oSciences

i;ñÀ Ù*eßiv of Technolosv (10 9-20) -.

. . 65¡6¡¡¿¡ g¡iversity of Lite Sciences (3 J/5)

(2422)

-Toral(48259)
-

-

110

105

100

oÃ

90

85

80

70

2011

2013

2012

2014

2015

of student enrolments in 2015'
in the legend
Note'. Tltenumbers in brackets
'H9ltl::y*ber
n?trier (ETER) ööTs";t):;iiR Database'www'eter-project'com/'
source:European Tertiary
+¡gcl https://doi'ors/l 0 1 7 87/888933942279

iàttå*"

statLin k

Redeploymentofacademicstaffthroughoutthehighereducation.systemiSdifficultdue
compounded by the
In Eslonia, iftìt-åüftttfty could be
ro the speciali.e¿ natuie ;i;"ff'
of higher
for u.ui..i" tturr áre within the remit
fact that the terms of employment
a
can imply change in

rouinËï"t*een institutions
educalion institutions, and äs å result,'already'ürå"Áhi forward lesislation that could
working condftions. ;;ì""1; has
a wider
conditionsirä?ää.trc J"it's ítandardising
slandardise rhe renure qualificarion
staff could have the additional benefit
higher
range of term, und conäitions for
"¿u*tio,", ;ir" improving career prospecls for
of crearing more flexibility in rhe workfor;;';;à of current acaáemic slaff in Estonia
one-frflh
vounper academics, given that more than
decade'
coming
the
in
age
,";;;;h;;ti"t"tent

#."it?ät

Estoniacouldalsousetherecentchangesinthesystemasan.opoortunitytopilotnew
other than the
*.9{r1iï frigná "¿".*ion initìtutions'
models of organisingi""rfrf"l"rá'ïo¿"1.
of the
recognition
d;;;"ì; un in.t"uting
,.¿.purt åiî-"uär^"'¿
promote
traditional
to
programmes
and study
importance of interdisciplinu'f . '9;"1"tt
eau.ãiion
.uóx 9.s). while interdisciplinary
nigner
in
entrepreneuriurir. unåî;ju;iú
Estonia could
thãy are Áainty ai the master's level'
programmes already ;;iJi" Estonia,
introducing
for
svstem
the
in
oí
joint
rherefore exptore rh.'';;r;ibiñry
benefit or
the
"r"ä,inË'in..niiu.t
t'án'
toul¿
úu"1, or.äuäåìä"' ir'rt
.ui.l,î;i;n¿,
interdisciplinur,
work towards
or i"t"räirJpri*w ?.JiYily and also
maximising the reco'iiiåã'ú"n.nt,
knowl edge
inierdisciplinarv
;;rüforce' with
buitding u r"r,,p".iäit*u,îi.Ë'

;;ili;

and comPetenctes

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD

2OI9

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

longer term to achieve and mainlain substantial
growth in intemational student numbers
from outside the local region, and outside
the EU:

supply-side options to manage more negative

scenarios
Many OECD countries are experiencing a decline
in higher education student numbers,
and with tlris, a1 increase in per-studenicosts,
as fixed costs prove difficult to reduce. In
Estonia,.il"-t: full-time equivalent student
rr*e falien uv ãì,,ãri"roolo between
2010 and20t4, expenditurê per studenr f,u. ""r¡*r
,ir.nïf
OOø.

However, increased per-student funding_ can
only deliver benefits if used effectively.
while successful policy initiatives .oulã l.u¿ i;'th"
achievement of the more positive
gra\À'4h scenarios, these will take
time tu-.ulir.-in the meant-rme,-r-stoniliacan
øop
supply-side policy initiatives to achieve
near-term efficiencies and tå i";;;;r" supply
ro
rhe labour
market from the existing d"rn"g.;¡ñ;;;;.

Estonia can improve efficiency and prepare

for the future

In Estonia, changes in enrolment have impacted differently
across institutions
(Figure 9'16), making effective fu{ure.
piu*i"gîLoth system and insritutional level

more difficult' For example, some institutio"r
riuy be maintaining larger buildings than
necessary' or could be Ieft with large payrolls
relaiive to their ..u.îu.rlánã be unable to
reduce costs effectively.

Possible remediation initiatives include institutionar

mergers

and other forms of
consolidation.and redeployment of staff.
so,n" .áunt.ies in thî regi"n
Denmark
and Finland, have used mergers.to g¿in.efficien"y
à¡¿ quatity
hüer
education
systems' By preserving the existing institutional
únits, mergers can maintain the role of
institutions to^cater tó people living in r.rãi"-io.utions
or preferring less popurar
programmes of study (wiliams, 2017p\).
Esronia has also¡¡ud.
ro reduce
the number of institutions in recent years, which
can help .*i.tin!-inriir;Ìior. dealing
with enrolment fluctuations (OECD, iOtOrrr¡.

i;"td

,r"ï".

;;;;;;;?g;r.

However, Estonia must also be mindful of possible
future growth in demand and ensure
that flexibility remains to expand ttre system
io
t*.t
future needs. other forms of
consolidation within-the highei education
syrt.r, rurrr as building alliances or networks
between institutions in specific regions, p.olrurr"r
li categories of students, could also
be a wavro.manase
fluciuating ¿.'nuná. eiã;ì;, ;ttù'";;i.rïerr..îäîr?tion

ryrt..
and a relatively flat gouetnaì-tce structure,
could be better placed than many other
countries to pilot some innovative means
of collaboration
between institutions.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

@ OE CD2OIg

I ttt

4es I

CHAPTERg. ESTONIA

of

cannot admit students solely on the basis
institutions themselves can also set various
recognition of prior l*[iil.'il¡"*ot",
of istonian students leave school annually
conditions to RpL p.ãr.rr?r. óne-frfth
withoutanuppersecondaryqualification(EstonianMinistryofEducationandResearch,
any
proportion of the population may not have
2Olg¡zq), meaning that a"signincant
upper
an
highei edìcation system without first obtaining

Estonian higher education institutions

alternative pathway to ätã..tîtt.
secondary qualifi cation.

recognition of prior leaming, combined with
Creating a national infrastructure for the
ánd achie¡¡e the "older cohorl
flexible study optiont;-;;;ii help to increase"demand
related to this objective could be
srowth,, scenario. National indicators un¿ .iuti.ti"s
monitor progress'
and collected, which would help to

ãlit""¿

Achieving the "international growth" scenario
Intemationalisation of the student body

has progressed at arelatively fast

but stepped-up efforts to atrract students "áuía
abroad and realise a scenario of higher

pace in Estonia'

rt.tp to,further increase demand from

international growth'
are the connections

internationalisation
of particular importance for Estonia concerning
Bätic states' Estonia is well positioned to

to the region, including Scandinavia a1O ttre

benefitfromitsmembershipofthecogncirortn"Balticseastatesaswellasits
otheiregional networks' For example' Nordplus'
membership of the EuropearUnion and
for short-term student mobility at all
regional co-operatiãn, provides opportunities"

a
levelsofeducationwithintheBalticÀ{ordicregion,Ïli'hcouldhelpincreasefuture
in
abroad."In addition, continued participation
regional demand fJ';;d; ;;úri"¡q.:
the
from
benefit
can
Estonia
À.unr that
European union ,tr¿.rt inotitity initiutin",
g"tá'p"-*i¿. drive to further increase student mobility'
strategic programme partnerships with

higher education systems in neighbouring

regions

canallowEstoniatotapintowiderregionaldemand'Therearesomeindicationsthat
example,
t,lumessing these^ regional links. For
Estonia is already starting to move to*u,¿,
with
programme
as tt. Úniu"Ãity of Tartu 'ioint
regional joint degree furín.rrt'ip., such
of
(university
and-tvtultilingualism
the university of stäi.di;;í s".i"ri"g"isiics
and
mobilitv
student
;¡ increasinf
Tartu, n.d.lzsr), can tuifif|oÃn,gnr.offi;;;
ftornâting ihö Estonian

language and culture'

the system
countries can also promote stability in
Joint campus arrangements with peer
is the
Estonia' A recent examole in Estonia
and increase ¿"rnuJ--ior. educaiion in
(Haaga-Helia'
rinnirtr"üåspìr"riay 9.rt"ol in iallinn
establishment of a campus of the
wóuld lead to a strengthened system with
n.d.r:ol). Oeveloping-ìoo'r.-oittr.se.linkages
students.
tó ¿åw from the regional pool of potential

.ã.äö"t"rriat

international students outside ofthe local
Estonia could also increase demand from
of measures
a- broader strategy and package
European region. iti, *out¿ require.
marketplace'
global
the
in
functions to compete
covering both the .åt.ii"t l"d research
process of
*j;h h;ily in the decision-makingscholarship
as research performance and reputatiot
of
suite
va.ried
abíge and
prospective internaãoiit ,*¿"i r. e.toniuiur
outîard mobility of both domestic and
LJ
i"*".ä
i.t"-"ti"""f
programmes rtru, rffi
chapters .f. an{ o of (OECD, 20l9t3r))'
foreign students, as well as academic u"rr G".
no*"à, without considerably increasing
These could be continued or even ."pund.a'
the
*Jã.u.topment, it may be more difficult in
capacity for higher e-ãucation researcú
and

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

@ OECD 2019

CIIAPTER 9. ESTONIA

An.additional policy option-for_ Estonian higher education is

to recognise and formalise
since there is high demand in the labour
market in some industries, scope exists to build more
innovati"ve formal u.rung"1¡Lnl,
between the higher education sector and enterprises
to support dual learning or longer
paid student work placements than curently exìst.
This *oi¿ r.r.ip in achieving a better
balance between study and work obligationi. New programmes
oritris nature could allow
students to enter studies with greater financial supportlwhile
also helping to meet labour
market demand and achieve Estonia,s aim_of increasing
work-bãseã learning. For
example, the united Kingdom recentry introduced ,,degrãe
a
apfrenticestrip,,model of
study, which leads to a quarification at Lachelor's or master,s
levåi 6ox r.:).
stud.ents.' relationship with the labour markJt.

Achieving the "older cohort growth,,scenario
Estonia already has a relatively high proportion of older
students; however, in contrast to
otheroECD countries, these students tend not to study part-time
ánd therefore often enrol
in full+ime education while working and managing ottrir p.r.onul
áutigations. This is as
a result of the tuition fee structure in Estonia; students
stúoying full-time in Estonian do
not pay tuition fees if they can make enough study progres,
*ñlt" fart+ime students are
charged fees that are at the discretion of inJitutiom

þee"chapter i o'rloncl ,2019pt)).

More flexible study options could help attracting new entrants
and support lifelong
-other
learning or further study for existing
jurisdictions, for example the
þaduates.
Flemish
.community of Belgium, h-a-ie created flexibie study modalities that are
specifically aimed at students who wish to combine work
and .trJy qe* 9.4). This could
also help to achieve Estonia's ambitious future vision
ror tiretont'tàrning of its citizens
(Estonian Ministry of Education and Research
,2014pt).
Box 9.4. Flexible study in the Flemish Community of

Belgium

The Flemish comrnunity is the only jurisdiction in
the European union that requires all
higher education institutions t9 gff.r part-tirne studies
and thåt all degree programmes be

provided in the form of flexible learning pathways.
The Flexible Leaming paths Act
(2004) provides the framework to suppo-rt'flexiblá p",h*"y.,
ùãr.d on a definition of
study programmes as an aggregate ofmodules, eacrr of
which is a well-defined unit of
leaming, teaching and assessment activities. Higher
education institutions validate the
completion of a module by issuing a credit certificate.
Tuition fees are based on the
number of credits in which studentsãre enrolled, and
there is no distinction between parttime and full{ime students in terms of financial.éupporr.
Thi;, ;;gdh;r wirh other policies
on flexible study provision, is likely to contribuiË to tlt.
.oÃ-puruìiu.ty high share of
students studying part-time in the Flernish Comrnunity

Source: OECD (2019ri,,), Benchmarking Higher Education

https/ I doi.ors/ 1 0.17 87 lbe55 1 4d7 -en

Finally, Estonia could consider

svstent per.þrmance,

introducing an enhanced system for the recognition of
prior learning. of the four.jurisdictions -participating in
irl" ¡enchrurting exercise,
Estonia
the onry one. that did not råport havi,r! a poricy ìn prace
.was
for the fuil
recognition of prior learning. prior leaming can be recógnisáa
in
some cases. For
e1am.Rle, the TULE programme funded the cãmpletion
of hlgher education for students
who had prevìously achieved 50% of the cre.dits towards
implying the
recognition of credits previously eamed within the
higher "-quãriir.u,ion,
.¿i"ut¡n system. However,
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE O

OECD 201 9

| +gt

496 | cHAPTERg.ESToNIA

Achieving the "younger cohort growth" scenario
Achieving higher enrolment rates among fhe 19-24 year-old cohort could have the
strongestlotential impact on enrolment numbers (Figure 9.15). Systemic features could
be addresÁed, which could increase future enrolment rates in the younger age cohort.

Estonian students generally do not finish upper secondary school until age 19, and
increasingly are choosing not to immediately continue to higher education (OECD'
20l9rsl). Ãpart from consõription requirements which delay entry in some cases, the tight
labour market ensures that potential students can easily find jobs. Relatively low levels of
financial support for living costs of full-time students, combined with higher fees for parttime studenti, make coñtinued labour market participation for secondary gtaduates
attractive. Strengthening support for living costs while studying could help to raise
enrolment rates iir younf.r côhorts, and boost their chances of completing their studies.
Estonian l5-year-olds are high performers in PISA, and impact on socio-economic
factors on student performance is lower in Estonia than in most OECD countries (OECD'
2016¡zø). Thereforè, students from lower socio-economic backgrounds are more likely in
Estoniá than in many other countries to have the necessary foundational skills to progress

to higher education. A strong student support package could also increase opportunities
for sirdents from disadvantaged backgrounds to enter and complete higher education.
Box 9.3. Degree apprenticeships in the United Kingdom

The degree apprenticeship model in the United Kingdom was launched in 2015, and
combinãs a period of apprenticeship with higher education study, which leads to a
qualification at bachelor;s or master's level. Apprentices typically spend 20o/o of their
tirne studying in the higher education institution and the remainder of their time in the
workplacð. Qualificatioñs for entry can be specifìed by the employer, depending on the
field or industry of the apprenticeship.
The apprenticeships are supported financially by the government_ through a designated
degreé apprentice fund. Apprentices do not pay tuition fees, and are paid at least the
naãonal äpprentice wage by-the employer. Students therefore are less likely to have debt
at graduation, and *ill haue developed labour market relevant skills along with
conipleting a recognised higher education qualifrcation. Analysis by the Office for
Students iã ttre Uniie¿ Kingdom has also found that degee apprenticeships benefit both
upper secondary graduates from disadvantaged backgrounds and mature learners,
potentially increasing social mobility'
An independent evaluation ofthe degree apprentice fund has also found that participation
in the pro."rr has been transformative for many higher education providers and is
allowing for stronger and wider collaborative partnerships to be built between higher

educatiõn and enteiprise. The degree apprenticeship has also been used as a successful
means to address spècific skills gaps, for example in public sector areas such as nursing,
social work and policing.
Source: Warwick Economics & Development (20l9tztl), Evaluation of the Degree Apprenticeship
Dewlopmenr Fund - Report to the Officeþr Students by LI/aruick Economics & Development,
https:/fuvw.officeforsddents.ore.uk/me¿ia/7cd79cd8-536f-49e5-a55f-ebd83b344bl6/dadfevaluation.þdf.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

cFIAPTER 9. ESToNTA

Under the assumptions of "international growth", notable increases could be made to the
size of the student population in Estonia. In this scenario, even if enrolment rates of
Estonian students do not change from 2016 levels, the numbers of students in Estonia
could be at a level of 53 100 students by 2030. However, a strong growth in the numbers
of intemational students, without other positive changes, will also not be sufficient to
retum the higher education system to previous peak enrolments.

It is clear that neither demographic change alone, nor gradual increases in enrolment
rates, nor substantial increases in intemational students will suffice to bring higher
education enrolment numbers in Estonia near to their peak at the beginning of the decade.
Only a composite of the three positive scenarios occurring together could restore the size
ofthe student population to its previous peak.
Estonia could therefore consider which of the scenarios are most likely to occur or are
most achieveable in the current context, and plan accordingly.

9.5.4. Implicøtions for policy
Managing demographic transition effectively and increasing the size of the highly skilled
workforce - in part by expanding or sustaining the number of skilled graduates - is likely
to be a policy priority for Estonia in the coming years.

Without successful intervention, the baseline scenario of declining enrolments and the
more negative 'lounger cohort reduction" scenario are likely to create a continued
shortage of advanced skills. There are a number of options to sustain or increase the
number of higher education graduates, many of which Estonia is already pursuing.
Potential policy choices include demand-side options, where policy effbrts are made to
increase demand for existing higher education services and achieve the more positive
scenarios for enrolment outlined in the previous section.

However, supply-side policy initiatives, where efforts are made to create greater
efficiency and effectiveness in the current system, can also be pursued to reduce potential
adverse impacts in the case of the more negative scenarios occuning, or to streamline the
system to prepare for future enrolment increases.
Demand-síde options to achieve more positive scenarios
Estonia has positive prospects for increasing future demand for higher education. The
economy grew by l7o/o between 2010 and 2017 (OECD, 20l8pqù.The average salary
level increased by 18% in the same period (OECD,2018rzst), and unemployment is
generally low (OECD, 2017x). The growing economy, together with Estonia's reputation
as one of the most advanced digital economies in the world, has created the potential for
allracting both skilled and non-skilled workers into the country. Net migration has been
positive in recent years and reached a record high in 2017, as more Estonians retumed
home to live, and increasing numbers of immigrants arrived from the surrounding regions
(Statistics Estonia, 2019 pzt).

If Estonia is also able to build on the progress and strengths of its higher education
system and achieve one or more of the growth scenarios outlined in the previous section,
the adverse effects of falling enrolments could be mitigated more quickly and the level of
adjustment required by the system could be reduced.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI 9

| ¿gs

494 | cHAPTERg. EsroNIA
Figure 9.15. Higher education enrolment in Estonia: live possible scenarios
$¿3¿li¡s

----, International growth
70000

-

- Older æhort growth

- - -Youngercohortreduction
. . Youngercohortgrowth
-

65000

60000

s5000

.--.'-7-j:'¿'

s0000

-: -:-.:-:i--'-=-=; : :'-- =''' --'

45000

40000

35000

2027 2028 2029 2030
2012 2013 2014 201s 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026
Notei See Table 9 .i to see the assumptions underlying the calculations of the values

for each scenario.

statl-ink -=ærr https ://doi.ors/ 0' I 7 87/8 8893 3 942260
1

Under the baseline assumptions, based on a continuation of the most recent enrolment
that enrolments will continue to fall in the short term'
trends, Estonia .un
"*p.òt
Howeíer, the projected trend suggests that Estonia is over the largest part of its higher
should
education enrolmðnt decline. In ttle baseline scenario, higher education enrolment
pick
to
begin
may
eventually
years,
and
coming
pace
in
the
therefore contract at a slower
would
period,
there
part
the
of
latter
in
the
increase
up during the mid-2020s. lespite the
(with
stìll be in estimated 5 000 feïer higher education students in 2030 than in 2016
of
in
terms
one
negative
more
a
scenario
this
mãting
about 46 300 students projected),
future growth in student numbers.
In the "younger cohort reduction" scenario, which assumes a further l0% decline in
students
enrolment rates of the young population, enrolment would fall to about 42 300
six
following
the
over
by 2024 and only incrðase Uy-aUout an additional 1 500 students
years to 2030.

groups of

Figure 9.15 also indicates how increasing enrolment rates from different
Enrolment rates of
students could have an impact on the overall student numbers by 2030.
in
relation to other
lower
comparatively
are
in
Estonia
group
the younger age
çio-z+¡
the
"younger cohort
that
implies
This
older.
25
and
aged
tl.rot"
OECD cðuntries i6un
gtow
towards the
cohorts
age
19-24
in
the
rates
enrolment
where
growth" assumption,
numbers
in
student
increases
greater
provide
to
is
likely
countries,
iop quartile of bgCn
growth"
assumption
cohort
"younger
The
growth"
assumption.
than the "older cohort
around
i.pii.. a scenario wherõ higher education enrolments could recover to a level ofgains
in
the
scenario,
growth"
cohort
an
"older
in
2030,1tt1.
56700 students by
2030.
400
by
of
51
level
a
reaching
modest,
enrolment might be more

BENCHMARKINGHIGHEREDUCATIONSYSTEMPERFORMANCEooEcD20I9

CI{APTER 9. ESTONIA

Table 9,7. Assumptions for the calculations of enrolment scenarios
Underlying
demographics

Baseline

Based on the size of
younger cohorts in
previous yearT

Younger cohort

Same as in baseline

reduction

scenario

Enrolment rates of
19-24 age cohorts

Enrolment rates of

(2017-2030)

25+ age cohorts
(2017-20301

For each individual age
group, the rate is set to

For each individual age
group, the rate is set to

its 2016 value,

its 2016 value, adjusted

adjusted for

for international

international students6

students6

Enrolment rates reduce
linearly by 10%
(bringing them in the
bottom quartile of the
2016 oECD

lnternational student
growth (2018.2030)
The number of
international student is
constant between 2016
and 2030

Same as in baseline

Same as in baseline

scenario

scenario

distribution)
Enrolment rates grow

older cohort growth

Same as in baseline

Same as in baseline

scenario

scenario

linearly by 30%
(bringing them to the
top quartile ofthe 2016

Same as in baseline

scenario

OECD distribution)

lnternational growth

Same as in baseline

scenario

Same as in baseline
scenario

Same as in baseline
scenario

Numbers grow linearly
to 2,5 times their 2016
levels by 2030

Enrolment rates grow

Younger cohort

Same as in baseline

growth

scenario

linearly by 40%

(binging them to the
top quartile of the 2016

Same as in baseline

scenario

Same as in baseline
scenario

OECD distribution)

The "younger cohofl growth" and "older cohoft growth" assumptions increase the agespecific enrolment rates in one age group, while keeping the enrolment rates in the other
age group at the same levels as the baseline. The "younger cohoft growth" assumption is
that the enrolment rates for people aged 19-24 will increase linearly until they reach the
level of fhe 2016 top quarlile of OECD countries (which equates to an increase of
approximately 40% in enrolment rates for Estonia oî 2016 levels). In the case of the
"older cohort growth" assumption, enrolment rates increas e by 30o/o on their 20 l6 levels
by 2030, which would bring Estonia into line with the 2016 top quartile of the OECD.
Under "international growth" assumptions, the population of international students would
expand and meet the growth rates achieved by the most successfully internationalised
(top quartile) OECD countries over the period 2004-2016. This implies that intemational
student numbers would increase by approximately 2.5 times fheir 2016levels by 2030, to
a level of over l0 000 students (compared 1ofhe2016level of 3 500 students).

Finally, a more negative "younger cohort reduction" assumption is included, where
enrolment rates in the cohort aged 19-24, already relatively low in 2016, would continue
to reduce by a further 10%. This would bring enrolment rates into the bottom quartile of
the2016 OECD distribution by 2030.

Figure9.l5 illustrates how the development of student numbers in the Estonian higher
education system might unfold under these five different sets of assumptions.

BENCHMARKING HIGI]ER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 20I9

ltx

492 | cFIAPTER 9. ESToNIA

of foreign citizens were registered in 2016, which is 0.5% of the total population' In
addition, Estonia has had one of the highest emigration rates of skilled labour in the
OECD area in the past decade, although retum migration has been increasing in recent
years. In 20l0lll, around 160/o of native-born Estonians with higher education credentials
lived abroad (OECD, 20l5pst; OECD, 2017¡).
9.5.3. Scenuriosfor Estoniø up to 2030
Scenarios can be used to consider where the recent trends observed in Estonia might lead
in future years. They can be used as a basis for contemplating how policy initiatives or

contextual factors could change future enrolment in higher education; and to plan for
future policy actions by considering which of the hypothetical futures presented are most
desirable or most likely to be realised in the Estonian context.
Table 9.7 outlines a set of assumptions which are used to create a set of simple scenarios

for future demand for higher education in Estonia. Assumptions focus on the three key
subgroups ofprospective higher education students; the younger cohort, the older cohort
andlnternational students. Assumptions are made for the period out to 2030 and are based
on:

o the age-specific enrolment rates in higher education in Estonia and in other OECD
countries, beginning from age 19

o the share of international students in Estonia, and the growth in international
student numbers in other OECD countries.

Using these assumptions, two "negative" scenarios and three "positive" scenarios are
geneiated for higher education enrolment in Estonia in the period out to 2030.
Òontemplating each of these scenarios in turn can help policymakers to consider ways to
consolidate the system to increase efficiency in the case of more negative enrolment
scenarios, or develop new initiatives to achieve more positive enrolment scenarios.
The "baseline" set of assumptions presented in Table 9.7 assumes an extrapolation of the
situation as it was in2016 (the most recent year for which dataare available) until2030,
given the current enrolment rates across different age groups6. It also assumes that the
ñumber of international students will remain constant at their 2016 level. Therefore, the
projected changes to enrolment using the baseline set of assumptions are based purely on
the changes in the underlying demographics.

The main alternative assumptions on the changes to enrolment rates and intemational
student numbers are based on the most recent (2016) levels of the same indicators in other
OECD countries for which data are available. The assumptions made for growth in
enrolment rates could be considered reasonable targets for Estonia to attain, given the
fast-growing economy and the increasing public investment in the higher education
system in recent years. In addition, they are rates that have already been achieved by at
least one-quarter of the other OECD countries.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

cITAPTER e. ESToNTA

48% in 2016 (OECD, 2018¡+1). As a result of these two trends, the total number of
students in Estonian higher education students institutions decreased by 16% between
2005 and2016.

However, demographic data suggests that the rate of decline could diminish in the
coming years. The 10-14 year-old age cohort has begun to increase modestly, while
changes to the size ofthe 5-9 and l5-19 year.old age cohofis have been smaller in recent
years (Figure 9.14). This could allow domestic demand for higher education to stabilise in
the near future, ifthere is no further decline in entry rates to higher education.
Estonia has managed to increase the number of international students substantially in
recent years; however, these numbers are currently not large enough to ofßet the decline
in domestic student numbers. Estonia also has a relatively high level of higher education
participation among older age groups, with the proportion of students aged older than 25
already among the highest in OECD countries. In addition, enrolment rates among
individuals older than 25 as a percentage of the population are above the median of
OECD countries. This may limit the extent to which expanding enrolment among older
students could replace falling enrolment numbers among traditionally-aged entrants.

Declining higher education enrolments and graduates are limiting the availability of
skilled workforce to the labour market. Evidence suggests that the Estonian labour market
is tight, i.e. in short supply of labour and skills. Unemployment is generally low, the size
of the workforce is shrinking, and employers indicate skills shortages as one of the main
barriers to expanding their economic activity (OECD, 2017¡). Further declines in
enrolment and graduates will worsen this problem, sharpening the constraints that skill
availability already places on the growing economy.
Figure 9.14. Estonia's young population by different age groups (2008-2018)

- - - 10-14

15-19

100000
95000
90000
85000
80000
75000
70000
65000
60000

.<

55000
50000

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

,Source: Statistics Estonia (2019¡zzl, Statistical dataáase, http://pub.stat.ee/px-rveb.200 1 /dialoe/statfile I . asp.

SxatLí n k "Þgp https ://doi.ore/l 0. I 7 87/88893 394224 1

While gaps in the labour market can be filled by migration, Estonia has also faced
challenges in attracting and retaining skilled workers. There are a relatively small number
of international immigrants compared to other OECD countries; 6 000 permanent entries

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 20I 9

I qgt

4eo I

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

Box 9.1. Scenario development for policy analysis

of a number of sources
Governments plan for the future of higher education in the context
futures that could
Juncertainty. Scenarios can be ¿efine¿ as descriptions of hypothetical
nonetheless internally
occur and that, althoulh somewhat speculative in nature, are
(OEiD, 2006p01). The development of scenarios can
consistent and causallfcoherent
trends, highlight
provide support to national discussions on contextual and systemic
the economy,
and
education
higher
on
circumstances
þossible .oïr.qr.nr"s of current
policy
directions'
ànd outline the main available

emphasis is being

ln a context of inüeasing complexity in societies and economies, more
Contemplating
ptacea on anticipatory .i.*iör inihe policy process (OECD, 201Stzrl).
strategic
longterm
broad
of
different policy scenarios can feed intó the development
policy
particular
to
related
research
ú;t"g ior hígher education systems or pre-policy
topics.

and useful to the
Short and medium-term scenarios are likely to be more accurate
in Section 5'1
presented
exercise
scenario
The
policymakers.
decision-making process of

therefore focuses on the immediaie decade ahead (i.e. up to 2030),
the following stePs:

and is developed using

o statement of a subject area or issue of national policy concem and the rationale
for the concern

o outline ofthe assumptions used to develop the set offuture scenarios
oexplanationofthelikelyimpactoftheassumptionsonfuturetrends

.

discussion of implications for policy'

g.S.l.Continueddemogrøphícchungesmø!posedfficultchallengesfor
Estoniu's higher educatíon system
Box 9.2. SummarY of PolicY concern

is affecting its higher
Estonia is undergoing a period of demographic transition, which
young P9o¡1e has been
education systerã uø t'tr" labour mar[et. The number of
in falling higher, education
decreasing for more than a decade. This has resulted
numbers are growing' but are
enrolments and a shrinking workforce. lnternational student
the number of students may
insuffrcient to replace dom'estic enrolment demand' However,
of how Estonia can
.turt to gro* ugäin in the coming years. This poses the question
higher education system in
effectiveiþ plan-for sustained g.or;h and improvement in the
a context of uncertainty about future demand'

9.5.2. Key related evidence

lt has approximately 1'3
Estonia,s population is among the smallest of OECD countries'
has been declining
population
1¡ittion irihabitants (Statistics"Estonia, 2019vzt), and the
education has also
higher
and ageing in recent years. The share ofyoungpeople entering
53o/o \n 2013 fo
from
reduced; entry rates of young Estonians undir 25 have decreased
@ OECD 2019
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

cHAPTERo.ESToNTA I asl

Open Science Cloud, which has a goal of ensuring that all scientific publications are
FAIR (Free, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) (European Commission, 20l8trsl).
In addition, regulations on institutional and personal reiearch funding require'áil
publications arising from a supported research project or research grant to be régistered
on the public Estonian research portal, the Current Research InformJtion Systems (CnfS¡.
Figure 9'13. Researchers and scientilic publications per I 000 people aged25-64 (2015 and

FTE researchers per 1 000 oflhe population 25-64 year-olds (2016)

- -. i

Denmark
Switzedand. ..
Norway

Average
4

New Zealand
Sloven¡a

ro,"nd.

Italy
2

o

soain

'ô

a Netherlands
a Un¡ted K¡ngdom

o

i}a
lreland

Czech *"Orr,,"a

a

a

a

a Finland
O læland

a

O Sweden

Belgium

ó Austria

United Ståtes

I Estonta

a

Germany
Franc€

a Greece

O Korea

Slovak Republic

,-",u,"

O Chile

t

to'"noj

a Turkev

a L¡thuania

O Japan

' a Hungary

Publicat¡ons per 1 000 of the pofutation 25-64 yeaÊolds (201 S)
4

I

10

12

14

to

Source: Adapted from OECD (2019pt), Benchmarking Higher Education System performance,
hÍfpsl I doi.or sJ 1 0.1 7 8'7 lbe5 5 I 4d7 -en.

staxLi n k #¡¡gp https:il doi.ors./ 10.17 87 /ggg933942222

9.5. Scenarios for policy

This section of the note extends the comparisons drawn in the previous sections by
looking forward, and presenting a set of scenarios relevant to the future of Estonia,s
higher education system. The purpose of these scenarios is to provide evidence-based
conjectures about future trends in areas of national policy importance, which can
stimulate debate and support policy-planning exercises (Box 9.1).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI 9

4ss I

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

for
funds doctoral and post-doctoral positions
including the Mobilitas programme, which
international researchers'
of
some indications of the level of mobility
Bibliometric indicators can be used to provide
measures
across national borders' These
researchers an¿ cottaUoiation on research
as
in and out of Estonia in any one year are small
suggest that while fl";, ;îr.*ur.t.r,
the
of
proportion
net flows of scientific authors as a
a proportion of ou..uti .".*rchers,
were in the top
and
positive'
were
onlt tft. period 2002-2016
overall research
a net gain of 4

"o,,,,ninjr'
quartile of SECD

in thut p.riod, Estonia experienced

"oî"iíi...
in the population (Figure 9.12)'
researchers for every r-oo-iuir-ti,n" r.r.ur.h*r,
Estonia,scontributiontoresearchdocumentsbasedoninternationalscientific
as
wirh 2go/oof research documents published
collaboration is close io tt . oEco median,
the result of international joint work'

volume of outputs are lower, but the impact
to bibliometric indicators

of research appears higher according

Estoniaproducesfewerpublications_overallperlo00.peopleaged25-64,with2.5
level and lesi than one-half that of the
publications in 20l6,belåw the OECD ,n.Jiun
of the
ButÈstonia performs better on the impact
most productin" .ount-iã, (Fijure 9.12).
researchers' In
publications, ur,,'.ururäù;;iþ,i"t: óf scientific

doðuments produced by

publications were among the 10% most cited
2017, over on"-t"ntn ãi it-g.toniun
this indicator.
prùiå"ii""r, placing irio"iu at the OECb median level on

is
by considering how successfully knowledge
The impact of research is often measured
of
way
one
are
put"nt application statistics
transformed into useful products o, se*ices.
n6to sector is responsible for a relatively
gtì.í"iã"
education
ttigher
measuring this. The
for a
unsurprising' a1$srrel education accounts
high proportion orou-J,aît;áñ This.is
forged
have
to
n6.D ,i"tot,äd Bstonia appears
larger than average ,tur" åirft. overall
Howevór, the overall volume of patents from
sectorsome strong links with the enterprise
remains relatively low' below the median
rhe higher e¿ucationieä1ã. ñiôq researchers
countries for which data is available'
"iOBöo
publications per .1 000 of the population are
while the the number of researchers and
per
the estimated annual number of publications
lower than median l*"it ieïg"* 9.13),
produce an
median level' Estonian researchers
researcher is slightly above the OECD
just
compared to the oEcD median of
estimated 0.5 scientific publication, u*ruiy,
O.¿ (see Chapter I of (OECD' 2019r¡))'

"tJ"t

AccesstoknowledgeinEstoniaislessopenthaninmanyother2ECDcountries
Makingresearchresultswidelyavailablethroughopenaccessmechanismscansupport
iufrication, qro by^increasing the ability to
research efficiency ;;Jq;;ltr, uy reducinl

ipiLtou.tr (9ECD, 20-19pr)' Estonia is in the
available' In total'
"J;;;ãlãowledge
ôËct counrries in .ã[i"g knowledge publiclvin2016,
bottom quarrile
a proportion
"f were available in some t.rirm or open access

repticate resulrs

23o/o ofpublications
*iti"tt is among the lowest in OECD countries'

in the future in Estonia, as a new open Science
period 2016-202},based on the outcomes of the
straregy has been d;;;ilpJi" .oL:r.th:
(open
expert grcup on open^science in 2015
deliberations
is
"f ";ö;ålù-ãriuutirtt"o n ttut""tt ðouncil' 2016rrsr)' Estonia also
Science Expert Gróup of the Estonian
to the European commission's European
aligning national opei scien"e infrastructures

open access may become more common

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION

@ OECD 2019

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

Estonia is building on. this rgcord by introducing new initiatives
to further strengthen
collaboration with business. For example, the reicently-ro-"J
Áoeprpn network of
universities and research institutes ...at.r'u framework ror
education and
other contract services 1o. business enterprise, while the NUTIKAS
"o-orJinating
initiative provides
targeted funding for public research instiìutes to support
applied research and'develop
commercial products in conjunction with business enterprises.^
9.4.2. Internøtionalisation and knowledge production
Figure.9'12 shows the position of Estonia within the OECD
distribution on the scorecard
of indicators related to internationalisation of research

""d

knowledge production.

d;;;lõment activities and

I

Figure 9'12' Where does Estonia stand in the OECD distribution?
knowledge production

Eottomquãrt¡lê

Med¡en

Internationalisation and

Top quart¡le

No¡e: The.indicators represented in this chart are a subset
ofthe indicators presented in Table9.l. The
coloured circle represents Estonia's position in the OECD
distribution. The circieL not coloured when data
are available for less than halfof the-oECD.countries (the
minimum nr*u.. or.ãuntries with available data

isl4)'Formoreinformationonmethodologicalissuesandmetadat4;oE¿ilizirqo,).Followthe
to download the data underlying the calculaìion ofthe scorecard.

statlink

source: Adapted from

ng ---è'"''
Higher Educaîion system perþrmance,
Quõ_n lzoD¡itl, a";"ir*t' '.'o
https://doi.ore/.10.1787/be55l4d7-en
sxatLínk ñ-@@

International collaboration could be

further improved

As a small €conomy, Estonia recognises that intemational
collaboration is essential for
achieving their R&D goals.
policy initiatives have been put in place to
-Numãrous
promote greater intemationalisation
of higher education research

anà development,

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
@ OECD

2OI 9

| ¿tt

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

4s6 |

Figure 9.11. Researcher concentration and recent growth in OECD

countries (2011-2016)

Full-time equivalent (FTE)
%

Change in FTE researcher numbers (201 1-2016)

60

Chile
50

Sweden

a

a

a Turkey a poland

40

Netherlands
lreland

a

Italy

30

a

a Greeæ

20

a

Gemany a

10

Luxembourg
0

a
a

-10

a Austria

a Un¡ted Kingdom

Hungary

a

a

a Belgium

Czech Republ¡c

t United States
Japan
New Zealand

Denmârk

a

a

læland

a

a

a a Canada
Esto;iâ a

Slovak Republic

a Korea
NoMay

F¡nland

a

Sloven¡a

LatV¡A

a

-20

.30
2

0

I

10

'16

14

18

(2016)
FTE researchers per 1 000 people 25-64 year-olds

Source'. AdaPted from OECD

(20181re1), OECD Scíence, Technologt and R&D Statistics'

https ://doi.ord1 0. I 787lstrd-data-en.

statlink -rup https ://doi'ors/ I 0' 787188893 3942 84
1

Estonia appears to have built solid links berween higher education

1

R&D and the

business seclor

links with the business sector
Estonian higher education appears to have created stronger
higher education expenditure
of
proportion
The
*1¡pur"¿ tãsome otfrer OBðb countries.
20l6.was slightly abov91þ
in
business
ùy
funded
on research and developÃent (HERD)

that funding for HERD
median level of oECd countìies. It should be noted, however,
OECD country
median
the
with
OECD,
the
from business is generally low across
business in
from
funding
development
and
research
oîhighJeducation

..."iting¡u.t SX
2016.

higher education sector on research
that the higher education
1:3"t
to other OECD
compared
sector performs a comparatively gteater portion of R&D
efforts with
collaborative
for
countries, making it a more prominent potential partner
top quartile
in
the
ranked
Estonia
businesses. In the 2014 óo-1¡.inity lnnovation Survey,
and
education
higher
between
of OECD countries in the level oi reported collaborátion
small and medium enterprises on innovation'

Enterprises also are more likely to co-operate with the
uná O.u.topment (R&D) in Estonia. this may reflect

particularly visible in the
co-operation between business and hìgher education is
For example, the IT.Academy
information and communications technology (ICT) sector'
education institutions to
higher
and
businesses
government,
th;
is a joint initiative
"i
related areas of study'
students, learning añd research in the ICT sector and

*Oån

O OECD
RENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

2019

cITAPTER 9. ESToNTA | ¿ts

investment strategies in OECD countries are targeting increases in spending on applied

research and experimental development, to orient research more towards tackìing spécific

challenges. This is also the case in Estoni4 where specific policy instruments suppãrt tfre
development of applied research in areas of smart ipecialiiation, business R&D ãnd cobetween higher education institutions and business (see Chapters 6 and 7 of

9Pg1t]*
(OECD,

2019r3r)).

Gender balance in academia has largely been achieverJ.

Ps9nil has put in place a range of supportive policies which promote gender equity,
including gender balance monitoring in the hiiing proce.r, und aligruient witú thé
principles to support gender equity in the research profession includãd in EU policy
initiatives such as the European Charter and Code óf Conduct for the recruitment oi
researchers, and the European Research Area Innovation Committee (see Chapter 4 of
(OECD, 20l9r3r)).

There is a relatively low supply of doctorate holders and researchers ín the

population

The proportion of doctorate holders in the population is below the OECD median in

Estonia, at 0.6Yo of the population, compared-tothe OECD median proportion of lo/o.

At
the same time, the numbers of doctoral graduates from Estoniàn higher education
institutions appear to be growing slowly; there were 190 new doctoral graãuates in2012,

while by 2016 the number had increase d to 239 (OECD, 20 I gr+l).

A similar picture can be seen with regard to the proportion of researchers in the
population in Estonia. Overall concentrations ofresearche.i in the labour force are
also at
the lower end of OECD countries, below median levels, and they have been static over
the period 2011-2016. As Figureg.ll shows, other countries wiih lower proportions of
researchers in the population have been able to surpass Estonia in terms of growth
in
recent years.

According to the OECD Careers of Doctorate Holders survey, around l0% of the
population with a doctoral qualification living in Estonia were fóreign citizens in 2016,
the same proportion as the OECD median level. Estonia has potentiallo increase both
thé
numbers of native and foreign doctorate holders further in the future. The numbers of
foreign doctoral candidates choosing Estonia for their studies has grown by more than
50% between 2013 and 2016 (from 218 in 2013 to 339 in 2016). At the same time, the
numbers of Estonian doctoral candidates choosing to study in otúer OECD countries has
increased at a much slower rate, from 264 candldates in 2013 to2g9 in20r6 (OECD,

20l8rrzl).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI 9

484 | CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

Estonia has strengthened R&D capacity in recent years
Estonia has prioritised the development of national capabilities in research and
have focused.on
development in recent years. While pievious national research strategies
the period
covering
strategy
recent
most
the
increasìng investment ánd building ôapacity,
sector in
the
R&D
by
created
value
the
is geared towards-hamessing

of ZOA-á020

Estonia for the good of the economy and society (Estonian Ministry of Education

and

Research, 2014rrst).

Estonia
The higher education sector plays a larger role in national R&D activity in
!þ1in
*uny ãth., OECD countries.- The pioportion of researchers working in the highel
comprising 56Yo of
education sector was in the top quartiie óf OPCp countries in 2016,
all researchers in Estonia, close to the maximum proportion of 63Yo.
new

There is marginally greater emphasis on basic research (research aimed at creating
other
general knoriledgó ,ñitnout a specific purpose in mind) in Estonia than in many
in
research
as
basic
classified
research
èduòation
óECp countriesf with 59% of higher
in
funding
the
of
much
as
However,
54%.
of
level
2015, slightly above the median OeCl
the
apportionment
project-based,
is
in
Estonia
highér eà'ucution research and development
(Figure 9' I 0)'
of investment between different types of research is volatile over time
Figure e.l0. Gross domestic

"'p.nåtj,îïi:ïri'rtJ-îîii'ation
- - -Appliedresearch

Basic fesearch

R&D' bv tvpe of activitv in

-,

-Exp€rimentaldevelopment

US Dollars, millions, 2010

-

140

120

100

80

60

40

-

-'-'\

20

0
2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017
Year

source: Adapted from OECD (2018rrel), )ECD Science, Technolog,t

and R&D Statistics'

https ://doi.ore/l 0. 1 787lstr d-data-en.

staxLí n k "tÉp https://doi ;ole/I 0' I 7 87/888933942 I 65
knowledge available for
Basic research is crucial to expanding and improving the body of
the majority of basic
where
is
sector
educâtion
the benefit of society, and the high-er
public research
many
time,
same
the
At
OECO.
research is carried õut across ttt.

BENCHMARKINGHIGHEREDUCATIONSYSTEMPERFORMANCEoOECD20I9

cHAPTERo.EsroNr.A | ¿s¡
Figure 9.9. Where does Estonia stand in the OECD distribution? Research inputs and
activities
i ,J r'),¡¡i -'ilr !,rt, :1, j :r rii',r jl :i .i lr .riil,iir;,.,rt,ì,.:.,..,:ì, , iì rillrl. ,:,it:)riril
.".ii, 'i.

,r :;,. I iì,

lt.rlr,.lt..rli: !r';ì:.j:.r[, ri:.i.1'r,.]fij f¡ : j !t rlilìlr,:llìrlji'',1,:tlrlìl;illll

,i!.,¡lij¡.i,ìtriì.

';:f

'.,riìÌ ì¡ì , rr r:.r¡rl:

'ri't':,

i ¡1.ìÌr i , tllj

;. rtt¡ qlri,:,,.:,ii,r..

'.11 '¡'.'

r)f il.t)j;ì"r,

jli 'j ,il,"Jl

,',ì!, :J:, l'

,1 Ì..,,,

il,i. l

rlrirì,;'ìi:,.ì,',,;:¡''r.,¡rir,,r', jJr.jl:.:',,.,.|,.t'i,tr,¡ir;1,1¡rl

tìj¡;:tr ,,r. rll . I

l¡

,!¡1,,1;,i:r

ir i:ii ìi

,'i,r.i ,',iir j, . .. .;,r li, i r,. i.., ,il i.ti:t¡,:i,
I

¡

,':' !,

I

il

litlt, ::, lîi,::rr' rll'l tlr. ttr ,.ì,. I i r,:í:. .tl l, :.1.i,1., , .ì..:,1. ,1,;t,,.

,il,r'':,,ìl

' ri iìli

:,ljìì.irìt,):;ir,ìr.ri)li:jil.:1i.jt:,rlt.r:;,',:1, r.,, itlr;tr,l1t;,1,:;ìt(,,ìr;1ì:.;íjr,liiitiiri{i;;riÌ:(íi;
.'ir. ltrl,

r,!Ì:!: :/.:ì.

:

,i, Íi ! ',ì ¡ì1

ì¡r)r:',j¡llrit. L¡; i I j.ir: rci¡t i: ..¡.;,r l;::::trrr!,ii,ì+lll.)j

L

Eottomquârt¡le

Medten

Top quartfle

Note:Tlte indicators represented in this chart are a subset ofthe indicators presented in Table9.l. The
coloured circle represents Estonia's position in the OECD distribution. The circle is not coloured when data
are available for less than half of the OECD countries (the minimum number of countries with available data
is 14). For more information on methodological issues and metadata" see OECD (2019¡¡t). Follow the Statlink
to download the data underlying the calculation ofthe scorecard.

Source: Adapted ûom OECD (2019¡¡), Benchmarking Higher Education System Perþrmance,
httþs://doi.orq/l 0. I 787lbe55 l4d7-en.

srarLink ãæ hnps ://doi.ore/l 0. I 787188893 3 942 I 46

BENCHMARKINGHIG}IER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9

4s2 | CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA
Source:AdaptedÍ|ominformationprovidedbytheEstonianMinistryofEducationandResearch.

Estoniaaimstohavesomeformofwork.basedleamingincludedinallhighereducation
2016¡ra)' In particular, the. more
programmes (il;;ü" ðommission/EACgA/Eurydice,
a traineeship' a period of
include
professionally-oriented programmes are required 1o-

completion of.academic
work-based r.u*ing *ticlitypically takes place ro]tgyrleihe
study load' Since 2016'
the
of
15%
work on a programme and makes up a minimum of
to favour co-operation
aims
pRÕM, u p.oir*re co-funded Uy ttre European Union-,
leaming in higher
work-based
of
between institutions and enterprises-for the devèlopment
is completed in
study
most
where
prog.u*ln.r
and vocational education, through creating
the workplace rather than in lectures'

9.4. Research and engagement
Highlights

oThehighereducationresearchanddevelopmentseclorplaysaleadingroleinthe
56% of all researchers in the
research an¿ innovation system in Estonìa' with
country working in higher education in 2016'

the oldest age
o Gender parity among researchers has been reached in all but45o/o
of the total
groups. overall, in1016, women researchers made up
ðohort ofresearchers in the population'

almost

of collaboration
o Survey data suggests that Estonia achieves relatively high levels
to many other OECD
between Uurin.äãø in. ftigh.. education sector

compared

extends to small and medium
countries. rr,i.ïiË-rt"t r.u"íor collaboration also
levels in the OECD of
highest
the
of
enterprises in Estãnia, which report one

collaùoration on innovation with the higher education

sector.

measured by joint
o ln 2016, in Estonia international scientific collaboration, asmedian.
In the same
authorship or,.i.ntin" publications, was close to

o

the 9ECD

Estonia, suggesting a net
year, net^flows of scientific authors were positive for
brain gain of researchers'
per I 000 people aged
Estonia produces a lower volume of publications overall
In 2017, over
median.
oEcD
in20t7', below the

25_64,*itt zsiruiications

one-tenth or'âi g.t"nian publicatíons were among

the 10% most cited

publications, the same level as the OECD median'

of scientific
o Estonia is in the bottom quartile of oECD countries in the ofamount
from
publications
23Vo
total,
In
available.
i' made publicly
knowledge
in20l6' a
form of open access

't,". activities were available in some
Estonian research
p.áportion which is among the lowest in OECD countries'

9.4.1. InPuts ønd øctivities
Figure 9.9 provides a detailed overview of the
asãociated with research inputs and activities'

benchmarking scorecard indicators

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

(2016rrq) estimate that information on labour market outcomes cannot
be obtained for
over 10% of Estonian graduates, who are most likely living abroad.
Second, Estonia has a relatively high level of labour market inactivity, due
to a variety of
reasons. The share of young people with dependent children is relatively

high in Estonia
with40%o of women and over 20% of men in the 18-29 year-old cohórt Iluuing
at least
one child (Table 9.4)' Family care is a common reason for labour market iiactivity.
Furthermore, young men usually spend a year serving the national conscript
obligation,
and a common period to undertake this duty is immediately after graduation.
there-fore, it
is not surprising that that many Estonian graduates are inactivi even though few
are
involuntarily unemployed. The share of Eitonian graduates younger than 3-0 who
are
inactive and not in education (10%) is the fifth-higiest in the OpõO area,
whereas the
share of unemployed, not-in-education graduate s (z;lo¡ is the sixth-lowest.

Apaft from these factors, other indicators point to a more positive picture of graduate
labour market outcomes in Estonia, also in comparison to óther OECD countriãs.
Less
fhan 5o/o of Estonian hiqhgr education graduates reported working in jobs with
routine
tasks in the survey of Adult Skills, one of the lowestìhure, in the dECD area.
The Estonían governnrcnt is seeking ro improve the labour ntarket ouÍcomes
of
graduates

The government set a target of 88% for the employment rate of higher education

graduates by 2020, and also has put in place a number oîpolicy initiatives

to enhance the
labour market relevance of higher education (Table 9.6). Fo; example, t1.," inror¡¡uti*
needed to monitor and improve the employment situation and woiking
conditions of
graduates is being gathered through a national graduate survey. In
addition, evidence to
support planning for future provision is generated through OSKA, a forecasting
tool used
to anticipate labour market and skills needs based on quãntitative and qualitativã
evidence
(European Commission, 2017
rtt).
The government has introduced a number of measures to ensure employment
for higher
education graduates' The share ofgraduates employed or in education is included
in-the
f-ormlll funding, providing a financial incentiveìo itigt't". education institutions to ensure
that higher education programmes confer the necessary skills for further study
or work.

The graduate- employment rate is also one of the criteria involved in the quality

as.sessment of study programme groups in Estonia (EKKA, 201lrra).

In addition, irigno
education institutions are required to take the needs of the laboui-inarket into

accãunt
when designing new study programmes under a government regulation on
the Standard of
Higher Education (Estonia, 2009rr:l).
Table 9.6. Initiatives to improve labour market relevance in Estonia (2017)
lnformation
gathering

Nai¡onal Graduate Survey

OSKA programme to develop labour market forecasts
Utilisat¡on of administrative records

lncentives to
institutions

Work-based
learning

share of graduates in education or employment included in institutional formula funding
Graduate employment rate ¡ncluded in the criteria for study group assessment
Obligation for institutions to take into account labour market information when
designing new programmes
A requirement for all higher educat¡on programmes, and particularly for less
academically oriented
programmes

PRÕM

to develop the necessary co-operation between education institutions and

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
O OECD 2019

employers

| ¿sr

480 I CHAPTERg.ESTONIA
Higher education graduates in Estonia have high levels of literacy and numeracy
proficiency
Intemationally comparable measures of higher education leaming outcomes a¡e .n9t
insight
currently uuuílubl". Èo*.u.., the OECD Survey of Adult Skills can provide some
the
for
data
allow
into ttt. cognitive and worþlace skills of young graduates. Th-ese
and
literacy
as
such
performancð assessment of higher education graduates in basic skills
numeracy.

In Estonia, around three-quarters of 16-34 year-old higher education graduates reached
literacy
level 3 ofihe proficiency scale of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), in both

level of 3 implies an
texts, and complete
lengthy
or
to
dense
appropriately
u6itity to unáárstãndãnd respond
be embedded in
may
that
information
tasks-that require an understanOing ofmáttrematical
unfamiliar contexts.
and
When compared to upper secondary graduates, and controlling for basic demographic
more
substantially
gtaduates
were
social charäcteristics, young Estonian higher education
only
likely to reach level ¡ tn Uõtfr the literacy and numeracy scales than individuals with
16.-34
for
3
level
profìciency
upp", ,.rondary education. The odds iatio5 of reaching
yàär-ol¿ higher education gtaduates, compared to indivjduals with only upper secondary
the OECD
äducation, i, on". 2 for boti numeracy and litetucy proficiency, slightly below
and numeracy, slightly above the OECD median level. A proficiency

median.

Higher education also yields social and personal benefits
with only
Higher education graduates younger than 35 were more likely than individuals
according
Estonia,
in
outcomes
positive
social
more
upfier secondary eãucation to report
tó tneir reports in the backgrouid questionnaire of the OECD Survey on Adult Ski,lls'
with higher
These indícators show that ãubstantial non-monetary benefits are associated
in other
Estonia
than
in
pronounced
less
be
might
education, even though these benefits
countries in some cases.
large for

For example, the odds ratio of reporting trust in other people was about twice as
(close to the
higher edìcation graduates, as iompãred to upper secondary graduates
than upper
likely
more
also
OËCO median level). Higher education graduates were
to upper
compared
odds,
(1.6
higher
secondary graduates io t.pãtt being in good health
in most
than
is
smaller
groups
secondary ftaduates), thoùgh the differeice between these
other OECD countries'
The economic benefits of higher educationfor graduates are mixedwhen

compared to other countries

About 90o/o of Estonian higher education graduates under 30 are employed or in
rate
education. Among ZS-3+ yeãt-old graduates of higher education, the employment
(or
posteducation
secondary
upper
of
was nearly the same as that for þaduates
graduates with a bachelor
secondary, non-tertiary education) in zotl. Higher education

level quaiification do, however, achieve a20o/o earnings premium on average.
can be
The limited labour market advantages of Estonian higher education graduates
large
a
attributed, in part, to two disparaie factors. First, Estonia has experienced
whose
countries'
emogration of young higher education graduates relative to other OECD
Reinhold and Valk
earnings are not .uptu.ãd in national tabour market indicators' Jaggo,

BENCHMARKINGHIGHEREDUCATIONSYSTEMPERFORMANCEoOECD20I9

CTIAPTER 9. ESTONIA

| +zg

Intemational students enrolled in occupationally specific progïammes offered at
professional HEIs are more likely to find employment in Estonia after graduation than
those enrolled in universities (Estonian National Audit Office, 2015¡a1i Estonian Ministry
for Education and Research and Archimedes,20l5¡e1). However, the proportion of
international students is much lower in professional higher education institutions (1%)
than in universities (8o/o), and as professional HEIs do not offer programmes in English,
students studying there must already speak Estonian, which also makes subsequent labour
market integration an easier process.
9.3. 2. Graduale o utcomes

Figure 9.8 shows the position of Estonia within the OECD distribution on the set of
scorecard indicators associated with the outcomes of graduates.
Figure 9.8' Where does Estonia stand in the OECD distribution? Graduate outcomes
Percentage of graduates reaching at least literacy profciency level 3, l&34 year-olds (2û12 or 2015)
Mín (3o)

Max (921

Êüònììlzä¡
Employmêntrates of masler's gÍaduates, 25-34 yearolds (20j6)
Min (691

Mãx {97}
Employment premium lbr hþher education graduates, 2F34 yeardde (2017)

M¡n (-2.3)

Mäx (16.4

Percenlage of 0raduates employed o¡ in educalion. i 5-29 year+lds (2016)
M¡n (65)

Max (97)

Earnings of bachebfsgraduates, relative to other workerc, 25-34 yea¡dde (201ô)
Min (ee)

Max l?281
Relal,ve level of sölf-reporled heatth fÐr hrgher êducalion graduates, 1G34 year-olds (odds rãl'o) (2012 or 20lS)

Min {0.9}

Mãx {r5.9)
Èitonia 1r.o¡
Relalive level of self+epoÉed interpersonal trust b; h¡gher education graduates, 16-34 year-olds (odds ralio) (2012 or 20lS)

Min (1.1)

Mâx (2.61
Estonia (1.Ð

Bottom quêrtile

Median

Top quartile

Note:T\e indicators represented in this chart are a subset ofthe indicators presented in Table9.1. The
coloured circle represents Estonia's position in the OECD distribution. The circie is not coloured when data
are available for less than half of the OECD countries (the minimum number of countries with available data
is l4)' For more information on methodological issues and metadata, see OECD (2019r:l). Follow the Stattink
to download the datâ underlying the calculation ofthe scorecard.

Source: Adapted 1Ìom OECD (201914), Benchmarking Higher Education System perþrmance,
https://doi.ore/1 0. I 787lbe55 14d7-en.

StatL7nk "ãgp https://doi.ore/l 0. I 787188893 3942 27
1

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

47s I

CTIAPTER 9. ESTONIA

and assessments even while on academic
old have the option to undertake study activity
suspend studies while remaining enrolled)'
leave (a period during which a student can

-

Table 9.4. Share of18-29 year-old new

entrânts to higher education with dependent

children,

bY gender (2015)

The share of individuals with children in the

overall 1 8-29 year-old population is indicated

Estonia

Finland

Lithuania

5,e (39.8)

5,8 (18.e)

1.9 (29.7)

Women
Men

2.6 (23.1)

2.5 (1 1)

0.8 (18.3)

in brackets

United States

Median

4.1 (16.3)

11.5 (36.8)

4.4 (18.e)

0.7 (5.e)

6.1 (23 .e)

2 5 (11)

Norway

calculated across I I
Estonia and Lithuania' The medians are
Norc: Data refer to first-Year students for
See ChaPter 5 of(OECD'
graduates.
first'time
to
refer
data
whose
countries, including Canada and Germany,
2019t¡) for other metadata'
(INES) Survey on Equity in Tertiary Education'
source:rndicators of Education Systems

in Estonia is close n rhe
The proportion o/'international students

)ECD median

of
have entered the country for the purpose
International students in Estonia -those who
One
years'
recent
in
increasing
been
iftotgtt their numbers have
study - are not
while at the
"u,n"."u,,
iniernational student (belów !!re lecp median),
t"rrir'on
master,s student in
median'
OECD
the
to
level
similar
a
bachelor,s level, 570 0f students are international,
students'
international
of
proportion
in ihe
Howevêr, Estonia has experienced an increase
2016' This is one of the highest rates of
and
2014
between
¿ouUfJJ
which has almost
the
Estonia is now close to a 1:l ratio between
increase in the OECD member countries.
pursue
the number of national students who
number of incoming fä.ãig"-.t"á"tts and
theirstudiesabroad,aScomparedtoanoEcomedianofaround2:l.Muchofthe
gJãtìiu is of a regional naturç, with half of international students
intemational mobility to
"i,'--purticuiár Finland (where 40Yo of all
coming from neighuã*i"g

"""*ri.r,

internarti onal students ori ginate)'

Table 9.5. Selected indicators on international
Number of
international students
per national student
abroad
Estonia
(0ECD quartile)

students (2016)

National students
Percentage of international
or foreign students coming

lncoming mobile
students in 2016,

from neighbouring countries

enrolled in other OECD
and partner countries in
2016,2013=100

0.9

50

95

(3)

(4)

(2)

(1)

124

201 3=1 00

185

OECD median

1.9

28

110

16

125

106

Finland

2.3

18

184

1.2

B6

Latvia

89

140

Lithuania

Source: Adapted ûom OECD (20l8ra)'
https://doi.ord1

0. I 787leag-20

1

Education at a

Glance 2018: OECD Indicators,

8-en'

students if they can be retained after
Estonia will benefit most from intemational
However, international students have a
graduation to meet ruùãrr- À"ttet needs.
¡,rtonian labour market' Only 20V' of bachelor's
comparatively low ,ut.-ãil*tyJo tt.
in Estonia after gfaduation compared to' for
and mastef,s international students stay
+lX of mastels intemational students in
example, around ø0,1"--îf lu"t.tor', ânA
Norway

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCAT]ON

O OECD 2019

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

larger share of students studying part-time, possibly
because older students have less time
to devote to study, due to work and family oUtigatiåns.

over half of Estonian students work during the lecture period (Hauschildt,
vögtle and
G¡vo¡ó, 20l816r). on average, they spend SO-hours a
week working or studying, 20 hours
of which are spent working paid jôbs unrerated to studies, Ír"
ñilrrest
participaring in rhe EUROSTUDENT survey (Hauschilát]
vögtle and Gwosó,
:gyltrl..

urJ*t ;";;

2018¡01).

The relatively small proportions of part-time students,

rate, could be a function ofthe fee structure for higher

together with the low completion
education. Higher education is free

only for fulltime programmes taught in Estonian. This provides
incentives for adults
entering higher education to ehoose the full+ime enrolment
option, even when
part-time might better suit their personal situation.
And, because higher education
institutions can ask for reimbursement of tuition fees of

progress at the right pace, they have weak incentives

full-time students failing to

to propose part-time study. Limited
support for flexible and part-time study appears to therefore
limit higher education
pafticipation and, especially, study completion.
Figure 9.7. Proportion of students older than 25 and of part-time
students, bachelor,s
programmes (2016)
Newentrants olter than 25, o/o
35

a lsrael

O SwiEerland

30

a Sweden

Estonia

&
Denmark

25

O

læland

Latvia

t) NewZealand

o

lFinland

o Australia

20
Chile

Portugalô
10

Average

O aSbvakRepublic

a Czech Repubtic

IC

a

United Kingdom

Lithuania
iÒ

'ìreland

Polan¿

O Luxembourg

o i

a Hungary

spa¡n

a Slovenia
5

a NoMay

a Germany

a Netherlands

Italy

a Belgium

a
Flemish Community

10

20

30

40

50

60

Part{ime students, %

l'#.

ttt chapter 5 of (oECD,20191¡) for methodological information on the indicators represented

Source: Adapted from OECD (2018¡+1), )ECD Education

in this

Statistics,https://doi.ore/10.17g7ledu-data-en.

SrarLink *læic hnps://doi.ore/ l 0. l 7 g7lg8 g933942 l 0g
Estonia has a relatively high proportion of entrants to
especially.

*omón

higher education with children,

fabie l.+¡. ror stuàents with chídren uná., z years-old, there
?mong
tuition fees, regardless of study progress, making it easier for
.lo
them to balance
family and study commitments. In addítiån, itudents *iûi.rtná..n
younger than 3 years-

lt.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
@

OECD 2OI 9

lnt

476 | CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

over 40% ofEstonian 25-34 yeør-olds have a higher education degree
Higher education attainment among Estonia's 25-34 yeat'old age cohort

was just below

focus on higherthe"OECD median in 201'l . this coiuld be partly related to the country's
of short-cycle
absence
the
and
i.n.l prog.u111mes (bachelor's, master's and áoctoral),
in 2009' For
Estonia
in
education
prosrurnrí"., which *... ,."íur.ified as vocational
another
Finland'
just
of
that
above
is
i*uäptr, higher education attainment in Estonia

"ountþ

wheie short-cycle higher education programmes are not available.
of the
entry rates to bachelor's proglammes, Estonia lies abwe the median

For expected
a bachelor's programme
OE,CO distrlbution, with 60% of young people expected to enter
patterns' Students in
at least once in their lifetime based on current áge-specific entry
over one-third of
Estonia are also more likely to be studying for higher qualifications;
level, a
high"r eàucation students in Estonia are enrolled at the master's or doctoral
prãportion close to the top quartile of the OECD distribution'
Access to higher education varies by social background, though

less than in other

OECD counlries
rates vary according
not complete higher
did
to ø.ify úackground. Young adults (agedlt-Z+¡ whose pul.ryt
a higher education
educatión are ãbout half as îikety as'ttrose whose parents did attain
longqualification to enter a bachelor's or long first degree.(integrated bachelor's/master's
Estonia
in
narrower
is
cycle study) programme. The gap in acðess by parental_gducation
16 countries with
túan in *lny ottr". OECD cõuntries. Eston-ia ranks 6ü among the
gap
in
entry rates).
available datá on this indicator (i.e. Estonia has the 6ft narrowest

In Estonia, as in other OECD countries, higher education enrolment

'women completed their bachelor's studies in larger proportions.than men in all countries
is the largest
with availabl. dutu, but the gender gap in compietion observed in Estonia
who started
women
of
42o/o
Some
Finland.
f.9.
among the 16 OECD countiies upuit
of
males.
22vo
to
(in
1),
compared
201
their sltudies in 2008 completed ontime

than in many
Fewer higher education students complete their study programmes
other OECD countries
in
only about half of entrants to higher education who starled their bachelor's studies

expected graduation time'
Estonia in 2008 had graduate dAylOt+, three years after.their
with available data'
This is the lowest rate among the 16 OECD higher education systems
men in all countries
women completed their bachelor's studies in larger proportions.than
is the largest
Estonia
in
observed
with availabfe data, but the gender gap in completion
who started
women
of
42Yo
Some
Finland.
among the 16 OECD countiies upuTt fto*
males'
of
22%o
to
(in
l),
compared
201
their iudies in 2008 completed ontime

when they are
Few students study part-time, even though many start their studies
25 or older
rate of adults who are 25 or
Estonia is atypical among OECD countries for having a high
students' Denmark is in
part-time
of
proportion
low
anã a relatively
older among entrants,

programmes aged

the same situation, *ith on.. on"-quurt". of nè* entrants to bachelor's
part{ime'a-Among
25 or older, and only around 1070 of bachelor's students enrolled
be
associated with a
to
tends
population
student
6ECD countries in ieneral, an older

BENCHMARKINGHIGHEREDUCATIONSYSTEMPERFORMANCE@oEcD2019

CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

| +ts

9.3.1. Access, student profile, completion
Figure 9.6 shows a detailed overview of the benchmarking scorecard indicators related to
higher education access, profile ofstudents and their success in completing their studies.
Figure 9.6. Where does Estonia stand in the OECD distribution? Access, student profile,
completion
First{me enlry rates to bachelor'sor equivalent programm€s. exclud¡ng internalional students (2016)
Mh {111

Mâx (78)
Estonia (60l

-Proporlion-of sû¡denb-in-masler'sanffi octoratprogÍarrrÌrr{r(2016}
Min {8)

Max (45)
Eston¡â (35)

Access rate gapo - parenfs without terliary educalion (2015)
Min {-65}

Max {-¿lo}
Estoniâ{-¿la)

Proportion of neür enlranb 25or older. bachelofs programmes (20i6)
Min (o)

Max (32)
estonia (zo)

Proporlion of paft{ime sfudents, bachelo/s pÌogrammes (2016)
Min (0)

Max (s3)
Eston¡a (12)

Proportion of internalional orbreign sù¡denb, masiêr's programmes (2016)
Min {1}

Max (73)

Èilóñiãlirii
P¡oporlion of new entranls who graduale on lime or wihin three yêar3from lhe expeded time (20.f4)
Min (s1l

Max (84)

Estonia isrl

25-34yearolds with híghereducal¡on qualification (2017)
Min {23)

Max (70)
Ësiónià {4t}

Bottom quârt¡le

Median

Top quàrt¡le

Note: In Estonia, all entrants are included in the indicator on "first time entry rates to bachelor's or equivalent
programmes". The indicators represented in this chart are a subset ofthe lndicators presented in fãble
9.t.
The coloured circle represents Estonia's position in the OECD distribution. The circle is not coloured when
data are available for less than half of the OECD countries (the minimum number of countries with available
data is l4). For more information on methodological issues and metadata, see OECD (2019¡r¡). Follow the
Statlink to download the data underlying the calculation ofthe scorecard.
Source: Adapted fiom OECD ç2019¡s), Benchmarking Higher Education System performance,
httos://doi.ore/1 0. I 787lbe55 I 4d7-en.

SxatLí n k -tu;p https://doi.ore/l 0. I 7871888933942089

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9

474 | CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA
leaming quality, based on the assumption
ratios are often used as an imperfect proxy for
greater level of student-teacher
that fewer stu¿äts p.t tt"ff ,n",,nú",. ållo*, for a
interaction.

InEstonia,therewere0'0T2academicstaffmembersperstudentin'2016,or
This is a larger ratio

every 14 studènts'
approximately one academic staff mernber for
ratio in neighbouringlinland'
ttran
tutg.t
ui.ã
(1:15)
and
than the OECD median
ltre
that staff-student contact time also
Latviaand Lithuania. However, it should bã noted
teaching' research or other
bre¿rkdown of academic staff time between
depends on ttretasks (see Chapter 3 of (OECD, 2019p¡))'

9.3. Bducation
Highlights

¡

Estonia has an overall high level of access and

attainment in higher education'

higher education
This is noteworthy, sinc" it does not offer short-cycle in many OECD
attainment
of
levels
progr*.Lr, which contribute to the high
across demographic groups'
count i.r. Á.ess to higher education is unequal
though less so than in many other countries'

higher education who are 25 or
Estonia has a large proportion of entrants3 to
students' This is atypical
older, and a relatively ,matt pràportion of gart-time
study on a part-time
urong OSCD countries, in w'trictr older stuáents typically
at rates above the
basis. Estonian students *o* un¿ have depend"nt-thildt"n
OECD average.
within three years
o Estonia has had an especially low rate of comp-letion (51%)
reporting this
countries
OECD
io*.rt among

¡

fi"fn th;;p.;t"¿ ti*", tti,
indicator.

¡

students that includes direct
Estonia has a policy of attracting intemational
of international students in
fînancial incentives to instituiiãnt] ttt proportion

Estoniain2016isneartheOECDmedian,andrapidlyrising.
performed relatively
o Young higher education graduates aged 16-34, in-Estonia
of Adult Skills
Survey
OECD
wett on liîeracy anO numðrucy pt"q"i"i"1ty. in the
were also
They
attainment'
compared to those with lowe'r ievets of éducational
others'
trust
to
tend
*orô üüyi";p"rt thar they are in good health and they
more on average than
o |n 2016, higher education graduates earned abouT 20Vo
the Survey of Adult
from
data
to
Á"cording
those without higher
"¿uruiion.
less likelv than upper
also
are
35
ihan
youttger
skills,;Ë;;;;?;iion graduates
little learning is
where
tasks
routine
tíitn
graduates to *o.tìnláUt
secondary

involved.

rHowever,employmentpremiaforgraduates-appeartobesmallerthanthoserate

in Estonia, the employment
tX above that of individuals with
of nigtro lãrt"ii"t gruauut.t-in ZO'O *ut ¡ui
education. This could be
only upper secondary o, p*i-r..ondary non-tefiary
rates are
attriuuåïiothe cunent lábour market in Estonia, where emploYpenl
t'igtlingeneralandthereareshortagesofqualifiedstaffinsomeindustries.

observed in other OECD countries. Fãr example,

BENCHMARKING H]GHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

CHAPTER9. ESTONIA

balanced gender composition of academic staff across all age cohorts (excluding
e the
cohort older than 60, where the share of women is around 40% for both

couiries).

Balanced gender participation in the academic workforce does not guarantee
gender
equality in the profession. Vy'omen often remain underepresented at senior
levels of
academia and management in higher education (see chaptei4 (OECD,
2019r3r)).

Estonia spends a_large proportion of higher educatíon cuwent expendiÍure
otn
teaching staffrelative to the OECD median, but very little on noi-teachíng

staff

The distribution of current expenditure among cost items varies across higher
education
systems, shaped by how higher education activity is organised. In some
slstems, higher
edueation institutions offer more administrative ánelfogisieat zuppomoiheir
aõa¿-emic
staff than in others, and therefore employ more non-academic staff.

Overall, in 2015, staff expenditures accounted for 63% of the current expenditure
of
Estonian higher education institutions, in the bottom quartile of the OECD
disìribution.

Figure 9.5. Higher education current expenditureo by cost category (2015)
rTeâchlng slaff

¡ other current expend¡tures

cNon-teæhing staff

Estonia

F¡nland

Lithuania

Vo

0

'10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Source:OECD (2018p¡), OECDEducationStatistics,https://doi.ore/10.1787ledu-data-en.

Srarl-rnk .*,Ëp htrps ://doi.ore/ I 0. I 7 87/g g g93 3 942070
The distribution of staff expenditures between teaching and other
staff is atypical among
OECD countries. Teaching staff expenditures account ior 56% of current
*pår¿it-*, irrã
highest share in the OECD area'after Austria and Greece, while expenditure
on nont-eryhing staff represents just 7o/o of current expenditure, tíre lowest proportion
among
OECD countries except Austria.

There are fewer academic staffper student than in most other )ECD
Contact time spent by academic staff with students can be valuable

countries

to enhance student

leaming. Academic staff can teach or support students through lectures,
tutorials and
practical sessions, as well as by providing individual advice anifeedback.
In the absence
ofother data on the quality ofteaching ind learning in higher education, staff-to-student
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
O OECD 2OI 9

Ins

472 I CHAPTER 9. ESTONIA

conditions of teaching staff' security
are also importãnt, .both for teachers and students'

While salary is an important aspect of the working

and continuity of .ñI"ñ;il
or professional IIEIs should
According to existing".gu'l-*iont, university councils
on a permanent
prepare an open ,o*p.iiìi*-pro.ér.. to seleót^candidates 1" ..l.^.ht*d
through the
filled
be
cannot
position
Non-permanent'contracå may be used if a
basis.
open comPetition Process.

Notwithstandingtheseregulations,arelativelylowshare.ofteachingstaff.aree}n|ovgd
in
45o/í of academic staff with teaching duties
based on permanent rá"it""tt. ln 2016,
the
rhis is lower than in the Flemish Community'
Estonia nuA u p..runãnt
"""t.""t.
Netherlands and Norway (Figure 9'4)'
Figureg.4.Shareofteachingstaffwithpermanentcontracts,byage(2016)
Academic staff with teaching duties,

"äii:iå1sä:îî:;ïtij:#,:'nare
r45-59

s3544

134 and younger

Yo

with permanent contracts across

¡60 and older

'100

90
80
70

60
50
40
30
20
10

0

Estonia (45)

Flemish CommunitY (52)

Netherlands (74)

Norway (70)

Source:AdaptedfiomOECD(2019pù,BenchmarkingHigherEducationsyslemPerþrmance'
https://doi.ordl 0.1 781lbe55 1 4d7'en'

statl-ink *ìÉ'Er hups ://doi'ordl 0' I 7 87/88 893 394205 I
Estonia, the share of teaching staff with
with áge; older Estonian academic staff
permanent contracts d;";;; íary substantially
yorngãt ttaff' Estonia plans to establish
likely to be on non-pennanent contracts á.

Notably, in contrast to other jurisdictions,.in
are as

higtrerlducation legislation' which may
a system of tenure fo. academic staff in new
i"n terms of age and permanence of
result in an improv"à academic staff profile
employment.

Women lepresent around 50oÁ of academic

staff in Estonia

is neæly 507o, placing Estonia in the top
The share of women among academic staff
and iti Baltic neighbours Latvia
quartile of the OECDîi'r-trit"ri*, along with Finland
the share of women is 5l%
for all age $oups;
-Uraiket
and Lithuania. This g"ná!. uurun"ó not¿i
of 35-44 years-old' and it is
in ttre a-ge
among both staff yortö.. itt- ¡ 5 and staff
only countries with such a
the
New zeaiand are
52o/o among45-59

y.;i;l;;ili;

""d

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019