National Institute for Public Health
and the Environment
Ministry ofHealth, Welfare and Sport

Potential measures against
microplastic emissions to
water
RIVM Report 20 17-0193
A.J. Verschoor I E. de Valk

National Institute for Public Health
and the Environment
Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport

Potential measures against
microplastic emissions to water

RIVM Report 2017-0193

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Colophon

© RIVM 2018
Parts of this publication may be reproduced, provided acknowledgement
is given to: National Institute for Public Health and the Environment,
along with the title and year of publication.
DOl 10.21945/RIVM-2017-0193

A.J. Verschoor (author), RIVM
E. de Valk (author), RIVM

Contact:
Anja Verschoor
Centre for Safety of Substances and Products
anja.verschoor©rivm.nl

This investigation has been performed by order and for the account of
Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management, within the framework
of the Circular economy project M/250051.

This is a publication of:

National Institute for Public Health
and the Environment
P.O. Box 1 I 3720 BA Bilthoven
The Netherlands
www.rivm.nI/en
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Synopsis

Potential measures against microplastic emissions to water
Microplastics are plastic particles that are smaller than 5 millimetres;
through the use of plastic or rubber products these microplastics can
end up in the environment (surface water, soil, and air). The uncertainty
about the effect of microplastics for humans and ecosystems is still
large. Therefore, precautionary measures are considered to reduce the
emission of microplastics. RIVM has taken stock of the advantages and
disadvantages of potential measures. This study focusses on three
sources: abrasion of tyres (the biggest source) and paint, and
microplastics added to abrasive cleaning agents (a minor source).
It is difficult to devise effective and feasible measures that significantly
reduce such emissions. This is because abrasion cannot be completely
prevented. A car tyre must have a short braking distance, and this is not
possible without abrasion of the tyres. This example also illustrates how
producers are confronted with many and often contradictory
requirements in the area of effectiveness, safety, and environmental
impact. In addition, influencing consumer behaviour is possible only to a
limited degree. For example, abrasion of car tyres can be reduced by
ensuring that the tyre pressure is maintained at the appropriate level.
However, many drivers do not ensure that this is the case.
Preventive measures in particular would seem to be effective in reducing
the emission of tyre wear particles. Such measures could include
introduction of information provided to consumers about the
susceptibility to abrasion of different types of tyres. Measures aimed at
optimising tyre pressure, such as tyre pressure monitoring systems, can
also significantly reduce emissions. Whether or not these measures are
cost-effective will depend on how they are implemented. For example,
they can be supported by legal regulations, encouraged via financial
rewards, or brought to the attention of the public via an information
campaign.
Keywords: microplastic, tyre abrasion, paint, abrasive cleaning agents,
reduction potential, measures, feasibility, multicriteria.

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RJVM Report 2017-0193

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Publiekssa menvatting

Potentiële maatregelen tegen mkroplastic emissies naar water

Microplastics zijn plastic deeltjes die kleiner zijn dan 5 millimeter; deze
kunnen door het gebruik van producten van plastic of rubber in het
milieu terechtkomen (oppervlaktewater, bodem en lucht). Er zijn nog
veel onzekerheden over de effecten van microplastics voor mens en
milieu. Daarom worden ult voorzorg maatregelen ontwikkeld die de
uitstoot van microplastics kunnen verminderen. Het RIVM heeft de voor
en nadelen van mogelijke maatregelen op een ru gezet. Deze studie
richt zich op bandenslijtage (een grote bron), verfdeeltjes en
microplastics in schurende reinigingsmiddelen (een klelne bron).
Het is moeilijk om effectieve en haalbare maatregelen te bedenken die
de uitstoot aanzienlijk verminderen. Dit komt onder andere omdat
slijtage niet volledig te voorkomen is. Een autoband moet een korte
remweg hebben, wat niet kan zonder dat de banden slijten. Dit
voorbeeld illustreert ook hoe producenten worden geconfronteerd met,
soms tegenstrijdige, eisen op het gebied van werkzaamheid, milieu en
veiligheid. Verder is gedragsverandering bij consumenten maar in
beperkte mate te beTnvloeden. Zo slijten autobanden minder als de
bandenspanning goed is.
Vooral preventieve maatregelen lijken effectief om de uitstoot van
slijtagedeeltjes te verminderen. Een voorbeeld is om de
informatievoorziening over de slijtagegevoeligheid van verschillende
soorten banden te verbeteren. Ook maatregelen die de bandenspanning
optimaliseren, zoals controlesystemen, kunnen de uitstoot sterk
verminderen. Of deze maatregelen kosteneffectief zijn, zal afhangen van
de manier waarop deze worden geImplementeerd. Ze kunnen
bijvoorbeeld worden ondersteund door een wettelijke regeling,
gestimuleerd worden door een financiële prikkel of onder de aandacht
gebracht worden door een voorlichtingscampagne.
Kernwoorden: microplastic, bandenslujtage, verf, schurende
reinigingsmiddelen, reductiepotentieel, maatregelen, haalbaarheid,
multicriteria.

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Contents

Summary

9

—

1
1.1
1.2

Introduction
11
Background
11
12
Goal

2

Emissions and environmental impact in the absence of
measures
15
Tyre wear particles
16

—

—

—

—

2.1
2.2
2.3

—

Paint particles
17
Abrasive cleaning agents
—

3

Potential measures

4

Assessment framework
Assessment criteria
21

4.1
4.2
4.3

—

18

—

19
21

—

—

Scoring and rating method
22
Uncertainties in the effectiveness of measures
—

5

Results and discussion

6

References

—

—

—

23

25

29

Appendix 1 Organisations consulted

—

31

Appendix 2 Potential measures against emissions from tyre
abrasion
32
—

Calculation method for reduction potential
32
Ti Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion
38
T2 Tyre label
38
T3 Reducing abrasion factor of road surface
39
T4 Sustainability tool for road surface
40
T5 Street cleaning campaigns in the urban areas
T6 Summer and winter tyres
43
T7 Tyre pressure
44
T8 Wheel alignment
46
T9 Maximum speed limit
49
TiO Kilometre tax
49
—

-

—

-

—

-

—

-

—

-

-

—

41

—

-

—

-

—

-

—

-

—

Appendix 3 Potential measures against emissions of paint
particles
51
P1 Subsidies for research into degradation of paint
52
—

-

P2
P3
P4
P5
P6

-

-

-

-

-

—

Legally required guarantee period for paintwork
52
Raising public awareness with regard to rinsing of brushes
53
Regulations for replacing older sanding machines
53
Covenant on residual emissions at shipyards
54
Reduction of paint emissions from recreational vessels
54
—

—

—

—

—

Appendix 4 Measure in relation to abrasive cleaning agents

European ban on products with microplastics

—

56
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—

56

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Appendix 5 MCA scoring method

—

57

Appendix 6 MCA scores for ‘environment & safety’ and
‘feasibility’
59
—

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Summary

At the request of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management,
RIVM has prioritised potential measures for the reduction of microplastic
emissions into water on the basis of a transparent assessment method.
The Ministry aims to have detailed cost-effectiveness analyses (CEA)
carried out for some of these measures. This report is intended to
facilitate the selection of measures that will be subjected to such a CEA.
The measures involve the following emission sources: tyre and paint
abrasion, and microbeads in abrasive cleaning agents. On the basis of a
earlier ‘quick scan’ by RIVM , these sources were selected by the
Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management after a discussion in
Parliament(Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Milieu 2016).
Abrasion of tyres and paint contribute significantly to the emission of
microplastic particles into the soil, water, and air. Within the OSPAR
framework, it was estimated that, after plastic litter, tyre abrasion is one
of the biggest sources of microplastic emissions to water, followed by
paint abrasion. Abrasive cleaning agents contribute much less (<O.l%).
Eased on the precautionary principle and the ambition to realise a
circular economy, organisations in Europe are involved in formulating
measures to reduce the emission of microplastics. This ambition is also
shared by the Netherlands.
RIVM has described 17 measures, 10 of which are intended to reduce
tyre abrasion, 6 to reduce the dispersion of paint particles, and 1 to
reduce microbeads in abrasive cleaning agents.
In this report, the reduction potential of the various measures is
estimated, in other words the potential reduction in the quantity of
microplastics released in tonnes per year. To do so, it was necessary to
make assumptions about the effectiveness of various measures, because
limited information was available. As a consequence, the estimated
reduction potential is associated with a significant level of uncertainty,
which can only be reduced via specific measurements. The estimated
reduction potentials should therefore be interpreted as indicative values,
that point out and rank opportunities for the reduction of microplastic
emissions.
Measures aimed at reducing microplastic emissions caused by abrasion
of tyres and paint are not simple. Most measures to prevent the
formation of microplastic particles are difficult to realise, although not
impossible, for several reasons. Firstly, the formation of such particles is
inherent to the use of the products in question. Secondly, producers of
such products are already having to deal with a large number of, often
contradictory, requirements with regard to effectiveness and
environmental and safety issues. Finally, consumer behaviour can be
influenced only to a limited degree. Measures targeting tyre abrasion
show the highest reduction potential. Preventive measures in particular
are effective when it comes to reducing the emissions of abrasion
particles, for example setting requirements with which tyres must
comply in terms of susceptibility to abrasion, as well as providing
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

product information in that regard. Measures aimed at the optimisation
of tyre pressure can also make a potentially significant contribution to
emission reduction. Whether or not such measures are also costeffective will depend upon how such measures are implemented, for
example supported by legal regulations, with encouragement from
financial incentives, or by focusing public attention on the topic at hand
via an information campaign. Measures aimed at reducing the dispersion
of paint particles have received less attention, although various
approaches were raised that need further discussion and development in
collaboration with stakeholders. A legal ban of microbeads in abrasive
cleaning agents can only be taken within a European framework, but
such measures contribute relatively little to reducing the overall
emission of microplastics into water, because it is only a small source.
During workshops held with stakeholders, policymakers, and NGOs, it
became clear that, in addition to the reduction potential, other issues
such as practical feasibility and favourable or unfavourable side-effects
for the environment and safety must also be taken into account. For
example, what effects will the measures have on the reduction of energy
consumption and the emission of greenhouse gases or on other aspects
such as air quality, safety issues, and noise pollution? This information
was added in a qualitative way (in the form of associated scores) in
order to facilitate policy discussions related to the advantages and
disadvantages of potential measures.

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RIVM Report 20 17-0193

1

I ntrod u cti on

1.1

Background

Plastic and microplastic (plastic particles smaller than 5 mm) (Verschoor
2015) in the environment are receiving a great deal of public attention.
Campaigns such as ‘Beat the microbead’, which targets microplastic in
cosmetic products, and ‘The ocean cleanup’ project by Boyan Slat have
focused the attention of broad sections of the public on the issue. If
present production and consumption trends continue, the quantity of
plastic in the environment will continue to increase. The amount of
plastic that ends up in the sea each year all over the world is estimated
at between 4.8 and 12.7 million tonnes (Jambeck et al. 2015). There are
presently both national and international ambitions and agreements that
aim to reduce the emission of plastic and microplastic into the
environment (EC 2013, EC 2015, EC 2017).
Estimated microplastic emissions
10

100

ttonnes/year]
1,000

10,000

100,000

Land-based litter fragmentation
Tyre wear
Paint particles
Preproduction pellets
Cosmetic microbeads
Laundry fibres
Rubber infill and artificial turf fibres
Abrasive cleaning agents

Figure 1 Estimated emissions of microplastics in Netherlands in tonnes/year.
Derived from (OSPAR 2017). The columns show the uncertainty margins, and
the white dot shows the average value.

Within the OSPAR framework, an inventory was made of a number of
important sources of microplastics in the North-East Atlantic Ocean and
the North Sea (OSPAR 2017). The conclusion was that, after plastic
litter, tyre abrasion is one of the biggest sources of microplastic
emissions to water, followed by paint abrasion. Abrasive cleaning agents
are only a minor source (<0.1%). Microplastics are difficult to measure
in the environment and are often difficult to trace back to the original
sources. Therefore, the emissions are calculated based on production
and product consumption data in combination with dispersion models.
The estimates have a significant margin for error as a result of
uncertainties and variations in product quality, consumer behaviour,
geography, weather, infrastructure, and hydrology et cetera.
Nevertheless, the emission estimates provide an overall view of the
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

relative contributions from the various sources of microplastic emissions
that can be used for prioritising sources and measures.
The presence of tyre particles in the environment is confirmed by
measurements, but the number of studies focusing on their presence in
the marine environment is limited (Wik et aT. 2009, Norén 2011). Paint
particles have been measured in freshwater as well as marine
environments (Norén 2011, Takahashi et al. 2012, Song et al. 2015,
Imhof et aT. 2016). Microbeads that could have originated from abrasive
cleaning agents have not been found in the marine environment.
The effect of plastic particles on organisms and humans is not clear, and
assessment of the environmental and human health risks is a complex
matter (Koelmans et al. 2017). Until now, effects have not been
demonstrated for realistic concentrations in the environment. It is not
known what effect the presence of increasing amounts of microplastics
will have on humans and the environment in the long term. Based on
the precautionary principle and the ambition to realise a circular
economy, organisations in Europe are involved in formulating measures
to reduce the emission of microplastics. This ambition is also shared by
the Netherlands.
1.2

Goal

The goal of the report at hand is to select a number of measures for
which, in a follow-up project, a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) has
been carried out. The measures should lead to a reduction of
microplastic emissions to water originating from tyres, paint, and
abrasive cleaning agents. The report at hand was preceded by a process
involving research and policy-making decisions as visualised in Figure 2.

Page 12 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

RIVM report 2014-0110:
Quick scan and prioritization of microplastic sources and
emissions

(

/

/

Step 1

Ministry of Infrastructure and
Waterrnanagement:
Selection of 3 sources: tyres, paint and
abrasive cleaning agents.

RIVM report 2016-0026:
Emission of microplastics and potential mitigation
measures. Abrasive cleaning agents, paints and tire
wear
RIVM report 2017-0139:
Potential measures against microplastic

/

/

/

/

Step 2

Step 3

emissions to water

(

Ministry of Infrastructure and
Watermanagement:
Selection of measures forcost-effectiveness
analyses

\

Arcadis 2018: Costeffectiveness of
selected measures

/

Step 4

N

(overnment:
\lplementation yes/,)

Figure 2 Process of research and policy-making leading to the selection of
emission-reducing measures for microplastics. This report deals with step 3 in
the above process

Step 1: Tyre wear particles (TWP), paint particles, and abrasive cleaning
agents were selected after an analysis and prioritisation of microplastic
emissions (Verschoor et al. 2014). The prioritisation was based, among
other factors, on the extent of the microplastic emissions, the ability to
influence consumer actions, the perception of risk, and the possibility of
reducing emissions via relevant measures. Other sources that were
assigned a high priority included waste materials and litter, clothing
fibres, cosmetics, and microplastic pellets. These sources were not
included in the present study, as they are already receiving attention
from governments, researchers, stakeholders, and NGOs, for example in
projects targeting litter at beaches (Green deal Schone Stranden), and
in rivers (Aanpak Schone Maas), shipping waste (Green deal
Scheepsafvalketen), fishing nets (project Vis Pluis Vrij), laundry fibers
(Mermaids-project), ballons (www.dieballongaatnietop.nI) and
microbeads in cosmetics (Beat the microbead Campaign).
Step 2: In 2016, RIVM carried out an in-depth study into the three
selected sources of microplastics, namely tyres, paint, and abrasive
cleaning agents (Verschoor et al. 2016). The goal of the study was to
quantify the emissions and migration routes from these sources in the
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Netherlands and to determine how these emissions can be reduced.
The result was a long-list of approximately 40 possible
solutions/approaches.
The above-mentioned RIVM report (Verschoor et al. 2016) served as the
basis for further development of the proposed measures; a process in
which representatives from the national government, civil society
organisations, and sectoral organisations were consulted (see appendix
1). Within this context, the criteria were also discussed that should be
considered of importance in comparing various measures. The
involvement of stakeholders does not by definition mean that they
completely support the content of this memorandum. After participating
in consultations, RIVM made its own independent choice with regard to
the assessment method used for the various measures.
This RIVM advisory report for the Ministry of Infrastructure and Water
Management prioritises potential measures on the basis of their
reduction potential. In addition to cost-effectiveness, policy choices
made for the implementation of specific measures aimed at reducing
microplastic emissions also depend on other factors. These include
synergy with other environmental goals, the need for international
collaboration, the length of time required to achieve results, and
enforceability. This report also presents scores for these aspects, which
can be taken into account by the Ministry in arriving at a decision.
Step 4: The cost-effectiveness of selected measures is a follow-up study
by Arcadis; the results have been described in a separate report
(Arcadis/SEO 2018).

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

2

Emissions and environmental impact in the absence of
measures

The RIVM report on the emissions of microplastics from tyres, paint, and

abrasive cleaning agents estimated that tyre abrasion is the largest of
these three sources of emissions [13]. Most of these emissions end up in
the soil, whereas a small part is emitted directly to the surface water.
Part of the microplastic emissions that end up in the sewer system will
eventually also end up in surface water. Based on the information
available about the treatment yield of sewage treatment plants, overflow
frequencies, and dry matter concentrations in sewage water and drains,
we estimate that between 16% and 34°h of the dry matter emissions
discharged to the sewer system eventually end up in surface waters.1 In
Figure 3 we show the quantities that are discharged to the sewer system
separately, as reducing the pollution load on the sewer system can be a
criterion for assessing various measures.
Emission estimates are associated with uncertainties. The complex
reality is simplified and represented by a mathematical model that
estimates the formation and dispersion of particles. This model is based
in part on measured input parameters and in part on assumptions.
Existing mathematical models were used to estimate emissions insofar
as possible, such as those developed by the National Pollutant Release
and Transfer Register and the OECD Emission Scenario Documents.
More information about the emission estimates can be found in the 2016
RIVM report [13]. The sections below briefly deal with the three
separate sources.
Origin and distribution or micropiastics

to environmental compartment
— Soil
— Waler direct

Abrasrue cleaning agents

C

SCwCrOQC

Shipping paints

out/ding paints

Urban tlatl,c

Rural tragic

[ligeway lraflic

1000

0

2000

3000

4000

6000

Enrissi on trait/year)

Figure 3 Origin and dispersion of microplastic emissions from tyres, paint, and
abrasive cleaning agents (based on Verschoor eta!. (2016)).

160% of rainwater discharge in urban areas flows into the sewer system, 72% of which is diverted to sewage
treatment plants, 8°h to drains, and 2O% to overflows. Treatment yield = 5O/ to 90%. Emission to surface
water via sewer system = 72% x (1 treatment yield) + 2O% (see [8, Verschoor et al, 2016])
-

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RIVM Report 20 17-0193

2.1

Tyre wear particles

The estimated total emission from tyre wear particles is 17,000 tonnes
(Verschoor et al. 2016), of which approximately 10,000 tonnes ends up
in the environment and 7000 tonnes ends up in porous asphalt (ZOAB).
During the process of abrasion, part of the rubber becomes stuck to
road surface particles. These heavy, combined abrasion particles, also
referred to as Tyre and Roadwear Particles (TRWP), will therefore be
deposited on the roadside surface or become incorporated into the
porous asphalt. Another fraction of the particles produced consists of
rather small free particles that can migrate into the environment via
water. The origin of the particles and their dispersion in the environment
is shown in Figure 4 and in Table 4 in Appendix 2. The graph shown on
the left in Figure 4 makes it clear that most of the emissions originate
from passenger cars (circa 60%). In addition, the largest quantity of
tyre wear particles (circa 50%) is generated on motorways. This is
because most kilometres are driven on motorways. However, a large
part of the tyre wear particles generated on motorways are incorporated
into porous asphalt. These particles are not free to migrate into the
environment. Accordingly, the emission of particles into the environment
from motorways is less than from country roads or from roads in urban
areas (see graph on the right). The graph on the right in Figure 4 also
makes it clear that most particles end up on or in the soil. In urban
areas, a large part (circa 60Db) ends up in the sewer system.
Generation ot tyre wear
8000

by vehicle type
• Moped
• Special vehicle-light
• Bus
• Motorcycle
I Special vehicle-heavy
• Lorry
0 Vao
I Truck
• Passenger car

—

6000 -1

Distribution ortyre wear
to environmental compartment

8000

• Soil

• Water direct
o Sewerage
0 ,°Jr

6000

Co

4000 —1

4000

2000

2000

—

0—

0
highways

rural

urban

highways

rural

urban

Ongin

Figure 4 Formation and dispersion of tyre wear particles in the environment.2
2

The emissions resulting from tyre abrasion and their dispersion into different environmental compartments
was calculated in accordance with the method used by the National Emission Registration. This method is based
on an emission factor that depends upon the vehicle and type of road in question and on the distances driven
(traffic statistics) for 9 different types of vehicles on 3 different road types. The dispersion of the emissions into
the environment is based on dispersion coefficients such as those used in the National Pollutant Release and
Transfer Register (PRTR). The dispersion coefficients of the PRTR are based in part on research, such as studies
into the performance of sewage systems, and in part on expert judgement and model calculations.

Page 16 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

In urban areas, between 16°h and 34% of the emissions end up in
surface water via the sewer system (see footnote on page 15). This
amounts to between 600 and 1300 tonnes per year. The dispersion of
tyre wear particles into the environment is based on generic dispersion
coefficients. In reality, the dispersion into different environmental
compartments will be subject to significant variation, depending upon
local circumstances such as the nearby presence of ditches, slopes, soil
type and presence of vegetation, and the amount and intensity of
rainfall. In spite of local or temporal deviations in the dispersion
coefficients, this is the best estimate available of the dispersion into
water, air, and soil on average at the national level in the long term.
The dispersion of tyre wear particles also means that chemical
compounds such as metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAC5),
benzothiazoles, and aromatic amines end up in the environment. In
2007, for example, it was calculated that 40% of the zinc emissions into
the soil and 27% of the sink emissions into water have their origin in
traffic, in particular due to tyre abrasion (Mennen et al. 2010). Measures
that reduce tyre abrasion provide an additional benefit by also reducing
the emission of these compounds.
2.2

Paint particles

The total emission of microplastic paint particles is estimated at
approximately 790 tonnes per year. Although the necessary measures
have been taken at shipyards and marinas to reduce emissions, the
remaining emission of such microplastic particles into water is estimated
at 90 and 20 tonnes, respectively, per year. Depending upon the wind
direction, approximately the same quantity ends up on the soil. In the
building sector, the emissions end up primarily in the soil and the sewer
system. Direct emissions into surface water are relatively minor. As is
the case for tyre particles, between 16% and 34% of these emissions
into the sewer system are estimated to end up in surface water (see
footnote on page 15). The total emission into surface water resulting
from paint used in the building sector is estimated at 10 to 30 tonnes
per year in the do-it-yourself sector and 30 to 60 tonnes per year in the
professional sector.
0
0

I
C
0
C
0
U)
U)

E
a)
-o
a)
(U

E
U)

LU

to environmental compartmei
• Soil
• Waterdiiect
C Sewerage

o

0-

cS.)
0
0
(N

0
0

I

Building (DIY)

Building (prof)

Marinas

Shipyards

Figure 5 Origin and dispersion of microplastic emissions from paint.

Page 17 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

2.3

Abrasive cleaning agents

The quantity of microplastics present in abrasive cleaning agents in the
Netherlands is minor. The Dutch Association of Soap Manufacturers
states that its members, who supply approximately 90% of the Dutch
market, do not use any microplastics in their products. It’s possible that
microplastics are present in products that are supplied along with other
products, for example with new kitchens, or products that can be
ordered via web shops. The emissions via these channels is estimated at
between 2 and 3 tonnes per year (also see (Verschoor et al. 2016)).
These emissions are discharged almost entirely into the sewer system.

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

3

Potential measures

The long-list of solutions/approaches contained in the RIVM
report ‘Emission of microplastic and potential mitigation measures’
(Verschoor et al. 2016) has been refined and aggregated to provide a
list of 17 potential reduction measures. Only measures in which the
government can play a role have been included. Measures that are
already being utilised by branch-specific otganisations or in which
normal market forces can lead to emission reductions have not been
included in this report.
Potential measures against emissions and dispersion of tyre
abrasion (see Appendix 2):
Ti. Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion
T2. Tyre label with tyre abrasion indicator
T3. Reducing abrasion factor of road surface
T4. Sustainability tool for road surfaces
T5. Street cleaning campaigns in urban areas
T6. Prohibiting the use of winter tyres in summer
T7. Tyre Pressure Monitoring System in cars
T8. Including wheel alignment in periodic vehicle inspections
T9. Reducing maximum speed limits
Tb. Kilometre price
Potential measures against emissions and dispersion of paint
particles (see Appendix 3):
P1. Raising public awareness with regard to rinsing of brushes
P2. Regulations for replacing older sanding machines
P3. Covenant on residual emissions at shipyards
P4. Subsidies for research into degradation of paint
P5. Legally required guarantee period for paintwork
P6. Reduction of residual emissions at marinas and storage
facilities
Potential measure targeting microplastic in abrasive cleaning
agents (see Appendix 4):
ACA European legislation prohibiting the use of microplastic in abrasive
cleaning agents.
The measures are described in greater detail in Appendices 2, 3, and 4.
There are 10 measures targeting tyre wear particles. These focus on the
properties of the tyre, the road surface, the vehicle, the pressure of the
tyre, wheel alignment, the use of summer tyres and winter tyres, driving
behaviour, and vehicle characteristics. For paint, 6 measures have been
worked out in more detail. These focus on paint innovation, durability of
paintwork, the cleaning of brushes and rollers, equipment, and
shipyards. One measure has been formulated in relation to abrasive
cleaning agents, namely prohibiting their use in Europe.
A general point of departure in formulating environmental policy is the
principle of proportionality. At the European level, the tendency is to
implement additional regulations at the product level and to increase the
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

responsibility of the producer. The concept of Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) is set down in the European Waste Framework
directive. Examples of EPR in the Netherlands include the requirement to
pick up and recover plastic bottles and collection systems for products
(waste disposal fee and disposal/collection facilities). The use of EPR as
a measure in itself is not specifically described in this report, but some
of the measures described in this report are of a technical nature and
can serve as input for EPR.
In general, when formulating environmental policy, preference is given
to preventive measures, i.e. source-based measures. If source-based
measures are difficult to implement, then a measure implemented at the
sewage treatment facility could be a cost-effective method to reduce
some of the microplastic emissions into water. To avoid charging the
public for these costs via taxation, a method would have to be found to
charge the polluter for the extra costs.
During a stakeholders meeting on 13 September 2017 organised at the
request of the European Commission, it became apparent that various
numbers are in circulation regarding the percentage of microplastics
removed from wastewater by wastewater treatment facilities in the EU
(treatment yield). Eunomia Consultants carried out a literature study
into treatment efficiency for microplastics and concluded that the
removal rates vary between 53% and 84%. The sector itself (Eureau)
claims that the yields vary between 80% and 99%. This includes
unpublished data. The sector is making an effort to publish its own
results.
In addition to the treatment technologies presently in use, there are also
technologies available that are effective in removing microplastics in the
nano-range. Eureau, the representative of the European companies
active in the water and wastewater sector, refers to the following
technologies in this regard: disc filtration, sand filtration, membrane
microfiltration, and membrane bioreactors. These technologies are
rarely used in Europe for the treatment of wastewater. The cost of
setting up and using these methods is estimated at between €0.08 and
€0.20 per cubic metre of water. An estimated 38 billion m3 of water is
treated each year in Europe.
The conclusion of the workshop was that the first priority is to ensure
that the European guideline on the treatment of urban wastewater
(91/271/EEG) is fully implemented. After that, the infrastructure can be
improved (i.e. upgrading sewer systems and wastewater treatment
facilities to include secondary treatment). Finally, additional measures
could be implemented at the wastewater treatment facilities. In view of
the fact that secondary wastewater treatment is utilised throughout the
Netherlands and the preference for implementing measures closer to the
source, this report will not deal any further with the improvement of
supplemental treatment technologies.

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4

Assessment framework

4.1

Assessment criteria

At the request of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management,
RIVM held discussions with stakeholders (Appendix 1) for the purpose of
working out the measures from a previous RIVM report [4] in more
detail and for making a list of the criteria considered important when it
comes to comparing and setting priorities for potential measures. During
these discussions, a great many aspects were mentioned that can be
divided into four groups. These groups are explained further below.
Reduction potential: The reduction potential is an indication of

•

•

•

how much of a reduction of microplastic emissions (tonnes/year)
can be achieved via a measure. The reduction potential depends
on the technical nature of the measure and the target group at
which the measure is aimed (for example a specific vehicle type,
consumers, or the industry). As it turns out, the effectiveness of
measures is difficult to describe in generic terms (Bemelmans
Videc et al. 2003). The degree to which the reduction potential is
actually realised depends on a great many factors, including
support level, price elasticity, and the manner and intensity of
enforcement.
Environment & safety: Are there any side effects associated
with the measure? Can the measure have a synergetic effect on
other policy goals or does it actually conflict with them? Attention
points include energy savings and reduction of CO2 emissions,
reduction of other priotitised substances, contribution of the
measure to circularity, and its influence on safety and/or health
aspects for human beings, including the inhalation of particulate
matter, noise pollution, and road safety.
Practical feasibility: The following aspects play a role in this
respect: 1) The playing field: Can the Netherlands introduce the
measure autonomously at the national level or is a collective
European approach needed? 2) The timeframe: How long will it
take to implement the measure? 3) Compliance: The need and
possibilities for enforcement. The criteria are explained further in
Appendix 5. The technical feasibility is not included as a criterion
but is viewed as a precondition. All the measures mentioned are
considered to be technically feasible. The economic feasibility is
dealt with under the aspect of cost effectiveness. The level of
support is not taken into account here, as this can be influenced
to a high degree. The goal of providing information to the public is
to raise the level of awareness and support.
Cost-effectiveness: This is an aspect that determines the
economic feasibility of a measure. The cost effectiveness of a
selection of potential measures chosen by the Ministry of
Infrastructure and the Environment will be estimated in a follow
up study. The report at hand provides arguments on which this
selection can be based.

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

4.2

Scoring and rating method
We used the reduction potential as the primary criterion for prioritising
the measures. The aspects practical feasibility and side effects on
environment & safety are secondary in this memorandum. However,
these aspects are relevant for the final policy-based selection process,
as is the cost effectiveness of a measure.
Reduction potential
The reduction potential is expressed as the reduction of microplastic
emissions to water in tonnes per year. The reduction potential is based
on statistics and technical information on paints and tyres. The reduction
potential of the measures aimed at reducing tyre abrasion has been
estimated for 9 vehicle types and 3 areas. With regard to paint, we
differentiate between emissions from the maritime sector (marinas and
shipyards) and the building sector (professional and do-it-yourself
activities), as these are the sectors in which the most paint is used
(Verschoor et al. 2016). The calculation of the reduction potential is
explained per measure in Appendix 2 (tyre abrasion), Appendix 3 (paint
particles), and Appendix 4 (abrasive cleaning agents).
Side-effects on environment & safety and practical feasibility
In order to get an idea of the side-effects for environment & safety and
practical feasibility, it was decided to use a Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA)
(Huang et al. 2011). MCA is a research method that is used to make
rational choices between options when several goals or criteria, each
with a different character, are considered. In an MCA, these are
associated with a value judgement in order to ensure that qualitative as
well as quantitative aspects are added together to provide a total. One
of the strengths of this method is that each step and decision in the
evaluation process can be made transparent and explicit. This is
important as prioritisation of the measures on the basis of an MCA
requires one to make value judgements.
Appendix 5 indicates which options are available for scoring a measure
for each criterion. An initial scoring round has already taken place on the
basis of literature, talks with branch associations and policymakers, and
information available on the Internet. This was followed by a feedback
round, and the scores were adjusted if new information became
available.
Final assessment
The process of arriving at a list of ‘top 10’ measures consisted of two
steps:
1. Per emission source, the measure with the highest reduction
potential was chosen. This satisfies the wish of policymakers to
select at least one measure for each source.
2. Next, an additional 7 measures were chosen from the remaining
group on the basis of reduction potential.
A total score for the MCA was calculated in order to quickly obtain
insight into promising and less promising measures. A low MC total
score can then result in further discussions regarding the weak points
and the desirability of implementing such a measure. The total MCA
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

score is a maximum of 10, whereby environment & safety and practical
feasibility each contribute a maximum of 5 points.
4.3

Uncertainties in the effectiveness of measures

The uncertainty in the estimated reduction potential of the measures is
rather large in all cases. This can be the result of uncertainties regarding
the influence of the measure on the emission factor or of uncertainty
with regard to the fraction of the emission (derived from the consumers,
roads, vehicles, ships, buildings, and paint) targeted by the measure.
Behavioural effects in particular are very difficult to estimate. For
example, to what extent will people change their behaviour as a result
of financial incentives (penalties, kilometre tax) or as a result of being
better informed (information, TPMS). This will depend in part on the size
of the penalty or reward and the nature and intensity of the information
campaign.
A number of measures focus (in part) on enlarging the knowledge base
and raising the level of information and awareness. Various overview
studies clearly demonstrate the influence of information campaigns on
behaviour. The direct changes in behaviour range from a few percent to
over l5% (Snyder et al. 2004, Abroms et al. 2008, Anker et al. 2016). A
meta-analysis by Snyder et al. (2004) of health-related campaigns
shows that, on average, 8% of the target group exhibited the desired
change in behaviour as the result of a campaign. However, there are
large differences between different campaigns. The effectiveness of the
various campaigns investigated (primarily in the area of health)
correlates most strongly with the campaign topic. In addition, the
effectiveness depends upon the goal of the campaign. For compliance or
enforcement campaigns, effectiveness was an average of 17%; for nonenforcement campaigns, it was 5%, for prevention campaigns it was
3%, and 3% for campaigns focused on ending undesirable behaviour.
The average effectiveness of the Postbus 51 campaigns of the Dutch
government was 2% (Renes et al. 2011).
Behavioural aspects were taken into account in calculating the
uncertainty margins. This report therefore presents a best-case
scenario, whereby the focus is primarily on revealing the technical
potential of the measures and assuming that all consumers and/or
stakeholders comply with the measure. In addition, there is also a more
realistic scenario jn which, depending upon the type of measure, the
effectiveness is lower because consumers and/or stakeholders do not
implement the measure. The effectiveness of voluntary measures is less
than that of mandatory measures. Behavioural effects can be influenced
by external factors, depending upon the amount of time and money
invested in creating a support base. The ease with which the consumer
can actually comply with the measure also influences behaviour. When
relevant, other aspects that have a significant impact on the reduction
potential were also taken into account in the uncertainty margin.
In general, more information is available about tyre abrasion and the
effect of measures targeting such abrasion than about paint particles.
This is because a great deal of research has been carried out on the
influence of various types of vehicles and roads on abrasion. Over the
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

last decades, all kinds of measures have also been evaluated aimed at
improving road safety and reducing traffic congestion, fine particles, and
CO2 emissions. These measures also often have an effect on tyre
abrasion. In addition, the tyre industry and the VACO trade association
have made information and statistics available on tire pressure, summer
and winter tyres, and wheel alignment.
The topic of ‘microplastics’ is a fairly new one for the paint sector. There
is therefore less data available that can serve as a basis for estimating
the reduction potential in this area. It is therefore difficult to quantify
the influence of paint quality, substrate quality, and paint application
method on the emission of paint particles. In describing the measures,
the aim was to provide an initial global estimate of the emissions and
the effectiveness of relevant measures.
Uncertainties also apply to the assessment of environment & safety and
practical feasibility. However, these are largely taken into account by
using low-medium-high categories with scores of 1-2-3. There are
possibilities for quantifying the criteria instead of assigning scores.
However, this would require a significant research effort, which is not
considered necessary for these secondary assessment criteria at this
stage.

Page 24 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0 193

5

Results and discussion

In this report, the reduction potential of measures is estimated, in other
words the potential reduction in the quantity of microplastics released in
tonnes per year. To do so, it was necessary to make assumptions about
the effectiveness of various measures because limited information was
available. As a consequence, the estimated reduction potential is
associated with a significant level of uncertainty. The reduction potential
should be interpreted as an indication of where the biggest opportunities
lie for the reduction of microplastic emissions. In order to reduce the
uncertainties in the emission estimates and to check the effectiveness of
the measures, we recommend carrying out system-focused
measurements that contribute to a better understanding of dispersion
models for specific sources such as tyre and paint abrasion.
An overview of the estimated reduction potential of the measures and
the multi-criteria score of side effects for environment & safety and
practical feasibility is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Reduction potential and Multi Criteria (MC) score for the potential
measures to reduce microplastic emissions.

No

Description

Tyres
Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion
Tyre label with tyre abrasion indicator
TPMS (Tyre Pressure Monitoring Systems)
a. in all cars
b. in old cars
T8
Wheel alignment as part of periodic vehicle
inspections
Tb
Kilometre price
T4
Sustainability tool for road surface
T5
Street cleaning campaigns in the urban areas
T9
Reducing maximum speed limits
T6
Banning the use of winter tyres in summer
T3
Reducing abrasion factor of road surface
Paint particles
PS
Covenant on residual emissions at shipyards
P1
Subsidies for research into degradation of paint
P4
Replacing older sanding machines
P6
Reduction of residual emissions of marinas and
storage facilities
P3
Campaign aimed at raising public awareness with
regard to rinsing of brushes
P2
Legally required guarantee period for paintwork
Abrasive cleaning agents
ACA Banning products with microplastics
Ti
T2
T7

Reduction
potential water
(tonnes/y)

MC Score

200 (60-400)
200 (6-400)

5.9
5.3

100 (5-300)
70 (5-100)
50 C 1-90)

9.1
9.1
9.7

10 (7-20)

7.7

10
10
9
9
2

(<1-20)
(<1-20)
(7-10)
(<1-20)
(<1-4)

7.2
3.7
8.2
8.2
6.1

50
30
20
10

(9-90)
(1-60)
(2-30)
(2-20)

5.2
8.0
5.7
5.7

5 (<1-9)

6.0

4 (<1-8)

6.7

1

4.2

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RIVt1 Report 2017-0193

The measures are arranged per source going from the highest to the
lowest reduction potential in water.
A total score for the MCA was calculated in order to quickly obtain
insight into promising and less promising measures (see Appendix 6). In
order to be able to evaluate the reduction potential and the MC scores
for environment & safety and practical feasibility at the same time, they
have been plotted against each other in figure 6. Each point corresponds
to a measure.
promising and significant

CD

C)
0
0

ol7b

0 T8

-

0 17a

160T9
0110
o 14

CD-

U,

Cu

• P2
T3
0 p
P6. •P4
ACA

C)
0
IT

Ti 0
0 12

•P5

015

(N-

I

I

I

I

0

50

100

150

-

200

Reduction potential (tonneslyear)
Figure 6: The estimated reduction potential of each measure for emissions to
water (directly and via the sewer system) is plotted against the associated MC
score. Uncertainty margins and codes are presented in Table 1.

The measures presented in the upper right corner of Figure 6 have the
highest reduction potential and perform the best in the categories
environment & safety and practical feasibility. In contrast, the measures
shown in the lower left corner have the lowest reduction potential and
perform the worst in the categories environment & safety and practical
feasibility.
The measures with the highest reduction potential per product groups
are:
• Ti: Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion
• P5: Covenant on residual emissions at shipyards
• ACA: Banning products with microplastics
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

The measures with the highest reduction potential all target tyre
abrasion. Measures that target the susceptibility to abrasion of the tyre
(Ti and T2) and tyre pressure (T7a and b) have the highest reduction
potential.
As tyres contain other chemical substances besides rubber, reduced
abrasion also results in fewer emissions of chemical substances such as
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and phthalates. The
measures therefore also contribute to realising other water quality
goals, as a result of which their cost-effectiveness increases. The same
also applies to paint, which contains biocides, pigments, and solvents.
The measures with the highest reduction potential per source have a
relatively low MC score. However, this does not mean that these
measures are not feasible; with regard to certain aspects, they simply
score less well than do other measures. These are aspects that can play
a role in the political process. A low MC total score can then result in
further discussions regarding the weak points and the desirability of
implementing such a measure. The measures with the highest reduction
potential for the three different sources (tyres, paint, and abrasive
cleaning agents) are explained further below.
•

•

•

The reason for the relatively low MC scores of measures Ti and
T2, ‘Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion’ and ‘Introduction of
tyre abrasion indicator on the tyre label’, is that they require
international collaboration, which means that it will take quite
some time to implement them. In addition, enforcement would
be necessary but no consensus yet exists on how tyre abrasion
can best be measured. The cost-effectiveness analysis must
make it clear whether the reduction of microplastics achieved by
the measure justifies the efforts that are required to implement
the measure.
The relatively low MC score for measure P5, ‘Strengthening
compliance with environmental guidelines at shipyards and
marinas’, is due to the fact that it does not yield any benefits in
terms of energy and material consumption. In addition, it is not a
preventive measure. The production of paint particles remains
the same, but their dispersion is reduced. The measure scores
well in terms of safety, as it results in less exposure by humans
to particulate matter.
The measure ACA, ‘Ban on microbeäds in abrasive cleaning
agents’, does not have a high reduction potential in absolute
terms. The use of abrasive cleaning agents with plastic
microbeads is minimal in the Netherlands, and the reduction of
the emission to water is estimated at i tonne/year. The measure
also scores poorly in terms of practical feasibility, as it would
require international agreement and an enforcement system. This
measure was nevertheless selected, as it is in line with a source
based approach and because a CEA (Cost-Effectiveness Analysis)
can support the political decision-making process for
implementing or not implementing this measure.

In order to make a good comparison of the cost-effectiveness of
different measures, we recommend selecting several measures per
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

source with as high a reduction potential as possible and as high a
multi-criteria score as possible. This is not possible for abrasive cleaning
agents, as only one measure is described for this source. The cost
effectiveness of this measure can be compared only to the cost
effectiveness of measures that target other sources.

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

6

References

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Arcadis/SEO (2018). Verkenning economische effecten maatregelen
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Bemelmans-Videc, M.-L., et al. (2003). “Carrots, sticks and sermons.
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Bruinsma, F., et al. (2002). Mobiliteit en beleid, Koninklijke van Gorcum.
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Lieftink, E. and H. de Man (2017). EmissieRegistratie Afvalwaterketen.
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Programma Beter Benutten / Intelligente transportsystemen, 41
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-

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Appendix 1 Organisations consulted

•

•
•
•
•
•
a

a
a
a

a

•
a
a
a
a
a
a
a

Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management
o Directorate for Sustainability, Environment, and
International policy
o Directorate for Climate, Air, and Noise
o Directorate for Safety and Risks
o Directorate for Water and Soil
o Directorate for Roads and Traffic safety
o Human Environment and Transport Inspectorate
Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management
[Rij kswaterstaat]
o Water Traffic and Environment
o Directorate for Sea and Delta
o Department for Large Projects and Maintenance
RecyBEM/NVR (Dutch Association of Rubber Manufacturers)
Industry organisation for the tyre and wheel sector (VACO)
Apollo Vredestein
BOVAG
ANWB
Nederlandse Rubber en Kunststofindustrie (NRK) (Dutch Rubber
and Plastics Industry)
Plastic Europe
Plastic Soup Foundation
Nederlandse Vereniging van Zeepfabrikanten (NVZ) (Dutch
Association of Soap Manufacturers)
Vereniging Verf- en Drukinktfabrikanten (VVVF) (Association of
Paint and Printing Ink Manufacturers)
OnderhoudNL (Maintenance NL)
Netherlands Maritime Technology (NMT)
Unie van Waterschappen (UVW) (Association of Water Boards)
STOWA (Foundation for Applied Water Research)
Deltares
TNO
Royal Haskoning/DHV
Arcadis

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Appendix 2 Potential measures against emissions from tyre
abrasion

Calculation method for reduction potential
This appendix describes potential measures that aim to reduce the
emission or dispersion of tyre wear particles, namely:
Ti.
Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion
T2.
Tyre label with tyre abrasion indicator
T3.
Reducing abrasion factor of road surface
T4.
Sustainability tool for road surfaces
T5.
Street cleaning campaigns in urban areas
T6.
Prohibiting the use of winter tyres in summer
T7.
a. TPMS in all cars
b. TPMS in old cars
T8.
Including wheel alignment in periodic vehicle inspections
T9.
Reducing maximum speed limits
Tb.
Kilometre price
The reduction potential is calculated as the difference between the
emission if no measures are taken (see Table 2) and the emission after
implementation of the measure (see formula 1). The emission of tyre
wear particles is determined by the mileage, the abrasion factor, and
the dispersion factor. Emission reduction measures can target one or
more of these factors. The emission after implementation of the
measure is calculated as follows:
Formula 1:
EM

=

E0 x F. application x F. reduction + E0 X (1

—

F. tapptication)

in which:
EM = emission (tonnes/year) after implementation of the measure
E0 = emission before implementation of the measure (see Table 2)
F.apptication = fraction of the total emission that falls under the measure
F.reduction = relative reduction as a result of the measure

The formula simply expresses the fact that a part (F.apptication) of the
total emission (E0) falls within the scope of the measure and can
therefore be reduced by a certain percentage (F.reduction)). The
remaining part (1 F. application) of the total emission (E0) remains
unchanged.
The calculation of the reduction potential of the measures is based on
the following dispersion of emissions. See calculation method in
Verschoor et al. (2016).
—

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Table 2 Estimated emissions of tyre wear particles based on emission factors
and mileages from the emission registration (Deltares et a!. 2016) and scope of
application of the measures Ti up to and includinq Ti 0.
Scope of application of the
Emissions (tonnes/year)
measuiesjX= es
To water
Water
Soil Air
via sewer Ti T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
direct
system r
Urban areas
Mopeds
8
1
0
3-7
Motorbikes
9
1
0
4-7
X X
X
Passenger cars
1050 138
0
428-882
X X
X X X X
Vans
159
21
0
65-134
X X
X X X X
Tractors
118
15
0
48-99
X X
X
Lorries
66
9
0
27-55
X X
X
Buses
54
7
0
22-46
X X
X
Special vehicle (light)
1
0
0
0.6-1.2
X
Special vehicle (heavy)
17
2
0
7-14
X
Rural areas
1
Mopeds
5
0
0
X
Motorbikes
35
2
4
0
X X
X
Passenger cars
2655 155
295
0
X X
X
X X X
Vans
458
27
51
0
X X
X
X X X
218
Tractors
13
24
0
X X
X
Lorries
302
18
34
X X
X
0
Buses
44
3
5
0
XX
X
Special vehicle (light)
4
0
0
0
X
Special vehicle (heavy)
32
2
4
X
0
Motorways
Mopeds
0
0
0
0
Motorbikes
5
2
1
0
X X X X
X
X
Passenger cars
54
X X X X
X
X
449 236
0
X X X
12
Vans
101
X X X X
X X X
X
X
53
0
Tractors
81
43
10
0
X X X X
Lorries
162
19
85
0
X X X X
Buses
2
1
0
0
X X X X
Special vehicle (light)
1
0
0
0
X X
Special vehicle (heavy)
12
6
1
0
.

.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

‘A refinement and improvement of the arguments upon which the dispersion of dry matter
via the sewer system is based was published in the emission registration in 2017 (Lieftink
et al. 2017). These data were not taken into account here, but the estimated emission is
expected to fall within the range mentioned here. The above refinement applies only to
emissions to the sewer system in urban areas.

F.apptication as well as F.reduction consists of several factors. The

relevant formulas are described below.
Formula 2:
F. application

F. target x F. road x F. vehicle x Fbehaviour

in which:
F.target = relative emission for the selected vehicles and road types (see

crosses in Table 3) compared to the total emission
(without the measure). F.target differs per measure and
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—

RIVM Report 2017-0193

per environmental compartment (see Figure 7 and Table
3).
F.road = fraction of the selected roads on which the measure can have
an effect
F.vehicte = fraction of the selected vehicles on which the measure can
have an effect
F.behaviour = fraction of or the degree to which the stakeholders will
comply with the measure. This is actually the behavioural
factor. As this factor is very variable and uncertain, we
assume a best-case scenario for the prioritisation whereby
F.stakeholder is 100%, unless specific information is
available from comparable measures.
Formula 3:
F.reductie = F.abrasion x F.dispersion

in which:
Relative abrasion after implementation of the measure (1 is
no effect, <1 is reduction, >1 is increased abrasion)
F.disperison = Relative dispersion of tyre wear particles after
implementation of the measure
F.abrasion

In Table 3 there is an overview of the input parameters for the
calculation of the reduction potential. This appendix explains the
arguments underlying these factors for each measure. The results of the
reduction calculations are summarised in Table 4.
The reduction potential of measures T3 and T4 is time-dependent. The
maximum reduction potential of T3 and T4 is realised only after 50 years
(lifespan of DAB (non-porous asphalt) roads before replacement). To
compare the reduction potential of all the measures we therefore use
the average annual reduction over the first 10 years. This would seem to
be a reasonable period of time for assessing the benefit derived from
policy measures.

Page 34 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Target emission of measure

100
80
60
40
20

100
C

80

a)

E

60

(U
0

40

E
0
0

20

0
C
0
U)

ci)

100

E
a)

80

CU
0

60

0

40
20

100
80
60
40
20
Ti

12

T3

14

T5

T6

17

18

19

TI0

Figure 7 Fraction of the emission of tyre wear particles in the environmental
compartment concerned to which the measure applies (F.target).

Page 35 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Table 3 Input parameters for estimating the reduction potential of the measures. Explanation in appendix TI up to and including Tb.

F.tarqet

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.disperslon

Ti

Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion

098

1

1

0.99-1

0.8-0.95

1

T2

Tyre label with tyre abrasion indicator

0.98

1

1

0.1-1

0.8-0.95

1

T3

Reducing abrasion factor of road surface

0.51

0.01-0,11

1

0.99-1

1.3

0.5

T4

Sustainability tool for road surface

0.77

0.01-0.11

1

0.1-1

1.3

0.5

T5

Street cleaning campaigns in urban areas

0.23

1

1

0.1-1

1

0.98-0,998

T6

Banning the use of winter tyres in summer

0.75

1

0.02-0.066

0.99-1

0.8-0.95

1

T7a

Direct TPMS in all cars

0.75

1

1

0.1-1

0.8-0.9

1

T7b

Direct TPMS in old cars (built before 2014)

0.75

1

0.5

0.1-1

0.8-0.9

1

T8

Wheel alignment as part of periodic vehicle
inspections

0.75

1

0.22-0.44

0.1-1

0.85-0.95

1

19

Reducing maximum speed limits

0.35

0.9

0.6

0.99-1

0.7-0.8

110

Kilometre price

0.35

1

1

0.75-0.9

Pege 36 of 60

RIV1 Report 2017-0193

Table 4 Estimated reduction potential of measures to prevent (dispersion of)
tyre wear particles [tonnes/year]. Average over the first 10 years after
implementation of the measure.
Minimum
total
soil
air
Water
direct
effluent
total
800
Ti
40
300
30
30
50
80
T2
30
4
3
3
6
-30
T3
3
2
0
0
0
T4
-4
2
0
0
0
0
T5
0
0
0
0
0
0
T6
0
1
0
0
0
0
T7a
100
50
6
4
5
9
60
20
T7b
3
2
2
5
10
T8
5
1
0
1
1
T9
600
60
30
7
0
7
600
TiO
60
30
7
0
7
Maximum
total
soil
air
water
direct
effluent
total
Ti
3000
1000
200
100
200
300
T2
3000
1000
200
100
200
300
T3
-300
30
20
4
0
4
200
-400
20
T4
20
0
20
T5
0
30
4
0
20
20
T6
200
60
8
5
10
20
T7a
3000
1000
100
80
200
300
T7b
1000
500
40
60
100
100
T8
800
300
40
30
70
90
T9
900
90
50
10
0
10
1000
100
TiO
70
20
0
20
Average
Total
Soil
Air
water
direct
effluent
total
Ti
2000
700
100
60
100
200
2000
T2
600
90
100
50
200
T3
-200
20
9
2
0
2
T4
-200
10
90
10
0
10
T5
10
2
0
0
10
10
T6
80
30
4
2
6
9
T7a
1000
500
70
40
100
100
700
T7b
300
30
20
50
70
T8
400
200
20
10
30
50
T9
800
70
40
9
0
9
TiO
1000
100
50
10
0
10

Page 37 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Ti

-

Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion

Description: Introduction of a legal threshold value for tyre abrasion.
F.target

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

0.99

1

1

0.99-1

0.8-0.95

1

Minimising tyre abrasion has an immediate effect in reducing the
quantity of microplastic emissions. However, modifying tyre
characteristics in order to reduce abrasion can result in reduced tyre
performance with regard to the present indicators of the tyre label such
as fuel consumption (rolling resistance), safety (grip), and noise
emission. It is assumed that the safety standards for tyres will be
maintained. It is possible to introduce a legal threshold value for tyre
abrasion whereby the tyres most susceptible to abrasion are phased out
of production while maintaining acceptable characteristics for the tyre
label. Experts from the tyre sector estimate that the wear characteristics
of tyres with an EU label vary by 10% to 20% (personal
communication). An American database containing over 4000 tyres
states a variation of roughly the same size for the ‘wear rating’
(mileage) characteristic (NHTSA). There is no European or Dutch
database available with tyre wear characteristics. We therefore use the
American database, which may include tyres not available on the
European market, only for verification of the estimate provided by
European experts. It should be noted in this regard, however, that
mileage characteristics are not always the same as wear characteristics.
As a good alternative may not always be available for all types of tyres,
we assume that the reduction may be less than the 10°h mentioned
earlier. We therefore assume a reduction in the range of 5%-2O%
(F.abrasion = 0.8-0.95). The measure is assumed to be applicable to all
vehicles except the special light and heavy vehicles (F.target = 0.99).
Within this selection, the measure is applicable to all roads (F.road = 1)
and all vehicles (F.vehicle = 1).
The tyre label is international, and an enforcement system will be
needed.
An international consensus must be reached in order to ensure that a
harmonised and validated method for measuring abrasion can be
developed and applied.
T2

-

Tyre label

Description: Raising the level of awareness under consumers by
supplementing the EU tyre label with an indicator for abrasion.
F.target

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

C best-case)
0.99

1

1

0.1-1

0.8-0.95

This measure is less binding and more voluntary than the measure
involving a legal threshold value (see Ti). The maximum reduction
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

potential of the measure is the same as Ti, but the effectiveness of a
tyre label that focuses on raising the level of awareness and knowledge
can differ from that of a measure based on a legal threshold value. It is
not possible a priori to predict whether the effectiveness of this measure
can approach that of a legal threshold value, and we therefore assume a
best-case scenario, whereby this measure is just as effective as a legal
threshold value. The effectiveness of this measure in comparison to a
legal threshold value will also depend on the threshold value chosen as
well as how familiar consumers are with the tyre label and the
consumer’s willingness to pay extra for a tyre with a longer usable
lifetime. A survey of 873 respondents showed that three-quarters of
consumers are not familiar with the tyre label.3 As opposed to a legal
threshold value, the focus of this measure is on raising public
awareness, consumer freedom of choice, and market forces. It’s
essential to increase public awareness of the tyre label for the measure
to be effective.
T3

-

Reducing abrasion factor of road surface

Description: Replacement of DAB (non-porous asphalt) top layers of
motorways by ZOAB or 2L-ZOAB (types of porous asphalt).

F.target

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

0.51

0.01-0.11

1

0.99-1

1.3

0.5

Approximately 95% of the motorways are surfaced with porous asphalt
(ZOAB) and 5% with non-porous asphalt (DAB). (Deltares et al. 2016)
Studies have shown that tyre abrasion on ZOAB is 30°h to 350/s higher
than on DAB (van Blokland et al. 2009), so that this measure would lead
to increased abrasion (F.abrasion = 1.3). On the other hand, the tyre
wear particles are largely absorbed and retained in the ZOAB layer so
that the emission of particles from such roads to surface water is 20
times less than from DAB surfaces. (Deltares et al. 2016) More wear
particles are washed away from DAB surfaces as DAB does not have any
open pores that can retain the wear particles. Calculations have shown
that at present 10°h of the emissions can wash away (5% DAB x 1 +
95% ZOAB x 0.05). If all the motorways were surfaced with ZOAB, then
the estimated emission of particles would be 5% of the total amount
that can be produced. The dispersion would therefore be reduced by
50% compared to the situation without any measure being taken;
F.Uispersion = 0.5.
Due to the higher percentage of hollow space, ZOAB is less suitable for
use in curves, exits, and crossings as it would tend to break down more
quickly in such situations. ZOAB is often not an option on secondary
roads and roads in urban areas as it wears down more quickly in curves
and in places where cars brake and accelerate more frequently. The
calculation of the reduction potential therefore applies only to
motorways, where 51% of the total emissions originate (F.target =
0.51).
http://nos.nh/artikel/2160343-zomerbanden-of-winterbanden-sommigen-hebben-geen-idee.html (article on
‘summer tyres or winter tyres some have no idea’)
-

Page 39 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

The point of departure here is that the replacement of DAB by ZOAB is
carried out, insofar as possible, as part of the existing renovation and
replacement scheme. DAB is assumed to have a usable lifetime of 40-50
years. Our point of departure is therefore that 2°h of the present DAB is
replaced per year. In fact, the total reduction potential will be realised
only after all the DAB surfaces have been replaced, in other words after
a maximum of 50 years. To compare the reduction potential of various
measures, we use the average values over the first 10 years. The
average replacement percentage over this period is 11%. The lower limit
for the average replacement percentage of DAB surfaces was set at 1%,
as not all DAB surfaces may be suitable for replacement by ZOAB
(F.road = 0.01-0.11). The measure does not differentiate between
vehicle types (F.vehicle = 1).
The replacement of ZOAB by two-layer ZOAB does not appear to be very
effective in reducing the emission of tyre wear particles to soil and water
and is therefore not part of this measure. Although two-layer ZOAB does
reduce abrasion to a limited extent (approximately 4% less than regular
ZOAB, (van Blokland et al. 2009)), the ability of both types to retain
wear particles is the same. The degree to which (2L) ZOAB has an effect
on emissions to the air has not been properly quantified. However, there
are indications that the resuspension of particles on 2L-ZOAB is lower
than on DAB (Hooghwerff et al. 2007). The resuspension also depends
on the weather conditions and the presence of road salt.
Fuel consumption of motor vehicles is lowest on DAB road surfaces,
followed by two-layer ZOAB surfaces, and is highest on ZOAB surfaces.
Replacing ZOAB by two-layer ZOAB therefore has a positive effect on
fuel consumption. The replacement of DAB road surfaces has a positive
effect on noise pollution and on road safety, as it reduces the risk of
aquaplaning.
T4

-

Sustainability tool for road surface

Description: In formation campaign aimed at encouraging the use of the
susta inability tool by road construction companies.
F.target

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

0.77

0.01-0.11

1

0.1-1

1.3

0.5

Installing a road surface with a lower abrasion factor reduces tyre
abrasion and therefore also reduces the emission of microplastics. The
Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management
(Rijkswaterstaat) participates, under the flag of the European CEN
standardisation committee, in the development of a sustainability tool
named LCE4ROADS (www.lce4roads.eu). A workshop agreement is in
place for a methodology that can be used to assess the sustainability of
roads, which can be used by road authorities in the selection process
that precedes the building of a road. This tool takes into account
environmental, societal, economic, and technical aspects. The present
version does not explicitly take into account the abrasion factor of the
road surface for tyre abrasion. During further modifications of the tool,
the Netherlands could propose integrating this aspect in the tool.
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Another approach to a road sustainability tool is the development of a
road surface label. A road surface label is being promoted by the
Province of Gelderland, the University of Twente, a building company
(Strukton Civiel), and the tyre industry (Apollo-Vredestein).4 The focus
of that road surface label is presently on fuel consumption, safety, and
noise. An indicator of tyre abrasion should be included in order to reduce
tyre abrasion.
Gomes Correia et al. (2016) have published an overview article on
sustainability methodology for infrastructure works. This article also
does not devote any attention to the abrasion factor.
We assume that the tool may possibly also be used for choosing the
most appropriate road surface for secondary roads. Together with
motorways, these roads are responsible for 77% of tyre wear particles
(> F.target = 0.77) The other reduction factors are the same as for
measure T3; see explanation for T3. However, as the measure depends
more on raising public awareness than on enforcement, the reduction
realised in practice will probably be lower.
T5 Street cleaning campaigns in the urban areas
Description: A covenant with cleaning services in urban areas aimed at
real/sing 4 extra sweeping rounds per year.
-

T5

F.tarqet

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

0.23

1

1

0.1-1

1

0.98-0.998

The measure applies to emissions in urban areas, which are responsible
for 23% of the total emission (F.target = 0.23). This measure prevents
the dispersion of tyre wear particles to the sewer system; it is not a
preventive measure that reduces tyre abrasion. Street sweeping
activities are carried out in order to prevent sewer drains from becoming
blocked. In some municipalities, street sweeping is carried out at a fixed
frequency. In other municipalities, the frequency depends upon
preceding visual inspections. A limited survey carried out of 8
municipalities identified frequencies of 2 to 12 times per year.
Studies show that the efficiency of the sweeping vehicles in removing
fine particles varies between O% and 100% (Idaea 2013). This is
because the method is most effective if roads are swept just before a
rain shower, but it’s difficult to coordinate such activities with the
weather forecast. If no additional measures are taken, the total emission
to water in the urban areas is estimated at approximately 1200
tonnes/year. Increasing the frequency of street sweeping rounds from
an average of 4 times to an average of 8 times per year can (assuming
an estimated efficiency of O% to 100°h per sweeping round) reduce the
emission of tyre wear particles into water by 0 to 70 tonnes per year
(average value for 5O% efficiency: 10 tonnes/year). This estimate was
arrived at by combining 4 extra fixed dates for sweeping with 145
randomly selected days of rain on which all the particulate matter on the
‘

http://www.strukton.nh/nieuws/2016/Iabelling-van-wegdekken-vooruitgang-verzekerd-/

Page 41 of 60

RIV1 Report 2017-0193

streets is washed into the sewer system and the road verge. The
random procedure was iterated 1000 times (1000 simulated years with
different days of rain), resulting in a random distribution of the amount
of microplastics that is removed each year (See Table 4).

U,

C
C

a)
C
C
0
C
a)
0
C
a)
0

C

Co

0
C
a)
0

a)
0.
a)
a)
a)
>

H

C
(N

C

0

100

200

300

Time (days)

Figure 8 Simulation of the total amount of tyre wear particles on urban roads
over a year with random intervals of rain. The red lines represent sweeping
rounds. The peaks represent the amount of accumulated tyre wear particles on
the road on 145 randomly chosen days of rain. The maximum rainfall per day is
set at 10 mm.
Table 5 Estimate of the amount of tyre wear particles removed per year on the
basis of different assumptions regarding the removal efficiency per sweeping
round. Simulation of 1000 years with different rainfall patterns.

Hypothetical
efficiency per
sweeping round

10%
25%
50%
75%
90%

100%

Calculated mass of tyre wear
particles removed
[tonnes/year]
25th to 75th
average
percentile
3-8
6
7-23
16
15-41
31
23-61
47
27-73
55
30-81
63

Calculated percentage
tyre wear particles
removed
[tonnes/yearJ
average
0.2%
0.4%
0.8%
1.3%
1.5%
1.7%

Sweeping leads to a reduction in the dispersion of tyre wear particles to
soil, water, and air within the urban areas. The exact amount removed
depends on the weather conditions and the time chosen for sweeping.
These conditions are by their very nature quite variable, and the
estimated removal is therefore by definition uncertain. The removal
efficiency is also variable (Idaea 2013). The weather as well as the
removal efficiency were therefore varied in order to calculate the
uncertainty margins. In Table 5 the 25th to 75th percentile is shown; in
other words, the reduction potential lies between the values shown in
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

half of the simulated years. The removal was lower in one quarter of the
years and higher in one quarter of the years.
Based on the calculations and simulations in Table 5 the value of
F.dispersion was set at 0.98-0.998. Emissions to water and soil are
reduced by this percentage.
Street sweeping activities also result in the removal of litter, weeds and
leaf waste, and dog excrement. The aesthetic value and safety (health)
of the surroundings increase as a result. An increased frequency of
Street sweeping rounds can contribute to a reduction in the costs of
cleaning sewer drains.
16

-

Summer and winter tyres

Description: Introduction of a ban of the use of winter tyres in summer

F.target

F.road

E.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

( best-case)
T6

0.75

1

0.02-0.06

0.99-1

0.8-0.95

The measure applies to passenger cars and vans on all roads, which
account for 75% of the total emission (F.target = 0.75). Winter tyres
are recommended by the tyre industry because at low temperatures (<
7 degrees Celsius) and on snow they hold the road better than do
summer tyres, in which case the braking distance of winter tyres is
significantly shorter than that of summer tyres. The use of winter tyres
in winter is required by law in some countries but not in the
Netherlands. In summer, winter tyres are less safe, as the braking
distance is longer. They are also more susceptible to abrasion.5 A survey
carried out by Kwikfit of 2200 cars concluded that 4.2% of the cars were
fitted with winter tyres in the summer of 20166. Due to variation and
uncertainty in the random sample, we assume that this percentage
varies over a range of 2% to 6% (F.vehicle = 0.02-0.06). Quantitative
data was not available on the effect of using winter tyres in the summer
on tire abrasion. Information was available on its effect on braking
distance and fuel consumption. At 100 km/hour, the braking distance of
a car with winter tyres in the summer was 17°h longer than that of a car
with summer tyres. The fuel consumption of a car with winter tyres in
the summer was 15% higher7. We assume that similar percentages
apply to abrasion. It is not known whether the test conditions are
representative for Dutch summers or how large the variation is between
different tyre brands. A range of values was therefore assumed for
F.abrasion equal to 0.8-0.85 (corresponding to a reduction of 5% to
20%). The all-season tyre is a compromise between a summer and a
winter tyre. Approximately 4.7% of cars were fitted with all-season tyres
in the summer of 2016.6

6

https://www.anwb.nI/autofthemawInterbanden/met-winterbanden-de-zomer-door-kan-dat
www.kwik-fit.nh/nieuws/bandenmonltor/kwikfit-bandenmonitor-najaar-2016-rubberen-voetafdruk-big-fiverocit-weer
.
https://www.conti.nl/neuws/wlnterbanden-ntet-gebmiken-in-de-zomer/#

Page 43 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

The tyre industry provides a fair amount of information with regard to
the correct use of summer and winter tyres, especially during the times
that tyres need to be changed, the so-called tyre change weeks.
Advertisements on radio, messages on matrix boards and websites
(www.kiesdebesteband.nl; www.debandenwisselweken.nl) are used to
inform the public.
Changing summer and winter tyres is specialised work that can only be
done in a garage, as the tyre must be removed from the wheel rim. Only
car owners who have a double set of wheel rims can, if they so wish,
change from summer to winter tyres and vice versa by replacing the
entire wheel. The advantage of having the tyres changed in the garage
is that the garage combines the tyre change with an inspection of the
wheel (abrasion), the tyre pressure, and the wheel alignment/balance.
These factors have a great influence on tyre abrasion.
The possibilities for optimising the use of winter tyres are limited by our
unpredictable weather conditions. Our winter temperatures regularly dip
below and then quickly rise again above the freezing point.
Temperatures often exceed 7 degrees, which is unfavourable for winter
tyres, but we also experience snow, glazed ice, and frost, which is
unfavourable for summer tyres. If, besides the information already
being made available to the public, an additional measure needs to be
considered, then a ban on the use of winter tyres in the summer would
seem to be the most logical choice. Such a measure could apply to
motorcycles, passenger cars, and vans. Temperatures from April up to
and including October are generally above 7°C. Such a ban has already
been implemented in Italy8.
Lorries and buses would be excluded from this measure. We assume
that the use of summer and winter tyres for such vehicles has already
been optimised for business reasons. However, no information is
available to verify this assumption.
T7

-

Tyre pressure

Description: Promoting a Tyre Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) for
passenger cars and vans.

F.target

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

C best-case)
T7a (all build
years)

0.75

1

1

0.1-1

0.8-0.9

T7b (only cars
with build years
< 2014)

0.75

1

0.5

0.1-1

0.8-0.9

Passenger cars and vans account for 75% of the total emission of tyre
wear particles (F.target = 0.75). Tyres with too low a pressure wear
down more quickly. In 2009, consideration was given to implementing
8

http://www.bandenportaa .nh/2014/05/16/italie-winterbanden-verboden-in-zomer

Page 44 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

national regulations for tyre pressure in order to reduce tyre blowouts
by lorries, but this was considered a very difficult proposition at the time
(Minister van Verkeer en Waterstaat 2009). We assume that the same
applies to the enforcement of legal regulations for tyre pressure for
passenger cars.
Instead of implementing new regulations and enforcing them,
collaboration took place with the transport sector to develop a system
for optimising tyre pressure. A Tyre Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS)
was introduced and driving with insufficient tyre pressure was reduced
in the transport sector. The introduction of TPMS was successful because
reducing instances of insufficient tyre pressure is also a cost-saving
measure. The increasing level of attention paid in the transport sector to
tire pressure is attested to by a 2012 report prepared by the Dutch
Safety Board, which mentions that an inspection carried out by
Goodyear in 2008 and 2009 revealed that 6S% and 53%, respectively,
of the lorries inspected were found to have low tire pressure. In 2010,
that percentage was 12%. A study carried out by the RDW (Netherlands
Vehicle and Driving Licence Registration Authority) in 2008 concluded
that l5% of the lorry tyres inspected had low tire pressure. Our point of
departure is therefore that the TMPS promotion measure applies only to
passenger cars and vans. Such a measure must be accompanied by a
public information/awareness campaign. It’s difficult to assess the
degree to which car owners will respond positively to such a campaign,
in other words actually purchase a TPMS and react appropriately to a
low-pressure signal.
There are various systems available (ZTA Expertise et al. 2015), which
can in principle also easily be fitted into older cars (passenger cars and
vans). Some systems can be fitted on or in the valve and others in the
tyre. The signalling functionality varies from a simple warning light on
the valve cap (indirect TPMS) to temperature and tire pressure readings
displayed on the dashboard or on the smart phone (direct TPMS). These
systems only function as signalling devices. The driver then has to pump
up the tyres himself.
Since November 2014, under EU legislation 2010/48EC, TPMS has been
a mandatory feature on all new registered passenger cars9. This feature
was already mandatory starting in November 2012 for all new car
models launched on the market. With regard to this measure, our point
of departure is that cars with a build year older than 2014 will be fitted
with a direct TPMS and that cars with a build year after 2014 with an
indirect TPMS will be refitted with a direct TPMS. In the coming years,
the number of cars with a build your older than 2014 will decrease from
79% in 2017 (data from Statistics Netherlands (CBS) February 2017) to
roughly 25% over 10 years. Based on the CBS data, we can estimate
that during the first 10 years after implementation of the measure, the
percentage of cars fitted with a mandatory TPMS system will be roughly
50%.

It’s estimated that 60% of cars on the road have a tyre pressure that is
at least lO% too low, and that one third of these cars (i.e. 20%) have a
htto ://www.toms. nI/tms-informatie/

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

tyre pressure that is 30% too low.10”1 If the difference is 30%, the tyre
abrasion will increase by an estimated 50% (Michelin 2010). Overall,
this means that the measure at hand can reduce tyre abrasion by
approximately 14% for cars with a sub-optimal tyre pressure. To take
into account potential uncertainties, calculations were carried out using
a range of 10% to 20°h for abrasion reduction (F.abrasion = 0.8-0.9).
Correct tyre pressure also reduces the risk of tyre blowouts, which are
one of the causes of traffic jams. A higher tyre pressure results in
increased fuel efficiency and tyre lifetime but has a negative impact on
traffic safety. A correct tyre pressure ensures that the tyre has optimum
shape and performance, which in turn minimises tyre abrasion.
T8

-

Wheel alignment

Description: Including uneven tyre abrasion as a criterion for the
periodic safety inspection of passenger cars and vans.

T8

F.target

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

0.75

1

0.22-0.44

0.1-1

0.85-0.95

1

Wheel alignment and balance determine how the force and weight of the
car are distributed over the tyres while driving. Wheel alignment is one
way to influence the roadholding characteristics and stability of the car
in curves on straight sections of road. Depending upon the desired
driving characteristics of the car, different choices can be made in that
regard during the design process.

Figure 9 Wheel alignment has a major impact on the roadholding characteristics
of the car and on tyre abrasion. Photo: Milliken MX1 Camber Car 1960 driven by
Bill Milliken (Brian Snelson).

10
11

https://kiesdebesteband.nh/bandensanning, 13-7-2017
htt://www.bandosanninp.nh/bandenspanninp/wat-is-onderspanning/, 13-7-2017

Page 46 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

The measure described in this section does not apply to the design of
the car but to incidental disruptions of wheel alignment caused by
collisions with other vehicles, posts or kerbs or potholes or bumps on
the road or simply by old or worn-out wheel suspensions. A disruption of
the wheel alignment and balance results in increased and uneven
abrasion on the tyres and wheels suspension. Poorly balanced wheels
also result in vibrations during driving. In addition, properly aligned and
balanced wheels also have an effect on fuel consumption, tyre lifetime,
and safety. Regular inspections of wheel alignment and balance can be
one way of reducing tyre abrasion. One garage reports that
approximately 60°h of cars are not properly aligned12. A webpage that
focuses on the US even goes so far as to report a percentage of 9O%
poorly aligned cars. 13 It is not clear whether the above information is
also representative of the situation in the Netherlands.
Experts from the tyre sector estimate that poor alignment leads to an
unnecessary increase in abrasion of 10°h. No studies have been found
that make it possible to directly estimate abrasion as a function of wheel
alignment. However, a recent study is available that tested the effect of
wheel alignment on energy consumption (Davari et al. 2017). In this
study, in which tests were carried out on ‘cambers’ (vertical deviation)
up to 1-2° and ‘toes’ up to 0.5° (deviations in the driving direction)’4,
7% higher energy consumption was found in certain phases of the NEDC
(New European Driving Cycle) test. This applied to phases with a higher
speed, for example on the motorway, and phases with higher and more
frequent accelerations such as in the city.
With the help of the extended brush tyre model (EBM), the effect of
wheel alignment was calculated over larger angles (Davari et al. 2017).
This makes it clear that energy losses can be as much as approximately
5O% for toes of plus or minus 10°. To estimate the relationship between
wheel alignment and abrasion, we assume that energy losses are
indicative of abrasion. It is not known how large the disruptions of toes
and cambers are that are caused by incidents in real life. We assume
that the angle disruption is of roughly the same size as the angles used
by the manufacturers in the design, and we work with a range of values
for abrasion between 5% and 15% (F.abrasion = 0.85-0.95) in order to
take into account variations such as those in weight and dimensioning of
the cars on the road and in road surface types. Additional research is
needed to validate this assumption.

12

www.proflle-heuver.nI/balanceren/, 13 July 2017
htto ://wwwgordoncooleycoachbujIders.co.uk/jmages/Alipnrnent.df, 13 July 2017
14
The angles are within the usual range used by car manufacturers.

Page 47 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

cc

toe in

positive camber

LI

toe out

UF

negative camber

Figure 10 Wheel alignment: vertical deviations (cambers) and deviations in the
driving direction (toes).

Regular inspections of vehicles aimed at guaranteeing safety and
limiting emissions to the environment are set down in European
regulations in Guideline 2014/45/EU (EC 2009). The tyres must be
visually inspected, including a visual inspection to determine whether
the tyre has suffered serious damage. A vehicle can fail to pass the test
on these grounds. This provides possibilities for focusing on uneven
wear of tyres. There are no criteria at present for approving or rejecting
cats on the basis of an uneven wear pattern. However, if an uneven
wear pattern is found to exist and the consumer is informed by the
garage about the consequences of poor wheel alignment, the consumer
can be encouraged to have the wheel alignment corrected.
A complete annual inspection with the help of wheel alignment
equipment would cost a great deal more time and money. It would be
more efficient to ensure that, during the visual tyre inspection that must
take place anyway, attention is also paid to any uneven abrasion that
may be present and to ensure that proper action is then taken.
For lorries and buses, as is the case with regard to the optimisation of
tyre pressure, it would make sense to assume that sufficient attention is
already being paid to wheel alignment and balancing for business
reasons (cost savings).
European regulations require that the APK (periodic vehicle inspections)
must be carried out annually for passenger cars older than 4 years,
whereby a different schedule applies in the Netherlands to petrol cats
(first inspection after 4 years), diesel cars (first inspection after 3
years), and taxis, ambulances and buses (first inspection after 1 year).
For the calculations, we assume that all cats older than 4 years are
subjected to an annual inspection. This applies to 74% of all cats (CBS
Statline, 20 February 2017). Taking into account the different inspection
schedules in the Netherlands, it would actually apply to a slightly higher
percentage of cars, which would also lead to a slightly higher reduction
potential. However, information to further refine this calculation is not
available. In calculating the reduction potential, we also assume that the
wheel alignment of 30°h to 6O% of the vehicles is suboptimal to such an
extent that unnecessary extra tyre abrasion is noticeable. F.vehicle is
then 0.74 x (30% to 60%) = 0.22 to 0.44.
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RIVM Report 2017-0193

T9

-

Maximum speed limit

Description: Bringing maximum speed limit on motorways back to 100
km/hour.
F.target

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

0.35

0.9

0.6

0.99-1

0.7-0.8

1

19

This measure applies only to motorways and those vehicles that are
allowed by law to travel faster than 100 km/hour, namely motorbikes,
passenger cars and vans, which together account for 35% of the
emissions of tyre wear particles (F.target = 0.35). The speed of a car
influences tyre abrasion. According to a tyre manufacturer, a reduction
of the speed limit from 120-130 km/hour to 100 km/hour would result in
an estimated 20% to 30% longer tyre lifetime (Michelin 2010)
(F.abrasion = 0.7-0.8). The speed limit on approximately 60% of Dutch
motorways is 130 km/hour, and it is 120 km/hour on 30% of the
motorways (F.road = 0.9).15
The personal driving style is an important factor for tyre abrasion. The
same study carried out by Michelin estimates that 40% of car drivers
have a very calm driving style, 50% a normal driving style, and 10% a
sporting driving style. In calculating the reduction potential, we assume
that the measure applies to 6O% of the drivers of passenger cars, vans,
and motorbikes (F.vehicle = 0.6) It is difficult to estimate to what
degree the drivers will comply with a reduction of the speed limit. The
measure applies to motorbikes, passenger cars, and vans.
A lower speed results in lower fuel consumption, lower CO2 emissions,
lower emissions of fine particles, and fewer traffic accidents. The
disadvantages are a longer travel time and restriction of freedom.
T1O

-

Kilometre tax

Description: Introduction of a kilometre tax

T10

F.target

F.road

F.vehicle

F.behaviour

F.abrasion

F.dispersion

0.35

0.2-0.5

1

0.75-0.9

1

1

We assume that the potential measure would be introduced in such a
manner as not to affect buses, lorries, trucks, and special vehicles. The
measure then applies to motorbikes, passenger cars, and vans on
motorways, which together account for 35% of the emissions of tyre
wear particles (F.target = 0.75). If fewer kilometres are driven, then
tyre abrasion will also decrease. lyre abrasion per kilometre driven
remains the same (F.abrasion = 1), and the measure has no (additional)
effect on the dispersion (F.dispersion = 1).
Traffic policy in the Netherlands is primarily focused on reducing traffic
congestion, but it can also be effective in reducing the emission of fine
15

nos.nh/artikel/2084794-op-deze-wegen-kun-je-vanaf-nu-130-km-u.html

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

particles, CO2 and exhaust gases, noise pollution, traffic accidents, and
tire abrasion. Automobility can be reduced by encouraging teleworking
and flex work, carpooling, the use of public transport, and kilometre
taxes. Efforts aimed at introducing a kilometre tax in the Netherlands
(such as the ‘Paying differently for Mobility’ plan) have not yet been able
to count on sufficient support, but such an approach has regularly been
a topic of political discussion.16 Such a measure has therefore been
included in this report primarily to demonstrate what the effect of a
kilometre tax would be on the reduction of tyre abrasion.
Depending on the manner in which the measure is implemented, a
kilometre tax could lead to an estimated 10% to 25°h reduction in the
kilometres driven on motorways (Bruinsma et al. 2002), as a result of
the effect of the measure on the behaviour of car users (F.behaviour =
0.75-0.9). It is not clear to what extent this quality of traffic, and the
associated abrasion, would simply move to secondary roads. Such a
phenomenon could potentially limit the projected decrease in tyre
abrasion. On the other hand, the number of traffic jams would also
decrease, together with a decrease in the number of braking and
accelerating activities. The latter would have an additional favourable
effect on tyre abrasion. These opposing effects could possibly cancel
each other out, at least in part, but the end result cannot be quantified
due to a lack of relevant information. The measure applies to
motorbikes, passenger cars, and vans on motorways.

16

Letter to the Minister of Infrastructure and the Environment, Mobility policy, No. 189, Parliamentary paper 31
305, no. 170

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Appendix 3 Potential measures against emissions of paint
particles

This appendix describes six potential measures that aim to reduce the
generation or dispersion of paint particles, namely:
P1. Subsidies for research into degradation of paint
P2. Legally required guarantee period for paint
P3. Awareness campaign with regard to the rinsing of brushes
P4. Replacement scheme for old sanding machines
P5. Covenant on residual paint emissions
P6. Reduction of residual emissions from recreational vessels
The measures apply to a part of the emissions, as indicated in Table 7.
Table 6 Origin and size of the emissions and the scope (X) of the potential
measures.
Total
P1
P2
P3
P4
Maintenance
130
X
X
Professional
construction
Wear
210
X
Maintenance
70
X
X
Wear
Do-it-yourselfers
60
Rinsing
20
X
Maintenance
90
X
Shipyards
Wear
90
Maintenance
20
X
Marinas and
storage facilities
Wear
4
Total
690
310 340
20
220
.

(tonnes/year)

P5

X
X
90

1

Range is a consequence of uncertainty in the treatment yield of water treatment plants
(also see footnote on page 15).
2
Abrasion of paint on ships built or serviced in Dutch shipyards.

An overview of the estimated reduction of emission is presented in Table
7. The measures and the reduction potential are explained further on in
this appendix. The estimation of emissions and the reduction potential of
the measures is subject to uncertainties. This was taken into account by
indicating uncertainty margins and rounding off the results to one
significant figure.
Table 7 Estimated emission reduction (in tonnes/year) of paint measures.
Water
Sewer
Water
Total
(total)
Soil
(direct)
system
50 (2-90)
P1
60 (3-130)
30 (1-60)
20 (1-30)
30 (1-60)
P2
20 (2-30)
9 (1-20)
1 (<1 1)
6 (1-12)
4 (<1-8)
P3
(2-20)
0
9
<1
9 (2-20)
5 (<1-9)
P4
70 (10-100)
40 (7-70)
20 (4-40)
20 (2-30)
5 (1-10)
P5
50 (9-90)
50 (9-90)
50 (9-90)
0
50 (9-90)
P6
9 (2-20)
9 (2-20)
9 (2-20)
0
9 (2-20)
-

Page 51 of 60

P6

20

RIVM Report 2017-0193

P1 Subsidies for research into degradation of paint
Description: Providing a research budget for a European call to develop
paint that can be degraded in a controlled manner.
-

The controlled degradation of paint particles can prevent the formation
of microplastic. At present, there are no paint products available that
guarantee long-term quality and that are also degradable in a controlled
manner. This would mean that no increased degradation takes place
during the lifetime of the paint, but that it takes place during the
removal of the paint or afterwards Due to the lack of relevant data, we
have assumed that an innovative product that combines both these
characteristics could result in a 25% reduction of microplastic in all
sectors that use paint. As the measure is not mandatory, we take into
account that only 10% of the reduction potential that is technically
possible could be realised, depending upon the choices made by
consumers. The calculation of the reduction potential to water is
presented below:
Reductiepotentieel = A x B x C

In which:
A = reductie van verfdeettjes in milieu door afbraak = 25% (10
B = gedragsfactor(0.1 1)
C = emissie naar water zonder maatre get (zie Table 6)

—

40%)

—

Legally required guarantee period for paintwork
Description: Introducing a legally required guarantee period for
pain twork.
P2

-

A legally required guarantee period for paintwork could encourage the
paint chain to work with a longer lifetime for paintwork, longer
maintenance intervals, and fewer emissions of paint wear particles and
paint sandings. Measures that could lead to a longer lifetime of paintwork
include choosing higher-quality paint, better preparation of the surfaces to
be painted, and proper paint application. The maintenance sector
association ‘OnderhoudNL’ has already implemented a guarantee period.
The measure discussed here targets the professional painters who are at
present not represented by OnderhoudNL. This represents 15% of the
professional market. The assumption is that this measure will lead to a
5O% reduction of emissions as a result of a longer interval between paint
maintenance rounds.
The calculation of the reduction potential to water is presented below:
Reductiion potential = A x B x C x D

in which:
A = average reduction of abrasopn due to longer maintenance intervals
= 40
60%
B = marktet share of painting companies that are
not members of the sector specific association = 15%
B = behavioural factor(0.1 1)
D = emission without any measure (see Table 6)
—

—

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Whether the reduction is actually realised will depend on many uncertain
factors, such as the results of the study into paint degradation, the
market introduction of such a paint and its price, and the motivation of
the consumer to actually purchase this paint.
Raising public awareness with regard to rinsing of brushes
Description: Campaign aimed at encouraging consumers to deal
appropriately with used brushes and rollers.
P3

-

The practice of cleaning used brushes and rollers in the sink still takes
place in the Netherlands. Water-based as well as oil-based paints are
chemical products that should not be flushed down the sink. Preventing
this practice will reduce the quantity of microplastic, as the paint
residues on the brush or roller are considered to be microplastics. There
is a link between this and the ‘Not in the Sewer’ campaign of RIONED
that provides information on the appropriate use of the sewer system.17
There are various websites that provide guidelines for cleaning and
storing brushes. Making more information available for a wider audience
about the cleaning of brushes could possibly reduce the above
emissions. The effectiveness of the measure is difficult to estimate and
depends to a large extent on how frequently the information is provided
and in what manner (also see section 4.3). A range of 10% to 100%
was used for the calculation of the emission reduction.
The maximum reduction potential of the emission to water is 4 to 9
tonnes/year, assuming that all consumers were to adjust their
behaviour. The emission to sewage water treatment plants would be
reduced by a maximum of 16 tonnes/year.
P4 Regulations for replacing older sanding machines
Description: Providing a subsidy for manufacturers of sanding machines
for introducing a replacement scheme for older sanding machines with
dust removal systems.
-

The sanding down of older paint layers is one of the primary causes of
the emission of paint particles. Inhalation of paint dust poses a health
risk. The newer models of sanding machines with dust removal systems
remove approximately 90% of paint dust compared to 70°h in the older
models. 18 For the do-it-yourself sector and the sanding of recreational
vessels, it is assumed that the less than professional use of sanding
machines will result in 5O% less paint dust being removed. The emission
reduction for professionals in the construction sector is therefore 67%
and for the do-it-yourself sector 33%. The measure is not applicable to
shipyards, as sandblasting is used there instead of sanding. The
calculation of the reduction potential to water is based on outdoor paint
application. Emissions to soil are not presented here, but they have
been taken into account (Verschoor et al. 2016). As the measure is a
voluntary one, an effectiveness of lO% to 100% (behavioural factor =
0.1-1) is taken into account.

17
‘

http://www.nietinhetriool.nh/
Personal communication (Maaike le Feber, TNO).

Page 53 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Reductiepotentieet (water) = (A x B + C x D) x B

in which:
A = reduction of dispersion of paint sandings in the DIY sector = 33%
B = emission to water by DIT sectorwithout any measure
C = reduction in dispersion of paint sandings by professionals = 67%
D = gbehaviourat factor 0.1 1
B = emission to water by professionals without any measure (zie Table 6)
—

Covenant on residual emissions at shipyards
Description: Covenant with the sector aimed at finding solutions for
further minimising emissions at shipyards.
P5

-

When old paint layers are sandblasted, a small part of the paint particles
still ends up in the environment. Techniques for sandblasting and

coating ships at shipyards art set down in Best Available Techniques
Reference documents (BREF). Members of the trade association for the
Dutch maritime technology sector (NMT) work according to the
techniques described in BREF. The present BREF (2007) documents are
being updated by the European Integrated Pollution Prevention and
Control (IIPC) bureau. The new BREF will be published in 2019.
Supervisory government bodies use the BREF document as a basis for
granting an all-in-one permit for physical aspects. The all-in-one permit
then serves as the reference point for (environmental) inspections at
shipyards and enforcement activities. Within BREF, there are various
methods for applying paint and removing coatings. As the present
working method has been developed to the point where an estimated
97.5% of emissions are prevented, further emission reduction will not
be a simple matter. Collaboration with the sector aimed at investigating
where and under which circumstances emissions still occur can provide
further insight into this matter. On this basis, improvements can be
proposed in techniques or business operations, and the associated costs
and benefits can be further investigated. By making this research part of
a covenant with the government, it will be possible to enter into
concrete agreements.
In making the calculations, a reduction potential of between 10°h and
100°h was taken into account.
Reduction of paint emissions from recreational vessels
Regulations are in force for recreational vessels that limit paint
emissions during vessel maintenance activities. Section 4.6.6 of the
Activities Decree (AB) contains regulations on maintenance, repair, and
jetting of recreational vessels. These regulations aim to prevent
environmental pollution. Maintenance and jetting activities for boats are
not always done in a marina. The section applies to maintenance carried
out inside a marina as well as activities carried out on a separate
storage site.
The residual emissions concerned are estimated at 18 tonnes per year,
but it is not clear how these can be reduced. We recommend consulting
with the HISWA (voluntary trade association for water sports), which
represents the interests of the recreational water sports sector.
PG

-

Page 54 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

In making the calculations, a reduction potential of between 10% and
100% was taken into account.

Page 55 0160

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Appendix 4 Measure in relation to abrasive cleaning agents

European ban on products with microplastics
Description: Striving for a European ban on the use of microplastic in
abrasive cleaning agents
With an estimated emission to water of 1.2 ton nes per year in the
Netherlands, abrasive cleaning agents represent a minor source.
According to the Dutch Association of Soap Manufacturers, which
represents 90% of the market, their members produce and market no
products with microplastics. A brief tour of supermarkets confirmed this
assertion. However, products containing microplastic can be acquired via
the Internet (from national or foreign sources), or they can be supplied
as maintenance products together with the delivery of new kitchens for
example. We have not checked the scale of such activities.
Due to the open European internal market, a ban on microplastic in
abrasive cleaning agents can best be dealt with on a European level. Via
this measure, the Netherlands would make an effort to put this topic on
the European agenda. The time period necessary to ensure that such a
measure becomes effective is quite long. The effectiveness of the
measure will be practically 100°h.
The calculation of the reduction potential to water is presented below:
Reductiepotential (water) = A x B = 1,2 tonnes/year
in which:
A = reduction via European ban = 100%
B = emission to water without any measure = 1.2 ton/jaar

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RIVM Report 2017-0193

Appendix 5 MCA scoring method

Max.
score

Description of the scores

Criteria

15
3

Environment & Safety:

Less energy consumption is more favourable:
-3 = more
0 = unchanged
3 = less
Consumption
Less consumption of materials is more
favourable:
of materials
-3 = more
0 = unchanged
3 = less
More emission reduction is more favourable:
Chemicals
1 = reduction <1 tonne/year
2 = reduction between 1 and 10 tonne/year
=red uctio n> 10 tonne/year
Prevention is more favourable than end-ofIntervention
point
pipe measures:
0 = cleaning (end-of-pipe)
1 = minimising dispersion
2 = preventing emission of microplastic
PLcYcf a..g..cricr.atiori.oLm cpc.
Increased safety is more favourable:
Safety
-3 = negative impact on safety
0 = no effect
3 = positive impact on safety
Practical feasibility:
Enforcement
Is enforcement necessary, and is there an
enforcement method available?
1 = necessary but not available
2 = necessary and available
3 no enfo rcem ent
sy
Implementation A short implementation period is seen as
period
being more feasible:
1 = >10 years
2 = 3 -10 years
ye.a rs
Scope
A national approach is seen as being more
feasible:
1 = international
3 = national
Energy
consumption

3

3

3

-

.

-

...

-

.

-

..

-

.

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Page 57 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Scoring the various measures and weighing the resulting scores are
necessary steps for classifying/grading the proposed measures. In order
to grade the assessment results, it’s necessary to determine how much
weight is given to each criteria in calculating the end score of a
measure. This is realised by assigning a weighting factor to each
criterion score.
The choice to apply a specific weighting factor is a value judgement. The
choice of weighting factors as well as the resulting classification of the
measures should be discussed within the framework of independent
policy discussions. It is therefore possible that the choices made in this
report with regard to weighting differ from the positions taken by the
policymakers. For example, policy makers may attach greater
importance to specific criteria and weigh them more heavily in the end
scores. This report assigns equal weighting factors to the criteria
categories environment & safety and practical feasibility. The reason for
this is that no preference for either of these categories has yet become
available from policy discussions. However, it is quite simple to adjust
the weighting factors on the basis of political decisions that may be
taken.
Calculation of the MCA end score
The MCA end score is calculated in several steps. In the first step, the
criteria scores within the categories environment & safety and practical
feasibility are totalled separately. The scores for the categories are
calculated as follows:
•

Score “Environment and safety” (max. 15 points) =
score (Energy Use + Materials Use + Chemicat Use + Safety +
Intervention point)

•

Score “Feasibility” (max. 9 points) =
Implementation period + Scope)

score (Enforcement +

The MCA end score is expressed on a scale with a maximum of 10,
whereby a score of 10 is assigned to a measure that scores most
favourably with regard to consequences for the environment, safety,
and practical feasibility. As explained earlier, the criteria reduction
potential and cost-effectiveness are not included in the MCA end score
but presented separately. In calculating the MCA end score, the scores
for environment & safety and practical feasibility are assigned the same
weight. The MCA end score is calculated as follows:
•

Endscore

Page 58 of 60

=

Score “Environment and safety’+ Score “Feasibility” x 15/

RIVM Report 2017-0193

Appendix 6 MCA scores for ‘environment & safety’ and
‘lea si bi I ity’

The scores have been determined by RIVM. An initial scoring round has
taken place on the basis of literature, talks with sectoral associations
and policymakers, and information available on the Internet. This was
followed by a feedback round, and the scores were adjusted if new
information became available.

Page 59 of 60

RIVM Report 2017-0193

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Descripbon
Legal threshold value for tyre abrasion
Tyre label with tyre abrasion indicator
Legal threshold value for road surface wear and tear
Sustainability tool for road surface
Street cleaning campaigns in urban areas
Ban on the use of winter tyres in summer
TPMS in all cars
TPMS in older cars (built before 2014)
Including wheel alignment in periodic vehicle inspections
Reducing maximum speed limits
Kilometre price
Subsidies for research into degradation of paint
Legally required guarantee period for paintwork
Campaign aimed at raising public awareness with regard to rinsing of
brushes
Regulations for replacing older sanding machines
Covenant on residual emissions in marinas
Raising awareness of residual emissions in the recreational vessel sector
Ban on products with microplastics

Page 60 of 60

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RWM
Committed to health and sustainabiliçy

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