June 2013
IMF Country Report No. 13/156

© 2013 International Monetary Fund

May 20, 2013
January 29, 2001

January 29, 2001 January 29, 2001
January 29, 2001

Greece: Ex Post Evaluation of Exceptional Access under the 2010 Stand-By
Arrangement
This ex post evaluation of exceptional access under the 2010 stand-by arrangement on Greece was
prepared by a staff team of the International Monetary Fund. It is based on the information available
at the time it was completed on May 20, 2013. The views expressed in this document are those of the
staff team and do not necessarily reflect the views of the government of Greece or the Executive
Board of the IMF.
The policy of publication of staff reports and other documents by the IMF allows for the deletion of
market-sensitive information.
Copies of this report are available to the public from
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Price: $18.00 a copy

International Monetary Fund
Washington, D.C.

GREECE
May 20, 2013

EX POST EVALUATION OF EXCEPTIONAL ACCESS
UNDER THE 2010 STAND-BY ARRANGEMENT

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The primary objective of Greece’s May 2010 program supported by a Stand-By
Arrangement (SBA) was to restore market confidence and lay the foundations for
sound medium-term growth through strong and sustained fiscal consolidation and
deep structural reforms, while safeguarding financial sector stability and reducing the
risk of international systemic spillovers. Greece was to stay in the euro area and an
estimated 20-30 percent competitiveness gap would be addressed through wage
adjustment and productivity gains.
There were notable successes during the SBA-supported program (May 2010–March
2012). Strong fiscal consolidation was achieved and the pension system was put on a
viable footing. Greece remained in the euro area, which was its stated political
preference. Spillovers that might have had a severe effect on the global economy were
relatively well-contained, aided by multilateral efforts to build firewalls.
However, there were also notable failures. Market confidence was not restored, the
banking system lost 30 percent of its deposits, and the economy encountered a muchdeeper-than-expected recession with exceptionally high unemployment. Public debt
remained too high and eventually had to be restructured, with collateral damage for
bank balance sheets that were also weakened by the recession. Competitiveness
improved somewhat on the back of falling wages, but structural reforms stalled and
productivity gains proved elusive.
Given the danger of contagion, the report judges the program to have been a
necessity, even though the Fund had misgivings about debt sustainability. There was,
however, a tension between the need to support Greece and the concern that debt
was not sustainable with high probability (a condition for exceptional access). In
response, the exceptional access criterion was amended to lower the bar for debt
sustainability in systemic cases. The baseline still showed debt to be sustainable, as is
required for all Fund programs. In the event, macro outcomes were far below the

GREECE

baseline and while some of this was due to exogenous factors, the baseline macro
projections can also be criticized for being too optimistic.
The report considers the broad thrust of policies under the program to have been
appropriate. Rapid fiscal adjustment was unavoidable given that the Greece had lost
market access and official financing was as large as politically feasible. Competivenessboosting measures were also essential, as were fiscal structural reforms to support
deficit reduction. However, the depth of ownership of the program and the capacity to
implement structural reforms were overestimated.
Greece’s SBA suggests the need to explore the case for refining the Fund’s lending
policies and framework to better accommodate the circumstances of monetary unions.
A particular challenge is to find ways to translate promises of conditional assistance
from partner countries into formal program agreements.
There are also political economy lessons to be learned. Greece’s recent experience
demonstrates the importance of spreading the burden of adjustment across different
strata of society in order to build support for a program. The obstacles encountered in
implementing reforms also illustrate the critical importance of ownership of a program,
a lesson that is common to the findings of many previous EPEs.
Other lessons drawn concern the need to find ways to streamline the Troika process in
the future and for Fund staff to be more skeptical about official data during regular
surveillance. The detailed nature of the structural fiscal conditionality in the Greek
program also bears scrutiny given the premium attached to parsimony in Fund
conditionality.

2

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

Authorized for
distribution by
the European
Department and the
Strategy, Policy, and
Review Department

Prepared by an interdepartmental staff team consisting of
J. Gordon (head, OBP), I. Karpowicz (OBP), S. Lanau (SPR),
J. Manning (EUR), W. McGrew (EUR), M. Nozaki (FAD), and
M. Shamloo (EUR), with assistance from A. Shtuni (OBP) and
C. Piatakovas (EUR).

CONTENTS
BACKGROUND TO THE CRISIS ___________________________________________________________________5
A. The build-up of imbalances _____________________________________________________________________ 5
B. Crisis triggers ____________________________________________________________________________________ 6
C. Crisis response __________________________________________________________________________________ 7
AN EXCEPTIONAL FUND PROGRAM _____________________________________________________________9
PROGRAM STRATEGY AND IMPLEMENTATION ______________________________________________ 10
PROGRAM OUTCOMES _________________________________________________________________________ 12
A. Macroeconomic outcomes ____________________________________________________________________ 12
B. Fiscal policy outcomes _________________________________________________________________________ 14
C. Debt and financing outcomes _________________________________________________________________ 16
D. Structural reforms _____________________________________________________________________________ 18
E. Financial sector ________________________________________________________________________________ 18
PROGRAM DESIGN _____________________________________________________________________________ 20
A. Should the fiscal adjustment path have been more gradual? _________________________________ 20
B. Should the adjustment path have been more flexible? ________________________________________ 21
C. Should the larger economic downturn have been expected? _________________________________ 21
D. Were structural reforms sufficient to restore competitiveness and growth? __________________ 22
E. Was the mix of fiscal measures appropriate? __________________________________________________ 23
F. Was there sufficient ownership and capacity for reforms?_____________________________________ 24
G. Was the financing of the program likely to be sufficient? _____________________________________ 25
H. Should debt restructuring have been attempted at the outset? ______________________________ 26
CONSISTENCY WITH FUND RULES AND PRACTICES _________________________________________ 29
A. Was exceptional access justified? _____________________________________________________________ 29
B. Was the SBA consistent with other Fund programs with countries in currency unions? _______ 30

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

3

GREECE

C. How well did the Troika arrangement work? __________________________________________________ 31
D. Should the EFF have been introduced at the beginning? _____________________________________ 31
POSSIBLE LESSONS _____________________________________________________________________________ 32
BOXES
1. A Chronology of Events _______________________________________________________________________ 35
2. Progress with Internal Devaluation under the SBA-Supported Program ______________________ 36
3. Pension Reform ________________________________________________________________________________ 38
4. Revenue Administration Reform during the SBA-Supported Program ________________________ 39
5. Structural Benchmarks: Design and Implementation __________________________________________ 41
TABLES
1. Selected Economic Indicators, 2009–14 _______________________________________________________ 42
2. Quantitative Performance Criteria, 2010–13 ___________________________________________________ 43
3. Structural Conditionality _______________________________________________________________________ 44
REFERENCES
References _______________________________________________________________________________________ 47
APPENDIX
I. Views of the Authorities ________________________________________________________________________ 49

4

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

1.
An Ex-Post Evaluation (EPE) of Exceptional Access under Greece’s 2010 Stand-By
Arrangement (SBA) is timely. The Fund’s rules require an EPE of exceptional access decisions
within a year of the arrangement ending. This requirement is intended to ensure uniformity of
treatment across members and that no large program escapes evaluation. Greece’s SBAsupported program, approved in May 2010 and cancelled in March 2012, was an exceptionally
large program with access of €30 billion and warrants evaluation even though the SBA was
immediately succeeded by an extended arrangement under the Extended Fund Facility (EFF). As
with all EPEs, the purpose of the report is (i) to review performance against program objectives;
and (ii) to evaluate program design encompassing the macroeconomic strategy, program
architecture, adequacy of financing, and the case made for exceptional access.

BACKGROUND TO THE CRISIS
A. The build-up of imbalances
2.
Euro accession led to an economic boom in Greece. Adoption of the euro and loose
global credit conditions in the 2000s allowed Greece easy access to foreign borrowing that
financed a significant expansion of government spending. Robust private credit growth following
financial liberalization also served to boost household
30
30
consumption. Real GDP growth averaged 4 percent
Long-term Government Bond Yields (Percent)
Germany
from 2000–07, higher than in all euro area countries
25
25
Greece
save Ireland and Luxembourg. Although asset price
Ireland
20
20
Spain
inflation and household indebtedness remained
Portugal
15
15
moderate, government debt mounted rapidly.
10

10

3.
Fiscal policy was pro-cyclical. Some argue that
5
5
Greece was the country that gained most from euro
adoption (Fernandez-Villaverde et al, 2013) with
0
0
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
borrowing costs falling sharply. As a direct fiscal
Sources: ECB; and Eurostat.
dividend, government interest expenditure dropped
from 11½ percent of GDP in the mid-1990s to 5
percent of GDP in the mid-2000s. However, these savings were more than swallowed up by
increased spending on wages and pensions. The economy turned down in the wake of the
Lehman crisis and the general government deficit reached 15½ percent of GDP (after
incorporating data revisions), up from 4 percent of GDP in 2001. Public debt was 129 percent of
GDP at end-2009, with 75 percent held by foreigners. There were also significant contingent
liabilities due to public enterprises borrowing under state guarantee, while the pension system
had become underfunded as a result of increasingly generous entitlements and an aging
population.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

5

GREECE

65

General Government Operations
(Percent of GDP)
Revenue
Expenditure
General government balance (rhs)

60
55

3
0
-3

30
25

Social benefits

-9
45

2005

20

35
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

20

2009
15

15

Wage bill

10

10

-15

5

5

-18

0

-12

40

25

2000

-6
50

30

General Government Expenditure
(Percent of GDP)

0
EU avg EA avg

GRC

EU avg EA avg

GRC

Sources: Eurostat; and IMF staff estimates.

4.
The current account deficit deteriorated. The counterpart to the decline in
government saving was a sharply widening
4
current account deficit that reached 15 percent
Current Account (Percent of GDP)
of GDP in 2008. The sustained economic boom
0
Total
and a lack of competition in domestic goods
Trade balance
-4
and services markets kept wage and price
inflation consistently above euro averages.
-8
Competitiveness, as measured by the unit labor
-12
cost (ULC) -based real effective exchange rate
(REER), declined by 20-30 percent in the decade
-16
following euro adoption.
-20

4
0
-4
-8
-12
-16
-20

2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
5.
There were also serious doubts about
Sources:
Bank
of
Greece;
Elstat;
and
IMF
staff
calculations.
the quality of Greek deficit and debt
statistics. Data concerns had flared up in 2004
when upward revisions to the fiscal deficit numbers raised questions about whether Greece had
ever met the Maastricht deficit criterion of an annual fiscal deficit of 3 percent of GDP. The
European Commission (EC) attempted to coax Greece into reducing its deficit via the Excessive
Deficit Procedure of the Stability and Growth Pact.

B. Crisis triggers
6.
The global financial crisis endangered Greece’s government-led growth model.
Greece’s economic boom was propelled by large foreign-funded fiscal deficits that enabled
demand to outpace output. The global crisis threatened the continued financing of this growth
model. After the Lehman shock in September 2008, spreads on Greek government bonds over
10-year bunds jumped to 300 bps compared to about 50 bps before the crisis. Standard and
Poor’s downgraded Greece from A+ to A in January 2009 citing a loss of competitiveness
worsened by the global financial crisis. Against this backdrop, Greece had become extremely
vulnerable to a stop in private capital flows.

6

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

7.
Data revisions unsettled markets. In October 2009, a new government took office and
announced that the fiscal problem had been significantly understated. The projected budget
deficit for 2009 was revised up from 4 to 12½ percent of GDP (still 3 percentage points short of
the final estimate). Public debt estimates were also marked up sharply. Fitch responded by
downgrading Greece's sovereign rating from A- to BBB+. Global markets, already roiled by
events in Dubai in November 2009, sold off further. Scrutiny of Greek high sovereign
indebtedness was extended to other euro area countries.

C. Crisis response
8.
Initially, the authorities sought a European solution. In December 2009, Greece
committed to achieving fiscal consolidation via a Stability Program with the EC. At the same time,
the Greek authorities ruled out the possibility of seeking Fund help. The euro area authorities
seemed of like mind, indicating that financial assistance from the Fund was not “appropriate or
welcome” (see Mackenzie, 2010). Nonetheless, the new government recognized that tax
administration and expenditure management were extremely weak and sought technical advice
from the Fund. Missions that visited Athens in early 2010 provided initial roadmaps for fiscal
structural reforms.
9.
Greece agreed to a fiscal consolidation plan with the EC. Greece’s 2010 Stability
Program submitted to the EC in January 2010 aimed to cut the deficit from 12½ percent of GDP
to 8¾ percent of GDP in 2010 and by a further 3 percentage points in 2011 and in 2012 (the “43-3” plan). To begin the process, the authorities announced the freezing of public sector wages,
partial cancellation of civil servant bonuses, and 30
30
Sovereign Amortization Falling Due
increases in indirect taxes.
10.
Markets, however, doubted whether
these steps would be adequate. Financing
conditions became progressively more difficult.
Greece was able to raise €5 billion on two
occasions in March 2010 at spreads of about
300 bps, but by the second issue, the foreign
bid had dropped off appreciably. Spreads in the
secondary market rose further in April, while
large amortizations were coming due in May.

25

(Billions of euros)

25

20

20

15

15

10

10

5

5

0

0
2008Q1 2008Q3 2009Q1 2009Q3 2010Q1 2010Q3
Source: IMF Country Report No. 09/244.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

7

GREECE

11.
Against this backdrop, a request for a Fund program was made. The euro zone
decided in April 2010 that the Fund should be a formal part of Greece’s rescue. Following
negotiations with the newly-established Troika (the Fund, the EC and the European Central Bank
(ECB)), agreement on a program to assist Greece was reached in early May. Total financing was
€110 billion, of which the Fund committed €30 billion under an SBA (approved May 9). The
remainder of the financing took the form of bilateral loans from euro area countries to be pooled
by the EC under the Greek Loan Facility.
12.
The process of building a firewall began. Contagion from Greece was a major concern
for euro area members given the considerable
700
700
Bank Exposure to Euro Area Periphery by
exposure of their banks to the sovereign debt of
Country, 2009Q4 (Billions of euros)
600
600
the euro area periphery.1 To prevent the crisis
Spain
Portugal
500
500
spilling over, the euro area initiated the creation
Italy
of a financial safety net for its member countries.
Ireland
400
400
Greece
In early May 2010, agreement was reached to set
300
300
up the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF)
200
with €500 billion in financing.2 Euro area and Fund 200
officials confirmed that these resources could be
100
100
supplemented by an additional €250 billion in
0
0
lending from the Fund provided on a country by
FRA DEU GBR NLD USA ESP JPN BEL IRL PRT ITA
country basis.
Source: Bank for International Settlements.
13.
Additional assistance came from the ECB. The ECB’s contribution was to set up the
Securities Markets Program (SMP) in May 2010 that would purchase public debt securities in
secondary markets. The ECB also relaxed its eligibility requirements so that Greek government
debt instruments remained eligible as collateral for central bank financing despite now being
below investment grade.

1

The ECB argued that the financial integration associated with monetary union - a benefit during normal times –
served to intensify systemic spillover effects during periods of stress. See ECB (2011).

2

The EFSF was incorporated as a company in Luxembourg on June 7, 2010 with a lending capacity of €440 billion
that would be combined with loans from the European Financial Stabilization Mechanism (EFSM) of €60 billion.
The EFSF was created as a temporary rescue mechanism; in December 2010, a decision to create a permanent
crisis resolution mechanism, the European Stabilization Mechanism (ESM), was announced.

8

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

AN EXCEPTIONAL FUND PROGRAM
14.

Greece’s SBA-supported program was exceptional for a number of reasons:



Access was the largest in Fund history. Despite representing less than 30 percent of the
financing, Fund access was €30 billion, or 3,212 percent of quota. This was the largest Fund
program ever relative to quota.

3,000

125
100

50

1,000

25

25

0

0

0

ECU
PHL
RUS
THA
BRA
URY
MEX
ARG
IDN
TUR
KOR

0
MDA
UVK
JAM
DOM
KNA
ATG
MDV
GRC

500

UKR
HUN
ROM
ISL
LVA

500

ARG,
2001

50

TUR,
2000

1,500

ROM

Previous crises,
median: 649

HUN

75

MEX,
1994 3/

Wave 2,
median: 548

1,000

75

2,000

Selected
Wave 1
Programs

KOR,
1997 2/

1,500

100

Burden Sharing (Percent of total official financing)
Other
E.U.
IMF

2,500

2,500
2,000

125

GRC

3,000

3,500

Access
(Percent of quota)

LVA 1/

3,500

Sources: IMF country reports; and IMF staff estimates.
1/ Other includes €3.1 billion from EU, €1.8 billion from Nordic Countries, €0.4 billion from CZE, POL, and EST, and €0.5
billion from WB and EBRD.
2/ Other includes $5 billion from U.S., $10 billion from each WB and BoJ, $4 billion from ADB, and the rest from other G7.
3/ Other includes $20 billion from U.S., $10 billion from BIS and $1 billion from Bank of Canada.



It was the first ever program with a member of the euro area. A Fund program
supporting a member that had fixed its exchange rate was not unprecedented (for example,
Latvia), nor was a program with a continuing member of a currency union (recent examples
are St. Kitts, Benin, and Burkina Faso). Greece stood out because it is a euro area member
and the euro is a reserve currency.
200





The Troika set up was novel. The Fund had
recently joined forces with the EC in programs
with EU members outside the euro area
(Hungary, Latvia, and Romania). However,
Greece was the first program in which the ECB
was formally involved.

150

Public Debt at Program Request (Percent of GDP)
GRC, 2010
LVA, 2008
TUR, 2001
ROM, 2008

ISL, 2008
PAK, 2008
HUN, 2008

200

150

100

100

50

50

Public debt would remain exceptionally
high during the program period. Despite a
0
0
large fiscal adjustment, public debt was
t-2
t-1
t
t+1 t+2 t+3 t+4 t+5
Sources: IMF country reports; and IMF staff estimates.
expected to keep rising during the program
reflecting the difficult trajectory that an
internal devaluation implies for debt sustainability: under a fixed exchange rate, the

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

9

GREECE

disinflation or deflation necessary to restore competitiveness serves to increase the debtGDP ratio, a trend aggravated by the contraction in real GDP. This implied a public debt
profile unlike other large Fund programs with the exception of Latvia which had also fixed its
exchange rate. However, public debt in Latvia was appreciably lower. In Greece, debt would
peak at 149 percent of GDP only in 2013. A pending data revision was expected to raise this
projection by 5–7 percentage points.


The program required the Fund’s rules for exceptional access to be modified. To justify
exceptional access, four criteria had to be met: (1) exceptional balance of payments
pressures; (2) a high probability that public debt is sustainable in the medium term; (3) good
prospects of regaining access to private capital markets; and (4) a reasonably strong prospect
of the program’s success. The sticking point for staff was Criterion 2: even with
implementation of agreed policies, uncertainties were so significant that staff was unable to
vouch that public debt was sustainable with high probability. But staff favored going ahead
with exceptional access because of the fear that spillovers from Greece would threaten the
euro area and the global economy. A proviso was therefore added to Criterion 2 that where
debt was not sustainable with high probability, a high risk of international spillover effects
provided an alternative justification for exceptional access. Unusually, although this is entirely
legal, this change in Fund policy was made in the context of the Greece SBA Board meeting.

PROGRAM STRATEGY AND IMPLEMENTATION
15.
Greece embarked on a far-reaching program of reforms in May 2010. Under the
program supported by the SBA, Greece adopted an ambitious multi-year adjustment program to
lower the fiscal deficit and public debt ratio, reduce domestic demand in line with supply
capacity, and increase supply and competitiveness so as to invigorate investment, exports, and
private sector growth. A brief history of developments under the program is provided in Box 1
which views developments under the SBA-supported program through the prism of Greece’s
sovereign spreads.
16.
The first pillar of the program was to drastically shrink the fiscal deficit. Fiscal
adjustment was complicated by an expected 3 percentage point of GDP rise in government
interest payments over 2010-14 reflecting the replacement of low-interest debt with more
expensive official (and eventually private) borrowing.3 For debt to start declining, the required
adjustment in the primary balance by 2014 was 14½ percentage points of GDP. To achieve this
adjustment, revenue and expenditure measures amounting to 11 percent of GDP were identified
that would come on top of the 5 percent of GDP in measures implemented in the first half of

3

Interest rates on the loans by euro area member states were 300 basis points over the swap rate for up to 3
years’ maturity and 400 basis points above for longer maturities.

10

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

2010. Reforms to tax administration and public financial management would support this effort.
Major changes would also be made to the pension system to ensure its viability
17.
The second pillar of the program consisted of structural reforms. Given Greece’s
commitment to stay in the euro and the absence of an exchange rate lever, structural reforms
were necessary to facilitate internal devaluation and boost economic growth. Specific reforms
were identified to increase competition in labor and product markets, boost productivity, and
improve the business environment. Positive GDP growth was projected from 2012.
18.
The third pillar of the program was to preserve financial stability. The banks were
viewed as vulnerable to the downturn and to an adverse feedback loop from the sovereign. The
Hellenic Financial Stabilization Fund (HFSF) was set up to provide capital to banks as needed. The
program included €10 billion that would be available to provide resources to the HFSF if and
when such needs arose.
19.
The program aimed to place Greece’s debt on a sustainable path. The combination of
large fiscal adjustment and growth-enhancing structural reforms was projected to cut public
debt to 120 percent of GDP by 2020. The program also envisaged a significant adjustment in the
external current account, although this would be gradual since competitiveness would be
regained slowly and external interest payments would rise. Program financing included €110
billion that was calculated as sufficient to cover the remaining fiscal deficit, the needs of the
HFSF, and all government bonds falling due in 2010 and 2011. Market access was assumed to be
regained in 2012.
20.
The report is structured as follows. A review of program outcomes (page 12) shows
that Greece’s SBA-supported program had some important successes, notably regarding fiscal
consolidation and pension reform. Moreover, Greece was able to stay in the euro area and
international systemic spillovers were relatively well-contained. However, the SBA also failed to
achieve critical objectives, especially with regard to restoring growth, ensuring debt sustainability,
and regaining market access. This mixed record raises questions about the design of the
program (page 20) and about whether the Fund’s decision to modify its exceptional access rules
to support the program was justified (page 29). The final section (page 32) reviews the possible
lessons learned.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

11

GREECE

PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Key objectives for Greece’s SBA-supported program were to eliminate fiscal and current account
imbalances, regain competitiveness, maintain financial stability, and boost growth and
employment.

A. Macroeconomic outcomes
21.
The economic downturn proved considerably more severe than projected. Data
revisions complicate the comparison,4 but real GDP in 2012 was 17 percent lower than in 2009,
compared to a 5½ percent decline projected in the SBA-supported program. The original growth
projections were largely maintained until the fifth review (December 2011), but were then
marked down with the expected recovery delayed until 2014. Projections for unemployment
were raised in line with the severity of the contraction. The unemployment rate in 2012 was 25
percent compared to the original program projection of 15 percent. This huge rise in
unemployment exceeded that which would be expected based on estimates of the Okun
coefficient for Greece (see April 2010, WEO).
22.
Other variables showed less divergence from projection. Inflation initially overshot
the program projection due to the indirect tax increases, but subsequently came down as activity
weakened. Prices fell by less than the decline in wages in part reflecting continued rigidities in
product markets. Reductions in ULCs were wage driven with few indications that productivity had
increased (see Box 2). The ULC REER is estimated to have declined by 9 percent during the period
of the SBA. The current account deficit decreased broadly as projected, although by less than
expected in cyclically-adjusted terms. There was a sharp compression of imports, but little pickup in exports.

4

Following large data revisions due to misreporting, with Greece being found in breach of its reporting
obligations under Article VIII, Section 5, the authorities took actions to improve the published data (Box 2, IMF

Country Report No. 10/110). These methodological changes along with data revisions implied a shifting data
landscape for the program. Eurostat did not validate the fiscal statistics until the second review (Box 1, IMF
Country Report No. 10/372) and revisions to national accounts have been ongoing (a major revision in October
2012 implied that GDP in 2010 had contracted 1.4 percent more than previously reported).

12

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

200

200

Real GDP (Billions of euros)

8

Real GDP Growth
(Year-on-year percent change)
SBA
1st review
2nd review
3rd review
4th review
5th review
Latest

6
4
175

175

SBA
1st review
2nd review
3rd review
4th review
5th review
Latest

150

125
2006

2008

2010

150

125
2012

2

8
6
4
2

0

0

-2

-2

-4

-4

-6

-6
-8

-8

2014

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

Sources: IMF country reports; and IMF staff calculations.
3
2

Greece: Evolution of Real GDP Growth
Projections During 2010 and 2011 (Percent)

3

1

1

0

0

-1

-1

2012
2011

-2

-3

-4

-4
Consensus

0

0

-5

-5

-15

-6

-7
May-10 Aug-10 Nov-10 Feb-11 May-11 Aug-11 Nov-11

-7

-20
2006

Sources: Monthly Consensus Forecast; and IMF Country
Reports.

30

SBA
1st review
2nd review
3rd review
4th review
5th review
Latest

20
15

25

15
10

5

5

0

0
2008

2010

2010

2012

6

Average CPI Inflation
(Year-on-year percent change)

5
4

20

10

2006

2008

2012

2014

-10

-15

-20

2014

Sources: IMF country reports.

30

Unemployment Rate (Percent)

25

SBA
1st review
2nd review
3rd review
4th review
5th review
Latest

-10

-5

SBA

-6

5

Current Account Balance

-2

-3

-5

5

2

3
2

6
SBA
1st review
2nd review
3rd review
4th review
5th review
Latest

5
4
3
2

1

1

0

0

-1

-1
-2

-2
2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

Sources: IMF country reports; IMF World Economic Outlook; and IMF staff calculations.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

13

GREECE

B. Fiscal policy outcomes
23.
A large reduction in the fiscal deficit was achieved. The change in the primary deficit
during 2010–11 was 8 percentage points of GDP, slightly above target, despite the deep
recession. The authorities introduced additional measures in 2011 (Medium-Term Fiscal Strategy,
amounting to 10½ percent of GDP during 2011–14) once it became clear that the initial set of
fiscal measures was insufficient to deliver the consolidation target. In cyclically-adjusted terms,
the primary balance improved by about 13 percent of potential GDP during the SBA.5 Estimates
of the debt-stabilizing level of the primary surplus were reduced from the fifth review once
private sector involvement (PSI) reduced the debt stock and lowered the average interest rate on
public debt.6
24.
Taxes were increased further. Revenue measures had already been taken in May 2010
under the 2010 Stability program including increases in VAT rates. Additional tax policy measures
implemented during the SBA-supported program comprised increases in indirect tax rates,
including further VAT rate hikes, a new property tax, and somewhat higher income taxes. Efforts
were also made to strengthen tax administration and raise tax collections.
25.
Expenditure measures focused on reducing public sector wages and social benefits.
Public sector wages and pensions were cut through elimination of 13th and 14th monthly
payments, but with safeguards intended to protect the most vulnerable. Measures implemented
in 2010–11 included cuts in public sector salaries, bonuses, and allowances, and steps to reduce
health care spending on drugs. Other measures included cuts in capital spending and a
reorganization of subnational governments (Kalikrates). The authorities also adopted a new
budget framework and put in place spending control mechanisms. Nonetheless, arrears and
inadequate data reporting remained an issue throughout the SBA-supported program.

5

The performance criterion on the general government primary cash balance was met for end-2010 but this is
exaggerated to some extent by a build-up in domestic arrears: during 2010, this performance criterion did not
take account of the accumulation of arrears (monitored via an indicative target that was breached by €3 billion,
or a bit over 1 percent of GDP). The definition of the performance criterion was subsequently modified to
incorporate domestic arrears.

6

Debt restructuring in March 2012 led to a 60 percent reduction in privately held debt. Public debt fell by €62.4
billion to €305.5 billion. Some relief was also provided on official debt in March and December 2012 including a
reduction in interest rates on the euro area loans. See Zettelmeyer et al (2013).

14

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

10

10

General Government Interest Expenditure
(Percent of GDP)

8

8

6

6

8

Average Interest Rate on Public Debt (Percent)

7

7

6

6

5

5

4
4

4
SBA
2nd review
4th review
Latest

2

1st review
3rd review
5th review

2

0
2006

2008

2010

2012

4

SBA
1st review
2nd review
3rd review
4th review
5th review
Latest

3
2
1

0

8

3
2
1
0

0

2014

2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020

Sources: IMF country reports.
3

3

General Government Overall Balance
(Percent of GDP)

0

0

-3

-3

-6

-6

-9

-9
SBA request

-12

4th review

-15

4

4

0

0

-4

-4
SBA request
2nd review

-8

5th review
-18

2010

2011

2012

2013

-8

4th review

5th review
-18
2009

8

General Government Primary Balance
(Percent of GDP)

-12

2nd review

-15

8

-12

-12
2009

2014

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Sources: IMF Country Reports; and IMF staff estimates.

General Government Operations, 2009–11
(Percent of GDP)
2009
SBA Request

2010
Est.

SBA Request

2011
Est.

SBA Request

Change, 2009–11
Est.

SBA Request

Est.

Revenue

36.9

38.3

40.5

40.6

42.5

42.4

5.6

4.1

Expenditure
Primary
Interest

50.4
45.4
5.0

54.0
48.8
5.2

48.5
42.9
5.6

51.4
45.5
5.9

50.1
43.5
6.6

52.0
44.8
7.2

-0.3
-1.9
1.6

-2.0
-4.0
2.0

Overall balance
Primary balance

-13.6
-8.6

-15.6
-10.5

-8.1
-2.4

-10.8
-4.9

-7.6
-0.9

-9.6
-2.4

6.0
7.7

6.0
8.1

Cyclically-adjusted
primary balance 1/

-16.0

-14.0

-7.8

-6.3

-5.8

-1.3

10.3

12.7

Sources: Eurostat; and IMF staff calculations.
1/ Percent of potential nominal GDP.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

15

GREECE

26.
About half of the adjustment in the primary deficit reflected lower spending. As a
result of the expenditure measures undertaken during the SBA-supported program, primary
expenditure declined by 4 percentage points of
12
12
Changes in General Government Primary
GDP in 2009–11, but still exceeded the 2005 level
Expenditure (Percent of GDP)
Other
by about the same amount. Moreover, the wage
8
8
Non-pension social benefits
bill remained high compared with other EU
Pension
Wage bill
countries; programs for social protection remained 4
Primary expenditure
4
largely untargeted and inefficient (OECD,
forthcoming); and health care reform had yet to
0
0
be completed.
-4

-4

27.
Fiscal consolidation proceeded, but
momentum on fiscal structural reforms flagged. -8
-8
2005–09
2009–11
2005–11
Measures taken contributed to strong upfront
Sources: Eurostat; and IMF staff calculations.
consolidation (wage and pension cuts, VAT hikes)
and to improved long-term sustainability (pension reform). A far-reaching pension reform was
approved by Parliament in July 2010 that was designed to substantially contain increases in
pension benefits over the long run (see Box 3). Fund TA also led to improvements in expenditure
and commitment controls and to better fiscal reporting and budgeting practices. However, tax
administration reforms encountered setbacks due to political resistance and capacity constraints.
Although TA led to improvements in on-time VAT filing, there were few signs by the end of the
SBA-supported program that collection efficiency was being improved on a permanent basis (see
Box 4).

C. Debt and financing outcomes
28.
Public debt overshot program projections by a large margin. The debt sustainability
analysis (DSA) in the program request included stress tests but these turned out to be mild
compared to actual outcomes. At the outset of the program, debt was projected to peak at 154156 percent of GDP in 2013 (depending on data revisions). However, by the fourth review in July
2011 (i.e., before PSI was in prospect), the end-2013 debt ratio was projected at 170 percent of
GDP. As the program unfolded, the underlying debt dynamics worsened significantly because
output contractions and deflation were more pronounced than expected. Lower nominal growth
raised the interest rate-growth differential and led to progressively higher expected debt paths.
Data revisions affecting both public debt and GDP exacerbated these trends.

16

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

200

200

7

180

180

6

160

160

140

140

Gross Public Sector Debt (Percent of GDP)

5
4

120
100
80

3

SBA
1st review
2nd review
3rd review
4th review
5th review 1/
Latest

120

2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020

7

Privatization Receipts (Percent of GDP)

6

SBA
1st review
2nd review
3rd review
4th review
5th review
Latest

5
4
3

2

2

100

1

1

80

0

0
2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020

Sources: IMF country reports.
1/ Already incorporated effects of debt restructuring.

29.
Privatization outcomes were disappointing. The authorities signaled a strong
commitment to privatization in mid-2011 with parliamentary approval of a privatization and real
estate development strategy. However, despite little progress having been made to date, the
fourth review made extremely optimistic assumptions about privatization with envisaged receipts
rising to €50 billion compared to about €10 billion in the original program. Such receipts became
less important for debt sustainability from the fifth review once PSI was in prospect, plus equity
prices had by that stage come down sharply. In the fifth review, much lower projections for
privatization receipts were made and in general the DSA was cast with more conservative
assumptions.
30.
Weaker macroeconomic outturns and eventual PSI exerted opposite effects on debt
sustainability. Adjusting the debt projections under the original SBA with the macro figures
used in the January 2013 review of the EFF-supported program (and for subsequent data
revisions to debt and GDP) show
220
public debt at about 180 percent of 220
Public Sector Debt (Percent of GDP)
Optimistic inflation
Optimistic Real
GDP in 2020. The debt
(GDP defflator
200
200
GDP growth
change)
restructuring, however, provided
Data revision
more than an offset and the latest
180
180
projections show debt declining to
Factors unrelated
160
to real GDP growth
about 120 percent of GDP by 2020. 160
31.
Private creditors were
able to significantly reduce their
exposure. Non-resident holdings
of government debt dropped
sharply in 2010–12. Resident
holdings of government debt
initially rose, but then started to fall

140
120
100

or inflation, mainly
debt restructuring

Original SBA
Third review
Latest real GDP growth 1/
Latest nominal GDP growth 1/
Latest baseline 1/

140
120
100

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Sources: IMF Country Reports; and IMF staff calculations.
1/ As of the 2013 Article IV consultation.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

17

GREECE

as well. There was a large-scale substitution from
privately-held to publicly-held debt. Part of this
was by design―program financing was to be
used to repay maturing bonds in 2010 and
2011―but the shift was intensified by market
access not being regained in 2012, as well as by
SMP. Purchases of Greek government bonds
under SMP created rigidities when debt was
restructured as a result of the decision to exclude
SMP (and euro area national central bank) bond
holdings from the PSI.

D. Structural reforms

250

250
General Government Debt By Owner 1/
(Billions of euros)
200

200

150

150
Residents
Official creditors

100

100

Non-residents

50

50

0

0
2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Sources: Greek authorities; and IMF staff estimates.
1/ Assumes that the stock of bonds in the ECB's SMP
as of end-2012 was purchased evenly over 2010-1.
Bonds held by Eurosystem central banks, EC, and EIB
for investment purposes are not treated as debt to
official creditors.

32.
Labor market reforms encountered
resistance under the SBA-supported program.
Labor market reforms were initially judged to be
progressing well, but a more critical view was taken in later reviews. The wage bargaining system
was reformed, but there were few firm level agreements and the Fund judged labor market
reforms not to have delivered enough flexibility. The absence of early actions to reduce private
wages may have aggravated the job losses from the economic downturn.7
33.
The product market and regulatory environment also proved resilient to change.
Although the initial momentum appeared strong, reforms to product markets and the business
environment failed to generate a critical mass necessary to boost growth. Program reviews
reported that progress was disappointing. For example, one-stop-shops and fast-track
investment approval laws were passed, but implementation was delayed. While the law
liberalizing regulated professions was also passed, the deadline for requesting reinstatement of
justified restrictions was postponed thus delaying implementation. This slow progress militated
against realization of the productivity gains that had been hoped for in the program.

E. Financial sector
34.
The banking system was perceived to be relatively sound when the program began.
The bank capital ratio was 11.7 percent aided by a recapitalization in 2009, but balance sheets
came under pressure from higher nonperforming loans (NPLs) once the economy weakened.
Moreover, liquidity conditions tightened in 2009 due to banks losing wholesale market access
and some deposit outflows.

7

It was only with the approval of the EFF in March 2012 that significant labor reforms took place including cuts in
minimum wages in the private sector.

18

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

35.
As the recession intensified and liquidity tightened, the financial sector became
increasingly vulnerable. Financial sector distress was a result of the protracted recession and
sovereign debt problems. This was in contrast to Ireland and Spain where causality ran the other
way. By 2011, deleveraging in the financial sector and restructuring of state-owned banks was
perceived necessary. ATE, the largest state-owned bank and the only Greek bank to fail the
Europe-wide stress tests in mid-2010, had to be recapitalized. Sizable deposit outflows began in
the second half of 2011, fanned by fears of a Greek euro exit.
70

Funding Structure of the Banking System
(Percent of total liabilities)

60
50

70

40

60

30

50
Liabilities to Bank of Greece

40

Overnight and short-term deposits

20

20

30

10

10

20

10

10

-10

0

-20

0
2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

0

0

20

2008

30

40

Liabilities to credit institutions

30

40

Credit to Households
(Year-on-year percent change)

Greece
Ireland
Portugal
Spain

-10
-20

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Sources: Bank of Greece; Eurostat; Haver; and Fund staff calculations.
150
125

Eurosystem Borrowing and Emergency Liquidity
Assistance (Billions of euros)
ELA

40

50

50

25

25

0

0
2010

2011

2012

2013

24.5

19.1

20

40

30

2012

10

2009

2006

100
75

2008

NPLs by Category (Percent)

125

75

2007

36.6

30

Monetary policy operations

100

150

20

10

7.6
4.9

4.7

Mortgage

Corporate

0

0
Consumer

Source: Bank of Greece.

36.
The ECB provided substantial and extraordinary liquidity support. As noted, from
May 2010, the ECB suspended the link between sovereign credit ratings and eligibility of
collateral for refinancing operations and intervened directly in the government bond market
under the SMP. The ECB also began to accept uncovered bank bonds guaranteed by the
government as collateral eligible for refinancing operations.
37.
PSI served to eliminate the banks’ capital. Greek banks were heavily exposed to the
sovereign, holding government bonds with a book value of about €40 billion (after some initial

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

19

GREECE

June 2011 impairments). By contrast, core capital was €22 billion, or about the same magnitude
as the capital needs arising from the PSI. Only €1.5 billion was drawn from the HFSF during the
SBA-supported program, but the banks’ capital needs subsequently dwarfed the HFSF provision.
As of the fourth review the purpose of the HFSF changed from a means of topping up capital for
banks that had tried and failed to raise private capital to providing a substantial injection of
public funds for banks that had been severely affected by the PSI and the deep recession: the
amount needed for the HFSF in the context of the EFF was estimated at €50 billion.

PROGRAM DESIGN
While significant fiscal adjustment occurred during the SBA, critical objectives such as regaining
confidence and restoring growth were not achieved. This raises important questions about the
design of the program.

A. Should the fiscal adjustment path have been more gradual?
38.
It is difficult to argue that adjustment should have been attempted more slowly.
The required adjustment in the primary balance, 14½ percentage points of GDP, was an
enormous adjustment with relatively few precedents,8 but was the minimum needed to bring
debt down to 120 percent by 2020. Moreover, despite the starting point being slightly worse
than thought to be the case when the 2010 Stability Program was drawn up,9 the SBA-supported
program had already extended the period over which the Maastricht deficit target would be
achieved from 3 to 5 years. Since the program only ran through mid-2013, the last part of this
adjustment would occur after the program and the conditionality had ended.10 Moreover, debt
would still be increasing when the program ended.

Targeted Fiscal Adjustment: Overall Deficit
(Percent of GDP)
2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

SP, Jan., 2010 ("4-3-3")

12.5

8.8

6.0

≤ 3.0

≤ 3.0

≤ 3.0

SBA, May, 2010

13.6

8.1

7.6

6.5

4.8

2.6

Sources: Greece's 2010 Stability Program; and IMF Country Report No. 10/110.

8

Episodes of comparable large fiscal adjustments include Greece where in at least two instances (in 1978 and
1990) the annual contraction in the primary deficit amounted to over 7 percent of GDP (see Tsibouris et al, 2006).
However, the required adjustment under the SBA-supported program would be undertaken in a very weak global
growth environment.

9

In April 2010, the estimated fiscal deficit for 2009 was revised to 13½ percent of GDP from the 12½ percent of
GDP estimate that prevailed when the 2010 Stability Program was formulated.

10

This raises the issue of why an EFF was not introduced from the outset – see discussion below.

20

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

39.
More importantly, a flatter adjustment path would have required more than
€110 billion in financing. The Greek SBA was already the highest access loan in Fund history.
While the euro partners could have provided more than €80 billion in funding (although this was
already more than 35 percent of Greek GDP), this would have been politically difficult. Debt
restructuring could also have provided the authorities with some leeway, but as discussed below,
this option was not politically feasible.

B. Should the adjustment path have been more flexible?
40.
The scope for increasing flexibility was also limited. The fiscal targets became even
more ambitious once the downturn exceeded expectations. In addition, the starting point
moved.11 However, the automatic stabilizers were not allowed to operate and adjustments were
not made to the fiscal targets until the fifth review in December 2011. While earlier adjustment of
the targets could have tempered the contraction, the program would then have required
additional financing. The date by which debt started to decline would also have been stretched
beyond the program period.

C. Should the larger economic downturn have been expected?
41.
There were a number of reasons why the actual decline in GDP was so much greater
than anticipated:


The fiscal multipliers were too low.. The question that arises is whether underestimation of
the size of the fiscal multipliers in the SBA-supported program caused the depth of the
recession to be underestimated. The program initially assumed a multiplier of only 0.5
despite staff’s recognition that Greece’s relatively closed economy and lack of an exchange
rate tool would concentrate the fiscal shock. Recent iterations of the Greek program have
assumed a multiplier of twice the size. This reflects research showing that multipliers tend to
be higher when households are liquidity constrained and monetary policy cannot provide an
offset (see October 2012 WEO), influences that appear not to have been fully appreciated
when the SBA-supported program was designed. Aslund (2013) has also argued that there is
a habitual tendency of Fund programs to be over-optimistic on growth until the economy
reaches a bottom (and thereafter to underestimate the recovery).12



However, the deeper-than-expected contraction was not purely due to the fiscal shock.
Part of the contraction in activity was not directly related to the fiscal adjustment, but rather
reflected the absence of a pick-up in private sector growth due to the boost to productivity

11

The estimated 2009 fiscal deficit was revised again in December 2010 from 13½ to 15½ percent of GDP.

12

By contrast, the Fund’s 2011 Conditionality Review finds that growth projections for program countries do not
display a bias in the aggregate (contrary to past studies, which found an optimistic bias). See IMF (2012a).

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

21

GREECE

and improvements in the investment climate that the program hoped would result from
structural reforms. Confidence was also badly affected by domestic social and political
turmoil and talk of a Greek exit from the euro by European policy-makers. 13 On the other
hand, the offset to the fiscal contraction from higher private sector growth that was assumed
during the program period appears to have been optimistic (see Section D below), while
some of the adverse political developments were endogenous and followed from limited
ownership of the program (see Section F below). A larger contraction should probably
therefore have been expected, although it should be noted that market forecasters were no
more accurate.14
42.
In any event, a deep recession was unavoidable. Greece lost market access in the first
half of 2010 with a fiscal deficit so large and amortization obligations so onerous that it is
difficult to see how a severe economic contraction could have been avoided. Indeed, if Greece
had defaulted, the absence of deficit financing would have required primary fiscal balance from
the second half of 2010. This would have required an abrupt fiscal consolidation, and led to an
evaporation of confidence and huge deposit outflow that would have most likely made the
contraction in output even larger.

D. Were structural reforms sufficient to restore competitiveness and
growth?
43.
Structural reforms were critical to improving competitiveness. The program had to
work within the constraints of the fixed exchange rate and engineer an internal devaluation. Part
of the adjustment in ULCs would come from the economic slowdown that would exert downward
pressure on wages. The rest would follow from structural reforms that would free up Greece’s
rigid labor and product markets and raise productivity.
44.
Actions were not taken to adjust private sector wages. While the program cut wages
and bonuses in the public sector, there were no direct attempts to lower private sector wages.
The EC took the view that forcing reductions in private wages, for example, through abolition of
bonuses, was not critical: industry did not consider labor cost to be excessive and in any case
exports were unlikely to be wage sensitive.15 Instead focus was on increasing the scope for wage

13

External demand also weakened during the program period: the April 2010 WEO projected cumulative GDP
growth in the Eurozone in 2010-12 of 3.2 percent compared to an outturn of 1.0 percent. However, this would
have played a limited role in worsening the contraction given the small size of Greece’s export sector.

14

The program growth projections (-4 percent in 2010 and -2.6 percent in 2011) were more pessimistic than the
May 2010 Consensus Forecasts (-3.6 percent in 2010 and -1.6 percent in 2011).
15

See European Commission (2010). Also see Papaconstantinou (2010): “Competitiveness is a broader issue than
wages in Greece and also has to do with the oligopolistic nature of markets: wage cost is part of the discussion
but not a main element.”

22

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

bargaining at the firm level. The Fund agreed with the emphasis on bringing down public sector
wages, noting the strong demonstration effect that this would have for the private sector.
45.
A quick recovery in growth appeared optimistic. Internal devaluation was recognized
to be a gradual process. In fact, the program projections implied that only about 3 percent of the
estimated 20-30 percent improvement required in competitiveness would be achieved by 2013.
2
2
This assumption aided the debt sustainability
Cumulative CPI Inflation Differential from 2011:
1
Greece and Euro Area (Percent)
analysis by limiting the decline in the denominator 1
in the debt-GDP ratio, but also raised a
0
0
fundamental question about where growth would -1
-1
come from in the absence of an internal
-2
-2
devaluation. The program emphasized confidence -3
-3
effects, regained market access, and completed
-4
-4
structural reforms. However, even if structural
-5
-5
October, 2010 WEO Proj.
reforms were transformative, a quick supply
-6
-6
October, 2012 WEO Proj.
response was unlikely. Partner country growth was
-7
-7
also expected to be weak. Nonetheless, the
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Sources: IMF, World Economic Outlook; and IMF staff
program assumed a V-shaped recovery from 2012.
calculations.

E. Was the mix of fiscal measures
appropriate?
46.
The adjustment mix seems revenue
heavy given that the fiscal crisis was
expenditure driven. As discussed earlier, the
ballooning of the fiscal deficit in the 2000s was
almost entirely due to increased expenditure.
The large dose of revenue measures in the
SBA-supported program can therefore be
questioned, particularly since tax changes
constituted almost half of the measures
targeted for the first two years of the
program.16 The case for indirect tax increases
was that they were quick to take effect and
faced less resistance than cuts in spending
programs. Moreover, VAT rates were lower
than the median level in Europe.

16

Composition of Measures
(Percent of GDP)
2010

2011

2012

2013

Cum.

Total

2.5

4.1

2.4

2.0

11.1

Revenue
Excises
VAT
PIT
CIT
Property tax
Other

0.5
0.2
0.3
...
...
...
...

3.0
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.4
0.8
0.4

0.8
0.1
0.2
0.0
...
0.1
0.3

-0.3
...
...
...
...
0.0
-0.3

4.0
0.6
1.5
0.2
0.4
0.9
0.4

Expenditure
Wages
Pensions
Social benefits
Goods and services
Subsidies
Investment

2.0
0.5
0.8
0.2
0.3
...
0.2

1.1
0.2
0.3
0.0
0.4
...
0.2

1.7
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.7
0.2

0.5
0.2
0.1
...
0.2
...
...

5.3
1.2
1.3
0.4
1.1
0.7
0.7

Structural reforms

...

...

...

1.8

1.8

Sources: Greek authorities; and IMF staff projections.

There is also evidence that expenditure-based fiscal adjustment is more durable (see Tsibouris et al, 2006).

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

23

GREECE

47.
The burden of adjustment was not shared evenly across society. The public sector
wage bill was cut by lowering wages and bonuses, but specific plans to downsize the number of
civil servants were limited to a commitment to replace only 20 percent of those who retired. The
state enterprises also remained generously staffed. By contrast, the private sector sustained
enormous job losses partly because wage setting mechanisms were not liberalized. Moreover,
little progress was made in checking tax evasion by high income earners. While the program
recognized that it would take time to show results from improved tax administration, the
absence of quick progress in collecting evaded taxes came at the cost of any demonstrable
improvement in the equity of the tax burden.

Entire Sample

3
2

2
GRC
1

1

0

0

-1

-1
-2

SOM
MHL
TGO
AGO
COK
MDG
NPL
FSM
WBG
HND
KSV
ETH
KAZ
PER
KWT
TUN
CHN
PRI
BWA
LTU
QAT
SVN
TWN
MAC
AIA
LUX
SWE

-2

1.5

IMF Arrangements

1.0

1.5
GRC

1.0

0.5

0.5

0.0

0.0

-0.5

-0.5

-1.0

-1.0

-1.5

-1.5

-2.0

-2.0

COM
AFG
LBR
SLE
BDI
MRT
SLB
STP
KGZ
MDA
TZA
BEN
LSO
MAR
SLV
JOR
SYC
MEX
ATG
POL
PRT

3

Government Effectiveness, 2011 1/
(Index)

Source: World Bank, Worldwide Governance Indicators.
1/ Selected countries shown on the X axis.

F. Was there sufficient ownership and capacity for reforms?
48.
Ownership of the program was limited. Staff recognized that vested interests had
fiercely opposed structural reforms in Greece in the past, but were encouraged by the
authorities’ strong commitment to the program. The government also had a fresh mandate from
the election and a strong majority in parliament. Staff argued that difficult actions, such as
cutting public sector wage levels, were being taken as prior actions, while Fund and EC technical
assistance would support the program of reforms. As it turned out, ownership of the program
did not extend far and little progress was made with politically difficult measures such as
privatization, downsizing the public sector, and labor market reforms. There was also limited
bipartisan support in parliament for the program, while relations with unions were adversarial
and there was little hope that that an incomes policy could be agreed.
49.
The capacity to implement reforms was overestimated. The Fund had concerns that
implementation capacity might be weak based on its history of providing fiscal technical
assistance to Greece. However, the extent to which administrative capacity was lacking in the
public sector seems to have come as a surprise. The depth of contact afforded by annual Article

24

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

IV surveillance may not have provided much insight. Moreover, World Bank indicators do not
show government effectiveness in Greece to be particularly low by global standards, although
they are relatively low for an advanced country.
50.
Structural conditionality became very detailed. In recent years, the Fund has moved
toward concentration on macro-critical structural reforms in programs and more parsimony in
setting conditionality. The number of structural conditions set under the SBA-supported program
was relatively large (see Box 5), although there seems to be less of a case for parsimony when
formulating competitiveness-boosting reforms in a case like Greece where the exchange rate is
fixed. However, the number of fiscal structural conditions was also large, and became more so as
the program progressed. By the fifth review, one of the fiscal structural prior actions had nine
sub-prior actions. This proliferation of conditions reflected the realization of the extent of the
weaknesses in administrative capacity. While, according to available government effectiveness
indicators, Greece is far from an outlier in terms of weak capacity among countries with Fundsupported programs, administrative capacities in Greece do appear to be extremely weak.
Moreover, fiscal technical assistance is delivered in cooperation with the EC, whose capacity
building initiatives tend to be very detailed.

G. Was the financing of the program likely to be sufficient?
51.
The adequacy of the program financing required favorable assumptions. Markets
were concerned about the problem of large repayment obligations in 2014 and 2015 after the
program expired. The financing strategy assumed renewed market access from 2012 yet the
composition of debt holders would now deter private lenders since official lenders tend to be
senior creditors. Subsequent research also suggests that the market access assumption, assessed
in terms of rollover rates, was sanguine compared to past experience in emerging markets facing
exogenous shocks (see IMF, 2011). However, Greece’s advanced economy status and its
membership of the euro area may have been considered as modifying factors.
100

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

40

40

20

20

20

20

0

0

0

0

-20

-20

80
60

Projected Borrowing Need Under the Program
(Billions of euros)
Other
Amortization
Overall balance

-20
2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Projected Financing Sources Under the Program
(Billions of euros)
Private financing
Troika

100
80
60

-20
2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Sources: IMF Country Report No. 10/110; and IMF staff estimates.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

25

GREECE

52.
The financing available for the capital needs of the banking sector was also all
likely to be needed. The HFSF was established to safeguard the stability of the banking sector
with up to €10 billion from program disbursements. The 2009 Article IV Consultation had
reported results of banking system stress tests that showed that if a number of shocks
considered were to occur
Stress Tests of Greek Banking System
simultaneously, new capital of
(Percent, unless otherwise indicated)
up to €2.9 billion would be
Article IV Adverse
Program Projections,
required. However, these
Scenario, June, 2009
May, 2010
shocks were fairly mild
Macro-scenarios
compared to the program
GDP contraction 1/
-3.0
-6.6
Unemployment 2/
+4.0
+7.0
projections made in May 2010,
Long-term interest rates
≈ 9.0
...
and as noted, the program
Estimated capital need (billions of euros)
2.9
Up to 10.0
assumed a quick recovery in
Source: IMF Country Report No. 09/244
growth that appeared
1/ Over 2 years.
2/ Compared to end-2008 level of 8 percent.
optimistic. The €10 billion set
aside for recapitalization under
the HFSF was thus all likely to be needed.

H. Should debt restructuring have been attempted at the outset?
53.
The program was based on a number of ambitious assumptions. The preceding
discussion has raised questions about whether the fiscal targets should have been less stringent
and whether less optimistic projections should have been made about growth, deflation,
privatization receipts, and regaining market access. Varying these assumptions would have
materially affected the outlook for debt sustainability.
54.
The risks were explicitly flagged. Staff made it clear that the program supported by the
SBA was an ambitious program that was subject to considerable risks. The adjustment needs
were huge, reforms would be socially painful, and commitment might flag. Debt was not judged
to be sustainable with high probability and it would take little in the way of a deviation from
program assumptions or an external shock to generate a less favorable debt trajectory. A
combination of lower growth, greater deflation, higher interest rates, and larger contingent
liabilities was shown to place public debt on a clearly unsustainable path (above 220 percent of
GDP by 2020 and still rising). Since the shocks considered were fairly mild, this sensitivity analysis

26

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

demonstrated the precariousness
of the debt trajectory. For
example, the deflation shock
considered in the DSA (3 percent
more) would not have made
much difference to the internal
devaluation, but would have
caused debt to jump to
175 percent of GDP.

275
250
225
200
175

Interest rate higher
by 200 bps
Primary balance
lower by 1% of GDP
Combined adverse
shocks
Growth higher by
1% per year
Additional liabilities
1/
Growth lower by 1%

SBA: Public Debt Sustainability Analysis
(Percent of GDP)

275
250
225
200
175

150

3% more deflation

150

125

Baseline

125

100
100
55.
Ex ante debt
restructuring was not
75
75
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
attempted. One way to make the
Source: IMF Country Report No. 10/110.
debt outlook more sustainable
1/ Recognition of implicit liabilities and bank support.
would have been to attempt to
restructure the debt from the beginning. However, PSI was not part of the original program. This
was in contrast with the Fund program in Uruguay in 2002 and Jamaica in 2011 where PSI was
announced upfront. In Iceland in 2008, foreign creditors (albeit private bank depositors) were
bailed in ex ante via capital controls, while Hungary, Latvia, and Romania, benefitted from the
Vienna Initiative that was set up to encourage foreign banks to maintain credit lines. Yet in
Greece, on the eve of the program, the authorities dismissed debt restructuring as a “red herring”
that was off the table for the Greek government and had not been proposed by the Fund
(Papaconstantinou, 2010). In fact, debt restructuring had been considered by the parties to the
negotiations but had been ruled out by the euro area. There are a number of reasons for this:



Some Eurozone partners emphasized moral hazard arguments against restructuring. A rescue
package for Greece that incorporated debt restructuring would likely have difficulty being
approved, as would be necessary, by all the euro area parliaments.



Debt restructuring would directly hurt the balance sheets of Greek banks. This would imply a
call on the program’s financing that would exceed the amount set aside for bank
recapitalization under the HFSF.



Debt restructuring risked contagion to other members of the Eurozone and potentially
another Lehman-type event, yet the EFSF was not yet in place. European banks had large
holdings of Greek bonds – but also, and of more concern given the scale of their exposure,
had large holdings of the bonds of other European sovereigns that would drop in value were
Greek creditors to be bailed in. For the euro zone as a whole, there might be limited gain in
bailing in creditors who subsequently might themselves have to be bailed out.

56.
Nonetheless, many commentators considered debt restructuring to be inevitable.
With debt restructuring off the table, Greece faced two alternatives: default immediately, or
move ahead as if debt restructuring could be avoided. The latter strategy was adopted, but in the
event, this only served to delay debt restructuring and allowed many private creditors to escape.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

27

GREECE

In fact, many observers at the time considered that the Greek program would not stave off debt
rescheduling or a default. Commentators noted that the level of public debt would remain high
and would be aggravated by the severe recession, while the nonconcessionary interest rates on
official debt worsened the debt dynamics.17 In general, as evidenced by the behavior of bond
spreads (see Box 1), markets were not convinced that the program would succeed. Statements by
euro area leaders at Deauville in October 2010 that opened up the possibility of debt
restructuring for Greece, contrary to its prohibition a few months earlier, also served to reinforce
market doubts.
57.
In the event, the SBA-supported program served as a holding operation. On the
positive side, moving ahead with the Greek program gave the euro area time to build a firewall
to protect other vulnerable members and averted potentially severe effects on the global
economy. However, not tackling the public debt problem decisively at the outset or early in the
program created uncertainty about the euro area’s capacity to resolve the crisis and likely
aggravated the contraction in output.18 An upfront debt restructuring would have been better for
Greece although this was not acceptable to the euro partners. A delayed debt restructuring also
provided a window for private creditors to reduce exposures and shift debt into official hands. As
seen earlier, this shift occurred on a significant scale and limited the bail-in of creditors when PSI
eventually took place, leaving taxpayers and the official sector on the hook.

17

Notwithstanding approval of the program, the view that debt restructuring or default was inevitable in Greece
was expressed in April-June 2010 by Ackerman, Goodhart, Kirkegaard, Lachman, Münchau, Rajan, Roubini, Sapir
and Pisani-Ferry, Soros, Vines, and Wolf (all 2010). Buiter (2010) concluded that debt would need to be
restructured because of the nonconcessional terms of the official lending. Mussa (2010) was unsure whether a
restructuring would ultimately be necessary but gave it more than 50 percent chance. In other commentary, El
Erian (2010) questioned whether the program had sufficient ownership given that there were few signs that
Greek society had accepted the need for austerity. A more optimistic view was expressed by Moody’s (2010) who
noted that the program eliminated the near-term risk of a liquidity driven default.

18

The recent paper on sovereign debt restructuring argues that delay in resolving an unsustainable debt
situation serves to depress investment and growth in the debtor country and prolong financial uncertainty (see
IMF, 2013).

28

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

CONSISTENCY WITH FUND RULES AND PRACTICES
A. Was exceptional access justified?
58.
The justification for exceptional access criteria and the adequacy of access levels
require assessment. Exceptional access in the GRA constitutes levels beyond an annual limit of
200 percent of quota; and a cumulative limit of 600 percent of quota, net of rescheduled
repurchases. Greece’s access during the first year of the SBA would amount to 1,550 percent of
quota and access was expected to peak at 3,212 percent of quota in April 2013. While these
levels were unprecedented, they were dwarfed by Greece’s public sector financing requirement.
Moreover, the Fund’s commitment was only 30 percent of the official financing and lower access
would have limited the Fund’s leverage. The exceptional access criteria apply at each review and
should be assessed accordingly:
Criterion 1 (exceptional balance of payments pressures on the current or capital account)
was satisfied at each stage of the program.
Criterion 2 (high probability of public debt being sustainable in the medium term) was not
satisfied. As part of the summing up of the Board taken at the Greece SBA Board meeting,
Criterion 2 was modified so that an exception would henceforth be made to the requirement that
debt had to be judged to be sustainable with high probability in cases such as Greece where
there was a high risk of international spillover effects. The systemic exception seems to have
continued to be justified at each review, although the risks of contagion declined somewhat as
more Greek government debt shifted to official hands.
Criterion 3 (good prospects of regaining access to private capital markets) was judged to be
met. The Fund noted that successful implementation of the program and undertakings by
Greece’s euro area partners to stand ready to provide additional financial assistance would help
address market uncertainty and facilitate the regaining of market access. However, additional
financing assurances were not strong. Key partner country authorities made some promises to
corral their national banks into maintaining credit lines and debt exposures, but (as they
themselves predicted) these efforts had limited effect.
Criterion 4 (a reasonably strong prospect of the program’s success taking into account
institutional and political capacity to deliver adjustment) was also considered to be met. As
discussed earlier, despite Greece’s mixed record of reform in the past, the Fund drew comfort
from a number of factors: (i) the program was backed at the highest political levels in Greece and
Europe; (ii) the most difficult actions having been taken as prior actions; and (iii) the support that
TA would provide to Greece’s adjustment efforts. In the event, none of these factors proved to
be compelling and ownership of the program in Greece was considerably overestimated.
The program went ahead with only Criterion 2 being modified. In the event, the judgments
underlying both Criteria 3 and 4 proved to be too optimistic and with the benefit of hindsight, it
is debatable whether these criteria were met at the time.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

29

GREECE

59.
The program request met Fund policies on financing assurances but those
weakened significantly as the program unfolded. The Fund needs to be satisfied at each
review that (i) the member has secured firm financing commitments to implement the intended
policies, at a minimum, for a period of 12 months and (ii) there are good prospects for full
financing until the end of the program. Conditional on the program’s macroeconomic
framework, the European financial commitment under the Greek Loan Facility met (i) and (ii).
However, when outcomes deviated significantly from program assumptions, no new financing
was committed and projected privatization receipts increased substantially, casting doubts on
whether prospects for full financing until the end of the program were strong enough. 19

B. Was the SBA consistent with other Fund programs with countries in
currency unions?
60.
The troika arrangement was unusual. The challenge faced by the Fund in dealing with
Greece was how to square its dealings with a currency union that constitutes the second largest
global economic bloc while maintaining equality of treatment for all Fund members (see PisaniFerry et al, 2011). Greece, however, was something of a special case. The Fund has had programs
with members of currency unions in the past (ECCU, CFA franc), but none where the member
country was systemic. A feature of the SBA-supported program was that there was no
conditionality on areas within the competency of the currency union’s central bank: however,
during the course of the SBA, the ECB provided significant liquidity support to Greece and it is
difficult to argue that an implicit or explicit agreement negotiated as part of the program would
have required the ECB to have done more than this.
61.
Nonetheless, the arrangement posed problems for program design. The Fund was
required to negotiate first with the euro area countries (represented by the EC and ECB) and then
with the Greek authorities. This had the advantage that the program would enjoy the necessary
broader European support and that it would be consistent with euro area rules and norms.
However, the Greek program was also subject to considerable uncertainty as the euro area policy
response evolved. For example, the initial euro area position that debt restructuring was off the
table was eventually reversed, although this took a considerable length of time. Similarly, there
was an extended process before euro partners reached agreement on relaxing the fiscal stance.

19

In the case of Iraq in 2004, for example, the Fund noted that while external debt was unsustainable, the risks
from lending were mitigated by assurances received from the official bilateral creditors. In particular, the bulk of
Iraq’s official bilateral creditors through their Executive Directors reaffirmed their recognition of the Fund’s
preferred creditor status in respect of the drawings by Iraq, and indicated their willingness to use their best
efforts to provide debt relief on appropriate terms to ensure the timely repayment to the Fund. In Greece’s case,
financing assurances have been strengthened under the EFF: euro area zone members have committed to
supporting Greece for as long as it takes and have undertaken to reduce debt below 110 percent of GDP by 2020
providing that Greece continues to implement its adjustment program (IMF Country Report No. 13/20).

30

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

C. How well did the Troika arrangement work?
62.
There was no clear division of labor. Fund collaboration with the World Bank on
country programs rests on an agreed division of labor. There was no such clarity in the
assignment of responsibilities across the Troika. The EC needed to be involved in all aspects of
the program to ensure conformity with European laws and regulations. While the Fund had
experience designing fiscal adjustment, the EC had its own fiscal targets from Maastricht. The EC
had structural reforms expertise, but so too did the Fund, particularly in the fiscal area. And from
the Fund’s perspective, the EC, with the focus of its reforms more on compliance with EU norms
than on growth impact, was not able to contribute much to identifying growth enhancing
structural reforms. In the financial sector, the ECB had an obvious claim to take the lead, but was
not expert in bank supervision where the Fund had specialist knowledge.
63.
Areas of expertise and experience differed within the Troika. The European
institutions brought an integrated view to studying the Greek economy and emphasized the
extent of possible spillover effects within Europe. At least initially, this was not the perspective
taken by the Fund which was more accustomed to analyzing issues with a specific country
focus.20 However, the EC tended to draw up policy positions by consensus, had enjoyed limited
success with implementing conditionality under the Stability and Growth Pact, and had no
experience with crisis management. The Fund’s program experience and ability to move rapidly
in formulating policy recommendations were skills that the European institutions lacked.
64.
None of the partners seemed to view the arrangement as ideal. There were
occasionally marked differences of view within the Troika, particularly with regard to the growth
projections. However, the Troika in general seems to have pre-bargained positions so that
differences were not on display to the authorities and did not risk slowing the program
negotiations. The three institutions also have different internal procedures and the program
documentation is voluminous, overlapping, and subject to varying degrees of secrecy.
Nonetheless, coordination seems to have been quite good under the circumstances.

D. Should the EFF have been introduced at the beginning?
65.
The three-year period of the SBA seemed relatively short. Given that the Greek
program had so large a structural component, the question arises as to whether the arrangement
should have been an EFF from the outset. However, while exceptional access has always been
legally available under an extended arrangement, the Board as a policy matter had until the
Ireland case expressed disfavor about using EFF resources as a means of providing exceptional

20

This is consistent with Pisani-Ferry et al (2011) who in a study commissioned by the Fund as part of the
Triennial Surveillance Review found insufficient integration in Fund surveillance between national and euro areawide analysis, particularly with regard to identifying spillovers between countries.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

31

GREECE

access. In addition, the Board had generally viewed the EFF as a facility that should be used only
by LICs. At the time, there was also the issue of whether the European partners were prepared to
provide the longer-term financing that is a feature of EFF terms (as the Fund would not want to
be the last creditor standing). Conversion of SBA into EFF was considered as early as a few
months into the program but this was deferred pending consensus with the euro partners on a
similar lengthening of their lending terms and until there was consensus on PSI.

POSSIBLE LESSONS
66.
This report concurs with the justifications that were presented for Greece’s
exceptional access SBA. The Fund approved an exceptionally large loan to Greece under an SBA
in May 2010 despite having considerable misgivings about Greece’s debt sustainability. The
decision required the Fund to depart from its established rules on exceptional access. However,
Greece came late to the Fund and the time available to negotiate the program was short. The
euro partners had ruled out debt
30
90
Probability the Danish Kroner Breaks the Strong-Side of the ERM-II
restructuring and were unwilling
Boundary (Estimated by forward rate and option markets)
80
to provide additional financing
Draghi
25
Probability (percent)
speech
70
assurances. The Fund was alert to
and OMT
VIX (right scale)
formalization
60
the considerable dangers for the 20
Greece
Program
euro area and the global
50
15
economy should Greece have
40
been allowed to default. As the
30
10
figure (adapted from the
20
October 2012 GFSR) shows, the
5
10
dislocation caused by the
0
0
Lehman crisis was still recent and
Sep-08 Mar-09 Sep-09 Mar-10 Sep-10 Mar-11 Sep-11 Mar-12 Sep-12 Mar-13
a renewed climate of fear in
Sources: Bloomberg; and IMF staff estimates.
global markets had begun to
emerge in May 2010. In the view of the report, this unique environment justified the provision of
an exceptional access SBA to Greece.
67.
The report does not question the overall thrust of policies adopted under the SBAsupported program. Fiscal adjustment was unavoidable, as was the sharp pace of deficit
reduction given that official financing was already at the limit of political feasibility and debt
restructuring was initially ruled out. Structural reforms were clearly essential to restoring
competitiveness. Some questions can be raised about the types of measures (overly reliant on tax
increases) and structural conditionality (too detailed in the fiscal area), but the policies adopted
under the program appear to have been broadly correct.
68.
Nonetheless, there are possible lessons to be learned. The SBA-supported program
avoided a disorderly default and limited euro-wide contagion. Greece has also been able to
remain in the euro, but the recession has been deep with exceptionally high unemployment. The
program did not restore growth and regain market access as it had set out to do. Major

32

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

contributory factors to this lack of success were poor implementation of reform by the
authorities, adverse political developments, and inconsistent policy signals by euro leaders.
However, Greece’s experience also carries lessons for Fund program design and surveillance
regarding the need for:


Better tailoring of Fund lending policies to the circumstances of monetary unions.
Given the danger of contagion, there was a need to support Greece, but the Fund was
worried that debt was not sustainable with high probability. In response, the exceptional
access criterion was amended to lower the bar for debt sustainability in systemic cases. The
baseline still showed debt to be sustainable, as is required for all Fund programs. However,
the Fund emphasized the considerable risks that surrounded the baseline: growth could be
lower, reforms might flag, deflation could be more severe, additional liabilities could appear.
All these risks were to the downside. In the event, macro outcomes were far below the
baseline and while some of this was due to exogenous factors, the baseline macro
projections can be criticized for being overly optimistic.
However, advantage could not be taken in the design of the program of one of the country’s
major strengths, namely the support that Greece might ultimately receive from its euro area
partners if it could demonstrate a sufficient track-record of program implementation.
Adjusting lending policies to the particular circumstances of monetary unions might allow
the possibility of such conditional future assistance to be recognized in program agreements.
To some extent this approach is being followed in the EFF-supported program, with euro
area partners indicating a willingness to provide additional financing and debt relief
conditional on Greece continuing to implement the program.
Lending policies for countries in monetary unions also need to be sensitive to the large
structural component of programs when exchange rates are fixed. In this context, the Fund
arrangement for Greece should ideally have been an EFF from the outset. More generally, the
case for refining the Fund’s policies and framework for lending to members of currency
unions needs to be explored.



Avoiding undue delays in debt restructuring. Upfront debt restructuring was not feasible
at the outset. While the Fund began to push for PSI once the program went off track in early
2011, it took time for stakeholders to agree on a common and coherent strategy. Earlier debt
restructuring could have eased the burden of adjustment on Greece and contributed to a less
dramatic contraction in output. The delay provided a window for private creditors to reduce
exposures and shift debt into official hands. This shift occurred on a significant scale and left
the official sector on the hook.



More attention to the political economy of adjustment. Reform efforts in Greece under
the program might have been more enduring if more visible progress had been made with
regard to getting those on high incomes to pay their taxes. The program made an attempt to
reflect distributional concerns by shielding those on low incomes from cuts in state pensions.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

33

GREECE

The risks to public support for the program from not reducing tax evasion were also
continually flagged by the Fund. The lack of political will to make clear progress with
improving tax compliance was nonetheless a considerable obstacle to the program’s success.
The Greek program also provides further evidence that the success of a program hinges
centrally on the depth of its ownership. While a bipartisan agreement with the opposition
was probably not possible in May 2010, the SBA-supported program attracted more
bipartisan support over time including with the formation of a technocratic government in
late 2011. However, significant opposition remained.


More parsimony in fiscal structural reforms. The Fund’s unprecedented TA programs in
Greece, especially on revenue administration, may have gone beyond providing technical
advice and taken on an institution building dimension. The detailed conditionality is
considered macro-critical and essential given the large fiscal adjustment that is programmed
and the dire need to strengthen Greek fiscal institutions. Moreover, the authorities seem to
welcome the degree of Fund involvement, with no suggestion that it has become overlyintrusive. Nonetheless, these efforts are unlikely to be able to substitute for political
ownership and the case for a more hands-off approach should be considered.



More streamlining in the Troika process. A clear division of labor of responsibilities within
the Troika is difficult given the overlapping responsibilities of the institutions. There are also
synergies arising from cooperation in areas with shared expertise. Nevertheless, European
institutions have comparative advantage in certain structural issues that are beyond the
Fund’s core areas of expertise. Options for dividing up work on areas that are not macrocritical should therefore be explored. There may also be some scope for streamlining
procedures and documents to reduce the burden on the authorities.



More effective risk-sharing arrangements within the euro area. The Greek crisis brought
to the fore shortcomings in the euro area architecture related to risk sharing and crisis
response. As argued elsewhere (see IMF, 2012b), the lack of fiscal risk sharing arrangements
or a true banking union within the euro area makes individual member states vulnerable to
sovereign debt crises that could spill over to banking systems (or be caused by banking
crises) and the real economy, without exchange rate flexibility or independent monetary
policy to help with the adjustment. The euro area member states have gradually responded
to the crisis in Greece and elsewhere by establishing firewalls (EFSF, ESM, and OMT) and
taking steps towards a banking union, as well as strengthening fiscal rules to reduce
vulnerabilities.

34

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

Box 1. A Chronology of Events


Initial improvements in sentiment dissipated after a ratings downgrade in June 2010, but spreads
tightened again with the successful completion of the first review in September.



However, there was an adverse market reaction to statements by euro leaders at Deauville in October
2010 that set off a public debate on the need for debt restructuring and PSI.



Sentiment deteriorated further in November when the estimated 2009 fiscal deficit was revised from 13½
to 15½ percent of GDP, and in December when there were general strikes and rioting in response to the
labor reforms.



The second review of the program was completed in December 2010, but by the third review in February
2011, problems in program implementation were becoming apparent. The weak economy was making
fiscal adjustment more difficult and the debt sustainability looked increasingly uncertain. Efforts were
made to bring the program back on track during 2011, including ambitious privatization plans. The need
for PSI was acknowledged by the fourth review in July 2011.



As 2011 progressed, a Greek euro exit became a serious possibility particularly after being discussed by
Euro leaders at the Cannes summit in November 2011.



The government then announced a referendum to test the views of the Greek people. This was
subsequently cancelled, but the government resigned later that month and was replaced by a technocratic
government.



The SBA was cancelled and replaced with a new program supported by an EFF in March 2012. Sentiment
subsequently turned around once the PSI came into effect. Actions by the ECB in 2012 were also extremely
supportive.
40

40
Credit rating cut by S&P

Greek 10-Year Government Bond Yield, 2010–13
(Percent)

35

35
S&P review for downgrade
Technocratic government

30

Elections

30

Cannes summit

25

1st review of SBA
2009 budget deficit revised

20

15

ECB (Draghi)
announcement

Cabinet's commitment to
achieve fiscal targets

OMTs

Referendum
announcement

20

Coalition talks
fail
Approval of SBA

ECB bond purchases

5th review
suspended

25

PSI results announced;
EFF replaced SBA

15

EU Summit agrees
second bailout

10
Deauville

5
S&P downgrade

Moody’s downgrade

ECB rate cuts and maturities
extension

Debt
buyback
completed

Fitch downgrade

0
Jan/10 Mar/10 Jun/10 Sep/10 Dec/10 Feb/11 May/11 Aug/11 Nov/11 Jan/12 Apr/12 Jul/12 Oct/12 Dec/12

10

5

0

Sources: Bloomberg; and IMF staff calculations.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

35

GREECE

Box 2. Progress with Internal Devaluation under the SBA-Supported Program
Greece began the program with large price and wage competitiveness gaps due to rapid growth of
labor costs and market inefficiencies. To improve competitiveness, the program initiated a comprehensive
agenda of structural reforms that included reducing public sector wages; liberalizing wage-setting and
loosening employment restrictions in the private sector; improving the business environment by cutting red
tape; and reducing barriers to entry and market distortions in protected industries. The program began with
some deregulation (fast-track investment and one-stop shop legislation), but labor market reforms were not
initially deep enough to tackle entrenched labor market inflexibility.
Unit labor costs declined significantly during the program period. In real terms, the ULC-based real
effective exchange rate depreciated by 9 percent from May 2010 to March 2012. The major part of the
improvement in competitiveness was due to wage reductions associated with the intense recession. There
were limited gains in productivity (see Kang and Shambaugh, 2013).
250

Gross Wages and Salaries, SA (2000=100)

200

30

115

25

110

110

105

105

100

100

95

95

20
150

115

ULC-Based REER (2000=100)

15
100
10
Public
Private
Unemployment rate (percent, rhs)

50

5
0

0
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

90

90

Greece
Euro area

85

85

Germany

80

80
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Sources: Elstat; Eurostat; and IMF staff calculations.

10

Prices have not been as flexible as wages. The CPIbased REER has a degree of upward bias as it does not
discount tax increases implemented in 2010 or take
into account changes in trade weights due to the
redirection of exports towards emerging markets since
2009. Nevertheless, during the period of the SBA, the
CPI-based real effective exchange rate depreciated by
only 3 percent.

5

ULC Components
(Cumulative changes from 2009Q4 in logs)

0

-5

-5

-10

-10
(Negative) productivity
Wages to employment
Total ULC

-20
2009Q4

2010Q4

2011Q4

-15
-20
2012Q4

Sources: Elstat; Eurostat; and IMF staff calculations.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

5

0

-15

36

10

GREECE

Box 2. Progress with Internal Devaluation (cont’d)
130

130

Labor Costs and Prices, SA (2003=100)

120

120

110

110

100

100
Labor costs
HICP (constant taxes)

90

90
2003

2004

2006

2007

2009

2010

130

130

Real Effective Exchange Rate (2000=100)

125

CPI-based

125

120

ULC-based

120

115

115

110

110

105

105

100

100

95

95
2000

2012

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Sources: Elstat; Eurostat; and IMF staff calculations.

Delays in implementing service sector reforms contributed to price rigidities. Despite reform attempts,
professions like pharmacology and law, as well as the transport and energy sectors, remained closed to new
entrants. Continuing protection caused prices of nontradeables to remain elevated relative to the prices of
tradeables until the end of 2012. In addition, the prices of tradeables compared with those of a majority of
Greece’s trading partners continued to increase at or above a comparable pace through the end of 2011. Only
in 2012 did the relative prices of tradeables in Greece begin to fall compared with Greece’s trading partners.
160

160

HICP Components, SA (2000=100)

150

150

140

140

130

130

120

120

110

110
Tradeables

100

Nontradeables
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

135

HICP Tradeables, SA (2000=100)

125

125

115

115

105

Greece

100
90

90

135

105

EU 1/
95

95
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Sources: Eurostat; and IMF staff calculations.
1/ The EU represents nearly three-quarters of Greece's trading partners.

The needed reallocation of resources into exports has not been adequately supported by relative price
changes. There has been limited progress with the reduction in the relative price of non-traded goods that is
needed to switch production towards traded goods, while traded goods prices have also shown little decline
compared with Greece’s trading partners. The ULC in non-traded goods sector has improved more than the
ULC in the traded goods sector, which is a positive development, but this has not yet translated into similar
improvements in relative prices due to the rigidities in product markets discussed above.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

37

GREECE

Box 3. Pension Reform
Pension outlays were high before the crisis and their projected trajectory worrisome. At 16 percent of
GDP, pension spending in Greece was among the highest in the EU in 2010. Key pension indicators suggested
a generous system: the replacement rate (pension-to-wages) was 57 percent, the third highest in EU; the
dependency rate (pensioners-to-contributors) was 29 percent, above the EU average; the official retirement
age was 60, well below the OECD average of 63.2, and the average pension (including all pensions) was very
close in level to that of a typical German worker with full contribution history. Pension projections pointed to a
solvency problem.
Generous pension and wage increases and a worsening demographic profile were the main culprits
behind the unfavorable long-term pension profile. The decade before the crisis witnessed real pension
increases as well as substantial wage increases that also pushed up pensions. Numerous loopholes allowed
early retirement contributing to an already high growth of pensioners. Pension spending increased by almost 5
percentage points of GDP from 2001 to 2008, outpacing other EU countries.
Other shortcomings of the system were also important. Early retirement incentives for low-income workers
and high statutory replacement rates, inadequate IT and accounting systems, fragmented retirement regimes,
and low compliance with contributions were some of the features of the pension system that created
economic distortions and generated leakages, swelling deficits beyond sustainability.
The pension reform under the SBA-supported program tackled multiple deficiencies to bring about a
sustainable long-term pension profile. Following the frontloaded pension cuts at the onset of the program,
the new (PAYG) system was designed to top up the existing
Pension System Parameters
non-contributory social pension. The retirement age was set
at 65 years and indexed to life expectancy; the base wage for
Reform elements
Before Reform
After Reform
the calculation of pensions became tied to lifetime wage
Accrual rate
2–3%
0.8–1.5%
history rather than the final five years; accrual rates were
Replacement rate
70%
60%
lowered, and pensions indexed to prices and GDP growth
Retirement age
60
65
(whatever was the lowest). Other changes included
Early retirement age
<60
60
harmonization of rules across funds and rationalization of
Pensions base calculation
Last 5 years
Lifetime
earnings
earnings
the number of funds. Control mechanisms were enhanced by
Indexation of pensions
Policy decision
CPI and GDP
mandating exclusive payment of pensions through banks,
Annual deficit in 2060
12.5%
2.5%
and requiring periodic pension audits, monitoring of funds’
1
finances and periodic actuarial analysis.
Sources: OECD; and IMF staff estimates.
The second stage reforms focused on deficits in supplementary and lump sum accounts and on poorly
targeted social benefits. Following the pension cuts and the passage of the new law, it became clear that
social spending remained high and further reforms were needed. Some of the subsequent reforms under the
MTFS began tackling the still complex institutional structure, as well as the abuse of benefits, their unequal
distribution, and ineffective targeting.
The pension reform was one of the main achievements of the SBA-supported program. The reform was
approved in July 2010 amid widespread social discontent with austerity measures. Because the authorities
wanted to accelerate the implementation, the reform was not preceded by a proper actuarial study (a
structural benchmark under the program), and the public was not made fully aware of the need for reform
early in the program. The reform was nonetheless essential to restoring the sustainability of the pension
system －a significant achievement －although implementation risks remain. Moreover, the reform only
addressed long-term structural imbalances whereas the immediate fiscal pressures on the social security
system were tackled separately as part of the fiscal consolidation including by eliminating pension bonuses.
_________________________
1

The pension law also included institutional reforms in the health sector providing for the financial accounting independence of
health funds and integration of social security funds with the NHS.

38

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

Box 4. Revenue Administration Reform during the SBA-Supported Program

CHE

DNK

SVN

NLD

EST

SWE

FIN

NOR

CZE

AUT

ISL

HUN

IRL

BEL

DEU

PRT

FRA

ESP

GBR

GRC

ITA

Low revenue efficiency has been a chronic problem for Greece. The efficiency index of VAT collections, for
example, is below average for
1.0
1.0
European countries.1 Similarly,
VAT C-efficiency, 2008
collections of personal income tax
are substantially lower compared
0.8
0.8
to the euro area countries, despite
comparable statutory tax rates.
0.6
0.6
This reflects various reasons,
including institutional weaknesses
of revenue administration, a large
0.4
0.4
size of informal economy, a highly
complex tax system with myriad
preferential tax treatment and
0.2
0.2
exemptions, and a large share of
self-employed individuals in the
0.0
0.0
business sector (OECD, 2011).
Sources: Eurostat; and IMF staff calculations.

Revenue administration reform was embedded in the structural reform agenda of the program. At the
beginning of the program, the authorities adopted a reform strategy that consisted of intensified anti-evasion
actions against targeted taxpayers, as well as a medium-term reform plan to modernize revenue
administration. In line with this, the SBA established a limited number of structural benchmarks: set up
taskforces to implement the anti-evasion actions (by September 2010); table legislations to remove various
obstacles for revenue administration (by February 2011); articulate a medium-term reform plan (by June
2011); and achieve quantitative
performance targets (by
Key Performance Indicators of Tax Administration, December, 2011 1/
December 2011). The design of
Indicator
Actual
Target
Met / Not Met
the initial strategy and reform
process throughout the SBA
Debt collection
were supported by intensive
Pre-2011 debt collected (millions of euros)
946
400
Met
technical assistance from the
Audits of large taxpayers
Fund, which included installment
Number of completed full-scope audits
44
75
Not met 2/
of a long-term residential advisor
Assessted taxes collected (percent)
66.5
20/30 3/
Met
and peripatetic expert visits. The
Audits of wealthy and high income taxpayers
implementation of the
Number of completed audits
404
400
Met
Assessed taxes collected (percent)
47.3
20/30 3/
Met
benchmarks was broadly
satisfactory: the first three
VAT audits of non-filers
Number of completed audits
22,235
1,000
Met
structural benchmarks were
implemented broadly as
Sources: Ministry of Finance; and IMF staff estimates.
scheduled,2 and the quantitative
1/ Meeting these targets was an end-2011 structural benchmark under the 2010 SBA.
performance targets were met
2/ This target was reset as a prior action for the 2012 EFF and met by February, 2012.
except for audits of large
3/ 20 percent of all assessed taxes and penalties from new audits within 3 months of assessment, and
collection of 30 percent of all taxes and penalties from new audits within 6 months of assessment date.
taxpayers.
___________________

1

The VAT C-efficiency is the ratio of VAT collections to the product of the standard VAT rate and aggregate
consumption. In the absence of exemptions, zero-rating (other than exports) and zero registration threshold, and no
revenue leakage due to tax administration and informality factors, the C-efficiency ratio is, by construction, equal to
one.
2

The benchmark to table legislations to remove obstacles was completed as prior action for the 3rd review in March
2011.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

39

GREECE

Box 4. Revenue Administration Reform (cont.)
Although program benchmarks were met, improving tax administration proved to be considerably
more complex and time-consuming than expected.
25
Looking at outcomes, the C-efficiency indicator
VAT Collections and Efficiency
deteriorated in 2011, and the VAT rate increases in 2010
20
did not bring about a higher ratio of VAT collections to
GDP. While this could be due to behavioral changes of
Standard VAT rate
consumers (i.e., demand shifted towards goods with
15
preferential VAT rates), it may also reflect worsened tax
VAT collections
(percent of GDP)
compliance. Indeed, the government’s anti-evasion
C-efficiency ratio
10
policies do not appear to have become fully operational.
(right scale)
For example, basic operational functions such as audits
and debt collections, as well as the newly established
5
large taxpayer unit, remained severely understaffed. The
achievement of quantitative indicators did not fully
0
reflect permanent improvements in business practices; in
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
particular, the target for audits of wealthy taxpayers was
Sources: Eurostat; OECD; and IMF staff calculations.
met largely due to temporary incentives to taxpayers.

60
55
50
45
40
35
30

The unsatisfactory progress reflects a mix of factors, including deep-rooted structural problems,
worsened economic conditions, and limited ownership by the authorities. Resolving fundamental issues
such as the existence of the large informal economy, the complex tax system, and the limited capacity of
revenue administrators takes time. Moreover, deterioration in economic and political conditions during the
crisis severely hampered anti-evasion efforts. On the other hand, the unsatisfactory progress with making
reform plans functional points to limited ownership. Review by the Fund and the EC staff pointed to a lack of
full political commitment to reform, absence of leadership, and continued internal resistance to reform as
underlying reasons behind these developments. In hindsight, the structural benchmarks could have been
more effective if the authorities had been willing to address fundamental institutional issues (e.g., increase
autonomy by revamping the governance and organization structure) as well as operational aspects (e.g.,
ensure appropriate resource allocations to key administration functions).
Reference: OECD, 2011, “OECD Economic Surveys: Greece 2011,” OECD Publishing.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eco_surveys-grc-2011-en

40

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

Box 5. Structural Benchmarks: Design and Implementation
Structural Benchmarks (SBs) focused heavily on fiscal reforms. SBs were established in the area of
pensions, tax administration, public financial management,
60
debt management, sub-national government rationalization,
Cumulative Number of Conditions by Review
(Structural benchmarks and prior actions)
and government wage and employment control. Reforms were
50
Other structural measures
supported by extensive Fund technical assistance.
Labor markets
Competitiveness reforms flowed from the EC’s agenda.
Conditionality encompassed labor markets, the transport, retail,
energy, and tourism sectors, and the overall business
environment. The SBA request contained only one SB related to
competitiveness: the preparation of a privatization plan. The
second review set an SB on reforming the collective bargaining
system and the third review set one on repealing closed
professions. There were numerous competiveness-related SBs
in the fourth and fifth reviews. In the financial sector,
establishment of the Hellenic Financial Stability Fund was an
initial SB.
The total number of SBs was relatively large. The number of
SBs was larger than in comparator programs (see “2011 Review
of Conditionality Overview Paper”, 2012, Policy Paper and
Figure 2). However, the heavy fiscal structural conditionality
was a response to Greece’s weak administrative capacity, while
the need for competitive-promoting reforms appears higher in
a case like Greece that lacks an exchange rate tool.
Compliance with fiscal SBs was initially good, but
implementation proved difficult. Up to the third review most
fiscal SBs were met on time. However, the initial focus was on
changes in laws and plans that were relatively easy to achieve.
Limited progress was made in checking tax evasion and
making the tax burden more equitable, potentially fanning
public opposition to the program. There was also a growing
realization that the authorities had limited capacity to
implement changes on the ground and to counter resistance
in the bureaucracy. The program thus began to focus
increasingly on operational details, including organizational
structures, audit practices, and dispute procedures that were
leaving large tax debts uncollected. Performance indicators
were developed to monitor progress under the tax evasion
plan. By the fifth review, the content of fiscal SBs had become
more detailed and encompassed multiple sub-conditions.

40
30
20

60
50

Financial sector
Public enterprise reform
Pension and other social reforms
Public employment
Central bank
General government

40
30
20

10

10

0

0
SBA

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

Source: IMF staff estimates.
12

12

Average Number of
Conditions per Review

10

10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

0
Hungary Romania Bulgaria
2008–10

2009

Greece

Latvia

2002–04 2010–12

2008

Source: IMF staff estimates.
140
120
100

Share of Structural Benchmarks
Met in Total Due 1/ (Percent)
Fully met
Partially met or with delay
Not met

140
120
100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

0

0
2010Q2

2010Q4

2011Q2

2011Q4

Source: IMF staff estimates.
1/ Cumulative number of structural benchmarks met out
of structurual benchmarks due in the quarter.

Limited progress was also made with competitivenesspromoting reforms. Despite meeting formal conditionality, structural reforms also failed to be implemented
due to resistance by vested interests. Growth-enhancing structural reforms that were initially cast in general
terms became more specific as implementation fell short. For example, the blanket legislation to liberalize
closed professions was succeeded under the EFF-supported program by detailed legislative and regulatory
changes needed on a profession by profession basis.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

41

GREECE

Table 1. Greece: Selected Economic Indicators, 2009–14
2009

2010

2011

2013

2012
Prog.

2014

Proj.

Est.

(Percentage change, unless otherwise indicated)
Domestic economy
Real GDP
Output gap (percent of pot. output)
Total domestic demand
Private consumption

-3.1
7.3
-5.5
-1.6

-4.9
3.3
-7.0
-6.2

-7.1
-2.6
-8.7
-7.7

-6.0
-7.3
-8.7
-7.7

-6.4
-7.7
-10.4
-9.1

-4.2
-10.6
-5.6
-6.9

0.6
-9.5
-1.1
-1.6

Public consumption
Gross fixed capital formation
Change in stocks (contribution)
Foreign balance (contribution)

4.9
-13.7
-1.2
3.0

-8.7
-15.0
0.7
3.0

-5.2
-19.6
-0.4
2.4

-6.2
-14.4
0.4
3.3

-4.2
-19.2
0.0
3.7

-4.0
-4.0
0.4
2.6

-6.2
8.4
0.0
1.7

Exports of goods and services
Imports of goods and services
Unemployment rate (percent) 1/
Employment 1/

-19.4
-20.2
9.4
-1.0

5.2
-6.2
12.5
-2.7

0.3
-7.3
17.5
-6.6

-1.2
-11.5
24.4
-9.2

-2.4
-13.8
24.2
-8.2

3.0
-6.4
27.0
-3.7

4.6
-1.9
26.0
0.6

Unit labor costs
Consumer prices (HICP), end of period
Consumer prices (HICP), period average
Core prices, period average 2/ 3/

4.2
2.6
1.2

-2.6
5.2
4.7

2.3

2.6

-4.3
2.4
3.3
1.1

-8.1
1.3
1.2
...

-4.2
0.8
1.5
-0.3

-7.0
-0.6
-0.8
3.6

-1.5
-0.1
-0.4
...

GDP deflator

2.3

1.1

1.0

-0.5

-0.8

-1.1

-0.4

(Percent of GDP, unless otherwise indicated)
Balance of payments
Current account
Structural current account balance
Trade balance
Export of goods and services
Imports of goods and services
Total transfers
Net income receipts
Net international investment position

-11.2
-7.0
-7.8

-10.1
-8.3
-6.8

-9.9
-10.9
-6.0

-4.2
...
-2.5

-3.4
-5.4
-2.5

-0.8
-4.9
-0.2

-0.2
-3.6
55.2

18.3
-26.2
0.6
-3.9
-86.4

20.5
-27.3
0.1
-3.5
-98.4

23.4
-29.5
0.3
-4.1
-86.1

25.3
-27.8
0.3
-2.0
-94.2

25.4
-27.9
0.7
-1.6
-114.1

27.4
-27.6
1.8
-2.5
-118.9

28.3
-26.9
1.5
-3.1
-117

Public finances (general government)
Total revenues

38.3

40.6

42.4

43.6

44.1

44.3

43.7

Total expenditures
Primary expenditures
Overall balance
Primary balance

54.0
48.8
-15.6
-10.5

51.4
45.5
-10.8
-4.9

52.0
44.8
-9.6
-2.4

50.3
45.1
-6.7
-1.5

50.4
45.4
-6.3
-1.3

48.4
44.3
-4.1
0.0

46.9
42.2
-3.3
1.5

Gross debt

130

148

170

158

157

176

174

Private credit growth (percent change) 5/

5.1
4.2

6.1
0.0

6.8
-3.1

...
-7.2

5.8
-4.0

5.8
-6.5

...
-4.0

Exchange rates, end-period (percent change) 3/
Nominal effective exchange rate
Real effective exchange rate (CPI-based)

0.4
1.7

-3.7
-1.2

0.0
-0.7

-0.5
-1.9

Real effective exchange rate (man. ULC-based)

1.1

0.8

-6.1

...
...
...

-8.4

-0.6
-0.9
-8.4

...
...
...

231
-0.9

222
-3.9

209
-6.1

195
-6.5

194
-7.1

183
-5.3

184
0.2

Interest rates and credit
Lending interest rate (percent) 4/

Memorandum items:
Nominal GDP (billions of euros)
Nominal GDP (percent change)

Sources: National Statistical Service; Ministry of Economy and Finance; Bank of Greece; and IMF staff projections.
1/ Based on Labor Force Survey.
2/ Core prices exclude energy, food, alcohol, and tobacco.
3/ Data for 2013 as of March.
4/ Data for 2013 as of February.
5/ Includes securitized or otherwise transferred loans from 2010 onward.

42

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

Table 2. Greece: Quantitative Performance Criteria, 2010–13
(Billions of Euros)
2010
Jun.

Sep.

Target Actual

Target Actual

2011
Dec.
Target

Adj.
Target

Actual

2013

2012

Mar.

Jun.

Jul.

Sep.

Target Actual

Target Actual

Target Actual

Dec.

Mar.

Dec.

Dec.

Target Actual Target

Target

Target 1/

Target 1/

I. Quantitative performance criteria
Floor on the modified general government primary cash
balance

-5.0

-3.9

-4.0

-3.5

-5.7

-5.7

-5.5

-2.0

-0.9

-4.3

-4.9

-5.1

-4.9

-5.0

-5.3

-5.1

-0.4

1.3

7.4

Ceiling on State Budget primary spending

34.0

28.4

50.0

42.4

67.0

67.0

61.3

14.7

13.4

30.0

28.4

34.7

33.5

44.5

42.0

60.8

13.7

58.7

69.0

Ceiling on the overall stock of central government debt

342.0 316.7

342.0 327.5

342.0

366.0 340.0

394.0 371.1 394.0

408.9

408.9

…

394.0 365.9

394.0 364.5

394.0 377.3

Ceiling on the new guarantees granted by the central
government

2.0

0.3

2.0

1.2

2.0

2.0

1.3

1.0

0.1

1.0

0.3

1.0

0.3

1.0

0.6

1.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Floor on privatization receipts

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

0.4

0.4

1.7

0.4

1.7

5.0

11.0

20.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

0.0

0.8

0.0

0.0

3.0

0.0

4.3

0.0

4.0

0.0

3.9

0.0

3.8

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

II. Continuous performance criteria
Ceiling on the accumulation of new external payments arrears
on external debt contracted or guaranteed by general
government
III. Indicative targets
Ceiling on the accumulation of new domestic arrears by the
general government (continuous)
Source: IMF staff estimates.
1/ Indicative.

43

GREECE

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

GREECE

Table 3. Greece: Structural Conditionality
Date

Measures
Set

Target

Status

Request

PA

Met

PA

Met

PA

Met

Request

Jun-10

Met

Submit to parliament amendments to Law 2362/1995 to (i) require the MoF to present a threeyear fiscal and budget strategy, (ii) introduce topdown budgeting with expenditure ceilings for
the State budget and multi-year contingency margins, (iv) require a supplementary budget for Request
any overspending above the contingency, (v) and introduce commitment controls. The
amended law should be immediately effective, including in the context of the 2011 budget.

Jun-10

Met

The National Actuarial Authority to produce a report to assess whether the parameters of the
Request
new system significantly strengthen long-term actuarial balance.

Jun-10

Met with
delay

Adopt a comprehensive pension reform that reduces the projected increase in public spending
Request
on pensions over the period 2010-60 to 2½ percent of GDP.

Sep-10

Met

Establish a commitment register in all line ministries and public law entities. Begin publishing
monthly data on general government in-year fiscal developments (including arrears).

Request

Sep-10

Met

Publish 2009 financial statements of the ten largest loss-making public enterprises, audited by
Request
chartered accountants, on the official website of the Ministry of Finance.

Sep-10

Met

Put in place an effective project management arrangement (including tight MOF oversight and
five specialist taskforces) to implement the antievasion plan to restore tax discipline through:
strengthened collection funds—of the largest debtors; a reorganized large taxpayer unit
focused on the compliance of the largest revenue contributors; a strong auditenforcement and Request
recovery of tax arrears—coordinated with the social security program to defeat pervasive
evasion by high-wealth individuals and high income self-employed, including prosecution of
the worst offenders; and a strengthened filing and payment control program.

Sep-10

Met

Publish a detailed report by the ministry of finance in cooperation with the single payment
authority on the structure and levels of compensation and the volume and dynamics of
employment in the general government.

Request

Dec-10

Met with
delay

Adopt new Regulation of Statistical Obligations for the agencies participating in the Greek
Statistical System.

Request

Dec-10

Met with
delay

Pass legislation to: (i) streamline the administrative tax dispute and judicial appeal processes;
(ii) remove impediments to the exercise of core tax administration functions (e.g. centralized
filing enforcement and debt collection, indirect audit methods, and tax returns processing);
and (iii) introduce a more flexible human resource management system (including the
acceleration of procedures for dismissals and of prosecution of cases of breach of duty).

2nd rev

Feb-11

Met with
delay

Appointment of financial accounting officers in all line ministries and major general
government entities (with the responsibility to ensure sound financial controls).

2nd rev

Mar-11

Met with
delay

Prior actions and structural benchmarks
Fiscal sector
Reduce public wage bill by cutting bonuses/allowances; and pension bonuses (except
minimum pensions).

Increase standard VAT rate from 21 to 23 percent and reduced rate from 10 to 11 percent and
excise tax rates on alcohol, tobacco, and fuel with a yield of at least €1.25 billion in the
Request
remainder of 2010.
Appoint staff team and leader in GAO responsible for general government in-year cash
Request
reporting.
Adopt and start to implement a reorganization of sub-central government with the aim to
reduce the number of local administrations and elected/appointed officials (Kalikrates).

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Table 3. Greece: Structural Conditionality (cont.)
Date

Measures

Target

Status

Apr-11

Met with
delay

3rd rev

Jun-11

Met with
delay

Publish three consecutive months of consistent arrears and consolidated general government
3rd rev
fiscal reports (excluding small local governments).

Jun-11

Met with
delay

Adopt the necessary changes to enact the plan to reform the general government personnel
system.

3rd rev

Jun-11

Met with
delay

4th rev

PA

Met

Government to legislate key fiscal-structural reforms in an MTFS Implementation Bill (detailed 4th rev
in Annex I).

PA

Met

Set
Prior actions and structural benchmarks
Publish the medium-term budget strategy paper, laying out time-bound plans to address: (i)
restructuring plans for large and/or lossmaking state enterprises; (ii) the closure of
2nd rev
unnecessary public entities; (iii) tax reform; (iv) reforms ot public administration; (v) the public
wage bill; and (vi) military spending.
Articulate a strategic plan of medium-term revenue administration reforms to fight tax
evasion.

Parliament to approve medium-term budget strategy (MTFS).

Government to enact legislation in the context of MTFS implementation (phase II) to: (i)
introduce pension adjustment bill stipulating freezes through 2015, introducing individual
social security numbers, caps, means testing, and rationalizing benefits of pension funds; (ii)
introduce single public pay scale bill, temporarily freeze automatic progression, and halve
productivity allowance; and (iii) close 40 small public entities, merge 25 more small entities,
and close an additional 10 large entities under line ministries and in the social security sector.

4th rev

15-Aug-11

Met with
delay

Government to achieve quantitative targets set under its anti-tax evasion plan.

4th rev

Dec-11

n.a.

Government to complete key actions to implement the various measures approved in the
context of the first MTFS reform bill and anticipated in the second set of reforms bills (Annex
5th rev
I), including the reform of the public sector wage grid and the closure and/or merger of extrabudgetary funds.

PA

n.a.

Government to enact spending reductions (including pensions and earmarked spending and
advanced removal of the heating fuel subsidy); revenue measures (including reducing PIT
thresholds and reductions) as described in MEFP paragraph 6.

PA

n.a.

Parliament to approve a tax reform package, including [(i) a simplification of the code of Books
and Records, (ii) the elimination of several tax exemptions and preferential regimes under the
5th rev
corporate income tax and the VAT; (iii) simplification of the VAT and property tax rate
structures; and (iv) a more uniform treatment of individual capital income].

Mar-12

n.a.

Government to undertake a thorough review of public expenditure programs to identify [3]
percent of GDP in additional measures (including a 1 percent of GDP buffer of potential
additional measures).

5th rev

Jun-12

n.a.

Government to meet newly introduced and more ambitious targets for audits and debt
collection and the resolution of administrative appeals.

5th rev

Dec-12

n.a.

Prepare a privatization plan for the divestment of state assets and enterprises with the aim to
Request
raise at least 1 billion euro a year during the period 2011-2013.

Dec-10

Met

Table legislation to reform the system of collective bargaining, including to eliminate the
automatic extension of sectoral agreements to those not represented in negotiations, and
guarantee that firm level agreements take precedence over sectoral agreements without
undue restrictions.

Dec-10

Met

5th rev

Competitiveness reforms

2nd rev

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Table 3. Greece: Structural Conditionality (cont.)
Date

Measures
Set

Target

Status

The Council of Ministers to adopt a comprehensive privatization plan through 2015.

3rd rev

Jul-11

Met with
delay

Parliament to approve privatization and real estate development strategy.

4th rev

PA

Met

PA

Met

PA

n.a.

PA

n.a.

Mar-12

n.a.

Jun-12

n.a.

Jun-10

Met

PA

Met

Pass legislation to separate the core consignment activity from the commercial activities of the
2nd rev
HCLF.

Mar-11

Met with
delay

Government to put forward for legislative adoption a new tranche of government guarantees
3rd rev
for uncovered bank bonds.

Mar-11

Met with
delay

Commercial banks to submit medium-term funding plans to the ECB and the Bank of Greece.

3rd rev

May-11

Met

Parliament to pass legislation revising the FSF operating framework (to address conditions for
recapitalization) and revising the bank resolution framework (in particular, the deposit
4th rev
guarantee scheme, and the early intervention and bank liquidation frameworks).

15-Sep-11

Met with
delay

Government to enact legislation to address outstanding issues regarding the governance
arrangements for financial oversight agencies, including (i) organizational arrangements for the
5th rev
Bank of Greece; (ii) the corporate governance arrangements for the HFSF; and (iii) the
governance arrangements for the HDIGF.

Dec-11

n.a.

Prior actions and structural benchmarks

Government to legislatively establish a Privatization Agency (a private law vehicle into which
4th rev
privatizable assets will be transferred to be sold).
Government to (i) shift a second group of assets into the privatization fund covering
transactions to be completed through end-2012 (Annex II); and (ii) appoint legal, technical, and 5th rev
financial advisors for 14 projects to be completed by end-2012.
Government to enact legislation to (i) allow worker representatives to negotiate both special
and regular firm-level agreements; (ii) suspend the "favorability clause" in wage negotiations
until at least 2015; and (iii) suspend until at least the end of 2014 the possibility to extend
sectoral agreements to parties not represented in the negotiations.

5th rev

Government to screen specific service sector legislation and repeal or modify unnecessary and
outdated regulations to ensure full consistency with the new law liberalizing all professions
5th rev
and income-generating economic activities.
Government to enact legislation to (i) reduce the employers’ share of social security
contributions, including by rationalizing and consolidating small earmarked funds and
5th rev
broadening the base ; and (ii) improve the administration of security contribution collections,
including by combining collection functions.
Financial sector
Establish the independent Financial Stability Fund (FSF) to preserve the financial sector's
soundness and thus its capacity to support the Greek economy by providing equity support to Request
banks as needed.
Enactment of €25bn bond guarantee for bank liquidity

1st rev

Bank of Greece and FSF to complete a memorandum of understanding to further strengthen
their cooperation (sharing of appropriate supervisory information).

5th rev

PA

n.a.

Bank of Greece to complete bank capital needs assessment.

5th rev

Feb-12

n.a.

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Appendix I. Views of the Authorities
The views of the Greek authorities on program outcomes and design were sought during a visit to
Athens from March 20-22, 2013. Meetings were held with officials in both the current government
and the government in office when the SBA was negotiated in 2010. Meetings were also held with
representatives of the banking sector and the Bank of Greece. Views heard at the meetings are
summarized below.
With regard to Fund involvement, the view expressed was that it would have been better if the crisis
could have been resolved within the EU/euro zone, but neither the authorities nor the EC or ECB
had the required program experience. The Fund’s experience in crisis resolution made it a necessary
part of the process. Another sentiment expressed was that the “4-3-3” deficit reduction program
initially insisted on by the EC was too ambitious and reflected a legalistic approach to meeting the
Maastricht Criteria and Excessive Deficit Procedure. Moreover, the initial interest rates on the loans
from the euro partners were too high creating doubts about sustainability.
Officials noted that Greece itself and European partners were against debt restructuring at the
outset because of concerns about domestic political costs, implications for social security funds,
and contagion, but as time passed this possibility ripened. There were a number of false starts
before a workable proposal emerged. The Deauville announcement had unexpectedly put
restructuring back on the table and had severely unsettled markets just at a time that the program
was showing some success and Greek spreads were beginning to decline. Later, the possibility of
Greece exiting the euro became a public debate by the euro partners, a discussion that should have
occurred behind closed doors.
The negotiations took place in a very short period of time. This had costs. There was insufficient
time for political dialogue and consultation with people at the administrative level. This reduced
buy-in for the program and led to local knowledge not being fully used to tailor conditionality to
the specifics of Greece.
The common view was that no-one could have predicted the depth and length of the recession.
However, officials acknowledged that the program’s macroeconomic projections had risks to the
downside that materialized in a context of political instability and deposit outflows. Also, in
calculating the effects of tax measures, price and income elasticities were underestimated and this
reduced the revenue yield. Data revisions that widened the 2009 fiscal deficit by 2 percentage
points of GDP made the required fiscal adjustment even more demanding. Greater emphasis should
have been placed on addressing deposit outflows and their effects and maintaining financing
conditions consistent with the macroeconomic program. Financing constraints implied limits on the
flexibility of targets, but this had led to a vicious circle whereby the deeper the recession, the
greater the need for measures, and the deeper the recession.
Doubts were heard about the emphasis in the original program on raising taxes rather than
reducing spending. On the one hand, taxes were relatively low and raising them was politically
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easier. However, the private sector had borne the brunt of the adjustment, while public sector
employees continued to enjoy permanent employment. With hindsight, greater effort should also
have been made at the beginning of the program to privatize state assets and to clamp down on
prominent tax evaders.
Program implementation had started decisively, but markets became worried by social and political
unrest and uncertainty about euro area policy. The data revisions affected sentiment and there were
concerns about insufficient financing in 2013 and 2014 after the program ended. Some officials
argued that the SBA should have been an EFF from the start. It was noted that an EFF had later
been used for Ireland which had far less structural problems.
Limited ownership conspired against implementation. The political atmosphere in 2010 was not
promising to secure support. Some argued that the government failed to take full advantage of its
political capital and to explain the program to the public. The then government blamed the
opposition for causing the crisis and did not seek its support. And the opposition contested the
program and did not seek common ground. Many politicians even within the government
attempted to distance themselves from the measures. The Fund sought to talk to the trade unions,
but these attempts were not fruitful.
Consensus on the program has now improved with the coalition government. However, the crisis
and the recession have had terrible consequences for Greece in terms of unemployment and have
caused severe stress in society with extreme parties now gaining support.
Slippage in program implementation also reflected weak capacity. Officials recognized that they
had underestimated the requirements of the program and overestimated Greece’s administrative
capacity to undertake reforms. When laws were changed, there was insufficient follow up to ensure
implementation and results were not analyzed, measured, and tracked. The weakness in
administration and management necessitated multi-layered and repeated reforms and ever-more
detailed conditionality, particularly with regard to improving tax administration since this was
critical to the success of the program. The intensive TA involvement by the EC Task Force and the
Fund was welcomed by officials and was not considered to be intrusive given the deep assistance
that Greece needed.
The Troika reflects three different institutions. This sometimes posed coordination problems: the
Fund made decisions in a structured fashion, while decision-making in the Euro Zone spanned
Heads of State and multiple agencies and was more fragmented. Officials observed that it took time
for the Troika to gel as a unit, for example, in formulating a common macro view, but in general,
dealing with the Troika was fairly smooth. The Troika partners listened to each other and were wellprepared. However, detailed conditionality increased the coordination challenge. There was also
sometimes a lack of continuity in the Troika teams. All-in-all, this exacerbated uncertainty and
reduced the possibility for early agreements.

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