EU DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION WITH
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 2013-2018
POLICIES, FUNDING, RESULTS

Study commissioned by the Policy and Operations Evaluation Department of
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands
By Alexei Jones, Niels Keijzer, Ina Friesen and Pauline Veron
May 2020

Table of contents
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................1
List of acronyms..............................................................................................................................................1
Executive summary ........................................................................................................................................4
Introduction: purpose and objectives of this study .........................................................................................9
Chapter 1: Policy commitments ............................................................................................................... 11
1.

Overall evolution of EU’s development policy 2013-2018 ................................................................. 14
1.1.

The Agenda for Change and its implementation in the 2014-2020 programming process ... 14

1.2.

The EU’s contribution to the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development ....................... 16

1.3.

A new strategic framework for EU foreign and development policy....................................... 17
1.3.1. The EU Global Strategy for foreign and security policy ................................................ 17
1.3.2. The New European Consensus on Development ........................................................ 18

2.

Thematic priorities and approaches to development cooperation .................................................... 20
2.1.

Engaging and working more closely with the private sector .................................................. 21
2.1.1. The EU’s strategy on private sector for development................................................... 21
2.1.2. Leveraging private investment for development ........................................................... 22
2.1.3. Promoting economic growth, investments and job creation in Africa ........................... 23

2.2.

Addressing root causes of irregular migration ........................................................................ 24
2.2.1. The growing impact of the EU’s migration policy on development cooperation ........... 24
2.2.2. Strengthening cooperation with Africa to address common migration challenges ....... 24
2.2.3. Establishing an Emergency Trust Fund for Africa ........................................................ 25

2.3.

Furthering the framework for peace and security - development nexus ................................ 25
2.3.1. Towards an integrated approach to external conflicts and crises ................................ 26
2.3.2. EU support to peace and security in Africa .................................................................. 26

3.

Key on-going policy processes and frameworks ............................................................................... 27
3.1. Towards a broad instrument for development and international cooperation in the new EU
budget for 2021-2027 ........................................................................................................................ 27
3.2.

4.

Towards updated EU-ACP and EU-AU partnerships ............................................................. 28

Conclusion on the EU’s development policy commitments .............................................................. 28

Chapter 2: Funding patterns .................................................................................................................... 30
1.

Sub-Saharan Africa development trends in 2013-2018 .................................................................... 30

2.

Overall sectoral and geographic distribution ..................................................................................... 33
2.1.

Sectoral distribution ................................................................................................................ 33

2.2.

Geographic distribution .......................................................................................................... 36

3.

Delivery channels used in EU-SSA cooperation ............................................................................... 40

4.

Modalities used in EU-SSA cooperation ........................................................................................... 42

5.

Conclusions on the evolution of EU development spending in Sub-Saharan Africa ........................ 45

Chapter 3: Results ..................................................................................................................................... 47
1.

Dutch priorities vis-à-vis EU development policy, evaluation evidence and approach ..................... 48

2.

Evaluation evidence in relation to the policy goals and working methods ........................................ 49
2.1.

Policy goals ............................................................................................................................ 49
2.1.1. Priority themes .............................................................................................................. 49
2.1.2. Gender as a cross-cutting theme.................................................................................. 64

2.2.

Working methods ................................................................................................................... 67
2.2.1. Donor cooperation ........................................................................................................ 68
2.2.2. Budget support.............................................................................................................. 77
2.2.3. Political dialogue ........................................................................................................... 81

3.

4.

Horizontal considerations .................................................................................................................. 82
3.1.

Policy Coherence for development ........................................................................................ 82

3.2.

Coherence between instruments ........................................................................................... 86

3.3.

The quality and use of monitoring and evaluation.................................................................. 89

Conclusions: Results of EU development cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa ............................. 92

Annex 1: Summary of the Terms of Reference ........................................................................................... 95
Annex 2: Evaluation reports reviewed for this study (n=55) ........................................................................ 98
Annex 3: Selected findings and conclusions of the 2013 IOB study of the European Development
Fund
...................................................................................................................................................... 100
Annex 4: Study methodology..................................................................................................................... 102
Annex 5: Data grid used for the analysis of the 55 evaluations ................................................................ 105
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................... 108

List of boxes
Box 1. Overlapping EU-Africa cooperation frameworks .............................................................................. 11
Box 2. EU-Africa Summits ........................................................................................................................... 20
Box 3. Examples of positive EU impact on peace and security .................................................................. 52
Box 4. Key takeaways from the evaluations on preventing conflict and instability ..................................... 53
Box 5. Key takeaways from the evaluations on private sector development .............................................. 57
Box 6. Key takeaways from the evaluations on rural and agricultural development ................................... 61
Box 7. Examples of results achieved through EU support in the field of social development in SubSaharan Africa ...................................................................................................................................... 62
Box 8. Key takeaways from the evaluations on social development ........................................................... 64
Box 9. A positive example of gender mainstreaming in Zambia ................................................................. 65

Box 10. Key takeaways from the evaluations on gender equality ............................................................... 67
Box 11. Examples of EU added value through budget support .................................................................. 69
Box 12. Key findings of the evaluation of delegated cooperation .............................................................. 72
Box 13. Key takeaways from the evaluations on added value and complementarity ................................. 76
Box 14. Key takeaways from the evaluations on budget support ............................................................... 80
Box 15. Key takeaways from the evaluations on policy coherence for development ................................. 85
Box 16. Examples of successful use of multiple funding instruments ......................................................... 86
Box 17. Key takeaways from the evaluations on coherence between EU instruments .............................. 89

List of figures
Figure 1: Key milestones in the EU’s development and Africa-related policy framework ........................... 13
Figure 2. Real GDP Growth 2013-2018 ...................................................................................................... 31
Figure 3. Top investor economies in Africa, 2013 and 2017 (USD, billions) ............................................... 32
Figure 4. Regional comparison of population growth .................................................................................. 33
Figure 5. Sectoral distribution of EU’s aid to SSA (2013-2018, USD million) ............................................. 34
Figure 6. Top SSA EU aid recipients, 2013-2018 (EUR million) ................................................................. 37
Figure 7. EU aid disbursed to upper middle-income countries in SSA ....................................................... 39
Figure 8. Principal delivery channels of EU aid to SSA (% of total) ............................................................ 41
Figure 9. Selected types of aid: EU development cooperation with SSA ................................................... 42
Figure 10. Clustering the eight policy goals and working methods ............................................................. 49

List of tables
Table 1. EU External Financing Instruments, 2014-2020 ........................................................................... 16
Table 2. Population statistics and EU aid disbursed to Sub-Saharan Africa............................................... 32
Table 3. Secondary sector code distribution of EU development aid to SSA (USD million,
disbursements) ..................................................................................................................................... 35
Table 4. EU Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa as a percentage of total EU aid .................................................... 36
Table 5. Top ten EU aid recipients in Sub-Saharan Africa (2013-2018) ..................................................... 38
Table 6. EU Aid disbursed to Sub-Saharan African LDCs .......................................................................... 39
Table 7. Types of aid compared: 2010-2012 vs 2013-2018 ........................................................................ 43
Table 8. Eight EU development policy goals and working methods of the Netherlands’ government ........ 48
Table 9. Key factors in EU’s relevance in preventing conflict and instability .............................................. 50
Table 10. Enabling and inhibiting factors for the effectiveness of EU support to preventing conflict and
instability ............................................................................................................................................... 51

Table 11. Key factors in EU’s relevance in EU support to private sector development .............................. 54
Table 12. Enabling and inhibiting factors for the effectiveness of the EU’s support to PSD ....................... 54
Table 13. Key factors in EU’s relevance in EU support to rural and agricultural development ................... 58
Table 14. Enabling and inhibiting factors for the effectiveness, impact and sustainability of EU support to
rural and agricultural development ....................................................................................................... 60
Table 15. Key factors in EU’s relevance in EU support to social development .......................................... 62
Table 16. Enabling and inhibiting factors for the effectiveness, impact and sustainability of EU support to
social development ............................................................................................................................... 64
Table 17. Examples of results achieved on gender equality at the sectoral level ....................................... 66
Table 18. EU added value in selected thematic priority areas .................................................................... 69
Table 19. Evidence on complementarity from thematic evaluations ........................................................... 73
Table 20. Policy and political dialogue defined ........................................................................................... 81
Table 21. Enabling and inhibiting factors of political/policy dialogue .......................................................... 82
Table 22. Evidence of coherence between instruments from thematic evaluations ................................... 87
Table 23. Enabling and inhibiting factors affecting complementarity and synergies between instruments 89
Table 24. Evidence on M&E systems from thematic evaluations ............................................................... 91

Acknowledgements
This study was commissioned by the Policy and Operations Department (IOB) of the Netherlands Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, and jointly prepared by the European Centre for Development Policy Management
(ECDPM) and the German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE).
The authors would like to thank Paul de Nooijer, Bas Limonard, Sjarah Soede and Hester Stoker of the
Netherlands ministry, as well as Andrew Sherriff and James Mackie (ECDPM) for their helpful comments
on a draft version of this paper. In addition, the authors are grateful to Alma Wisskirchen and Kim Schumann
as well as Katja Sergejeff for their research assistance, as well as to Annette Powell and Yaseena van’t Hoff
for layout and design work.
The views and opinions expressed in this study, as well as any errors and omissions, are the authors. Any
questions on this study can be addressed to Alexei Jones at aj@ecdpm.org

List of acronyms
ACP
AIDS
AfCFTA
AFIF
APF
APSA
AU
CAR
CPA
CRS
CSO
CSO-LA
CVE
DAC
DCI
DEVCO
DG
DG NEAR
DRC
DRM
EC
ECA
ECDPM
ECHO
EDF
EEAS
EFI
EFSD
ENI
EIB
EIDHR
EIP

African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
African Continental Free Trade Area
African Investment Facility
African Peace Facility
African Peace and Security Architecture
African Union
Central African Republic
Cotonou Partnership Agreement
Common Reporting System
Civil Society Organisations
Civil Society - Local Authorities
Countering Violent Extremism
Development Assistance Committee
Development Cooperation Instrument
Directorate General for International Cooperation and Development
Directorate General
Directorate General Neighbourhood and Enlargement
Democratic Republic of Congo
Domestic Resource Mobilisation
European Commission
European Court of Auditors
European Centre for Development Policy Management
European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations
European Development Fund
European External Action Service
External Financial Instrument
European Fund for Sustainable Development
European Neighbourhood Instrument
European Investment Bank
European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights
European Investment Plan

1

EPA
EU
EUCAP
EUD
EUISS
EUTF
FDI
FTA
GDP
GEWE
GIZ
GNI
HIV
HQ
HRVP
IcSP
ILO
IMF
IOB
ITF
JAES
JP
LDC
M&E
MDG
MFF
MS
NDICI
NIF
NGO
ODA
OECD
PAF
PAP
PCD
PFM
PSD
PSE
QSG
ROM
TF
TRA
SADC
SDG
SME
SRHR
SSA
UMIC
UN
UNCTAD

Economic Partnership Agreements
European Union
European Union Capacity Building mission
European Union Delegation
European Union Institute for Security Studies
European Union Trust Fund
Foreign Direct Investment
Free Trade Agreement
Gross Domestic Product
Gender, Equality and Women’s Empowerment
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH
Gross National Income
Human Immunodeficiency Viruses
Headquarters
High Representative and Vice President
Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace
International Labour Organisation
International Monetary Fund
Policy and Operations Evaluation Department
EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund
Joint Africa-EU Strategy
Joint Programming
Least Developed Country
Monitoring and Evaluation
Millennium Development Goals
Multiannual Financial Framework
Member State
Neighbourhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument
Neighbourhood Investment Facility
Non Governmental Organisation
Official Development Assistance
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
Poverty Action Fund
Pan-African Programme
Policy Coherence for Development
Public Finance Management
Private Sector Development
Private Sector Engagement
Quality Support Group
Result Oriented Monitoring
Trust Fund
Trade Related Assistance
Southern African Development Community
Sustainable Development Goals
Small and Medium Enterprises
Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights
Sub Saharan Africa
Upper Middle Income Countries
United Nations
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

2

UNGA
UNICEF
USD
WB

United Nations General Assembly
United Nations Children's Fund
United States Dollar
World Bank

3

Executive summary
1.

The objective of the study is to provide an overview of the evolution of and the results achieved
by EU development cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa during the period 2013-2018. It aims
to feed into further policy discussion and research inquiry, and complements the Dutch
government’s regular reporting to parliament of results achieved in EU development
cooperation.

2.

The study, commissioned by the Policy and Operations Evaluation Department of the
Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, presents a structured literature review of EU
development cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa over the period 2013-2018. It addresses
three main questions:

Policy commitments: What were the EU’s intentions as regards development
cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa during the period 2013-2018?

Funding: To what extent were these intentions reflected in allocation patterns during the
same period?

Results: What do we know about the results of EU development cooperation with SSA
during the period under review?

3.

The study focuses on EU policies and development spending in areas that are priority themes
for the Dutch Government’s engagement with the European Union in the field of development
cooperation, as well as selected working methods and practices that are particularly relevant
for the EU’s development cooperation. It is based on a structured review of policy documents,
data on aid allocation patterns, and a systematic assessment of available ex-post evaluation
material of the EU institutions (European Commission, European Court of Auditors, European
Investment Bank).

The evolution of the policy commitments
4.

The direction of EU development policy with Sub-Saharan Africa during the period 2013-2018
was guided by decisions taken before the start of the period under review and before the
Juncker Commission took office in 2014. Particularly relevant was the 2011 Agenda for Change
that provided the main orientations on the priorities and principles of EU development
cooperation. This agenda strongly guided the regular programming of EU aid and cooperation
for the 2013-2018 period, notably by proposing to concentrate EU aid on a limited number of
sectors and to differentiate among aid recipients in order to increase impact.

5.

As of 2015, global and regional trends prompted a shift in the EU’s policy priorities. The
adoption of the UN 2030 Agenda on sustainable development, geopolitical shifts and
emerging crises in Africa and the EU Neighbourhood impelled the EU to fundamentally review
its foreign policy and international development cooperation framework. The “Global Strategy
for the EU’s Foreign and Security Policy” (HRVP 2016) and “New European Consensus on
Development” (Council of the European Union 2017) gave new directions for the EU’s
development policy. Both acknowledge the broad and integrated nature of the sustainable
development agenda and put stronger emphasis on the linkages between EU development
policy and other EU foreign policy strands. Reflecting the growing attention to and articulation
of the EU’s own interests within its development policy, themes such as peace and security,
migration, and private sector engagement, have become increasingly prominent in
cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa.

4

6.

Key factors that facilitated the EU’s response to these new priorities - besides the regular longterm programming process - included the legal possibility to create trust funds, which allowed
co-funding by EU member states and other official actors, as well as the considerable reserves
of the European Development Fund that had accumulated over time and were at the EU’s
disposal. Key initiatives included the creation of innovative instruments and facilities, such
as the EU’s Emergency Trust Fund for Africa (EUTF) and the External Investment Plan (EIP),
to respond quickly to emerging priorities and crises through development spending. While
different in nature and governance structures, both have in common that they could be
resourced from the reserves of the European Development Fund, allowing for allocating ODA
additional to those decided upon through the regular programming process.

How did funding instruments follow the changing policy commitments?
7.

The African continent as a whole (i.e. North- and Sub-Saharan Africa combined) was the main
recipient of EU development funding, with a total of € 32.77 billion disbursed during the period
2013-2018. Over 70% of this amount, representing €23.76 billion, went to Sub-Saharan
Africa, primarily through bilateral cooperation and additionally through regional and thematic
allocations.

8.

There is a time lapse between the policy decisions made during the period 2013-2018,
including the focus on new thematic priorities, and their actual translation into spending
decisions. The EU programmes its development aid on the basis of seven-year periods that
are reviewed at mid-term but leave little space for fundamental shifts. Hence, it was mainly
through the launch of new initiatives and instruments after 2015, notably the EUTF and the
EIP, that EU spending demonstrated a stronger focus on investment, job creation,
security/stability and migration-related expenditure. These initiatives have important effects on
the cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa, not only due to the new funding priorities entailed,
but also because they came with their own structures for deciding on funding allocations.

9.

In line with the EU’s policy commitment to target aid to the poorest countries, over 75% of the
EU’s bilateral aid to Sub-Saharan Africa was disbursed to Least Developed Countries (LDCs).
The top three LDC recipients of EU aid were Mali, Ethiopia and Niger. While aid to African
LDCs remained still, aid to Upper Middle-Income Countries considerably declined during the
2013-2018 period as a result of the differentiation principle in the Agenda for Change.

10.

The sectoral distribution of EU aid to Sub-Saharan Africa in 2013-2018 shows a considerable
reduction in commodity aid and general programme assistance during the period under review,
which reflects the gradual shift from general to sector budget support. Economic as well as
social infrastructure and services saw the strongest increase in the last two years. Another key
trend is the increasing shift towards migration-related expenditure and blended finance,
following the creation of the 2015 Emergency Trust Fund for Africa and the 2016 External
Investment Plan.

11.

In terms of funding modalities, the choices made by the EU reflect an increasing use of the
project modality and, correspondingly, an increasing use of various intermediaries that
include international organisations, EU member states’ implementing agencies, development
finance institutions and civil society organisations. This trend shows a departure from the
previous reporting period, as analysed in the 2013 IOB evaluation of the European
Development Fund (EDF), where the EU’s cooperation portfolio was characterised by a strong
focus on general budget support and other types of programme-based approaches, which were
directly managed by the European Commission.

5

What do we know about the results of EU development cooperation?
Based on the review of evaluations, the following specific findings can be highlighted
concerning the results in the eight policy areas and working methods.
12.

In relation to peace and security, EU development aid has had a positive impact and
contributed to more stability in African crisis regions, as capacities for conflict prevention and
management were enhanced. Evidence of more fundamental long-term effects remains
unknown, while there are concerns over ownership deficits and financial sustainability.

13.

The EU also made important contributions to private sector development by means of longterm finance of small and medium enterprises and strengthened partners’ trade policy
environments, international trade standard setting, capacity of public institutions, and trade
development. The sustainability of these results however shows a mixed picture. A similar
picture is seen in relation to rural development, where important and tangible results were
achieved – including in terms of direct poverty reduction – but where transformative change
and reversing worsening trends in some cases (e.g. in the environment and climate change
sector) require more time and an up-scaling of support.

14.

Results were also achieved in relation to social development, notably through improved living
standards and equitable access to basic social services (education, health, water and
sanitation) and with positive effects on access for women and girls. Budget support also
played a key catalytic role in this regard, though there remained challenges in terms of
strengthening the quality of the social services and the sustainability of the increased access.
Policy dialogue is a key aspect of budget support operations, yet its effectiveness requires
consistent and frequent engagement, while also being influenced by changes in the overall
relationship between the government and its external partners.

15.

Although many programming documents included gender in their project design, there was no
evidence of gender being systematically addressed in the implementation of the projects and
activities, resulting in the impression that results were achieved by default. Important results
were nonetheless achieved in gender equality in the education, social protection, health and
agriculture sectors.

16.

In the area of donor cooperation, the joint programming process did not, by itself, reduce
overall aid fragmentation in the countries where it took place. It did contribute to harmonisation,
coordination and aid complementarity and fostered convergence among the EU and member
states regarding strategies and policies at country level. It has however remained an EU and
member states exercise, thus limiting the potential ownership of the process by the partner
country. The impact of delegated cooperation has also been limited to date, mainly due to
insufficient linkages with other initiatives such as joint programming and the lack of a
comprehensive policy framework.

17.

Although the EU’s policy coherence for development commitment is enshrined in the Treaty
on the Functioning of the EU, there is no common understanding of the approach and a lack
of clarity among institutional stakeholders on the operational aspect of this commitment
towards developing countries. Policy coherence is looked at by various evaluations, but
generally in a brief manner without offering detailed evidence.

18.

Finally, the evaluations presented findings on the coherence between the EU’s various
financial instruments: they found relatively little overlap between the 11th EDF and other

6

instruments, as they often funded different priorities or actions, though the comparative
advantage of each instrument was not always clear. At thematic level, there were positive
examples of coordination and complementarity for instance in the areas of rural and agricultural
development and peace and security. Some evaluations found risks of thematic overlaps
between different instruments, which in part was due to insufficient coordination between
Brussels and EU Delegations.
19.

All in all, and similar to the findings of the 2013 IOB study, the evaluations present rich and
detailed evidence of the relevance of the choices made and approaches taken, as well as the
results accomplished. By comparison, across the board the evaluations reviewed are less
robust as to the sustainability of these results, as well as to what extent these helped to
advance key development outcomes and advanced the overall objectives of EU development
policy. This is not unique to the EU as a donor, but in fact represents a shared evaluation
challenge faced in different degrees by all DAC members.

Conclusions and recommendations for further inquiry
20.

The EU’s development policy and operations overall, and with Sub-Saharan Africa in particular,
are characterised by a high degree of transparency and adequate investments in
independent evaluation. This results from the governance of this policy area, with policy
directions and overall allocation decisions reflecting the collective values and interest of the
European Commission and External Action Service, the member states and the European
Parliament. Overall policy decisions, specific thematic and country-based decisions as well as
project-level data are thus available and shared through dedicated platforms, thus reflecting a
policy area geared towards and generally receptive of external scrutiny.

21.

The study confirms a broad and rich evidence base on the EU’s development cooperation with
Sub-Saharan Africa. The independent evaluations confirm the overall relevance of the EU’s
cooperation and point to important results achieved. Yet, the evaluations also confirm earlier
concerns over the challenges in assessing long-term impact and sustainability of the EU’s
cooperation engagement. They also highlight unused potential for increasing collective
effectiveness – both internally in the EU (including with the European Investment Bank) and in
cooperation with the member states.

22.

With the exception of a dedicated, yet mainly process-oriented, evaluation of joint programming
and a limited number of joint evaluations conducted together with EU member states, the
evaluations reviewed did not present detailed evidence on the EU’s added value vis-à-vis the
bilateral development cooperation of EU member states active in the same countries or
regions. While there is merit in critically evaluating the EU’s engagement as a development
actor in its own right, the degree to which the EU’s and member states’ activities complement
each other warrants a dedicated evaluation.

23.

In addition to this evaluation gap on collective EU development cooperation effectiveness, four
further gaps are observed:
 First of all, the EU’s support to and through Civil Society Organisations, and the aid the
EU delivers through international organisations, particularly – but not limited to – the World
Bank and UN agencies, have not been subject to evaluation in recent years.
 Secondly, as a result of the establishment of the EUTF and the EIP, the role for member
states’ implementing agencies and development finance institutions in implementing EU
development cooperation interventions has increased. Further discussion is needed as to

7





how the EU and the member states may best evaluate these forms of cooperation that
have gained prominence in recent years.
Third, the EIB should consider further investment in independent evaluation of its
operations in Africa, especially in view of its stronger profile today, as appropriate in direct
cooperation with the European Commission’s evaluation services.
Finally, a dedicated review would be welcome on the effectiveness of EU cooperation in
terms of democracy promotion through the EU’s range of external financing instruments.

8

Introduction: purpose and objectives of this study
In 2013, the Policy and Operations Evaluation Department of the ministry of Foreign Affairs (IOB) published
a comprehensive policy evaluation of the EDF (IOB 2013). This policy evaluation showed that the
Commission has an elaborate system of monitoring and evaluation, comprising different types of evaluations
and reports annually, amongst others, on the EU’s development and external assistance policies and their
implementation. The minister for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation has committed to inform
Parliament more systematically on EU aid effectiveness.
To contribute to this information sharing process as well as to prepare future evaluations on this topic, IOB
commissioned a literature review of EU development cooperation in Sub-Saharan Africa in the period 20132018.1 Its Terms of Reference (see Annex 1) identified three main questions to be addressed:
1.
How have EU overall development policies and the EU's overall policies vis-à-vis Sub-Saharan
Africa in particular evolved in the period 2013-2018 and what explains the developments that
have taken place?
2.
How has EU development spending in Sub-Saharan Africa developed in the period 2013-2018
and what explains these developments?
3.
What is known of the results accomplished by EU development aid in Sub-Saharan Africa and
what explains these accomplishments?
This study analyses these questions on the basis of a comprehensive desk review of key EU policy
documents, data on EU development cooperation as well as available evaluation material of the EU
institutions on EU external assistance. While broad in coverage, the study pays particular attention to EU
policies and development spending in specific areas that are priority themes for the Dutch government as
communicated to the parliament.
In relation to the first question, the review looks at how EU development and broader foreign policies have
evolved between 2013 and 2018, especially vis-à-vis Sub-Saharan Africa. It assesses how the changing
global environment, a new internationally agreed framework for sustainable development, emerging policy
priorities and strategic interests for Europe have impacted EU policy discourse and instruments. The review
also captures recent debates and on-going processes (e.g. post-Cotonou, Multiannual Financial
Framework, Europe-Africa Alliance, etc.) and their potential impact on EU-Africa cooperation.
Regarding the second question, the review is principally based on the Commission’s annual reports on the
implementation of the EU’s instruments for financing external action, supplemented by annual activity
reports and financial reports produced by the Commission and the European Investment Bank (EIB). It
includes an analysis of (1) the evolution of EU aid allocations (geographic and sectoral disbursements), (2)
the use of diverse modalities (programmes, projects, budget support, blended finance), and (3) the
diversification of channels and actors to implement EU development aid (through budgetary financial
instruments, trust funds, implementing agencies). Tables and graphics are used to highlight key trends and
patterns of EU development aid in Sub-Saharan Africa over the period 2013-2018.
Finally, for the third question, the review is based on 55 evaluation reports (see list in Annex 2) that were
published from 2013 to 2019, and were associated with the various Dutch thematic priorities. A structured
data collection grid was prepared to process and compile the evaluation evidence in spreadsheets to enable
the horizontal analysis required (for more information see Annex 4 and 5).

1

At the time of preparing this study, no evaluations were available that covered activities beyond 2018. The 20132018 period mostly fits within the current EU multiannual financial framework 2014-2020 and the ensuing
programming period of EU aid towards developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa.

9

As a consequence of the choices made in the study’s design and approaches, three limitations should be
presented here for the reader’s awareness. First of all, allocation patterns for the period 2013-2018 were in
part influenced by earlier decisions, most notably due to the European Development Fund that allows for
funds to be disbursed several years after having been committed. A comparison between the EU’s intentions
and allocation patterns is feasible as long as this caveat is kept in mind. Secondly, while conducted in a
structured and transparent manner, the analysis of evaluation reports is of a qualitative nature, since
different methodologies were used to gather data to support the findings as analysed. Third, a considerable
number of evaluation reports cover operations prior to the 2013-2018 and are hence somewhat dated.
The study is structured around the three research questions analysed in consecutive chapters.

10

Chapter 1: Policy commitments
Introduction
This chapter analyses the European Union’s (EU) overall intentions and priorities as regards development
cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in the period 2013-2018, based on a review of policy
documents. These policies have evolved significantly within this period as a result of external events, new
EU strategic priorities, evolving international development agendas and wider contextual changes.
Moreover, the strategic global, political and economic importance of Africa has increased in recent years.
As shown in figure 1 and as will be described in the following sections, the evolution of the EU’s development
policy was driven by two trends. On the one hand, it has moved away from the strong poverty focus of the
1990s and 2000s to a more 'sustainable development' approach that is broader, encompassing all
dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social, environmental and political) in a more
comprehensive manner. On the other hand, the EU’s development policy is increasingly being linked to
other foreign policy fields and driven by the EU's own internal economic, migration and security interests
and priorities. Overall, the EU’s development policy has pursued a more integrated and interest-driven
agenda.
From 2013 to 2018, echoing the evolution of the EU’s development policy framework, Europe’s relationship
with Africa has undergone a substantial transformation. This transformation is characterised by a growing
emphasis on interest-driven cooperation as well as a gradual move away from a relationship built on aid
towards one based more on trade and closer economic and security ties. Over the past decade, the EU’s
policy prioritised a transition to a partnership model based on mutual interests and a win-win relationship. It
is pursuing these desired changes through several partially overlapping frameworks, as analysed in box 1.
Box 1. Overlapping EU-Africa cooperation frameworks
EU cooperation policies and instruments vis-à-vis Africa are guided by multiple and overlapping frameworks.
The EU has developed a number of different frameworks for its trade, aid, and later political cooperation
with African partners, which has resulted in the fragmentation of EU-Africa relations. In particular, there is
still a legal and policy separation between North and Sub-Saharan Africa – the former being governed by
the Neighbourhood Policy and four individual association agreements with all North-African states apart
from Libya, while cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa is governed by both the Cotonou Partnership
Agreement with the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (ACP) and the Joint Africa-EU Strategy
with the African Union.
The Cotonou Partnership Agreement (CPA) was signed in 2000 and constitutes the legal and financial
framework for cooperation – development cooperation, economic and trade cooperation and political
dialogue – between the EU and the ACP. Since 2000, the CPA has lost traction on trade and political
debates and has become very focussed on aid. The Agreement was due to come to an end in February
2020 and both parties are currently negotiating the successor agreement.
The Joint Africa-EU Strategy (JAES) provides the overarching long-term political framework for
cooperation at the continental level. It was adopted at the second EU-Africa summit in December 2007. The
purpose was to take the Africa-EU relationship to a new strategic level with a strengthened political
partnership and enhanced cooperation at all levels. Despite these ambitions, the JAES has lacked means
of implementation. For this and other reasons, it has lost momentum and significance. The relations between
the EU and Sub-Saharan Africa related to aid and bilateral cooperation have, in practice, continued to rely
on the Cotonou Agreement.
On the 9th of March 2020, and in preparation of the next AU-EU summit foreseen for October 2020, the EU
published a Communication titled “Towards a comprehensive Strategy with Africa”. This

11

Communication sets out ideas to intensify cooperation in all aspects of the EU-Africa partnership, notably
on areas of common interest such as (1) green transition and energy access, (2) digital transformation, (3)
sustainable growth and jobs, (4) peace and governance, (5) migration and mobility. It further stated that
coherence should be maintained between the proposed EU-Africa strategy and the legally binding
agreements between the EU and African states: the ACP-EU framework for Sub-Saharan States and the
association agreements with North-African states.
In the sections below, we analyse the overall evolution of EU development policy in the period 2013-2018,
before looking at some of the key EU thematic policy priorities and how they translated into the policies and
frameworks vis-à-vis Sub-Saharan Africa.

12

Figure 1: Key milestones in the EU’s development and Africa-related policy framework

13

1. Overall evolution of EU’s development policy 20132018
1.1. The Agenda for Change and its implementation in the 2014-2020
programming process
Since 2005, the EU’s development policy has been framed by the European Consensus on Development
(European Parliament/European Commission/Council of the European Union 2006). The Consensus built
on the common agenda the EU member states had set together during the various big UN conferences of
the 1990s that led up to the Millennium Declaration in 2000. It provided the first common policy framework
for the EU and its member states2 on the objectives and principles of the EU’s development policy.
As of 2011, this policy framework was complemented by the “Agenda for Change” (European Commission
2011a), a reform strategy aimed at increasing the impact and effectiveness of the EU’s development
assistance. The reform took place against the background of a fast-changing global environment, and in
particular the financial and economic crisis, growing aid fatigue, and the Arab Spring, all of which called for
a significant refocus of EU’s development policy. The Agenda for Change also placed a strong emphasis
on the need for EU aid to demonstrate strong value for money and to ensure that resources are targeted
where they were needed most to address poverty and where they could have the greatest impact.
The Agenda for Change established two overarching priorities: (i) ‘human rights, democracy, rule of law and
governance’ and (ii) ‘inclusive and sustainable growth for human development’ as the two basic pillars of
EU development policy. It highlighted the importance of working in the areas of social protection, health and
education, business environment and regional integration, sustainable agriculture, food security and energy.
It also introduced two key principles: the principle of differentiation and the principle of concentration:
 The principle of differentiation stressed the need to target EU ODA on countries most in need,
including low income and least developed countries (LDCs) and fragile states – while reducing
or phasing out EU aid for a number of so-called graduated countries.3
 The second was the principle of sector concentration, according to which EU resources in countrylevel programmes would focus on a maximum of three sectors. By doing so, the EU sought to
avoid aid fragmentation and ensure a more strategic use of scarce resources through a critical
mass of funding in a limited number of sectors where it could bring added value.
The principles of the Agenda for Change benefited from high-level political sponsorship at headquarters and
were successfully enforced in the field. They were notably incorporated in the specific regulations of the EU
external financing instruments (EFIs)4, and also influenced the programming of EU aid for the period 20142020.5 The preparatory process of programming EU aid started in 2011, just after the adoption of Agenda
for Change. According to the programming guidelines, all new EU multiannual indicative programmes were
2
3

4

5

The Consensus on Development was divided in two parts, the first one on common principles and objectives for the
EU and its member states, and the second part on the Community’s development policy.
Two categories of countries would graduate from bilateral aid programmes under the DCI: upper middle-income
countries on the OECD/DAC list, and countries that contribute to more than 1 percent of the global GDP. A few
exceptions were however made following negotiations between the EU institutions, and some countries were kept
for political reasons, including South Africa.
The use of the EU’s budget for development cooperation is governed by distinct external financing instruments, i.e.
legal texts as proposed by the Commission and jointly agreed by the member states and the European Parliament.
These state overall objectives, financial resources and the allocation thereof and implementation procedures, among
others. The most important ones for cooperation with SSA in terms of the volume of funding are the European
Development Fund (EDF), an intergovernmental fund outside the Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF), and the
Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI).
In the context of EU development policy, the term ‘programming ‘refers to the process of determining country and
thematic cooperation needs and, on that basis, decisions on the focus of EU development cooperation for a specific
period of time (typically the duration of the EU budget cycle or the specific fund or initiative concerned).

14

to progressively reflect the new guiding principles
Commission/European External Action Service 2012).

of the Agenda for Change

(European

Yet, their impact on EU aid to Sub-Saharan countries was finally quite limited. Indeed, no Sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA) country was ‘graduated’ out of ODA eligibility because of the differentiation principle, although
Upper Middle-Income Countries in Africa did see considerable reductions in bilateral allocations under the
11th EDF (see chapter 2). The main reason is that the Cotonou Agreement and the EDF which frame the
EU aid towards ACP countries did not allow for such graduation, but instead required bilateral allocations to
be determined based on needs and performance.6 The principle of sector concentration was translated in
the EU national programming documents, most of which did focus on a maximum of three sectors of
intervention. Yet, these sectors were in some cases defined quite broadly and spread over a multitude of
activities which were loosely connected (Herrero et al 2015).
An important novelty in the programming process in 2014 was the involvement of the European External
Action Service (EEAS) as per its new mandate7 to ensure the overall political coordination of the Union’s
external action, including consistency between the programming of development aid and other EU external
action objectives.8 This was meant to bring new dynamics, notably a drive to promote a stronger and more
consistent EU external engagement overall. Yet, the newly established EEAS had only a minimal influence
over the geographic programming process in 2014-2020 (Herrero et al 2015). The European Commission
(EC) continued to take the lead in designing and implementing programming documents.
The EU’s 2014-2020 Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF) was approved in December 2013. The
EU’s budget for external relations (under Heading 4 “Global Europe”) was agreed at €66.3 billion, including
€19.6 billion for the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI). In parallel and covering the same period,
EU member states adopted the 11th EDF (€30.5 billion), an intergovernmental fund outside the MFF
framework and the EU’s main instrument for providing development aid to 79 African, Caribbean and Pacific
(ACP) countries and to overseas countries and territories signatories of the CPA.
The table below presents the main EU external financing instruments which are relevant for Sub-Saharan
Africa.

6

7

8

Likewise, there was no graduation out of ODA for cooperation with North African countries covered by the European
Neighbourhood Policy which introduced differentiation in amounts and modalities in line with countries’ needs,
commitments, capacities and achievements, as well as an incentive-based approach known as ‘more for more’.
Under the Lisbon Treaty and the 2012 Interinstitutional Agreement, the EEAS and the European Commission share
responsibility for the strategic programming of EU external aid. Together, they prepare the European Commission’s
decisions on country and regional financial allocations.
The EEAS role is outlined in the 2010 Council decision which led to its establishment, stating that “throughout the
whole cycle of programming, planning and implementation of the instruments … the High Representative and the
EEAS shall work with the relevant members and services of the Commission.” Cf. 2010/427/EU: Council Decision
of 26 July 2010 establishing the organisation and functioning of the European External Action Service.

15

Table 1. EU External Financing Instruments, 2014-2020
Name
Overall budget
Earmarked / reserved for SSA
11th European
€30.5 billion
77% of total funding earmarked
Development Fund
for SSA, excluding Africa Peace
Facility funded through intraACP budget (European
Commission 2017a)
Development
€19.6 billion
- €845 million reserved for Africa
Cooperation
under Pan-African Programme9
Instrument (DCI)
- African countries are eligible
for thematic programmes (€7
billion total)
Instrument
€2.4 billion
No earmarked funds, though all
contributing to
SSA-states are eligible
Stability and Peace
(IcSP)
European Instrument
for Democracy &
Human Rights
(EIDHR)
Humanitarian Aid
Instrument
Bêkou Trust Fund
EU Emergency Trust
Fund for Africa
(2015-2020)
ACP Investment
Facility

In or outside budget
Outside

Inside

Inside

€1.3 billion

No earmarked funds, though all
SSA-states are eligible

Inside

€7.1 billion

No earmarked funds, though all
SSA-states are eligible
Central African Republic

Inside

€3.1 billion funded from EDF
reserves

Outside

€243 million (incl.
MS support)
€4.7 billion10
(incl. MS support)
€4.1 billion

Funds managed by the
European Investment Bank
(EIB) in the period 2000-2020,
earmarked for ACP-states
Source: own elaboration based on EU websites and legal texts

Outside

Outside

1.2. The EU’s contribution to the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development
The EU took an active role in the international negotiations leading to the adoption of the UN 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development, a process which it prides itself on having strongly influenced (European
Commission 2019a).
In the run-up to the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, a Commission Communication published in February
2014 and titled A Decent Life for All: from vision to collective action (European Commission 2014a)

9

10

The creation of the Pan-African Programme (PAP) within the DCI aims to support activities of trans-regional,
continental or global nature that have continental added value for the implementation of the Joint Africa-EU Strategy
(JAES). The PAP is meant to complement national and regional EU cooperation programmes and to also
compensate for the fragmentation of cooperation with Africa across three instruments (DCI, EDF and ENI).
The overall resources allocated to the EUTF as of 31 December 2019 amounted to almost €4.7 billion, of which
€590 million was provided by EU Member States and other donors (Norway and Switzerland).

16

proposed 17 priority areas11 covering all dimensions of sustainable development and potential targets for
the post-2015 development agenda. Later that same year, the EU’s Foreign Affairs Council Conclusions of
December 2014 on A transformative post-2015 agenda (Council of the European Union 2014) set out the
EU’s position and guiding principles for the international negotiations on the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs). They notably emphasised that the post-2015 agenda should integrate the three dimensions of
sustainable development (economic, social, environmental) in a balanced and integrated manner, be global
in coverage and universally applicable, and be guided by the principles of accountability, ownership and
transparency.
During 2015, the Council Conclusions on A Global Partnership for Poverty Eradication and Sustainable
Development after 2015 (Council of the European Union 2015a) further elaborated the EU’s and member
states’ position in preparation for the Third UN Conference on Financing for Development in Addis Ababa
in July 2015, which was an integral part of the 2030 Agenda. The EU’s position stressed the importance of
a comprehensive approach12 to development finance and means of implementation, as well as a strong
monitoring, accountability and review framework.
These principles and priorities did not directly make their way through the overarching EU’s development
policy framework, in particular the 2005 European Consensus on Development. They nevertheless pointed
to the need to update the latter so as to reflect the changes in the new global development agenda which
had become universal and more integrated. This represented a major shift compared to the poverty-focused
and donor-driven Millennium Development Goals (MDG) agenda.

1.3.

A new strategic framework for EU foreign and development policy

As of 2015, the EU undertook an update and revision of its foreign and development policy in line with the
new global development agenda, geopolitical shifts, emerging crises and a stronger focus on new strategic
priorities. This notably led to the adoption of the EU Global Strategy (2016) and the New European
Consensus on Development (2017).
1.3.1.

The EU Global Strategy for foreign and security policy

In June 2015, the European Council mandated the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy (HRVP) to prepare a global strategy to replace the European Security Strategy of 2003
(European Council 2015). The objective was threefold: to take stock of the evolution of the EU’s global
environment, to set out the EU’s core interests and principles for external action, and to provide a vision for
a more credible, responsible and responsive EU in the world.
The Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy (EEAS 2016) was presented
by the HRVP and welcomed by the European Council in June 2016. The Global Strategy emphasises the
need to use all strands of foreign policy to address the global threats and seize the opportunities that the
new global landscape offers. The main novelty is its integrated nature which extends beyond the traditional
security domain to cover all aspects of EU external action, including development cooperation. The Global
11

12

These were: Poverty eradication, Inequality, Food security and nutrition, Sustainable agriculture, Health, Education,
Gender equality and women's empowerment, Water and sanitation, Sustainable energy, Full and productive
employment and decent work for all, Sustainable and inclusive growth, Sustainable cities and human settlements,
Sustainable consumption and production, Oceans and seas, Biodiversity and forests, Land degradation, including
desertification and drought, Human rights, the rule of law, good governance and effective institutions, Peaceful
societies.
The EU and its member states stressed the importance of: (i) establishing an enabling and conducive policy
environment at all levels; (ii) developing capacity to deliver; (iii) mobilising and making effective use of domestic
public finance; (iv) mobilising and making effective use of international public finance; (v) mobilising the domestic
and international private sector; (vi) stimulating trade and investments; (vii) fostering science, technology and
innovation; and (viii) addressing the challenges and harnessing the positive effects of migration.

17

Strategy also recognises that a more integrated and effective EU external action calls for a more joined-up
approach 13 and depends on intensifying collaboration with EU member states as well as employing
resources and instruments both internally and externally. The Global Strategy explicitly notes that
“development policy also needs to become more flexible and aligned with our strategic priorities” (EEAS
2016). This is a clear sign of the EU’s development policy being more explicitly interest-oriented.
The references to Africa are numerous in the Global Strategy: in addition to stressing the importance of
security and support to peace and resilience operations in Africa as “an investment in our own security and
prosperity,'' the Global Strategy mentions the need for a renewed political partnership of equals that goes
beyond development. It also stresses the need to “build stronger links between our trade, development and
security policies in Africa, and blend development efforts with work on migration, health, education, energy
and climate, science and technology, notably to improve food security” (EEAS 2016).
1.3.2.

The New European Consensus on Development

Following the adoption of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in September 2015
(UNGA 2015), the EU began preparations for revising the 2005 European Consensus on Development,
which focused on the Millennium Development Goals and was no longer in tune with the global development
policy framework. In November 2016, more than one year after the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development, the Commission put forward a proposal for a New European Consensus on
Development (European Commission 2016a) to update and guide the development policy of the EU and
its member states until 2030.
Following negotiations between the Commission, Council and Parliament, the New European Consensus
on Development (Council of the European Union 2017) was adopted in June 2017. Given the nature of the
document and the fact that it needed the approval of all EU member states, the Commission and the
Parliament, it is inevitably very broad in scope so as to satisfy all parties.
The Consensus puts forward a balanced and integrated approach to sustainable development by interlinking
sectors (such as development, peace, and humanitarian assistance), increasing effectiveness of EU’s
development assistance, and combining traditional financing with private sector and domestic resources. It
also promotes a comprehensive approach to implementation, drawing on the framework agreed in the Addis
Ababa Action Agenda on financing for development, 14 combining aid with other resources (investment,
domestic resources mobilisation, trade etc.), and with sound policies. The New Consensus further proposes
a strengthened approach to Policy Coherence for Development (PCD) as part of the EU’s contribution to
the SDGs and to the broader objective of Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development (Mackie et al
2017).
In addition, the New Consensus includes a restated commitment to a more coordinated EU and member
states’ approach to development, promoting development effectiveness, joint programming and joint
implementation. It puts emphasis on better-tailored partnerships with a broader range of stakeholders and
partner countries.
Poverty eradication remains the primary objective of development policy under the New Consensus, in line
with the objective for EU development policy as stated in the EU Treaty. In that sense, the EU policy

13

14

The Global Strategy stresses in particular the need to work towards a “joined-up external action” based on closer
linkages between external and internal policies, inter-agency cooperation, coordination with member states,
comprehensive programming, etc.
The Addis Ababa Action Agenda is the new global framework to support the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development. It stresses the importance of aligning all financing flows and policies with economic, social
and environmental priorities.

18

framework adopted in 2015 remains aligned and consistent with the EU Lisbon Treaty objective. Yet, it also
stresses the integrated nature of sustainable development and the interlinkages between the SDGs.
Like the Global Strategy, the New Consensus underlines the links between development and other EU
policies. It acknowledges in particular the importance of promoting synergies between peace and security,
humanitarian aid, migration, the environment and climate. The New Consensus also sets out the principles
for EU institutions and EU member states in their cooperation with partner countries towards achieving the
2030 Agenda and the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, agreed by the UN in 2015, and the Paris Agreement on
climate change (signed in 2016).
While it recognises the development challenges faced by developing countries in Africa and the importance
of targeting Official Development Assistance (ODA) to the continent, the Consensus is global in scope and
does not set any specific objective - or foresee any particular approach - for the EU and its member states
vis-à-vis Africa. This was a change from the 2005 European Consensus, in which the EU and its member
states agreed that at least half of the planned increase in ODA should go to Africa (Council of the European
Union 2017).

19

2. Thematic priorities and approaches to development
cooperation
A number of key thematic priorities have become increasingly prominent in the EU’s development policy, in
particular private sector engagement, migration, and peace and security. These topics have also featured
more prominently in the EU’s cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa, as illustrated by the key priorities of the
EU-Africa Summits in the period 2013-2018 and of the special summit on migration in La Valletta of 2015
(box 2).
In May 2017, shortly before the adoption of the New European Consensus on Development and in
preparation for the 5th AU-EU Summit held in November 2017, the EU adopted a joint Communication for
a renewed impetus of the Africa-EU Partnership (European Commission 2017b). This policy document
underlined the EU’s interest in deepening political dialogue and laid out a vision for a stronger strategic EUAfrica partnership based on increasing cooperation on common interests and on frequent political
interaction. The Communication stressed that the EU's external policy framework and Africa's own reform
Agenda 2063 (African Union 2014) provide the right guidance for a transformative agenda structured around
two main strands: building more resilient states and societies; and creating more and better jobs, especially
for youth.
Box 2. EU-Africa Summits
EU-Africa summits constitute the highest political level of cooperation at continental level between the EU
and Africa. Between 2000 and 2018, five summits were held both in Africa and Europe. They have sought
to establish deeper cooperation on common priorities for the AU-EU partnership. AU-EU ministerial
meetings also take place on an ad hoc basis to monitor the progress achieved between summits, and to
advance cooperation between both continents in certain fields. In the period 2013-2018, these joint
ministerial political dialogue meetings were infrequent, thus undermining the continuity and political direction
of the partnership (Bossuyt 2017).
In April 2014, the 4th EU-Africa Summit took place in Brussels, under the theme "Investing in People,
Prosperity and Peace". The Summit confirmed the continued commitment of European and African partners
to the objectives set out in the Joint Africa-EU Strategy (JAES) and recognised the need to work jointly to
promote each other’s growth and prosperity. The Summit Declaration (EU-Africa Summit 2014) was
structured around these themes, whereas the Roadmap (EU-Africa Summit 2014) outlined five priority
areas:
1. peace and security;
2. democracy, good governance and human rights;
3. human development;
4. sustainable and inclusive development and growth and continental integration;
5. global and emerging issues.
In addition, a separate declaration on migration and mobility was approved, along with an action plan to fight
irregular migration and human trafficking, enhance international protection, better organise legal migration
and strengthen the migration-development nexus.
Against the background of the refugee crisis in Europe, the extraordinary Summit on migration in La
Valletta took place outside the framework of the JAES in November 2015. At the summit, EU and African
leaders acknowledged that migration is a shared responsibility of countries of origin, transit and destination
and committed to addressing the root causes of irregular migration. While the primary aim was to strengthen
cooperation and find common solutions to address the current European migration crisis, the Summit also
underlined the importance of well-managed legal migration and mobility between the two continents, which

20

was a key request from the African partners. This led to the adoption of a Political Declaration (Valletta
Summit 2015) and the Valletta Action Plan (Valletta Summit 2015) focusing on five priority domains:
1. addressing the root causes of irregular migration and forced displacement;
2. enhancing cooperation on legal migration and mobility;
3. reinforcing the protection of migrants and asylum seekers;
4. preventing and fighting irregular migration, migrant smuggling and trafficking in human beings;
5. working more closely to improve cooperation on return, readmission and reintegration.
In November 2017, the 5th AU-EU Summit was held in Abidjan under the theme “Investing in Youth for a
Sustainable Future”. At the summit, both partners stressed the need for a stronger economic agenda for the
EU-Africa partnership and agreed that economic investment, job creation and trade were common priorities
requiring joint commitment. The joint Declaration (AU-EC Summit 2017) outlined common priorities for the
EU-Africa partnership in four strategic areas:
1. economic opportunities for youth;
2. peace and security;
3. mobility and migration;
4. cooperation on governance.
However, the AU and EU could not agree to sign off on a follow-up action plan to this Summit.
At the time this study was completed, the 6th EU-AU Summit is due to take place in Brussels in October
2020. It will be an opportunity to rethink and scale up the partnership, in line with the Communication of the
European Commission “Towards a comprehensive strategy with Africa” presented on 9 March 2020.

2.1.

Engaging and working more closely with the private sector

Private sector involvement and leveraging private investment for development are increasingly prominent
priorities in the EU’s development policy. The starting point of this increased focus on the private sector
came soon after the start of the global financial and economic crisis in 2008. The growing emphasis on
private and productive sector engagement represents a major paradigm shift in the EU’s development
policy. It was notably driven by a push from EU member states with strong private sector agendas, such as
the Netherlands. The underlying narrative is that of a win-win relation between achieving local and European
private sector profits and development outcomes. It is a response to the need to mobilise additional
development finance to meet the SDGs, as stressed in the Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for
Development.
The promotion of private sector investments in Africa is also a response to a strong demand from African
partners who have stressed the need to boost trade and job creation for inclusive growth and sustainable
development as the top priority in Africa’s Agenda 2063.
Enhancing private sector engagement has in turn led to a more explicit move to use aid to leverage private
finance and investment for sustainable development and job creation. The focus on private sector
investments was also prompted by the increased competition with other actors in Africa and the need to
seize economic opportunities. It follows the priority given by the European Commission to promote jobs and
growth both inside and outside Europe.
2.1.1.

The EU’s strategy on private sector for development

In May 2014, the European Commission published a landmark Communication on 'A Stronger Role of the
Private Sector in Achieving Inclusive and Sustainable Growth in Developing Countries' (European
Commission 2014b). Building on the Agenda for Change, this new policy presented a framework for
engaging more strategically with the private sector in promoting sustainable and inclusive growth. It provided

21

more elaborate and concrete guidelines for the Commission’s engagement with the private sector and
brought it up to date with other longstanding donor practices, notably those of the Netherlands. This new
policy aims at supporting private sector development in partner countries as well as a deeper engagement
with both local and European businesses to achieve impactful development outcomes. In doing so, it clearly
acknowledged the crucial role of the private sector for sustainable development, economic growth and job
creation, notably in sectors such as energy, agriculture and infrastructure.
On 14 October 2015, the Commission issued a new trade and investment policy titled ‘Trade for all’
(European Commission 2015a). Its primary focus is to enhance the effectiveness and transparency of the
EU’s trade policy and strengthen the link with the promotion of EU values. Among the objectives pursued,
the policy aimed to better integrate sustainability issues into trade policy, notably through the incorporation
of Trade and Sustainable Development chapters in Free Trade Agreements (FTA) negotiations. A stronger
coherence between trade and development policies was also called for, and the Commission launched a
discussion on how to implement and enforce sustainable development provisions in FTAs.
In December 2017, the updated Joint EU Aid for Trade Strategy (European Commission 2017c) was
adopted with a view to strengthen and modernise EU support to partner countries and to better target its aid
for trade on LDCs and countries in situations of fragility. The EU’s updated strategy is designed to deliver
more relevant aid that makes use of all EU tools, including a commitment to enhance synergies with trade
agreements and trade schemes.
2.1.2.

Leveraging private investment for development

The achievement of the SDGs requires the mobilisation of significant amounts of additional resources, for
which ODA alone will not suffice. The Addis Ababa Action Agenda stresses the need to leverage more
private resources to move from the ‘billions to trillions’ (World Bank 2015a) of dollars required to bridge the
financing gap to achieve the 2030 Agenda. One way of doing so is through the use of blended finance
mechanisms.
Since 2007, the EU has set up eight regional investment facilities 15 in order to leverage additional finance
by blending grants provided by the European Commission with loans from European development finance
institutions (DFIs). These facilities were designed to contribute to financing key infrastructure projects that
require considerable financial resources. The EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund (EU-AITF) was
established in 2007 with the main objective to promote investment in infrastructure in four different sectors
of activity (water, energy, transport, ICT) throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. The Africa Investment Facility
(AfIF), set-up in 2015, combines EU grants with other public and private sector resources, such as loans,
equity and other financing, for investments that promote sustainable and socially inclusive development.
Building on these facilities, the EU launched the European External Investment Plan (EIP) (European
Parliament/Council of the European Union 2017) for sustainable investment in Africa and the European
Neighbourhood in 2017. The EIP is inspired by the internal Investment Plan for Europe (so-called “Juncker
Plan”) and is designed to attract more investment in particular from businesses and private investors - and
especially in fragile states - to promote decent job creation, sustainable development and tackle the root
causes of migration. Through an EU input of €4.5 billion, the EIP is intended to leverage €44 billion of
investment by 2020.

15

EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund / African Investment Facility (ITF/AfIF), Neighbourhood Investment Facility (NIF),
Western Balkan Investment Framework (WBIF), Latin America Investment Facility (LAIF), Asia Investment Facility
(AIF), Investment Facility for Central Asia (IFCA), Caribbean Investment Facility (CIF), Investment Facility for the
Pacific (IFP).

22

The EIP is structured around three pillars combining 1) blended finance, 2) technical assistance, and 3)
policy dialogue on the investment climate in developing countries. Under its first pillar, the European Fund
for Sustainable Development (EFSD) combines the aforementioned blending and investment facilities 16
with a guarantee instrument for de-risking investments, targeting five thematic investment windows. 17
2.1.3.

Promoting economic growth, investments and job creation in Africa

Since 2014, the EU has put a more explicit emphasis on economic relations with Africa, acknowledging the
prospects of increased economic and investment opportunities as well as growing competition in Africa. The
EU wants to consolidate trade relations with Africa and take advantage of the continent’s rapid growth and
economic transformation.
The 4th EU-Africa Summit in 2014 reflected these priorities and put a stronger emphasis on economic
transformation in Africa through investment and growth. The 5th AU-EU Summit in 2017 also put a strong
emphasis on job creation under the theme ‘Investing in Youth for a Sustainable Future’. At the Summit, both
sides stressed the need for a stronger economic agenda for the EU-Africa partnership and agreed that
economic investment, job creation and trade were common priorities requiring joint commitment.
In September 2018, almost one year after the AU-EU Summit, the Commission President Juncker unveiled
during his State of the European Union Address a new ‘EU-Africa Alliance for sustainable investments
and jobs’ (European Commission 2018). The Alliance proposes to boost investment in Africa, strengthen
trade, create jobs, and invest in education and skills in areas of shared EU-AU interest. Four key sectors
have been identified under the Alliance: agriculture, digital economy, energy and transport. The External
Investment Plan, with its European Fund for Sustainable Development, is to be one of the main instruments
for the implementation of the Alliance.
The EU-Africa Alliance brings together relevant initiatives that were launched by the EU in recent years and
has been given the highest political priority within the European Commission. In partner countries, including
in Sub-Saharan Africa, EU delegations develop so-called ‘Jobs and Growth Compacts’ (JGC). These
Compacts include the identification of value chains with the highest potential in terms of job creation,
increased capacity and enhanced market access. Their objective is to support structural transformation and
creation of up to 10 million decent jobs through stimulation of private sector investment and fostering a more
conducive investment climate. The JGCs serve as a source for the programming exercise and are EU
internal documents that are not negotiated with partner countries nor binding documents. They neither
supersede nor replace the National Indicative Programmes (NIP) but are meant to complement them by
identifying synergies between investment operations and the EU’s bilateral cooperation programmes.
The Alliance also stated the EU’s support for the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), which
is one of the flagship projects of the AU’s Agenda 2063. It was adopted at an extraordinary AU Summit in
March 2018 in Kigali, Rwanda. The AfCFTA seeks to create a single continental market for goods and
services, with free movement of persons, and thereby promote expanded intra-African trade and enhanced
industrial competitiveness of the continent. Its intention is to integrate 55 African economies, many of which
are too small to attract substantial investment alone. Once fully implemented, the AfCFTA aims to harness
a market of over one billion people and a combined gross domestic product of more than €3 trillion.

16

Namely, the African Investment Facility (AfIF) and the Neighbourhood Investment Facility (NIF). In September 2017,
the African Investment Facility became an integral part of the European Fund for Sustainable Development (EFSD)
as the Africa Investment Platform (AIP).
17 The Guarantee Facility that has been set up addresses five priority areas (or investment windows): 1) sustainable
energy and connectivity (renewable and clean energy as well as energy efficiency and sustainable transport
connections); 2) affordable finance for micro, small and medium enterprises; 3) agriculture; 4) digitalisation; and 5)
sustainable cities.

23

The strong push observed in recent years in the EU’s development policy towards engaging and working
more closely with the private sector is a response to both the challenges of mobilising additional financial
resources for development, and the booming economic opportunities in African markets. In that respect, the
approach and the mechanisms put in place by the EU increasingly seek to link European and African
investment and trade interests.

2.2.

Addressing root causes of irregular migration

Migration is another topic that has gained increasing prominence in the EU’s development policy framework
and its relations and cooperation with Africa.
2.2.1.

The growing impact of the EU’s migration policy on development cooperation

In May 2013, a Communication on “Maximising the development impact of migration” sought to strengthen
the development-migration nexus under both the Global Approach to Migration and Mobility (European
Commission 2011b) and the EU’s development policy. The Commission proposed a broadened approach
which gave greater attention to South-South flows, effective integration of migration into national
development and poverty reduction plans as well as the inclusion of refugees and other displaced persons
in long-term development planning.
However, in 2015, as several European member states faced a sharp increase in irregular migration flows,
the Commission presented a new Communication on A comprehensive and cross-cutting European
Agenda on Migration (European Commission 2015b). The aim was to improve the management of
migration in all its aspects, including immediate actions to address the current crises and long-term
measures. It provided a renewed approach to migration that also covered relations with countries outside
the EU and showed the new involvement of the EEAS with a broader scope of tools (Faure et al 2015).
The growing impact of the EU’s migration policy on development cooperation can be noted in the emergence
of the concept of “addressing the root causes of irregular migration” which has arguably become the new
mantra in the EU development policy discourse. The expression is broad in scope and easily links with many
other EU development policy objectives (such as poverty reduction, boosting jobs and growth, strengthening
resilience to conflicts and climate change). This policy shift is based on the assumption that greater
investment in development assistance and addressing the assumed “root causes” (poverty, instability, etc.)
of irregular migration will provide an incentive for people to stay where they are and avoid people taking
dangerous journeys to Europe. This goal was increasingly evoked in the EU’s development policy to
respond to a strong domestic political pressure for action. Yet, the evidence on the link between
development aid and curbing of migration is limited and debated (Knoll and Sherriff 2017).
2.2.2.

Strengthening cooperation with Africa to address common migration challenges

To complement the EU’s external action on migration, and in line with the EU Global Strategy, the European
Commission and the HR/VP set out a new Migration Partnership Framework (European Commission
2015c) with third countries under the European Agenda on Migration, in June 2016. It is specifically aimed
at African countries and sets up a reinforced EU approach on migration cooperation combining immediate
and longer-term measures and involving a mix of political, aid and security engagements.
The Partnership Framework is unequivocal about using development aid through positive and negative
incentives to ensure cooperation on migration, notably on return and readmission. This approach presented
a shift away from the EU’s established development principles that focus aid on needs and capacities to
reduce poverty (Castillejo 2017). First agreements (named “migration compacts”) were concluded at the
end of 2016 with Jordan and Lebanon, followed by Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Mali and Ethiopia, as well as
Tunisia and Libya. The European Commission published five specific progress reports on the Partnership

24

Framework between October 2016 and September 2017; no progress report has been made public since.
The latest progress report on the European Agenda on Migration mentions the need for “deepening
partnerships with third countries to become a fully-fledged part of long-lasting relationships” (European
Commission 2019b).
2.2.3.

Establishing an Emergency Trust Fund for Africa

The ‘Emergency Trust Fund for stability and addressing the root causes of irregular migration and
displaced persons in Africa’ (EUTF) was launched at the Valletta Summit in 2015. Originally, it was
intended to finance the EU’s Sahel Action Plan adopted in April 2015. However, as irregular migration was
generating a political crisis in Europe, the Trust Fund’s focus shifted towards bringing stability and
addressing the root causes of destabilisation, displacement and irregular migration in Africa. The EUTF
aims to do so “by promoting resilience, economic and equal opportunities, security and development and
addressing human rights abuses”, in three vast and very different regions: the Horn of Africa, the Sahel and
Lake Chad, and North Africa.
To achieve these objectives, four broad types of interventions can be funded by the Trust Fund:
1.
Economic programmes, with a focus on employment creation, particularly for youth and
women, and the reintegration of returnees;
2.
Resilience projects, geared to improving food security and to providing services for local
communities and refugees;
3.
Migration management, including fight against irregular migration and smuggling, return,
readmission, international protection and legal migration;
4.
Governance and security, including interventions in the fields of rule of law, security and
development, border management and conflict prevention systems.
The EUTF rapidly mobilised €1.8 billion, drawing massively from the reserves and regional programmes of
the European Development Fund (EDF). The expectation by the Commission that EU member states would
match it with an additional €1.8 billion was not met (Herrero Cangas and Knoll 2016). Several EU member
states have however contributed substantial funds to the EUTF, with Germany (€225 million) and Italy (€123
million) providing the largest contributions by far, compared to proportionally low contributions by France
(€9 million) and the UK (€11.9 million) (EUTF 2020). The Netherlands contributed €26.4 million. The EU
has significantly increased funding for migration-related issues via the EUTF, especially for origin and transit
regions for migrants.

2.3.

Furthering the framework for peace and security - development nexus

As highlighted above, peace and security are a key pillar in the EU Global Strategy which states that security
in Europe is strongly linked to peace in neighbouring and surrounding regions, including North and SubSaharan Africa. The new European Consensus on Development also establishes “peace” as one of its five
focus areas. The EU has been intensifying its work over the past decade in pursuit of peace and security in
its development policy, including in the framework of its relations with Africa, both at continental and regional
level.
This increased focus on peace and security in EU development policy can be explained by an increase in
violent conflicts in Africa and in the EU’s Neighbourhood since 2014. Sub-Saharan Africa has seen an
increase in violence since 2010 and in 2016, four of the ten most lethal conflicts in the world were situated
in Africa (Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan) (EUISS 2017). The growing EU investment in peace and
security is thus not surprising given the emerging sources of tensions and conflict in its immediate vicinity
as well as in countries that are “neighbours of the neighbours”. The instability these conflicts create is also

25

increasingly felt at the EU’s borders (e.g. through unprecedented levels of forced displacement) (Sherriff et
al 2018).
2.3.1.

Towards an integrated approach to external conflicts and crises

The EU has gradually addressed global instability and fragility in a holistic way, noting the importance of
deploying all relevant policies, players and tools in a well-coordinated manner.
In 2013, the European Commission and the HRVP adopted a joint Communication on the EU's
Comprehensive Approach to External Conflict and Crises (European Commission 2013a) to make more
strategic use of EU tools and instruments. The so-called Comprehensive Approach established as a guiding
principle the joined-up deployment of EU instruments and resources when dealing with situations of crisis
and conflict. It also highlighted the shared responsibility of EU actors and member states, emphasising that
the engagement of member states is a prerequisite for success. In 2018, the Council Conclusions on an
Integrated Approach to External Conflict and Crisis (Council of the European Union 2018) called for a
more holistic and coherent EU conflict response, stressing the need to invest more in conflict prevention
and mediation and introducing a focus on stabilisation efforts.
In June 2013, with the finalisation of its ‘Action Plan for Resilience in Crisis Prone Countries 2013-2020’
(European Commission 2013b), the EU stepped up its efforts to build resilience in crisis prone countries. In
June 2017, the Joint Communication on a Strategic Approach to Resilience in the EU's External Action
(European Commission 2017d) recognised the need to move away from crisis containment to a more
structural, long-term non-linear approach to vulnerabilities, with an emphasis on prevention. This requires a
tight integration of efforts by EU political, development and humanitarian actors.
In June 2016, the HRVP and Commission published a Joint Communication on Elements for an EU-wide
strategic framework to support security sector reform (European Commission 2016b). In December
2017, an amendment (European Union 2017) to the Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace (IcSP)
was approved to add an element of Capacity Building in Support of Security and Development (European
Commission 2015d) to support partner countries in addressing their security needs and to prevent and
manage crises on their own. The amendment allows the European Commission to support military actors
in – and with approval from – partner countries, in exceptional circumstances, and only in cases when the
military contributes to a development objective.
2.3.2.

EU support to peace and security in Africa

In 2007, the Joint Africa-EU Strategy (JAES) defined peace and security as one of the eight areas for a
specific EU-Africa partnership (the Africa-EU Peace and Security Partnership). The intent of this partnership
is to support “African solutions for African problems”, amongst others by supporting the African Peace and
Security Architecture (APSA).
The EU’s main instrument to support peace and security in Africa is the African Peace Facility (APF).
Initially agreed by the European Commission and African leaders at an AU Summit, the APF was established
in 2003 within the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded with resources from the intra-ACP
budget of the EDF.18 It is based on the principle of African ownership and supports the African Union and
the regional African organisations which have a mandate to promote peace and security. It has supported
both African-led peace support operations as well as capacity-building and institutional development
activities in the context of the APSA (Deneckere 2019). A small share of the funding also supports Africaled mediation and conflict prevention initiatives.

18

The reason for using the EDF for this purpose is that it is not part of the EU’s budget, which under the Treaty is
prohibited from being used for military expenditure.

26

Complementary to the continental framework, in 2015 the EU has developed three regional strategies and
multi-annual action plans to provide a holistic response to peace and security challenges, in the Sahel
(Council of the European Union 2015b), the Gulf of Guinea (Council of the European Union 2015c), and the
Horn of Africa (Council of the European Union 2015d). These strategies are characterised by their integrated
approach that brings together different foreign policy instruments and stresses the security-development
nexus.
In July 2014, the EU Trust Fund for the Central African Republic (Bêkou Trust Fund) was created to
address the political and security crisis of 2013 in the Central African Republic (CAR). It brought together
the EU, as well as France, Germany and the Netherlands. Italy and Switzerland joined the Trust Fund in
2015. The Bêkou Trust Fund is a critical instrument to bridge the gap between humanitarian needs and
development in the CAR and to implement the Linking, Relief, Rehabilitation and Development approach.

3. Key on-going policy processes and frameworks
In 2018, the Commission put forward its proposals for the next Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF) and
instruments for the period 2021-2027, emphasising the need for a more ambitious budget and financing
instruments that are more streamlined, coherent and flexible. The proposals reflected the Global Strategy’s
call for development cooperation to become more strategic and aligned with broader EU foreign policy
objectives.
In 2018, the Commission also started negotiations with the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States
(ACP) on the successor to the Cotonou Partnership Agreement after 2020.

3.1. Towards a broad instrument for development and international
cooperation in the new EU budget for 2021-2027
In May 2018, the European Commission presented its proposal for an ‘EU budget for the future’, consisting
of a package of proposals to the Council of the EU and European Parliament for the EU’s 2021-2027
Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF). Negotiations are still on-going and were expected to be closed
by the end of 2020. The Commission’s proposals are ambitious, particularly on future funding for external
action, with a proposed budget of €123 billion under a new Heading 6 called ‘Neighbourhood and the World’.
This proposal underlines the traction that external action has gained in recent years (Jones et al 2018). If
approved, this would correspond to a 13% real increase in budgetary resources for external action,
compared to the 2014-2020 commitments.
As part of the proposals, the Commission presented a more streamlined, coherent and flexible financing
instrument for EU external action under Heading 6: the new ‘Neighbourhood, Development and
International Cooperation Instrument’ (NDICI). The mid-term review of the external financing instruments
(European Commission 2017e) and the ‘Coherence Report’ (European Commission 2017f) stressed the
need for greater simplification, flexibility and transparency in the current financial architecture, as well as a
need for stronger political steering.
The proposed NDICI aims to address these shortcomings by grouping together a number of existing EFIs,
including the off-budget European Development Fund (EDF) under which EU assistance to ACP countries
is financed. This ‘budgetisation’ of the EDF could have implications for the level of funding for Sub-Saharan
Africa, though Africa would probably not lose out from the new instrument.

27

3.2.

Towards updated EU-ACP and EU-AU partnerships

The EU’s position on the EU-ACP partnership after 2020 was reflected in a Joint Communication published
in 2016 by the Commission and the HR/VP on Towards a renewed partnership with African, Caribbean
and Pacific countries after 2020, which sets out different policy options for the future and proposed
building blocks for a political partnership with the ACP. The EU’s preferred scenario would be to agree with
the ACP partner countries on a foundation agreement with common values and interests and facilitating
increased cooperation at international level. This should go together with regional tailored partnerships for
Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific, to better address specific regional opportunities and challenges faced.
In December 2017, the Commission presented a recommendation to the Council on negotiating directives
to this end. In May and June 2018, both the ACP Group and the EU formalised their respective negotiating
mandates on the future agreement and formal negotiations started in October 2018. The EU’s negotiating
mandate reflected the Commission’s preferred approach set out in 2017, notably on the combination of a
foundation agreement with three regional partnerships, which the ACP negotiators agreed to pursue in
December 2018. Due to some delays in the negotiations, both parties have agreed to extend the Cotonou
Agreement to December 2020, with a view to having concluded negotiations by then. December 2020 also
coincides with the end point of the 11th European Development Fund.
In 2020, the preparation of a New comprehensive strategy on Africa was launched by the European
Commission in view of the 6th EU-AU Summit expected to take place in Brussels in October 2020.

4. Conclusion on the EU’s development policy
commitments
In the first half of the period under review (2013-2015), the 2005 European Consensus on Development and
its strong poverty focus framed the EU’s development policy. The “Agenda for Change” completed this
framework by emphasising the need to concentrate aid on countries most in need, including fragile states,
a stronger focus on inclusive and sustainable growth, with priority on social protection, business, agriculture
and energy, and a decision to focus on a maximum of three ‘focal sectors’ per country. These principles and
priorities were then reflected in the programming of EU aid for the period 2014-2020, and to a certain extent
also in EU funding as is explained in chapter 2.
In 2015, the adoption of the 2030 Agenda on sustainable development, as well as the internal and external
crises the EU was facing, prompted a review of the EU’s strategic framework for international and
development cooperation. The Global Strategy (2016) and the New European Consensus on Development
(2017) today provide the overall strategic framework of the EU’s development policy, with the 2030 Agenda
and its 17 SDGs as the main blueprint. An important change is the universal and multidimensional nature
of the 2030 Agenda that is much broader than the MDGs.
At the same time, the EU has moved towards a more interest-driven and integrated EU international and
development cooperation. Development cooperation objectives and foreign policy objectives are
increasingly tied, and the EU’s development policy is also increasingly influenced by domestic European
concerns. This evolution has been further specified in recent years in a number of thematic approaches of
the EU’s development policy where EU interests have become more prominent. These priorities have also
been fully reflected in the policy frameworks, summits and cooperation priorities with Africa, which have put
political objectives such as trade, migration and security at the centre of the partnership. The analysis shows
that these recent policy priorities have been further concretised and operationalised in the EU’s development
cooperation instruments. In order to put these new priorities into practice and to respond quickly to emerging

28

crises, the EU has set up a number of new modalities and instruments such as the EU trust funds and the
External Investment Plan.
The next chapter will look at the extent to which EU aid spending in 2013-2018 has effectively responded
to the policy orientations defined in that same period, and through which modalities and instruments.

29

Chapter 2: Funding patterns
Introduction
The first chapter of this study analysed key features and milestones of the EU’s development policy
intentions and cooperation priorities with Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) during the period 2013-2018. This
chapter assesses the extent to which these policy intentions were reflected in the EU’s development
cooperation spending and investigates key aspects of the EU’s patterns of cooperation, including dominant
modalities and the actors involved in aid management. It discusses these observed patterns of cooperation
in reference to key development trends in the Sub-Saharan region during the period under review.
The first chapter observed that policy frameworks agreed prior to the 2013-2018 period, specifically the
2011 Agenda for Change, had a significant influence on the programming of the EU’s development
cooperation with SSA during this period. As a consequence, the allocation patterns analysed in this chapter
are in part also strongly determined by decisions prior to the period under review, also since the European
Development Fund which – as the largest financial instrument used by the EU in SSA – allows for funds to
be disbursed several years after having been committed. Bearing this caveat in mind, a comparison between
the EU’s intentions and allocation patterns is feasible.
The analysis presented in this chapter is based on available information on the disbursement of funds, which
were primarily derived from OECD statistics, annual reports published by the Commission, and the website
‘EU Aid Explorer’.19 Due to the variety of OECD and EU data sources used, the financial figures presented
in this chapter use the original currency in which these were reported (resp. US Dollar and Euros) and have
not been converted.20
The chapter is structured in four sections: (1) key development trends in Sub-Saharan Africa during 20132018; (2) overall geographic and sectoral distribution of EU aid, as well as top recipients and sub-groups of
countries; (3) channels (or intermediaries) used for aid delivery; and (4) the modalities used for
implementation, with specific attention to budget support, EU-managed trust funds and blended finance.

1. Sub-Saharan Africa development trends in 2013-2018
Despite including a high proportion of the world’s least developed countries, of which some are classified
as ‘fragile states’, SSA saw continued economic growth during the period of review. The considerable drop
in real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth in the sub-period 2014-2016 was linked to falling commodity
prices, underlining the volatile nature of the balance of trade between Sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of
the world, primarily the European Union as its major trade partner (World Bank 2015b).

The EU’s development cooperation differentiates between aid commitments (expenditure planned during a financial
year or longer period) and disbursements (expenditure actually made during a given financial year).
20 See Annex 4 for further information on the sources used, as well as some reflections on EU results reporting.
19

30

Figure 2. Real GDP Growth 2013-2018

Source: IMF data
Recent studies suggest that Sub-Saharan Africa’s GDP growth contributed to poverty reduction only to a
limited extent. As analysed in a detailed IOB study, many SSA-states experience the phenomenon of
‘jobless growth’ (IOB 2018). Since young people are overrepresented in the group of the ‘working poor’,
African states face challenges both in the quantity and quality of jobs (ILO 2019).
The high GDP growth figures are accompanied by increasing amounts of Foreign Direct Investments (FDI).
In 2018, the African continent as a whole recorded a 11% increase of investments, whereas the investment
to Sub-Saharan Africa rose by 13% with the highest jump recorded in Southern Africa. While African states
took their own measures to attract investments (e.g. through the creation of Special Economic Zones), the
increased investments reflect expected returns on investment but also an increasingly pronounced
geopolitical struggle for influence. This is reflected in increasing FDI levels by various third countries
engaging in Africa (see figure 3).

31

Figure 3. Top investor economies in Africa, 2013 and 2017 (USD, billions)21

Source: adapted from UNCTAD 2019
The following table compares the population growth in Sub-Saharan Africa with the total amount of EU aid
disbursed, in order to measure the change in EU aid “per capita”. Over the period as a whole, Sub-Saharan
Africa’s population increased by 24%, while ODA disbursed increased by 26%. Overall, as a result of the
high demographic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, EU aid ‘per capita’ saw a marginal decrease: the SSApopulation increased by 27.5% from 2009-2018, while EU aid increased by 26%.
Table 2. Population statistics and EU aid disbursed to Sub-Saharan Africa
Population (million) – World Bank data
2009

2010

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

868.9
892.2
917.6
942.9
968.9
2.76%
2.68%
2.85%
2.76%
2.76%
EU aid disbursed (USD billion, constant prices) - OECD data

2011

2012

2013

995.4
2.74%

1022
2.67%

1050
2,74%

1078
2.67%

4.3
4.2
4.6
4.1
4.6
4.4
4.6
4.7
2.38%
-2.33%
9.52%
-10.87%
12.2% -4.35% 4.55%
2.17%
Source: own elaboration, percentages concern relative change from the previous year

5.3
12.7%

845.6

4.2

The stable EU aid disbursement figures to SSA compare positively to French bilateral aid, which declined
during this period. The same goes for the Netherlands, for which bilateral aid to Sub-Saharan Africa in 2018
was 9% lower than the amount disbursed in 2013 (resp. USD 763 million and USD 837 million). On the
other hand, both German and British bilateral aid to SSA has increased (OECD 2019).
It is projected that demographic growth will continue to increase in Africa during the remainder of this
century, up to the point of almost reaching East Asian levels. It is estimated that Sub-Saharan Africa will
need to create 18 million jobs each year until 2035, to accommodate young labour market entrants. For this
reason, during the period under review development policies, including those of the EU as analysed in the
previous chapter, are increasingly emphasising the importance of decent and sustainable job creation.
21

Page 38 of the UNCTAD report notes that “The Netherlands holds the second largest foreign investment stock in
Africa, more than two thirds of which is concentrated in only three countries, Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa.”
Interpreting the strong increase between 2013 and 2017 lies beyond the scope of this report, but research shows
that most Dutch FDI concern external investments that foreign multinationals own via Dutch holdings, which can
explain the strong changes over time (for more information see Weyzig 2013).

32

Figure 4. Regional comparison of population growth

Source: adapted from EU (2017), based on 2015 UN data (European Commission 2017g)

2. Overall sectoral and geographic distribution
This section presents evidence on the EU’s development cooperation allocation patterns in Sub-Saharan
Africa during the period 2013-2018, looking into the overall sectoral distribution and geographic distribution,
channels of delivery and the modalities used.
In the period 2013-2018, the EU institutions (European Commission and European Investment Bank)
disbursed a total of $28.5 billion (EUR 23.7 billion) in ODA to Sub-Saharan Africa. The average
disbursement was $4.77 billion per year, which is slightly higher than the $4.3 billion average for 2010-2012.
During this period, the European Union as a whole (EU institutions and 28 member states) disbursed EUR
76.8 billion to 49 Sub-Saharan African states. 22 This means that the EU institutions’ ratio represented
roughly a third (or 31%) of total European Union aid. 23 In the remainder of the chapter, the term ‘EU aid’ is
used to refer to the aid disbursed by the EU institutions.
Reflecting both the unique history of EU development cooperation and its approach to decision-making, the
EU institutions do not work with a single budget for financing development cooperation with SSA. Instead,
a wide range of external financing instruments – legal bases governing the use of a dedicated budget – are
used to fund cooperation, both within or closely associated to the EU’s long-term budget framework (see
table 1). The following sections will analyse collective disbursement patterns of these instruments in SubSaharan Africa.

2.1.

Sectoral distribution

EU aid to the 49 Sub-Saharan African countries is spent on a wide variety of areas and sectors. This diversity
is inevitable given the EU’s broad development policy agenda and the fact that allocation choices need to

22

23

Note to the reader: the EU and the UN have different views on the geographical composition of Sub-Saharan African
States (respectively 49 and 46 states), with the UN considering the Comoros, Mauritania and Sudan to be part of
North Africa.
European Commission. EU Aid Explorer. https://euaidexplorer.ec.europa.eu

33

reconcile the various priorities of the European Parliament, member states, partner countries and interest
groups (see chapter 1).
Figure 5 presents the sectoral distribution of the EU’s development cooperation with SSA during the period
2013-2018.
Figure 5. Sectoral distribution of EU’s aid to SSA (2013-2018, USD million)

Source: own elaboration based on OECD CRS data24
The figure shows a considerable reduction in commodity aid and general programme assistance during the
period under review, which reflects the gradual shift from general to sector budget support. Economic as
well as social infrastructure and services saw the strongest increase in the last two years. Table 3 presents
trends within these six wider sector categories.

24

The total ‘sector allocable’ portion of EU’s aid to SSA in the period 2013-2018 ranged between 60% and 69%. Donor
administration costs, debt relief and unallocated were left out as main categories for representing minimal amounts
(i.e. below 1%).

34

Table 3. Secondary sector code distribution of EU development aid to SSA (USD million,
disbursements)
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Social
Education
109,997 126,897 142,371 102,817 145,838
Infrastr. &
Health
203,272 312,825 274,775 284,888 323,311
Services
Population
59,033
58,597
58,682
39,895
22,785
Policies/Programmes
& Reproductive Health
Water Supply &
287,019 308,961 177,197 261,635 220,402
Sanitation
Government & Civil
554,246 594,938 580,435 575,943 716,625
Society
Other Social
81,784
131,541 120,529 79,202
99,055
Infrastructure &
Services
Economic
Transport & Storage
573,068 679,788 503,28
552,51
439,883
Infrastr. &
Communications
14,907
5,059
1,945
3,909
4,882
Services
Energy
266,625 460,837 259,151 279,005 292,964
Banking & Financial
28,772
16,056
24,308
5,000
63,762
Services
Business & Other
7,229
18,587
6,463
12,531
14,474
Services
Production
Agriculture, Forestry,
325,539 370,536 285,192 421,503 462,021
Sectors
Fishing
Industry, Mining,
27,086
32,617
20,96
56,249
21,522
Construction
Trade Policies &
89,153
107,582 55,195
44,96
46,763
Regulations
Tourism
10,692
0,339
1,364
0,578
2,577
Multi-Sector / General Environment
111,528 139,704 88,801
95,812
113,788
Cross-Cutting Protection
Other Multi-sector
185,765 296,747 80,607
306,153 351,314
Commodity
General Budget
784,382 610,698 641,449 442,545 403,697
Aid / General
Support
Programme
Development Food
127,033 94,951
130,44
127,947 101,79
Assistance
Assistance
Humanitarian Emergency Response
782,142 843,65
575,035 778,238 781,535
Aid
Reconstruction Relief
11,537
14,694
5,159
3,209
8,488
& Rehabilitation
Disaster Prevention &
19,553
66,027
9,698
22,528
59,838
Preparedness
Other
Unallocated /
16,983
6,952
1,824
1,101
1,606
Unspecified
Source: own elaboration using OECD CRS data (gross disbursements, millions of Euros)

2018
150,110
238,776
8,904

289,212
865,615
133,915

429,646
19,867
296,248
468,242
15,738
483,819
32,51
48,061
2,448
123,519
427,161
338,077
171,119
784,522
16,849
47,413
2,104

Although the OECD uses a list of sectors for aid reporting purposes, these are not further defined which
means some subjective choices are made by all donors reporting on ODA. It is not possible to come to a
more rigorous assessment of the extent to which the disbursement patterns presented reflect the EU’s policy
priorities because different sector descriptions are used in the Agenda for Change than the ones listed here
(see also annex 4).

35

2.2.

Geographic distribution

The following overview of the regional distribution of development funding to Sub-Saharan Africa is based
on the ‘EU Aid Explorer’ platform.
Top Recipient Continent and Region 2013-2018
With a total amount of €32.77 billion, the African continent as a whole was the main recipient of EU
development funding between 2013-2018. More than 70% of this amount (€23.76 billion) went to SubSaharan Africa, mostly through bilateral cooperation and additionally through regional and thematic
allocations.
When looking over a longer reporting period (2005-2017), aid to Sub-Saharan Africa declined from around
a third to nearly a quarter of total EU aid, while an increasing share of EU aid is going to other regions,
including Europe (Turkey in particular) as well as the Eastern and Southern Neighbourhood. Yet, in absolute
terms the volume of aid to Sub-Saharan states has remained reasonably stable over time, from €3.5 billion
in disbursements in 2005 to between €4.1 and €4.6 billion during the period under review. However, the
declining percentage shows that this growth was outpaced by the EU’s development policy engagement in
other parts of the world (see table 4).
Table 4. EU Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa as a percentage of total EU aid
Total EU aid disbursed

EU aid disbursed to EU aid to SSA as % of
SSA
total aid disbursed
2005
9.549,880
3.570,081
37.38%
2006
10.417,788
3.654,800
35,08%
2007
10.559,230
3.913,389
37,06%
2008
11.037,417
4.229,285
38,32%
2009
11.577,821
4.226,494
36,51%
2010
11.615,893
4.341,017
37,37%
2011
15.550,810
4.216,369
27,11%
2012
16.755,072
4.690,327
27,99%
2013
15.194,932
4.141,872
27,26%
2014
16.198,484
4.652,603
28,72%
2015
16.106,343
4.189,126
26,01%
2016
19.198,101
4.635,934
24,15%
2017
18.706,086
4.699,116
25,12%
2018
19.664,049
5.393,876
27,43%
Source: own elaboration using OECD CRS data, gross disbursements in USD million
The following diagram shows the top recipient countries in Africa during the period of the study.

36

Figure 6. Top SSA EU aid recipients, 2013-2018 (EUR million)

Source: own elaboration using EU Aid Explorer data
The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Somalia, and Ethiopia have consistently
been among the top ten SSA recipients of EU ODA over the last 6 years. A comparison with the EU’s top
ten SSA recipients in 2004-2005 shows an increasing focus on West Africa (Nigeria being a notable ‘new
entry’) and a corresponding decline in aid to Southern Africa (e.g. Zambia leaving the top ten). The relatively
small differences between the top ten recipients, especially the top four, can be put into perspective when
compared to the top EU aid recipients overall. Turkey received more than tenfold the amount disbursed to
SSA top recipient Mali. The aid disbursed to Turkey was four times the size of EU aid to runner-up Morocco,
and over half of the €23.76 billion disbursed to Sub-Saharan states altogether during the same period. 25
While the above diagram shows only minor differences between the amounts of aid received by the top four
recipients Mali, Ethiopia, Niger and the Democratic Republic of the Congo over the period under review, the
following graph demonstrates that there were in fact strong fluctuations in the amount of funds the individual
countries received from year to year.

25

For further information on the overall distribution of EU aid, refer to the most recent DAC Peer Review as published
in 2018 (DAC 2018).

37

Table 5. Top ten EU aid recipients in Sub-Saharan Africa (2013-2018)
2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Ethiopia
Mali
Niger
DRC
Burkina Faso

118,662
262,653
162,551
297,660
181,073

247,085
271,065
229,228
208,460
175,003

172,744
156,147
235,246
213,321
195,843

350,059
254,755
238,104
220,474
162,695

218,235
210,439
241,342
182,721
187,542

273,226
210,439
239,203
217,932
196,779

average
disbursement
per year
230,002
227,583
224,279
223,428
183,156

Kenya
South Africa

227,272

183,770

136,051

157,654

169,461

109,896

164,017

151,196
102,204
105,469

174,581
92,855
89,253

275,826
132,462
66,643

111,144
104,107
97,654

132,662
134,105
112,771

132,656
165,152
166,654

163,011
121,814
106,407

115,371

101,817

87,337

99,729

93,946

65,484

93,947

Tanzania
Sudan
Mozambique

Source: own elaboration using OECD CRS data (gross disbursements, USD million)

Cooperation with Least Developed Countries and Fragile States
The 2005 European Consensus on Development stated that the EU would “continue to prioritise support to
the least developed and other low-income countries (LDCs and LICs) to achieve more balanced global
development”. Similarly, with the Agenda for Change, in addition to prioritising development support for
Europe’s neighbourhood, it was decided to continue to support LDCs in Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere
and to reduce bilateral aid to economically more advanced developing countries.
Though this was not spelled out in the document, the application of this so-called ‘differentiation’ principle
concretely meant a decision to phase out bilateral cooperation to upper middle-income countries (UMICS),
which for instance meant ending such cooperation in several Latin American states. As parties to the CPA,
which guaranteed bilateral cooperation for the duration of the agreement, UMICs in Sub-Saharan Africa
(Botswana, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Namibia, Mauritius) received much smaller aid grants under the 11th
EDF than under its predecessor in the period 2005-2013. This trend is shown in figure 8. Since the Agenda
for Change’s differentiation principle mainly influenced the EDF in terms of the bilateral allocations to Upper
Middle-Income Countries (UMICS), which in SSA are small in terms of population size, these figures do not
show significant difference with the 75% provided to LDCs under the 9 th and 10th EDF (resp. 2000-2007 and
2008-2013). 26 In other words, the differentiation principle had significant effects on bilateral EU aid to
UMICs, but did not significantly affect the overall percentage of aid disbursed to LDCs in Africa.

26

See the 2013 IOB evaluation of the European Development Fund for further info. The 75% to LDCs figure concerns
the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group as a whole.

38

Figure 7. EU aid disbursed to upper middle-income countries in SSA

Source: own elaboration using data from EU aid explorer (gross disbursements, millions of Euros)
The 2017 EU Consensus reiterated the EU’s and member states’ commitment “to meet collectively the
target of 0.15 – 0.20% of ODA/GNI to LDCs in the short term, and to reach 0.20% of ODA/GNI to LDCs
within the timeframe of the 2030 Agenda” (UN 2008).27 Out of the 47 states that are listed on the UN list of
LDCs, 33 (or 70%) are in Sub-Saharan Africa.28 Among those 33, the African LDCs receiving most EU aid
between 2013 and 2018 were Mali, Ethiopia and Niger (see also table 6).
Table 6. EU Aid disbursed to Sub-Saharan African LDCs
2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Total EU aid to SSA ($ billion)

3.81

4.14

3.96

4.22

4.28

4.4

Total bilateral EU aid to SubSaharan LDCs ($ billion)

2.78

3.19

2.87

3.31

3.27

3.42

EU aid to SSA LDCs as % of
total bilateral EU aid to SSA

72.8%

77%

72.5%

78.3%

76.6%

77.6%

Source: OECD, gross disbursements
Fragile states: The EU has also set priorities for cooperation with so-called fragile and conflict-affected
states. Based on the OECD’s multidimensional understanding of fragility that distinguishes five interrelated
dimensions (OECD 2018a)29, 36 out of 49 Sub-Saharan African states (i.e. 73%) are considered to be fragile
on one or more of the five dimensions of fragility. As these countries include large recipients such as
Mozambique and Ethiopia, EU aid to SSA includes a strong focus on fragile states (see figure 6).
27

28
29

This commitment predates the Consensus and was first agreed upon at the 2008 UN Conference on Financing for
Development in Doha:
https://unctad.org/en/Pages/ALDC/Least%20Developed%20Countries/UN-list-of-Least-Developed-Countries.aspx
These dimensions concern political, societal, economic, environmental and security-related fragility.

39

Some differences can be seen between LDCs and Lower and Upper Middle-Income Countries in terms of
modalities and areas of cooperation.30 Whereas in all groups there is a strong focus on general budget
support (and thus support to the public sector), LDCs receive more humanitarian aid. While aid to lower
middle-income countries focuses on agricultural development, aid to upper middle-income countries on
investment and financial services.31

3. Delivery channels used in EU-SSA cooperation
OECD data (see figure 8) for the channels of EU development aid shows that:






30

31

the public sector (which includes both the donor’s and the recipient’s administration) is the dominant
delivery channel, and that its ratio has increased in the period 2013-2018
aid delivered to and through NGOs & civil society proved to be more or less stable
aid channelled through multilateral organisations declined. While peaking in 2014, EU support
channelled through multilateral organisations represents roughly a fifth of total EU support to SubSaharan Africa. The 2018 DAC Peer Review observed that this proportion is in line with the EU’s
overall development cooperation portfolio, and that the EU does not have a strategy or specific
goals for its cooperation with multilateral organisations (OECD 2018b).
a significant portion of cooperation from 2013-2015 was categorised as ‘other’ a term which
according to the DAC statistical reporting directives “includes any other implementers that cannot
be placed in another channel category” (DAC 2018). This ‘other’ category disappeared in more
recent years. Since the EU reported no expenditure on the private sector channel before 2016 and
subsequently no expenditure on ‘other’, it is assumed that the expenditure is related and reflects a
change in aid reporting practices. A detailed look at activities reported under ‘other channels’ in
2015 furthermore shows a combination of election observation projects, technical cooperation and
EIB loans in the field of energy.

Top recipient LMICs during the period under review: Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Cameroon; Top recipient UMICs:
South-Africa, Mauritius and Namibia.
These comparisons were made using the EU aid explorer website. European Commission. EU Aid Explorer.
https://euaidexplorer.ec.europa.eu/content/homepage_en

40

Figure 8. Principal delivery channels of EU aid to SSA (% of total)

Source: own elaboration based on OECD data32
The European Investment Bank
Although the large majority of EU aid to Sub-Saharan Africa was managed by the European Commission,
around 5% (€1.1 billion out of €23.7) was disbursed by the European Investment Bank (EIB). This ratio is
much lower than the share of EU aid disbursed by the EIB globally during 2013-2018, which represented
almost a quarter of EU aid (€20.6 billion of the €88.1 billion disbursed in this period) (DAC 2018).33
The EIB’s operations in Sub-Saharan Africa are governed under the CPA, which created a dedicated
investment facility for the EIB. This facility was budgeted at €3.6 billion and concerns a revolving fund
managed by the Bank, with reflows re-invested in new projects.34 In 2013, €500 million was added to this
facility with the specific aim of impact financing, which the EIB defines as “private sector projects that
promise high development impact but which we could not otherwise support due to the risks involved.” 35 In
addition to the facility, the CPA provided the EIB with €1.2 billion for technical assistance and interest
subsidies, while finally €6.2 billion from the EIB’s own resources were made available with the backing of a
comprehensive guarantee provided by EU member states (Bending et al 2016).
This overview of funding shows that the aforementioned €1.1 billion in EIB managed ODA represents the
tip of the proverbial iceberg relative to the Bank’s full operations in Sub-Saharan Africa which totalled €11.8
billion in the period 2000-2016 for 36 SSA-states. 40% of the EIB’s overall operations (ODA and non-ODA)
was spent in the financial sector, 25% went to the energy sector, 11% each to water and sanitation and
industry and agriculture and 14% to transport and other sectors (Bending et al 2016: 166). This distribution
broadly corresponds to the EU’s development cooperation priorities for the period under review.

32

33
34
35

Data on public-private partnerships and teaching institutions were not included as these represented small amounts,
averaging around slightly above 0% of total.
European Commission. EU Aid Explorer. https://euaidexplorer.ec.europa.eu/content/homepage_en
The term reflow refers to developing country loan repayments.
EIB. Impact Finance. http://reports.eib.org/the-eib-outside-the-eu-2017/impact-finance/

41

4. Modalities used in EU-SSA cooperation
Overall trends during the period under study
The statistical annexes of the EU’s annual reports include information on the four ‘aid mechanisms’ the EU
uses: ‘projects’, ‘sector budget support’, ‘general budget support’, and ‘other mechanisms’. The data in these
annexes are however not disaggregated for the regions in which the EU is active. For this reason, the below
analysis uses OECD data on the modalities of EU cooperation (in the OECD’s jargon: types of aid) (see
figure 9).
Figure 9. Selected types of aid: EU development cooperation with SSA

Source: own elaboration based on OECD statistics 36, gross disbursements in USD millions
The OECD figures show that all types of aid fluctuated slightly from year to year between 2013 and 2018.
Budget support remains a key modality and a specific feature of the EU’s approach to development
cooperation – in particular since EU member states have all but completely phased out the use of this aid
modality in their bilateral aid portfolios, yet still tacitly support its use by the EU and the World Bank. When
comparing the average distribution for 2013-2018 with the three years preceding the period under review,
the shift from budget support to project support becomes more visible - while all other types of aid are shown
as less significant (see table 7).

36

The categories (a) administrative costs not included elsewhere, (b) debt relief, (c) scholarships and (d) other indonor expenditures were not included in this diagram as they represented negligible amounts.

42

Table 7. Types of aid compared: 2010-2012 vs 2013-2018
Average 2010-2012

Average 2013-2018

Budget support

25.52%

22.57%

Core contributions and pooled programmes and funds

5.42%

4.24%

Project-type interventions

63.14%

69.25%

Experts and other technical assistance

4.84%

3.86%

Scholarships and student costs in donor countries

0.08%

0.08%

Debt relief

1.00%

n.a.

Source: own elaboration based on OECD CRS data (gross disbursements)

More specifically, data shows that EU general budget support has increasingly been replaced by sector
budget support. This was also the case in SSA where general budget support fell from $694.3 million in
2013 to $403.7 million in 2017, while sector budget support increased from $235.8 million in 2013 to $559.4
million.37
Overall, Sub-Saharan Africa received 41% of the total budget support provided by the EU institutions to
developing countries in 2018 making it the biggest recipient of this type of aid (European Commission
2019c). The size of the average budget support contract provided in Sub-Saharan Africa (some €70 million)
was higher than in any other region.
Trust Funds
The Treaty on the European Union, which entered into force in December 2009, created the legal possibility
for the EU to manage multi-donor funds, which thus far were exclusively managed by the World Bank and
UN bodies. In 2013, the EU’s Financial Regulation created the legal basis that permitted the Commission
to create European Union Trust Funds.38 EU Trust Funds are composed of funds pooled from one or more
financing instruments of the EU budget or the European Development Fund, together with contributions
from one or more other donors, including member states and non-EU donor countries. The legal justification
for resourcing these funds using existing EU instruments mainly lies in the Trust Funds’ assumed ability to
attract additional funding.39 EU Trust Funds for emergency or post-emergency action can be implemented
either by the Commission or by entrusting budget implementation tasks to specific other bodies, such as
NGOs or aid implementing agencies in EU member states.40
The Bêkou Trust Fund. The Bêkou trust fund was established in July 2014 to address the political and
security crisis of 2013 in the Central African Republic. The main financial contribution is provided from the
EDF and additional bilateral contributions are provided by France, Germany, the Netherlands, and, since

37
38
39

40

OECD. Creditor Reporting System (CRS). https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=CRS1#
Reports for 2016-2018 can be found here: https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/content/about_en
It should be noted that the largest EUTF for Africa was predominantly resourced through reserves of the European
Development Fund. Due to the specific nature of this inter-governmental fund, unspent resources do not flow back
to the EU member states’ national budget, but are instead accumulated in reserves until they are used up. Contrary
to the regular programming of the EDF, which on paper requires to be co-decided by the EU and its counterparts
based in African, Caribbean and Pacific states or, in the case of the intra-ACP budget, their Brussels-based
representatives, the use of the EDF reserves can be decided solely by the EU and its member states.
More information on the key partners involved in implementing the EUTF can be found here:
https://ec.europa.eu/international-partnerships/our-partners_en

43

2015,41 Italy and Switzerland.42 The Bêkou TF supports the Central African Republic in the transition from
emergency response recipient to long-term development cooperation (reconstruction, state building, reestablishing economic activity and security of supplies). It also provides relief to affected neighbouring
countries.
A total of €64 million was disbursed in 2014 on top of the EU’s humanitarian assistance through the EU
budget in 2012 (€84.5 million) (European Commission 2014c). Following this careful start, resources nearly
quadrupled in five years to €243 million in 2019. The same year also saw a decision to extend the trust fund
until the end of 2020, with the EU, France, Germany and Switzerland pledging a total of around €55 million
for this period.
According to a 2019 press release, the Bêkou Trust Fund “has launched 17 programmes, which have
already provided tangible results for half of the population of the Central African Republic” (European
Commission 2019d). The health sector represents the largest share of payments (42%), followed by rural
development and peacebuilding and conflict prevention projects.
Emergency Trust Fund (EUTF) for Africa 43. The EUTF was launched in 2015 at the Valletta Summit on
Migration to address the root causes of irregular migration and displaced persons on the African continent
(European Commission 2015e). In 2015, 25 member states and Norway and Switzerland contributed €81.3
million to the fund; total contributions amounted to €1.8 billion (including those from EU financing
instruments, predominantly the EDF reserves) (European Commission 2015e). In 2018, the EUTF stood at
€4.5 billion with the main share (89%) provided by the EU institutions and 11% provided by member states
and other donors (EUTF 2020).
The EUTF focuses on the most fragile states and popular migration routes in Africa: Sahel & Lake Chad
region (40% of contributions), Horn of Africa (40% of contributions), North Africa (20 % of contributions). In
2019 it benefitted 26 African states.44
Since 2018, programmes are defined according to six priority areas:45
1.
return and reintegration;
2.
refugee management (Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework);
3.
completing progress on the securitisation of documents and civil registry;
4.
anti-trafficking measures;
5.
essential stabilisation efforts in the Horn of Africa (in particular in Sudan, South Sudan and
Somalia) and in the Sahel/Lake Chad region;
6.
supporting migration dialogues (EU 2020).
The EUTF has its own governance structure, which includes a Board structure where recipients may
observe but do not take part in decision-making, and where EU member states have greater control over
funding decisions. This choice was merited by the focus on quick results and the ‘emergency’ setting of the
EUTF. While the dominant modality used remains project support, the EUTF shows an increased use of

41

42

43

44
45

Annual Reports 2014-2017 available in French only https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/countries/central-africanrepublic/eu-bekou-trust-fund_en
European
Commission.
International
Cooperation
and
Development,
Where
we
work.
https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/countries/central-african-republic/eu-bekou-trust-fund_en
Monitoring reports on different regions: https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/content/results-monitoring-andevaluation_en
EU Commission Press Release 2015; EUTF Annual Reports 2016-2018; EUTF for Africa Fact Sheet 2019
Initially it
was four areas as defined in the
Annex to
the
founding document
https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/sites/euetfa/files/original_constitutive_agreement_en_with_signatures.pdf

44

budget support. Overall, budget support increased from €12 million in 2016 to €71 million in 2018,
representing an increase from 7% of disbursements in 2016, to 13% in 2018. 46
Blended finance
Another key change in the EU’s cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa during the period under review was
the increased focus on and use of so-called ‘blended finance’. The reason for the move towards the use of
this type of finance was elaborated in the 2011 Agenda for Change: “In order to leverage further resources
and increase the EU's impact on poverty reduction, new financial tools will be promoted, including blending
grants and loans and other risk-sharing instruments. The issues of debt sustainability and proliferation of
funds and facilities will be taken into account.” (Council of the European Union 2012).
In the EU’s development policy, blended finance is understood as a combination of EU grants with loans or
equity from public and private financiers. The grant aspect can be provided in various ways, be it in the form
of direct investment grants, interest-rate subsidies or loan-guarantee schemes (Lundsgaarde 2017). The
EU’s blended finance operations were first organised in the form of regional ‘investment facilities’ that
provide blended finance in different regions, eight in total with one specifically catering to Sub-Saharan
Africa. The EU Africa Investment Facility (AfIF) is the second largest regional facility after the
Neighbourhood Investment Facility that is twice the financial size of the AfIF (European Commission 2016c).
To give an indication of the support provided, the 2015-2016 annual budget of the AfIF47 largely focused on
the transport sector (63.5% of total engagement), followed by the energy sector (29.5%). 77% of the budget
was used to finance investment grants and 23% for technical assistance. The facility’s annual report for
2015-2016 claims that €288.5 million in AfIF grants helped to leverage €2.3 billion (Lundsgaarde 2017).

5. Conclusions on the evolution of EU development
spending in Sub-Saharan Africa
The patterns of cooperation analysed in this chapter broadly correspond with the EU’s overall intentions for
cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa during the period 2013-2018. The EU’s wide-ranging set of priorities
is partly explained by the collective interests of the 28 member states, those of the European Parliament
and the many interest groups associated with its development policy. Furthermore, the variety of EU funding
instruments and programming modalities (geographic and thematic funding, trust funds, investment funds
and the European Investment Bank) meant that the EU’s aid usually went beyond the three priority sectors
identified during the programming stage for each country, as called for in the Agenda for Change (OECD
2018c).
Another key trend in funding patterns happened in 2015 and 2016 and concerned an increasing shift
towards migration-related expenditure and blended finance. They respectively concern the creation of an
Emergency Trust Fund for Africa and an External Investment Plan. While different in nature and governance
structures, both were resourced from the reserves of the European Development Fund. The new initiatives
brought along a stronger policy focus on security/stability and migration-related expenditure as well as on
the promotion of blended finance, priorities that were later reflected in the new European Consensus on
Development of 2017.

46

47

EUTF Annual Report 2016, 46; EUTF Annual Report 2017, 71; EUTF Annual Report 2018, 47. Monitoring reports
on different regions: https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/content/results -monitoring-and-evaluation_en
The ITF was the instrument that covered blending operations over the 2007–2013 financial framework. Following
Council and Parliament request to harmonise blending set-ups in the different regions, the AfIF was set up for the
2014–2020 Multiannual Financial Framework.

45

The data presented in this chapter show that the EU has a predominantly bilateral development cooperation
relationship with the 49 SSA states, complemented with regional and continental cooperation. The main
focus was on LDCs, whereas aid to UMICs declined in line with the differentiation principle introduced under
the 2011 Agenda for Change.
Notwithstanding considerable differences in disbursements from year to year, the predictability of the EU’s
development cooperation is shown in the patterns of cooperation analysed. Concretely, unlike bilateral
donors where stronger variations in support may occur in response to emerging priorities or national politics
the EU works with seven-year budget cycles and follows the allocation decisions made at the beginning of
each cycle. A change in the Commission’s leadership cannot fundamentally change the decisions taken at
the beginning of the cycle. In practice, this means that the Commissioner for International Cooperation and
Development who took office in November 2014, Neven Mimica, was bound by aid allocation decisions
made in 2013 for the entire duration of his mandate. For this reason, the Agenda for Change of 2011 was
the dominant strategy in determining the regular programming of cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa
during the period under the review.
The EU’s implementation choices reflect a focus on the project modality, EU-managed trust funds and
blended finance, which shows in an increasing use of various intermediaries that include international
organisations, EU member states’ implementing agencies, development finance institutions and civil society
organisations. This trend shows a departure from the previous reporting period, as analysed in the 2013
IOB evaluation of the EDF, where the EU’s cooperation portfolio was characterised by a relatively stronger
focus on budget support and other types of programme-based approaches, which were directly managed
by the EC.

46

Chapter 3: Results
Introduction
This third and final chapter analyses the evidence on the results accomplished by the EU’s development
cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa. It does so by means of a structured analysis of external strategic level
evaluations that were commissioned by the European Commission, reports of the European Investment
Bank, as well as special reviews conducted by the European Court of Auditors (ECA). These reports cover
various thematic and geographic areas of EU cooperation, including with Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as
various instruments and modalities of EU cooperation.
The list of all evaluation reports reviewed for the purpose of this study can be found in Annex 2. To facilitate
the readability, the 55 evaluation reports analysed for this study have been numbered and are referred to
using their respective numbers in brackets throughout this chapter.
The evaluation evidence is assessed against 10 evaluation questions (see Annex 1) and discussed in
relation to the overall development policy priorities set by the Netherlands’ government. The evaluation
reports were analysed using a structured data collection grid (more information on the methodology and
analytical grids can be found in Annexes 4 and 5).
The evidence is assessed according to the following six criteria (see Annex 1 for further details):

Relevance

Effectiveness

Impact and sustainability

Policy coherence for development

Complementarity

Efficiency
The evidence furthermore zooms on the following eight Dutch priorities vis-à-vis European development
cooperation and working methods (see table 8 and figure 10):

Private sector development

Rural and agricultural development

Social development

Donor cooperation

Gender as a key cross-cutting theme

Budget support

Political dialogue.
The chapter is structured in four sections. First of all, an introductory section describes and discusses the
Netherlands’ priorities in more detail, as well as the evidence base and the analytical approach. The second
section presents the evaluation evidence gathered from the 55 evaluation reports in relation to the
Netherlands’ eight priority goals and working methods. The third section presents findings in relation to
horizontal considerations that the evaluations also looked into. A final section presents an appreciation of
the evaluation evidence as well as under-evaluated areas, discusses the findings and seeks to identify key
factors that explain the (in)effectiveness as observed.

47

1. Dutch priorities vis-à-vis EU development policy,
evaluation evidence and approach
The Dutch priorities were previously reported to the Netherlands’ Parliament as guiding the government’s
engagement in the EU, though they do not identify specific priorities vis-à-vis cooperation with Sub-Saharan
Africa. The following table presents and further defines the five policy goals and three working methods
concerned, based on recent government strategies and communications with Parliament.
Table 8. Eight EU development policy goals and working methods of the Netherlands’ government
1: Preventing conflict and
instability
2: Private sector
development
3: Rural and agricultural
development
4: Social development

5: Donor cooperation

6: Gender as a key crosscutting theme

7: Budget support

8: Political dialogue

- Including EU support for the African Peace and Security Architecture
- Trade-related assistance and infrastructure development
- External Investment Plan: government welcomes the stronger focus on
investment promotion
- Including climate action
- Also a key focus of the EUTF, which the Dutch government supports
- Including education, both the Netherlands and the EU support the Global
Partnership for Education and the Education Cannot Wait Initiative
- Water and sanitation
- Health and Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR)
- Working better together, progress in joint programming engagement
- The Netherlands strives for complementarity between bilateral and EU
geographic programming choices
- EU-UN Spotlight Initiative launched in 2017, focused on gender-based
violence and SRHR
- Education for girls prioritised
- Availability of gender-disaggregated project data in EU development
cooperation
- Potential synergies when combining budget support with other
approaches
- EU budget support can only be effective if accompanied with a critical
dialogue, clear criteria and concrete risk mitigation measures
- Criteria should become more demanding and strict, and judged with a
political (i.e. not technocratic) lens
- The Netherlands seeks strong policy dialogue with its partner countries,
for which the EU provides one channel

Sources used:
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs
(2018).
Investing
in Global Prospects.
https://www.government.nl/documents/policy-notes/2018/05/18/investing-in-global-prospects
Government of the Netherlands (2018). Kabinetsinzet EU ontwikkelingssamenwerkingsbeleid. Kamerbrief
BZDOC-403887767-108. 21 December 2018. Den Haag: Rijksoverheid
Government of the Netherlands (2019). Jaarlijkse brief over EU ontwikkelingssamenwerking. Kamerbrief
BZDOC-1201041128-35. 16 July 2019. Den Haag: Rijksoverheid
These five policy goals and three working methods concerned differ in their degree of prioritisation in the
Dutch development policy overall. They also consist of a mix of topics, cross-cutting issues and process
objectives. Some can be pursued by the EU on its own initiative, while others can only be furthered in
cooperation with other donors including the EU member states. The following visual representation groups
the different topics and guides the approach to analysing EU evaluation evidence in relation to these topics.

48

Figure 10. Clustering the eight policy goals and working methods

Source: own elaboration based on table 8
Given the large volume of evaluation evidence analysed for this study, the chapter uses a common approach
and structure for analysing each policy goal and working method and makes ample use of comparative
tables. Key ‘takeaways' are summarised at the end of each relevant section.

2. Evaluation evidence in relation to the policy goals and
working methods
The main purpose of the analysis presented in this chapter is to determine to what extent the EU’s
development cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa during the period 2013-2018 was effective, specifically
in the eight above-mentioned priority areas. The latter can be divided into policy goals (2.1) and working
methods (2.2).

2.1.

Policy goals

Policy goals include four priority themes (i.e. preventing conflict and instability, private sector development,
rural and agricultural development, social development) and gender as a cross-cutting theme.
2.1.1.

Priority themes
a. Preventing conflict and instability48

Relevance
The EU’s peace and security interventions were considered as relevant (31, 34, 35, 36, 38, 48) and have
addressed a widely recognised need. They notably sustained the African Union’s (AU) ability to respond to
peace and security crises on the continent (1, 3). There is consensus that the EU has added value in support
of peace and security and especially peace support operations (1).
48

The evidence for this section is based on the information provided in eight evaluation reports directly related to
peace and stability (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 33, 54, 55), two reviews of strategic evaluations (31, 48) as well as seven
geographic/budget support evaluations that addressed these issues (16, 21, 34, 35, 36, 38, 42, 43). Three reports
covered periods from 2002 to 2013 while six only covered the early years of the period 2013-2018 (until 2015).

49

Table 9. Key factors in EU’s relevance in preventing conflict and instability
Enabling factors

Inhibiting factors



Appropriate needs assessment, in line with the 
priorities identified and the needs expressed by
beneficiary governments, the African Union
and Regional Economic Communities (1, 2, 3,
55)



There is a balance between beneficiary
countries’ needs and priorities and the EU 
priorities (e.g. in the IcSP) (33, 54)





Relevant and appropriate instruments (e.g. the
Bêkou Trust Fund’s integrated humanitarian 
and development approaches; the African
Peace Facility addressed peace and security in
Africa and promoted EU policy priorities) (1, 4)

Alignment of EU’s interventions with both AU
and EU evolving policies and strategies and
revision of those as new threats to peace and 
security emerged (1, 2)

The absence of a comprehensive analysis of
beneficiaries’ needs under the EUTF limited the
Commission’s ability to demonstrate that the
right priorities had been identified and that
actions approved were the most relevant to
address them (5)
Limited investment in conflict analysis or the
political economy analysis of the country (31, 34,
36, 48)
Lack of a proper long-term vision and strategy
(e.g. on capacity-building for the APSA and the
APF) (1, 2)
Very broad objectives and priorities resulting in
an EU support that lacked focus (1, 2, 4, 5)
Support not geared to tackling the root causes
of conflict but rather to mitigating their
consequences or to provision of “classic”
development support in a conflict context (31,
42, 43)

Effectiveness
EU development aid in the field of preventing conflict and instability mostly or partially delivered the outputs
and results it was meant to achieve (2, 4, 35) in areas like conflict prevention, management and resolution.
Furthermore, the capacity of African regional organisations to intervene in conflict management and
peacebuilding has been enhanced. Besides, the Commission’s support contributed positively to conflict
mitigation, stabilisation, reconstruction and rehabilitation through capacity-building initiatives to security
forces, demobilisation, disarmament and reintegration of former combatants, rehabilitation of victims of
conflict, among others (31). However, despite improved approaches over the last decade, effective support
to fragile states remains a challenge (31).
EU support through the African Peace Facility (APF) and to African peace support operations have
been key factors in keeping the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) operational. It notably had
positive effects on peace and security and contributed to more stability in African crisis regions (1, 2). The
EU Capacity Building (EUCAP) missions in the Sahel played an important role in strengthening the
capacity of the security forces in Niger and Mali and in supporting other activities of the EU and its member
states (3). Yet, the European Court of Auditors observed that the information and monitoring systems of the
Emergency Trust Fund for Africa (EUTF) did not allow for a comprehensive overview of the results achieved
(5). Besides, the EU’s support to reforms to improve the financial, operational and institutional capacity of
the AU and Regional Economic Communities (RECs) has yielded few results to date (2).

50

Table 10. Enabling and inhibiting factors for the effectiveness of EU support to preventing conflict and
instability
Enabling factors

Inhibiting factors

Programme-/intervention-related enablers
 Relative stability and size of EU regional
cooperation
(35);
reliable
and
considerable APF funding (1)
 Combination of different tools, state
building
and
non-state
actors’
mobilisation and short- and medium-term
approaches (31)
 Building on the results of previous
actions and consolidating outcomes over
time (54)
 Quality of the work of the implementers
and overall programme management
(33, 54)

National context
 Lack of absorption capacity of the partner countries
(33, 54)
 Lack of political commitment by some AU member
states
 (Challenging) context and the nature of the conflicts
(1, 3, 4, 35)
Programme-/intervention-related limitations
 Lack of an explicit strategic framework that guides
efforts to strengthen peace and security architectures
and captures EDF and other EFI support (54)
 Inadequate management of the support to the APSA
and peace support operations (1)
 Limited ability of the AU Commission to channel
available resources to concrete support actions
resulting in minimal APF support arriving on the
ground (e.g. for the Multinational Joint Task Force
against Boko Haram) (1)
 Limited funding (due to a shortfall in contributions by
the AU member states to the AU budget and the
Peace Fund), and the timeliness and predictability of
external funding, limiting the APSA’s capacity and the
effectiveness of institutional support (2, 54)
 Unsatisfactory human resources management within
the AU (1)
 Difficulties in delivering equipment as part of the
capacity building measures (due to administrative
issues such as delays in procurement; asynchrony of
project and procurement cycles) (54)
 Knock-on effects of delays on the overall
effectiveness and impact (54)

Efficiency
The evaluations pointed to important operational inefficiencies that differed across operations. For
example, different AU peace support operations were affected by:

poor communication, bottlenecks in finance, poor recruitment practices and procurement
processes, shortage of staff and inefficient management on the AU side

cumbersome and bureaucratic procedures on the EU side

lengthy procedures on both sides (even in the case of the Bêkou Trust Fund and the EUTF,
which were supposed to be faster)
Operational inefficiencies in the EUCAP Sahel missions were linked to their timeframes: their 2-year
mandates and annual budgets and the short secondment of staff did not encourage medium or long-term
planning (3). Amidst these critical notes, the IcSP was found to be an efficient instrument in the field of
preventing conflict, thanks to a lower than average percentage of administrative costs, a satisfactory budget

51

execution, flexible management and contractual procedures and direct selection of implementing partners.
However, the fact that there was no facility to fund small actions, such as conflict analyses or feasibility
studies, without a formal decision-making procedure had negative effects on efficiency (33, 54).
Impact and sustainability
It is generally more difficult to provide detailed evidence at the level of outcomes than it is of outputs
because more fundamental long-term effects take more time to render and have not yet been captured by
evaluations (1, 4). It was also hard to attribute outcomes solely to EU regional support in Eastern and
Southern Africa given the predominance of local drivers of peace and security, the complex institutional
setup, the involvement of multiple actors (35). Yet, according to the review of strategic evaluations to assess
the European Consensus on Development, EU development aid had a positive impact on peace and
security during the period under consideration (48). The EU has significantly contributed to conflict
prevention and peacebuilding, especially in recent years, although the actual effects of its actions are not
yet fully measurable and still appear marginal in the evaluations (31).
Box 3. Examples of positive EU impact on peace and security
●

●

●
●

In West Africa, positive impacts were observed in electoral diplomacy, increased political
involvement, successful mediations, early warnings, peacekeeping operations, often with the EU
as primary international donor, and with sufficient evidence to plausibly establish the EU’s
contribution to conflict attenuation (43).
EU support in Eastern and Southern Africa increased the capacity in the Southern African
Development Community (SADC) region to conduct credible elections and to contain electionrelated crises (35).
In some countries, like Sierra Leone, general budget support funding had a stabilising role that
ensured macro stability during periods of crisis and promoted peace and security (21).
There is some evidence of improvements in local communities’ capacities to ensure peaceful coexistence between communities. For example, a conflict prevention and management project
implemented in Guinea led to a significant decrease in the number of conflicts in the community,
and a reinforcement of social cohesion, although the durability of this result could not be
confirmed (16).

EU funding through the APF has contributed to peace and security across different parts of Africa and
has helped to make the APSA indispensable at institutional and field-level (1). The APF has supported
African efforts to establish and run peace support operations by funding troop allowances and operational
costs, which ensured continued operation, and for building up the APSA institutions to enable African
management of conflict on the continent (1, 2). Still, it was difficult to provide evidence on APF outcomes
and its impact on capacity and institutional development (1).
The main risks to the sustainability of the results achieved in building the APSA’s capacity were found
to be rooted in the weak financial, institutional and operational capacity of the AU and the RECs. Moreover,
EU-funded technical assistance often focused on general management and had limited long-term impact
on the development of the APSA (2). The evaluations stress that key local stakeholders’ political
commitment and ownership were important factors for sustainability (2, 3, 54). Governments were not
always ready to pass some of the reforms necessary for sustainable capacity-building and the progress on
activities to promote sustainability often depended on the extent to which the authorities prioritised them (3).
Furthermore, financial sustainability was a major issue: the shortfall in contributions by the AU member
states to the AU budget and the Peace Fund left the APSA heavily dependent on the support of donors,
including the EU.

52

There were several promising examples of IcSP actions where outcomes have outlived external funding.
For example, in Sudan’s border regions with South Sudan, support to micro-level peace processes
contributed to stability and peace outcomes that have lasted for more than a year. Factors contributing to
sustainability included the emphasis on capacity-building, the involvement of local stakeholders in the
design phase, implementation within broader multi-actor response frameworks and the early planning of
sequencing with other external sources of funding (33, 54).
Evaluations nevertheless concluded that while the EU managed to successfully tackle the effects of
conflicts, the root causes of instability and conflicts were not adequately addressed, which raises
questions about the sustainability of its actions since conflicts are likely to reoccur (31, 42, 48).
Box 4. Key takeaways from the evaluations on preventing conflict and instability







EU development aid has had a positive impact on peace and security and has contributed to
more stability in African crisis regions. Capacities for conflict prevention and management have
been enhanced. EU financial support through the APF and to the African peace support
operations has contributed to the establishment of an operational and indispensable African
Peace and Security Architecture.
However, it is difficult to provide detailed evidence at the level of outcomes and on impact
because more fundamental long-term effects take more time to realise and cannot yet be
captured by evaluations.
While the factors and effects of the conflicts were successfully addressed and mitigated, EU
support has generally not been geared enough to tackling the root causes of conflict.
Inhibiting factors to the impact and sustainability of the EU’s support in the field of peace and
security included the weak financial, operational and institutional capacity of the AU and RECs,
as well as the limited political commitment and ownership of local stakeholders. Financial
sustainability was also a major issue, as the APSA was heavily dependent on the support of
donors, including the EU.

b. Private sector development49
Most of the evaluations that assess private sector development (9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 48)
analyse a wider geographic evidence base (often including some African case studies) and present general
findings and recommendations. However, they do not present specific evaluation findings on the
cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa. Where possible, the following analysis highlights specific findings in
relation to Sub-Saharan Africa.
Relevance
The overall assessment of the relevance of the EU’s support to private sector development (PSD) is positive.
While one report found that the EU’s trade-related assistance was not highly relevant for the poor (10),
another observed a clear poverty reduction focus in the EU’s PSD support in the ACP regions (11).

49

The evidence for this section is based on the information provided in six reports which covered the period 20002013 (10, 11, 15, 17, 19, 24) and four reports (14, 16, 31, 48) which covered the early years in the period 20132018.

53

Table 11. Key factors in EU’s relevance in EU support to private sector development
Enabling factors

Inhibiting factors



Alignment to partner countries’ priorities and

consistency with other EU strategies (9, 10,
11, 12, 14, 15, 48)



Appropriate use of a wide range of
instruments and modalities (10, 35). The
project approach was particularly appropriate
when used to complement and overcome
weakly-developed trade policy strategies in
partner countries (10)



Partner ownership and commitment of
stakeholders (10)



EU’s Trade Related Assistance had only
limited results on poverty reduction. It
lacked focus on key socio-economic aspects
and poverty reduction has not been sufficiently
mainstreamed in Trade Related Assistance
design and implementation. Although poverty
has fallen in most countries and regions during
the period evaluated, the causation between
the EU’s trade related support and the
decreasing poverty is too weak
At the same time vulnerability has increased
primarily due to economic reforms, in which
trade reforms had a significant share (10)

Effectiveness
The reports demonstrate mixed results on the effectiveness of EU support to PSD, with some activities
being evaluated as highly satisfactory (10, 12, 14, 15). PSD support seemed more effective in middleincome countries as compared to low-income countries (11) and the use of budget support was most
effective in supporting trade-related reforms when managed by committed and capable governments (10).
However, although some activities at macro-level, including institutional and regulatory reform, showed
positive results, others were less effective (9, 11, 15). Table 12 presents some of the enabling and inhibiting
factors that influence the effectiveness of EU PSD support.
Table 12. Enabling and inhibiting factors for the effectiveness of the EU’s support to PSD
Enabling factors

Inhibiting factors

Programme design
● Quality of the design: needs assessment,
planning, estimation of resources and risks
(10, 12, 25)
● Partners’ capacity to implement envisaged
strategies (9, 10, 11, 12, 15)
● Consideration of aspects that are key to
PSD (e.g. development of infrastructure,
health, education and vocational training)
(9, 12)
● Coordination of trade-related mechanisms
between the EU and other development
partners (10)

Programme design
● Lack of or unsuitable strategic approach (11)
● Lack of consultation with the private sector (11)
● Insufficient context analysis (10, 12, 15)
● Inadequate technical, financial and economic
assessment of key beneficiary agencies and their
human and financial capacities (15)
● Insufficient analysis of baseline conditions against
which success can be measured (12)
● Poor risk analysis and insufficient application of
lessons learnt from past experiences (12)
● Limited focus on capacity development in project
design (15)
● Underestimation of the complexity and length of
reforms and projects (11)
● Lack of focus on the long-term institutional building
of private sector business service organisations
(11, 48)

54

Political commitment, management &
ownership
● High partner ownership and commitment
of stakeholders, including clients and
beneficiaries, due to the ability to forge
and sustain working relationships with all
stakeholders (9, 12)
● Partner government's commitment and
strong leadership to implement trade
reform processes and to mainstream
national strategies (31, 48)
● Strong, pro-active management (12)

Political commitment, management & ownership
● Low level of partner ownership, poor
(knowledge) management and capacity (14, 15)

Results achieved by the EU include:

Improved access to finance by small and medium enterprises (SMEs), in particular long-term
finance and local currency liquidity. This is considered a crucial aspect of EU support to private
sector development (11, 14, 48).

The EU has contributed to enhancing trade policy by supporting partner countries in working
towards legal and regulatory adjustments and helping them improve their trade policy
environment and the capacity of public institutions involved in trade policy and regulation (10,
11, 12, 15, 48).

The EU played an instrumental role in strengthening partners’ trade related systems and in
increasing trade. Its Trade Related Assistance (TRA) also enabled them to strengthen their
capacity to manage issues related to international trade standard setting, especially in
relation to quality infrastructure and capacity development (10, 15, 48). Furthermore, the EU
has contributed to the adoption of regional and national policies on improving business and
investment climate and regional infrastructure (12). The EU’s activities supported the
stabilisation and modest expansion of trade from poorer developing countries and fostered
enterprise competitiveness (10, 11). However, TRA was less successful in diversifying trade
and many LDCs and sub-Saharan countries have experienced trade concentration, which
undermined their ability to increase inclusive employment opportunities (10).

The EIB strengthened financial sectors and encouraged financial intermediaries to develop
lending approaches that better address small and medium enterprises’ needs (14).

The results of the EU’s TRA to increase employment were limited (11, 48). Generally,
employment support strategies focused on education and employability but employment
concerns were not systematically mainstreamed in private sector support. Even if job creation
was often one of the objectives of the EU’s PSD support, it was generally not the primary
objective of the EU’s TRA (11, 48). Job creation currently features among the key priorities of
the EU’s development policy overall (as for instance seen in the EUTF and External Investment
Plan), yet the TRA evaluations analysed here show this was less the case a few years ago.
Efficiency
The assessment of the efficiency of the EU’s PSD support was mixed. Evaluations judged the efficiency of
the operations as partially satisfactory or unsatisfactory (15). They pointed out that efficiency was particularly
problematic for large investment projects (15). A crucial aspect for efficiency was timeliness and costeffectiveness which were not always satisfactory. Some operations were launched too early while others
lasted much longer than initially foreseen and had considerable cost overruns and needed (substantial)
budget increases (15). Furthermore, the Commission’s approach of delivering aid to the private sector via
the public sector often proved to be not the most efficient one because it was insufficiently flexible and
responsive to private sector actors and dynamics (11). One report pointed out that PSD operations did not

55

easily lend themselves to traditional measures of efficiency, such as rate of return calculations and that
retrofitted ratings that measure efficiency should be treated with caution (9).
Impact and sustainability
Evaluations pointed out that it was difficult to assess the impact and sustainability of the EU’s PSD support,
one reason being that many activities at macro or meso levels did not show an immediate impact.
Evaluation reports thus failed “to provide an unambiguous assessment of project performance” (9, 50).
Other evaluations stressed that baseline information and impact indicators were neither detailed nor
quantified which made it hard to measure achievements (12). Most reports pointed out that, in many cases,
PSD support was fragmented, did not follow longer-term strategies for institutional strengthening, and was
insufficiently mainstreamed in national strategies. Moreover, it was not always embedded in strategies
geared towards the maximisation of the impact of PSD support (9, 10, 11, 24, 48). Only two reports
observed the impact to be positive (12, 10). Similarly, sustainability was sometimes evaluated as satisfactory
(12, 15), other times as weak (9, 15), while one evaluation stated that it had insufficient evidence to
determine this (10).
Despite these caveats, the EU has reportedly improved trade policy environments by strengthening and
mainstreaming trade policy formulation, reducing trade-related transaction costs and enhancing partners’
trade negotiation capacity. The impact of these changes was expected to occur only in the longer term (10,
12, 48). One report pointed out that when preparing and undertaking the institutional and regulatory reforms,
the private sector was generally not consulted (48) and hence, the Commission’s activities in the area of
policy dialogue were weak (11). In the absence of well-established impact M&E, there was little evidence of
the impact of such reforms on the functioning and growth of partner country enterprises (11).
Furthermore, EU TRA has effectively improved the capacity of public institutions involved in trade
facilitation, export and investment promotion (10). In several cases, the EU did not follow longer-term
strategies and missed opportunities for long-term institutional building of private sector business service
organisations that would provide sustainable support to SMEs (10, 11, 24, 48). A key challenge has been
to maintain capacity levels that the TRA had contributed to (9, 10). Equally, the sustainability of
assistance that aimed at compliance with standards, a key element for international trade, has proven
to be challenging (10). The EU TRA has been assisting partner countries successfully to overcome the basic
capacity constraints, by providing equipment and by training scientific officers. However, this support has
not yet shown a significant increase in the partners’ capacity to interact with international standards-setting
bodies or to participate effectively in standard-setting. The main explanation presented is the lack of
scientific data availability and the lack of coordination between government bodies (10).
In the area of trade development, the EU has contributed to reducing supply-side constraints, increasing
the international competitiveness of supported enterprises and improving their market access. The EU’s
support to trade promotion services that focussed on specific sectors tended to be more effective, as
confirmed in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana (10). The EU has supported the trade-related productive sector,
often focusing on traditional exports (e.g. agriculture and fisheries) and has contributed to the stabilisation
of export levels in these sectors (10). In West and Central Africa, support to sectors with a smaller-scale
productive structure, such as cocoa and coffee, tended to have a stronger impact on trade development,
employment creation and poverty reduction (10).
However, at the broader national level, the impact and sustainability of the EU’s TRA on increased
international competitiveness has been less evident and the EU’s contribution to changing the trade
and production structure towards high-productivity activities has been limited. A key shortcoming of TRA to
the productive sectors was its inability to target more long-term, high-productive and newly emerging
economic sectors that could facilitate much-needed structural transformation and foster integration into

56

global markets, including through diversification (10, 48). One report pointed out that there was little
evidence of comprehensive support to private sector development and sustainable agriculture, and that
particularly in fast-growing low-income countries, the private sector’s specific opportunities were overlooked
(Zambia, Burkina Faso, Uganda, Mozambique). Economic growth and trade increase, especially for the
poor countries in conflict-prone environments, were not fully sustainable because the growth recorded was
linked to the increased international demand for raw materials, including oil, gas, other minerals, cocoa and
coffee. Structural changes – agriculture and rural development, competitive value chains, employment
policies, and sustainable energy – were needed to increase sustainability (48).
EU support did not emphasise the sustainability of access to trade finance (10). Although its TRA
supported the development of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) strategies and legal frameworks, it hardly
contributed to an enhanced investment climate or increased FDI flows (10). This has weakened the EU’s
contribution to changing the trade and production structure towards high productivity activities that were key
drivers of sustained economic development (48). The EU’s TRA had therefore only limited success in
contributing to the integration of poorer countries into the world economy, which featured prominently among
the formal objectives of the interventions concerned (10, 11).
Box 5. Key takeaways from the evaluations on private sector development
●

●

●

●

●

EU support to private sector development was considered relevant overall and has achieved
mixed results. In particular, the EU has contributed to improved access to finance by small and
medium enterprises, which is considered a crucial aspect of EU support to PSD, while the EIB
has strengthened financial sectors and encouraged financial intermediaries.
EU TRA has contributed to enhancing trade policy environments as well as international trade
standard setting, capacity of public institutions, and trade development but the sustainability of
these results is mixed.
The EU has been less effective in diversifying trade in LDCs and sub-Saharan countries where
trade remains concentrated on few sectors, which undermined their ability to increase inclusive
employment opportunities.
The efficiency of EU support to PSD was particularly problematic for large, multi-million trade
assistance operations that focus on the implementation of large investment projects. The
Commission’s approach of delivering aid to the private sector via the public sector proved in many
cases not to be the most efficient because it was insufficiently flexible and responsive to adjust
to private sector actors and dynamics.
Difficulty to assess the impact and sustainability of the EU’s support to PSD as many activities
supported at the macro or meso levels may not show an immediate impact.

c. Rural and agricultural development50
Relevance
A couple of evaluation reports suggest that agriculture and rural development policies as well as energy
related policies were not given enough priority given their potential role for growth and poverty reduction
(31, 48). When these policies were given a priority, they were considered relevant overall (41). This was
also the case for EU support in the field of environment and climate change (17) and to the transport sector
in Africa (19).

50

The evidence for this section has been drawn is based on the information provided in four evaluation reports directly
related to food security, energy, climate change or transport (16, 17, 18, 19), two reviews of strategic evaluations
(31, 48) as well as 19 geographic/budget support evaluations that addressed these issues (8, 15, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26,
27, 28, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 52). 12 reports covered periods from 2000-2013 while 11 only covered the
early years of the 2013-2018 period (until 2015).

57

Table 13. Key factors in EU’s relevance in EU support to rural and agricultural development
Enabling factors

Inhibiting factors



●







Coherence with partner countries’ policy
priorities and needs (16, 17, 19)
Choice of agriculture and food security as a
focal sector in the 11th EDF was fully in line
with some countries’ growth priorities (36)
Greater access to energy services as
provided by the ACP-EU Energy Facility was
particularly important for the poor (18)
EU support paved the way for increased
prioritisation of environment and climate
change issues in programming and partner
countries’ national development processes
(17)
EU resilience approach as a direct response
to the food security context (16)

●

●

In some countries (e.g. in Ghana), actions in
environmental sectors remained limited in
size and time compared to the scale of the
needs (20)
Lack of consideration of different countries’
situations in the support to the
standardisation of transport policies across
Africa as regards capacity, governance,
economic situation and social stability (19)
The EU approach to resilience paid little
attention to the root causes of food crises (16)

Effectiveness
In several countries, EU support contributed to improving the economic infrastructure in rural and (peri)
urban areas and the governance of commodity chains (36), thus facilitating the sale of agricultural products
and strengthening economic exchanges (38). Mixed results were reported in the support to productive
sectors − namely, in boosting employment for the poor, in agriculture and rural development and energy
(31, 52). Still, in Kenya, the EU contributed to improved agricultural practices that might lead to improved
food security (41).
In some countries, the levels of spending attained in agriculture would not have been possible without EU
budget support (25, 27). However, despite the provision of resources and technical support, the results of
budget support in agriculture were limited due the weak implementation of programmes, the lack of
ownership or inappropriate policies (20, 21, 25, 26).
In other sectors, positive results were reported:

Most of the ACP-EU Energy Facility projects that supported renewable energy in East Africa
were successful and rural electrification projects improved the life of rural communities (18).

In the transport sector, the EU’s and other donors’ support to institutional reorganisation at
national levels has contributed to more effective sector institutions (19).

EU support has contributed to tangible results across the environment and climate change
sector. Results were accomplished in areas such as biodiversity conservation, use of
sustainable energy, mitigation of greenhouse gases, improved resilience and ability to adapt
to climate change, management of natural resources, control of pollution, and the promotion of
sustainable consumption and production (43, 52).

The EU influenced national priorities towards a gradually increased emphasis on
environment and climate change and strengthened developing countries’ capacity to
translate international commitments into national policies and plans (17).

Budget support succeeded in strengthening the environmental policy and legal framework
in Ghana (20).
On a more critical note, the evaluation of the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI) pointed out that
the scale of the support was not sufficient to reverse worsening trends in the environment and climate
change sector. There was still a long way to go before the results of EU support would lead to transformative

58

change (52). Moreover, the EU’s contribution to sustainable natural resource management for West Africa
as a whole was considered as meagre (43).
Efficiency
Findings on efficiency were mixed, depending on the area concerned. Good practice examples included
(16):

The EU Africa Trust Fund, by consolidating DEVCO and ECHO funding for building resilience
to food crises, has reduced fragmentation and overhead costs, with the two Services managing
a single project;

The evaluation on the EU approach to resilience found some examples of joint programming
or division of labour (e.g. with the Netherlands and Austria in Ethiopia), although these were
the exception rather than the rule.

In a favourable institutional context, budget support could reduce transaction costs and improve
aid effectiveness and aid efficiency (e.g. in Niger). However, the evaluation on the EU approach
to resilience did not gather a large evidence base on the cost-effectiveness of budget support.
On a more critical note, putting the approach to building resilience to food crises in practice has
increased transaction costs at multiple levels. The collaborative inter-agency and inter-sectoral nature of
the resilience approach notably entailed additional coordination costs and additional investment of staff time,
principally related to increased inter-service cooperation (16). A few cases also suggest that some of the
most efficient and effective partners for building resilience to food crises didn’t necessarily have access to
EU instruments and funding (e.g. scepticism was expressed by EU staff on UN effectiveness and efficiency
and this contributes to reduced operational partnerships).
Regarding environment and climate change, the strategy of working through already well-established
international programmes increased efficiency and reduced the danger of proliferating different
approaches (17).
Overall, the EU support to infrastructure has been relatively efficient (35). In some countries however
(e.g. Togo), the implementation of infrastructure projects, while generally satisfactory, experienced
significant deficiencies and delays (38). In the transport sector, EU Delegations effectively managed EU
aid strategies and modalities that changed with each EDF programme but delayed programming resulted
in concurrent implementation of different modalities and strategies (19). EDF procedures gave rise to
complaints about lengthy bureaucratic procedures for programming and decision-making.
Impact and sustainability
Overall, the EU support has led to significant improvements in long-term food security in the Sahel, the
Horn, and in West Africa. This is due to the prioritisation of support for food security and agriculture in
development budgets, the introduction of new financing instruments and mechanisms that ensured timely,
flexible and predictable funding, and the development of tools to analyse food and nutrition insecurity (16,
43). Furthermore, food security, nutrition and agriculture have benefited from research and innovation
results derived from DEVCO-supported projects which show impact at the farmer level in Ethiopia, Kenya
and Tanzania (8). In other countries however (e.g. Burundi, Chad and Cameroon), EU support did not
resolve food security issues because of the geographical dispersion and limited duration of actions and an
uncoordinated project-based approach that was insufficient to reverse the worsening trend in food security
(34, 40, 42). Moreover, national authorities paid little attention to the issue of food security.
While in Mozambique, good aggregate agricultural growth brought by budget support has not been enough
for poverty reduction (26), geographic evaluations highlight positive impacts of EU support on the living

59

conditions and the well-being of populations, with an appreciable role in the reduction of poverty
(e.g. through infrastructure rehabilitation, access to drinking water etc.) (28, 39, 40).
EU support has also assisted the countries in preventing environmental degradation and slowing down
the loss of biodiversity (17, 43). In Eastern and Southern Africa, however, the impact on ecosystem and
biodiversity management and sustainable livelihoods was limited (35). In Chad, the effects and impacts of
EU support on the management of natural resources were fragmented and non-systemic (34). In terms of
green economy,51 positive results were seen in Kenya, South Africa, Ghana, Burkina Faso. South Africa
established a National Green Fund and included a green economy chapter in its Sustainable Development
Strategy following capacity-building activities (17).
Successful projects of the ACP-EU Energy Facility had a positive impact on the day-to-day life of
communities and had cascade effects, such as improving the availability of public services and creating
ancillary employment, which are essential for contributing to poverty reduction (18).
From a macroeconomic perspective, EU transport sector support policies, strategies and interventions
have contributed indirectly but significantly to poverty reduction in Africa (19). EU support to regional
corridors was well targeted as a contribution to economic development because it reduced the cost of being
landlocked for almost all of the 18 landlocked countries of the continent (19). In countries like the Democratic
Republic of Congo, for instance, the building of a national highway enabled the development of economic
activities, mainly in the agricultural sector (39).
Sustainability prospects were found to be mixed. Insufficient sustainability of transport infrastructure in Africa
impacts negatively on the contribution of the EU’s transport sector support to social and economic
development in Africa (19, 38, 39, 41, 42). The ACP-EU Energy Facility’s projects on the other hand had
good sustainability prospects (18).
Table 14. Enabling and inhibiting factors for the effectiveness, impact and sustainability of EU
support to rural and agricultural development

51

Enabling factors

Inhibiting factors

National context
●
Local context, in terms of poverty, stability,
government buy-in, institutional set-up and
capacity (17, 18, 19, 28, 40, 41)
●
Adequate sector governance frameworks
combined with procedural, managerial,
technical and monitoring competence and
a clear understanding of SBS principles
and procedures in countries; capacity and
ownership of the sector implementing
agency (19)

National context
 Organisational and functional limitations (e.g.
in the forest governance sector in Cameroon)
(40)
 Absence of adequate institutional framework
defining the roles and responsibilities of the
state, local authorities and partners to
implement policies in a concerted manner (38)
 Insufficient funding compared to needs (e.g. in
terms of road maintenance), lack of access to
affordable finance (17, 19, 39, 40, 42)

Political commitment & ownership
●
Prioritisation of support for food security
and agriculture in development budgets
(16), implementation of the necessary

Political commitment & ownership
 Limited political priority given to some issues
(or lack of understanding/political will from
partner countries) and as a result, weak

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Green Economy Initiative defines green economy as: the
reshaping and refocusing of policies, investments and spending towards a range of sectors, such as clean
technologies, renewable energies, water services, green transportation, waste management, green buildings and
sustainable agriculture and forests. In the evaluation concerned, resource efficiency is the key element of a green
economy (17).

60

measures envisaged (18)
Shared commitment between DEVCO and
ECHO to the goal of building resilience
which has been translated into the
allocation of resources at global, regional
and country levels (16)
Cross-ministerial and stakeholder
consultation to achieve broad ”buy-in” to
the goals and activities of the plan (17)
Embedding in national development plans
and processes, level of in-country demand
and presence of a favourable institutional
and political environment (17)

●

●
●

Programme-/intervention-related enablers
●
Timely, flexible and predictable funding
through adapted financing instruments;
combination of tools (e.g. policy dialogue,
bilateral programme support, thematic
funding) (16, 17)
●
Innovative approaches and tools
supported by local stakeholders (17)
●
Extensive international cross-sectoral
cooperation efforts within the EU and
globally (17)
●
High volume and geographical and
thematic scope of support (17, 19)
●
Strategic support provided for knowledge
generation, promotion of peer exchange
events (17)
●
Proactive cooperation with identified
‘reform champions’ facilitating reform (19)






national-level capacity for improved planning
and management (e.g. climate change,
biodiversity conservation) (17, 31, 48, 52)
Lack of partner governments’ and sector
institutions’ political commitment to implement
reform measures or multilateral environmental
agreements (17, 18, 19, 43)
Difficult adoption of improved legal frameworks
in some countries (48)
Lack of national ownership (25) and an
overdependence on external assistance

Programme-/intervention-related limitations
 Major implementation gaps and delays in
programmes (35)
 Insufficient appropriation or institutionalisation
of the results achieved (35, 39, 40)
 Lack of link with broader national or regional
strategic frameworks (52)
 Inadequate institutional support (42). Technical
assistance focused on technical rather than
management issues, resulting in limited
capacity enhancement (19). The relatively
short intervention period meant that many of
the benefiting structures have remained fragile
(40).
 Interventions were not sufficiently
comprehensive or coordinated (42)
 Project design weaknesses, technical
complexity of the project and shortage of local
capacity (18)
 Lack of sustainable financing; insufficient
attention paid to the financial means of
partners for continuation (17, 35)

Box 6. Key takeaways from the evaluations on rural and agricultural development
●

●

●

●

EU interventions in the energy, transport, resilience and environment sectors brought overall
tangible and positive results that improved the living conditions of populations, and contributed
to the reduction of poverty.
Long-term impacts were however mixed, as transformative change and reversing worsening
trends in some cases (e.g. in the environment and climate change sector) require more time and
more support.
Prioritisation of the issues of climate change, food security and road maintenance by national
authorities was crucial for achieving impact and sustainable results. Political commitment and
ownership were essential to ensure the necessary broad buy-in and implementation of the
necessary reform measures.
The extent to which EU interventions used innovative tools and financing instruments, took into
account local capacity issues and paid sufficient attention to institutional development was critical
for effectiveness, impact and sustainability.

61

d. Social development52
Relevance
By and large, EU support to social protection was relevant (47). Likewise, relevance was particularly high
for education, and significant for health (31, 48).
Table 15. Key factors in EU’s relevance in EU support to social development
Enabling factors

Inhibiting factors

●

●

●
●
●

Strong alignment with national policy
frameworks or government priorities and
sound analysis of the partner countries’
contexts (23, 37, 47) and needs that differed
between regions (47)
Education sector focus on poverty reduction
(31, 48)
Priority given to improved quantitative access
to basic health services in the poorest areas
(31, 48)
Support responding to the need to develop
social protection systems essentially from the
ground up (47)

Support to secondary education was not
sufficiently linked to technical and vocational
education and training, which itself was not
sufficiently linked to the labour market (31,
48)

Effectiveness
The EU has contributed significantly to increased access to basic social services for excluded and
marginalised populations (20, 23, 25, 27, 47). In particular, it contributed to better access to education and
health for women and girls. It has supported ACP governments in shaping and financing education and
health policies, amongst others by providing budget support, thus contributing to improved strategies and
increased social infrastructure and services focusing on the poor (31). EU support also contributed to the
development of broad social protection policies and to strengthening health and social protection systems,
e.g. through budget support (47).
In e.g. Zambia, Burkina Faso and Angola, the EU contributed to the expansion, reconstruction and equipping
of health facilities as well as better health policies, including better human resource mobilisation (31).
Though the EU contributed to improved access to education (expansion of educational infrastructure,
provision of equipment and teaching training (48), the additional resources were still insufficient, as
increased enrolment has stretched them even further (31).
Box 7. Examples of results achieved through EU support in the field of social development in SubSaharan Africa




52

In several African countries, examples are Mali, Mozambique, Tanzania, Sierra Leone and Zambia,
budget support contributed to strengthening the priority given to social spending (education, health,
water and sanitation). By supporting public expenditure, it contributed to a significant expansion in
the coverage of key social services (21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27). Budget support thus had a significant
effect on the improvement of social welfare – yet its effects on improving the quality of local service
delivery have remained limited (20, 25).
In DRC, EU support contributed significantly to development and implementation of a pertinent
national health policy and the provision of accessible and good quality healthcare and medicine (39).

The evidence for this section is based on the information provided in one evaluation report directly related to social
protection (47), two reviews of strategic evaluations (31, 48) as well as 17 geographic/budget support evaluations
that addressed these issues (7, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 36, 37, 39, 42, 52). Ten reports covered
periods from 2000-2013 while eight only covered the early years of the period 2013-2018 (until 2015).

62





Along the same lines, budget support in Burundi helped to strengthen the country’s health services
and permitted a policy of free treatment in some sectors of healthcare, as well as to a major increase
in access to the entire educational system (24).
In some cases, sector budget support to water and sanitation, health and education sectors has
contributed to the development of sector-wide approaches and the strengthening of strategies and
their implementation (20, 22, 28).
The contribution to the progress in access to drinking water and improved water service delivery has
been significant in several countries (23, 25, 28, 34, 37).

Efficiency
According to the Evaluation of EU support to social protection in external action (2007-2013), EU support to
social protection was overall reasonably efficient (47). The choice of channels and modalities has helped to
minimise transaction costs on the EU side, and implementation modalities (e.g. budget support) were used
in a reasonably effective and efficient way (47). When delays in implementation were experienced, these
were as likely to be attributable to low capacity and poor absorption capacity on the part of the government
as to the EU. Moreover, in some instances, delays occurred after abrupt changes in the partner country
context, including at political level. In most cases, delays and other implementation issues had only a limited
impact on the overall performance of the supported actions (47). Yet, the achievement of the desired impact
was often challenged as result of important inefficiencies in the partner countries’ institutional environment
(47).
Impact & sustainability
EU support has helped to enhance equitable access to basic social services (education, health, water and
sanitation) and to improve living standards in ACP countries, particularly for the poor. Yet, the quality of
institutional change and of education and health services, and the sustainability of the achievements
remained low (31, 25, 48). Sectoral evaluations (especially of the health sector) tend to be critical of the
capacity of basic services to meet the present and future needs in ACP countries (48). In Ethiopia and
Malawi, the benefits of EU-supported cash transfer programmes for enhancing income security and
ensuring access to basic human needs were found to be too low to actually lift households out of poverty
(47). The evaluation of EU support to social protection pointed out that it was difficult to provide a credible
estimation of the EU’s contribution, and data coverage on measuring impact was low (47). It also highlighted
that the regularity and predictability of benefits was more important for increasing populations' resilience
than the level of benefits (47).
The EU’s actions have contributed to improvements in social protection schemes but in most cases
sustainability (in the sense of full transition from donor to national finance) remained weak in spite of
significant national contributions (47). Sustainability of reforms was found to be very much a country-specific
issue – some of the EU-supported programmes in the field of social protection (e.g. Malawi) were either
totally or largely donor-dependent; some showed signs of moderate sustainability; some depended largely
on political will but could at best be called marginally sustainable, in part because of the project approach
used (47). In Chad, the DRC and Uganda, the sustainability of results, especially in the health sector, was
found to be weak (31, 34).

63

Table 16. Enabling and inhibiting factors for the effectiveness, impact and sustainability of EU
support to social development
Enabling factors

Inhibiting factors

National context
 Efforts made by the government (e.g. in
expanding health coverage, increasing the
availability of health personnel) (22)
 Strong sectoral focus of national policies,
including increased investment, reduction of
fees and related increase in social service
delivery (31)

National context
 High population growth, economic crises and
conflicts (22, 31, 48)
 Institutional and structural problems,
including: (i) weakness of rural infrastructure
and isolation of regions; (ii) weak
implementation capacity of some
stakeholders (e.g. local governments, NGOs);
inadequate human resources (22, 23, 28, 31,
42, 47) as well as insufficient funding,
including from the partner governments (23,
31, 39, 47)

Intervention-related enablers
 Catalytic role played by budget support,
sectoral expenditure (22, 24, 31)
 Financial support complemented by policy
advice and capacity development, thus
accompanying the efforts by country leadership
(31, 48)
 Fruitful working relations with the World Bank,
regional development banks, and UN agencies
(47)

Intervention-related limitations
 Small share of social protection in total aid
budget (47)
 Weak country-level policy dialogue (47)
 Minimal capacity-building and social
achievements were not sufficiently
consolidated through institutional
development (31, 48)
 Quality of the execution of sectoral actions
was problematic (22)

Box 8. Key takeaways from the evaluations on social development
●
●

●
●

2.1.2.

The EU contributed to improved equitable access to basic social services (education, health,
water and sanitation) and to improved living standards.
Budget support played an important catalytic role in enhancing access to basic social services,
as it allowed for increased sectoral expenditure, that was accompanied by policy dialogue and
other policy support.
Yet the quality of institutional change and of services (e.g. health, education), and the
sustainability of the achievements remained low.
Funding and sectoral investment, complemented by capacity-building and institutional
development were important factors that affected the impact or the sustainability of EU
interventions.
Gender as a cross-cutting theme

Gender equality has long featured in EU development policy. The first Gender Action Plan (2010-15) aimed
to put this commitment into practice. Yet, its success was limited, highlighting the gap between the EU’s
level of commitment to gender equality and its internal institutional capacities to implement it. The second
Gender Action Plan (GAP 2) for the period 2016-2020 aims at improving implementation at country and HQ
level. Its implementation is monitored and EU institutions and member states report on this on an annual
basis53.
53

The 2018 annual implementation report of GAP 2 found that the EU strategically used all the tools at its disposal at
the bilateral, regional and multilateral levels. It furthermore stated that the overall use of gender analysis to inform
project design and formulation and the use of sex-disaggregated data has improved. Political and policy dialogues
that considered gender equality were held in most countries and the engagement with national gender equality
mechanisms, women’s civil society organisations and academic institutions, informing policy, political dialogue and
action formulation, has also improved. However, it also pointed out that challenges for gender mainstreaming remain
in particularly difficult areas such as trade, infrastructure related investments, private sector investments, securityrelated initiatives and climate change-related actions.

64

Relevance
Although gender is an important cross-cutting issue in EU development policy, only one dedicated
evaluation on the EU Support to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment was conducted (7), partly
covering activities carried out during the period under review. Another 24 other evaluations provided only
patchy observations on gender in EU development cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa.
As emphasised in the Review of Strategic Evaluations managed by DEVCO to assess the European
Consensus on Development (48), there was a “mismatch between the EU’s strong policy commitments [on
gender equality] and the organisational capacity to deliver on them”. There was also a mismatch between
the inclusion of gender in the design of the project and its implementation. Although many programming
documents included gender issues in their project design (9, 12, 22, 23, 54), there was no evidence of
gender being systematically addressed in the implementation of the projects and activities (47). Gender
seemed to be included as a “formality” (9) (i.e. box-ticking) and there was strong evidence that gender
issues were not mainstreamed (23, 33, 48, 51, 53, 54). The Evaluation of EU Support to Gender Equality
and Women's Empowerment in Partner Countries stated that there was some indication that gender was
more frequently addressed than it used to be in the past (7). These indications of progress notwithstanding,
the EU failed to approach the topic in a sufficiently frequent, systematic and effective way and in the majority
of cases decisions on what to support were not based on a systematic situation analysis. The main obstacle
is the lack of expertise and capacity of EUD staff to “effectively and convincingly undertake policy and
political dialogue that integrates gender” (7).
A few reports provided positive assessments of the inclusion of gender in EU development cooperation with
Sub-Saharan Africa. Gender equality and the rights of women and children were for example stated to be a
clear priority of the European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR) (54). Gender was also
considered in the design of most DEVCO and ECHO projects (16) and gender mainstreaming was
particularly well considered in the West Africa Private Sector Competitiveness Support Programme (12).
Furthermore, gender was considered as a cross-cutting issue in most country strategy papers and national
resilience strategies (16) and in the programmes of the IcSP (33) but was not a central issue in regional
peace, security and stability programmes (35).
Some evaluations explicitly assessed the relevance of the EU’s interventions for gender equality as poor
(42, 48), thus underlining the ‘box-ticking’ tendency observed elsewhere (9). Others stressed that greater
importance should have been given to gender (10, 54).
Box 9. A positive example of gender mainstreaming in Zambia
Consistent attention was given to gender across the different programmes and activities, including
through: e.g. attention to women traders in the agriculture sector, a focus on gender in governance, and
the integration of gender issues in the policy dialogue (32). Factors contributing to gender mainstreaming
in Zambia were:
● Strong policy and good guidelines by the Commission
● A strong focus by selected EU member states on gender
● Gender champions at different levels in the EU Delegation and the Zambian Government
● The existence of an internal Quality Support Group in the EU Delegation which met regularly and
facilitated dialogue on gender across different sectors
● Technical support to gender through a dedicated focal person who also provided M&E support.

Effectiveness
While gender equality has often been declared as a priority in EU policies, it has only been sporadically
effectively implemented through specific measures (48). Although several programmes included gender in
their project design (9, 12, 22, 23, 33, 48, 54), the reports provided little information on the results achieved.

65

The difficulty in tracking the impact of support to gender equality stems from limited gender analysis and
the absence of relevant gender indicators that could be used in the Commission’s results-oriented
monitoring systems (10, 11, 12, 47, 48). Reports on the activities (for example trainings or workshops) did
either not provide gender-aggregated information or, when they did, mentioned that they targeted women,
but without presenting results (9, 10, 12). The EIB, for example, did not include gender issues in its
contractual reporting requirements, meaning that the EIB does not require borrowers to report on gender
(14). Due to the absence of gender-sensitive indicators, it is difficult to assess whether any progress has
been made.
The only evaluation that specifically addresses gender as a central objective (7) was rather critical. It
reported that the Gender Action Plan was “not fit for purpose” when it came to translating the EU’s global
commitment on gender equality and women’s empowerment into action because it lacked the organisational
capacity (insufficient human resources, technical guidelines and resources) to deliver expected outcomes.
Nonetheless, some evaluations indicated that some important results were achieved on gender equality,
particularly in the education, health and agriculture sectors. One report pointed out that better results were
achieved when gender issues were specifically addressed at the sectoral level in Angola, Botswana,
Ethiopia and Malawi (48). The following results can be highlighted from the limited information available:
Table 17. Examples of results achieved on gender equality at the sectoral level
Examples of results
Education

EU support has contributed to better access for women and girls to education and to
reducing the gender gap in education (7, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28). Best results were
achieved by the EU’s budget support contributions to the education sector. In Sierra
Leone, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Mozambique, the expansion of primary and
secondary school infrastructure increased school enrolment of girls (21, 27, 23, 25).
By contributing to the funding of school feeding, budget support in Burundi enhanced the
enrolment of girls in primary and secondary schools (24).

Social
Protection54

Social assistance support is gender sensitive in and of itself, because beneficiaries are
disproportionately women. Consequently, women have disproportionately benefited from
the EU’s focus on marginalised and vulnerable populations in its support (32, 47).
EU-backed cash transfer programmes for mothers and children helped to relieve gender
inequality in some countries (47). The provision of childcare facilities at public work sites
and the involvement of women in local works decisions have improved in Ethiopia. At the
same time, the Productive Safety Net Programme III in Ethiopia provided direct support
grants to pregnant and lactating mothers with insufficient means (47).

Health

EU support gave women and girls better access to health services and helped to reduce
the gender gap in health (7, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28) though achievement of gender equality
in the health sector was weak in Uganda (23).
Better medical assistance and facilitated access to healthcare were beneficial for
pregnant and lactating women (4, 45, 48) and EU efforts were successful in improving
maternal health (although gaps remain between rural and urban areas) (21, 31). On the
other hand, apart from maternal health programmes, there were no specific actions
(prevention, training) that would translate gender policies in the health area in Burkina
Faso (22).

54

Social protection in EU external support, is conventionally divided into two spheres, social insurance, usually based
contributions associated with formal employment, and social assistance, non-contributory schemes available to all
Social assistance ensures that every person will have a basic minimum income and will have access to basic health
care and basic social services (47).

66

Rural
Development

In the field of rural development and natural resources management, interventions were
gender-sensitive and contributed to positive developments (e.g. women’s representation
in local institutions and in sector management positions, their involvement in the control
of resources or their insertion in the sectors, targeting the improvement of women’s
livelihoods, awareness raising etc.) (22, 28, 34, 35). On a more critical note, gender
issues in the water and sanitation sector were approached in a superficial way in Burkina
Faso and Uganda (22, 23) while gender mainstreaming and policies in the water sector
in Uganda did not promote concrete improvements of the role and activities of women
(23).

However, it is important to bear in mind that these results were achieved by default rather than by
design. One report for example stated that “though no particular strategy has been applied, the percentage
of women managers in the attended enterprises (46%) is much higher than the national average (16%)” (9).
The evaluation on EU Support to Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment in Partner Countries (20102015) further noted that gender equality was not addressed systematically in EU instruments and
modalities to support gender equality and women’s empowerment outcomes (7). A reason put forward was
the lack of clear strategic and programming guidelines or technical support documentation to explain how
EU Delegations could leverage complementary use of instruments to best achieve such outcomes (7).
According to the same source, the improvements that were achieved were primarily attributable to
committed individuals, rather than to the EU itself (7). The observed increase in the number of gender
coordination groups at country level, with EUDs and MS taking on lead roles, is usually not due to the EU’s
efforts but rather the result of country context and proactive leadership of stakeholders at country level, who
sought to enhance coordination on activities through “coordinated programming, joint vulnerability
assessments, and common policy and political dialogue messages” (7).
Only three reports elaborated on how gender issues were discussed in this political dialogue (7, 11, 48).
The Review of Strategic Evaluations managed by DEVCO to assess the European Consensus on
Development for example stated that dialogue on gender with line ministries during the formulation of the
Country Strategy Paper did take place. Likewise, there were also consultations with national gender bodies,
including civil society organisations (48).
Efficiency
Since gender rarely constitutes a primary objective, there is little evidence on the efficiency of EU
development aid for achieving gender-related objectives (35).
Box 10. Key takeaways from the evaluations on gender equality
●
●

●

2.2.

While the EU carries out an annual reporting exercise on the implementation of the Gender Action
Plan, there are not many evaluations focusing on gender.
Important results were achieved with regards to gender equality in the education, social
protection, health and agriculture sectors. Although gender issues were included in many
programming documents, there was no evidence of gender being systematically mainstreamed
in the implementation of the projects and activities, resulting in the impression that results were
achieved by default rather than intentionally.
Information on achieved results was limited due to absence of relevant gender indicators that
could be used in the Commission’s results-oriented monitoring systems.

Working methods

Relevant working methods of EU development cooperation that are analysed below include: donor
coordination, budget support, and political dialogue. These working methods are assessed in numerous
evaluation reports, either as standalone issues or as part of the evaluation criteria.

67

2.2.1.

Donor cooperation

With respect to donor cooperation, the report looks into the added value and complementarity of EU
interventions vis-à-vis those of other actors, including the EU member states.
a. Added value of EU interventions
The notion of EU or community added value refers to the extent to which the EU’s development intervention
in a partner country adds benefits to what would have resulted from member states' interventions only. EU
added value is a common evaluation criterion of EU development aid and has been addressed in most of
the evaluation reports under review.
The Review of strategic evaluations to assess the European Consensus on Development (48), as well as
the mid-term review of the EU’s external financing instruments (33) suggest that EU added value stems
from the following key features of the EU and of its development policy:
1.
The EU's nature as a supranational entity.
2.
The EU’s soft political profile and relative neutrality which does not reflect national interests,
and the political influence and leverage derived from it. The political mandate conferred by the
Treaty of Lisbon also distinguishes it from, and has been a clear comparative advantage over,
the international financial institutions.
3.
The EU’s significant volume of funds and the critical mass of aid it can provide (34, 38). In turn,
this financial weight gives the EU significant policy influence and enables it to take on a
leadership role.
4.
The EU’s global presence and the geographical spread of its external financing instruments,
including the presence in fragile contexts where there are fewer development partners.
5.
The scope and complementarity of the EU’s external financing instruments and various aid
modalities (such as budget support, grants, indirect management, blending facilities and rapid
decision-making for crisis response);
6.
The ability of the EU to lead on joint actions (i.e. joint programming and joint implementation),
especially with member states, as well as its potential for bringing together and coordinating
some of the strongest international donors
A number of geographical reports support the above elements of EU added value. For instance, the
evaluation on Togo (38) confirms that the EU has both political and financial leverage that others do not
have. This has enabled the EU to conduct a political dialogue and position itself in discussions at the national
level, and to support national reconciliation politically and financially, including support to national elections.
In Côte d’Ivoire, the EU was able to draw on its long experience and unique presence during the first years
of the politico-military conflict to strengthen its coordination role and political weight in many sectors.
The EU added value is also linked to the variety of its external financing instruments. In particular, the
fact that these can be used in various contexts and at various levels (i.e. national, regional, continental), the
predictability of funds, the emphasis placed on regional cooperation (33, 52, 53, 54). Each instrument has
its specificity in terms of scope, objectives and intervention modalities (see 3.2. below).
Evaluation reports suggest that EU added value has been particularly strong in areas where the Commission
has acquired specific capacity and expertise, such as budget support55, that distinguishes it from other
donors. While one report stated that budget support lacked added value in Sub-Saharan Africa (29), most
evaluations stressed the strong comparative advantage of budget support compared to alternative delivery
55

Through its budget support and participation in public expenditure and financial accountability mechanisms, the EU
has developed a specific capacity to support public finance management (PFM) reforms and evaluate public
expenditure.

68

modalities and pointed out that the results achieved through budget support could not have been achieved
with the same degree of efficiency and effectiveness with other instruments.
Box 11. Examples of EU added value through budget support
 The evaluation of budget support to South Africa for example states that sector budget support has
allowed a comprehensive experimentation of important policies and approaches that otherwise
would have suffered delays, fragmentation and resistances (28). The evaluation further states that
the specific focus of sector budget support on themes and policy challenges allowed it to enhance
its added value, despite its relatively small financial weight (28) and specifies that the strong
comparative advantage of sector budget support toward alternative delivery modalities are due to
the ownership and reinforcing government internal processes, the flexibility and diversification in the
use of resources and the appropriateness to address complex policy experimentation in institutional
sensitive environments (28).

The evaluation of budget support in Mozambique on the other hand stresses the added value of
general budget support, stating that general budget support processes can reinforce and add value
to sectoral policy initiatives in agriculture, education and health (26). In Cameroon, the EU has
effectively supported such reforms, and its added value is characterised by a historic and continuous
commitment, high volumes of engagement, and a leadership role (40).

Geographical evaluation reports also point to some shortcomings that have hampered EU added value.
These relate in particular to a widespread portfolio of activities and the lack of coherence within and
among sectors covered by EU programmes. The EU is indeed active in a large number of sectors and at
different levels (regional, national), with a large number of different funding instruments. In Kenya (41), the
evaluation pointed to the fact that activities were poorly coordinated, while in West Africa (43), the report
noted low levels of complementarity, coherence and synergies between different cooperation sectors “due
to the fragmented support and insufficient coordination and dialogue within the EU”.
Table 18. EU added value in selected thematic priority areas
Preventing conflict
Private sector
and instability
development
Funding
characteristics

Volume of EU-funding
for ASPA through the
African Peace Facility
(2)

EU’s financial
weight (10, 11, 15,
31, 35, 48)

No other donor willing
and able to replace
the EU as key APSA
donor (2)

According to some
evaluations the
operations would
not have taken
place without the
EU funding (14,
15, 19)

Reliability,
predictability and
long-term character of
EU-funding and longterm in-country
presence (1, 3, 36).
As a result, the EU
has a special relation

The provision of
long-term financing
in local currency
(11, 13, 14, 31)

69

Rural and
agricultural
development
Relative size of
EU-support gave
it significant
policy influence
and allowed it to
take on a
leadership role in
support of the
resilience agenda
(16, 19)

Social
development
Financial weight,
especially in
budget support
and participation
in global funds
(48)

Regularity and
predictability of
the benefits of the
EU-supported
cash transfer
programmes (47).
Continued, longterm policy

with regional
organisations that see
the EU as one of their
most strategic and
reliable partners (31,
48)
Neutrality

EU’s more neutral
political profile, not
linked to specific
national interests and
its credibility in
promoting democracy
and peace (31, 48)

dialogue at
country level
brought
substantial value
in social
protection (47)
EU’s neutrality and
the fact that it is
not tied to specific
national economic
or political interests
of bilateral donors
(11, 13, 14, 31)

Political neutrality
and in-country
presence (19)

EU’s multilateral
nature and the
European values it
promotes which
enhance its
acceptability to
beneficiary
governments, key
stakeholders and
implementing
organisations (33, 55)
Characteristics
of support and
instruments

Track record

Provision of capacity
building support,
amongst others to the
AU Commission and
the Regional
Economic
Commissions (1)

Clear strategy
and involvement
in policy and
strategy
development (41,
19)

EU’s ability to provide
support where others
are unable to deliver
(1)

Flexibility in
seeking
collaboration with
other donors (19)

With its instruments
the EU can
implement a
comprehensive
approach (defence,
development and
diplomacy), which
gives it an advantage
over many other
actors (1)
The link the EU
provides between
partner countries and
much of the
resources of the
combined member
states, allowing
beneficiaries to
access a vast pool of
experience, ‘know
how’ and information
(55)

Variety of support
provided,
ensuring higher
effectiveness (41)

EU’s own traderelated
achievements (10)
and its capacity to
transfer EU good
practices and
innovative
approaches (11,
15, 31, 48)

70

Sector expertise
and knowledge
(19, 41)

EU seen as
neutral partner
facilitating
dialogue among
national
institutions
involved in social
protection reform
(47)
EU’s unique
social model and
rights-based
approach and its
commitment to
sustainable social
safety nets and
social inclusion
(47)

Multifaceted
experience in
service delivery
and employment
strategies (48)

b. Complementarity of EU interventions
Coherence and complementarity with EU member states
The evaluation on joint programming (6) did not find evidence that, by itself, the joint programming (JP)
process had reduced aid fragmentation in the countries where it took place. JP so far led to little or no
changes of aid fragmentation indicators and has generally remained quite poorly documented (aid
fragmentation was not always a major objective and measuring success of JP in reducing aid fragmentation
is difficult to assess at this point). The relevance of JP as a mechanism for addressing aid effectiveness
challenges was neither well documented nor really discussed; the focus is usually on how to make the JP
work better, not necessarily to address other dimensions of aid and development effectiveness.
Yet, joint programming triggered improved harmonisation, coordination and aid complementarity and
favoured convergence among the EU and MS regarding strategies and policies. This was stronger at sector
than at national level because sector issues were often more concrete and therefore easier to understand
and agree upon. Moreover, joint programming was often limited to those sectors where several EU and
member states were active and had common interests. Joint programming helped to increase harmonisation
of EU and member states’ aid, working towards common objectives and adopting common strategic
approaches. This was in particular due to the closer interaction and better understanding of each other’s
development cooperation, and due to an investment in developing a common vision. These findings were
particularly strong in Senegal. JP has also led to an improved division of labour and increased the appetite
for undertaking joint implementation, though a question remains whether it is actually put into practice.
At the same time, the report identifies a number of obstacles that hamper the potential of JP processes:

Increasing bilateralisation of aid, presented as perhaps the single largest challenge for JP
coherence. Increasingly, individual EU MS have to programme their resources according to
their own political priorities and strategic interests such as long-standing trade and investment
relations, political alliances, security collaboration. This makes it more complicated to engage
them in JP efforts across countries.

Emergence of new donor agendas, such as migration or security, which require long-term
strategic thinking but are seen differently in different member states;

EU central initiatives such as the new Partnership Framework on Migration with five countries
where all EU resources should have migration as core concern, also requiring that the JP
process accommodates this overriding objective. In Ethiopia, with the migration compact
designed by the EU in 2016, the JP suddenly became more challenging, as focus shifted to an
overarching concern defined more at HQ level than at country level.

Joint programming is a very time-consuming process which leads to donor fatigue, while
changes in personnel on the ground further complicate the smooth running of JP processes.
The evaluations on budget support showed considerable challenges within the donor community to use the
modality effectively to enhance complementarity. Moreover, good cooperation among EU and other donors
becomes more challenging in the event of worsening macro-economic conditions (20). In such cases, the
existence of a common framework for engagement did not always prevent donors from drawing different
conclusions and disbursement decisions on the same evidence base (23), resulting in practices that do not
differ from where such a framework was missing (21).
Delegated cooperation is primarily an operational tool that can help achieve stronger complementarity and
coherence between EU and MS cooperation through better division of labour and greater use of the
comparative advantage of individual donors. Yet, the evaluation of delegated cooperation (44) notes that its
impact on aid efficiency and effectiveness has been limited. Moreover, delegated cooperation was tailored
and operationalised in such a way that only parts of the aid effectiveness agenda were supported.

71

Box 12. Key findings of the evaluation of delegated cooperation
The evaluation of the EU aid delivery mechanism of delegated cooperation (44) indicates that delegated
cooperation (DC) has been particularly used to strengthen relations between EU institutions and some
member states’ implementing agencies. DC has had positive effects on complementarity and added value
when good use was made of the comparative advantages. By promoting co-financing arrangements, the
design of larger programmes and single management systems, DC helped to reduce transaction costs
and realise efficiency gains. Yet, the evaluation report doesn’t determine whether these savings during
the implementation phase offset the additional costs made during the preparation of the DC agreements.
The evaluation report furthermore identifies the following issues: (i) the Commission has not developed a
comprehensive DC policy framework and DC was not high on the agenda in the discussions with the EU
MS; (ii) the Commission paid insufficient attention to political economy considerations related to the
interests of the various stakeholders in the guidance and implementation of delegated cooperation; (iii)
though DC should not be a one-way street, there is limited reciprocity between the EU and the member
states; (iv) linkages between DC and new instruments and initiatives and between the EU internal
Guidance Notes on DC and the aid effectiveness principles were insufficiently articulated; (v) the relatively
low value of delegated cooperation funding compared to the total EU and member states’ ODA
commitments (less than 1%); and (vi) there is no evidence that DC stimulated ownership and leadership
of partner countries and it therefore did not produce positive effects in this respect. Despite the general
commitment of member states to coordinate their aid interventions and the initiatives launched for that
purpose, reality on the ground is often more complex. Progress in coordination is hampered by strategic
interests, political factors and institutional and procedural features of European donors.

Coherence and complementarity with partner countries
Joint programming has remained very much an EU and member states exercise, thus limiting the potential
ownership of the JP process by the partner country. The Strategic Evaluation of EU Joint Programming
Process of Development Cooperation (2011-2015) suggests that the role of partner countries varied from
non-involvement to a more proactive role in rare cases (6). Partner countries have generally not taken the
lead to bring forward their development priorities and did not make substantial contributions. Sometimes
this was because the JP was not sufficiently advanced (e.g. in Zambia and Mozambique), other times it was
due to a deliberate step back from the partner country: in Ethiopia, the government applied a “hands-off
policy”, while in Kenya the government made a formal commitment to JP but continued discussions with
individual EU MS. In Senegal, the involvement was limited in the first phase, but stronger afterwards (6).
There are also rather exceptional cases of a strong role played by the government, such as in Rwanda
where the government was not directly involved in the JP process as such, but defined key parameters for
the JP process and for its overall aid coordination architecture in its national development and poverty
reduction strategy (6).
The evaluations on the geographic EFIs (DCI, ENI and 11th EDF) suggest that the predominantly EU HQdriven agendas in the programming of EU aid have played against country ownership and coherence
between partner country and EU priorities (32). This was despite the extensive consultation of stakeholders
during programming and project implementation, and, in particular in the EDF, the co-signature of the multiannual programming documents and annual actions.
Joint programming has so far had little effect on the synchronisation of the EU and MS programming
cycles with each other and with the programme cycle of the partner country. The process of adoption of
Joint Strategies to replace bilateral programming documents remains so far limited. In Kenya and Rwanda,
there was partial synchronisation (when EUD or some MS programming cycles were the same as those of
the national strategy). In Mozambique and Zambia, reluctance to synchronise was linked to the fact that
annual rather than multi-year programming cycles were centrally determined at headquarters, and that MS
did not want to lose flexibility in deciding aid allocations, in particular in view of rapidly changing political

72

priorities. In Mali on the other hand, Germany synchronised and adopted the EU Joint Programming
Strategy as the main overarching programming document for its cooperation.
Table 19. Evidence on complementarity from thematic evaluations
Preventing conflict
Private sector
Rural and
and instability
development
agricultural
development
Enabling factors
EU member
The African Peace
EU PSD operations The EU advocated
states and
Facility and IcSP
were formulated
for a division of
other
complemented
often with the
labour amongst
donors
actions of other
support of other
transport sector
donors, particularly
development
donors (especially
the EU MS, in terms
partners.
the EU MS) and a
of financial inputs,
mapping of activities
speed of delivery,
In the area of trade of other sector
stakeholders’
related assistance,
donors was very
engagement,
coordination
common (19).
expertise, impacts on mechanisms
stability and peace,
between the EU
As regards climate
and political
and EU MS were
change,
influence (1, 54).
strengthened, e.g.
complementarity was
Under the APF, there through
sought for instance
were various formal
coordination groups through the actions
and informal
that facilitated
of the Thematic
mechanisms to
information sharing Programme for
exchange at different and helped to
Environment and
political and technical develop a common Sustainable
levels (1).
awareness of the
Management of
partner’s needs.
Natural Resources
In interventions in
including Energy
ACP countries (e.g.
(ENRTP) which was
Mauritania) for
not only funded by
integrated border
the EU, but also
management and the
received significant
fight against
financing from other
organised crime, joint
donors. This reduced
financing or a clear
transaction costs and
task division with EU
enhanced the
MS played a
delivery and capacity
prominent role. That
of the funded
certain MS were
programmes (17).
directly concerned by
migration issues at
their borders could
explain this state of
affairs (55).
EUCAP Sahel
missions provided
information and
advice in support of
the wider activities of
the EU and the EU
MS. They also set up
good mechanisms
for coordination and
cooperation with

73

Social development

Attention was paid to
alignment and donor
coordination,
particularly when
preparing and
implementing sectorwide support
programmes (47).
Part of the EU
support was
furthermore
channeled through
international
organisations such
as UNICEF, WHO,
the World Bank and
regional
development banks
(47).
Complementarity
was sought with
donors with
experience that the
EU did not have, i.e.
with the World Bank
on social insurance
and social safety
nets for poor and
with EU MS with
broad experience in
rights-based social
protection (e.g. the
Nordic countries)
(47).

Preventing conflict
and instability

Funding
modalities

other donors and
stakeholders.56
That the EC
channeled half of its
financial support to
conflict prevention
and peacebuilding
through international
organisations was
conducive to a
coordinated
approach (31).

Partner
country
level

EU member
states and
other
donors

56

57

Private sector
development

EU PSD operations
were aligned to
national plans and
poverty strategies,
as well as more
specifically to
national PSD or
sectoral strategies.
Still, in some cases
the Commission
insisted on PSD
even though the
country’s national
development
strategy did not
prioritise it (11).
Differences in
priorities and
diverging positions
among EU MS and
the limited leverage
of the Commission –
apart from its
financial weight – to
ensure a coordinated
approach with the
EU MS (48). Little
evidence of joint
programming of
international support
to APSA, though

Rural and
agricultural
development

Social development

The EU relied on
international projects
and programmes to
avoid the danger of
proliferation of
support efforts that
were not coordinated
(17, 31).

Coordination
between EU and EU
MS was facilitated by
the funding
modalities put in
place (general
budget support,
sector budget
support and
participation to global
funds in health) as
well as successful
delegated
cooperation to EU
MS (31). 57

The EU approach to
building resilience to
food crises was
broadly coordinated
with both
development
partners and
governmental
authorities at the
strategic level (16).

Inhibiting factors
The capacity of the
Regarding the EU
EU to build
approach to building
synergies with
resilience to food
other institutions
crises, operational
and ensure
coordination on
coordination among programming differed
EU players did not
considerably at
really come out
country level.
from the evaluation Moreover, there was
reports (11).
limited evidence of
alignment around a
The design of PSD
common resilience
was not really
agenda at the level
geared toward
of the EU and
possible synergies

Despite scattered
examples of
cooperation, at field
level, the EU’s
relations with ILO
country offices and
ILO strategies was
found to be weak
(47).

E.g. in Mali, this included formal donor mapping, which gave full details of proposed (but not yet financed), planned,
ongoing and completed projects in the security sector in Mali (3).
In Lesotho, the EU benefited from agreements with other donors (GiZ, UN, World Bank) for the implementation of
its financial and technical cooperation in the water sector and in the field of social protection (37). In Ethiopia, the
EU supported donor harmonisation and the establishment of several coordination mechanisms as well as effective
partnerships with a well-articulated system of joint donor budget support, coordination and dialogue (47). In Malawi,
the EU decided to channel most of its support through a delegation agreement with Germany (KfW) and used
lessons learnt from a large UK-funded intervention in the area of resilience to improve the design of its support (47).

74

Preventing conflict
and instability

Private sector
development

there were some
basket-funding
arrangements to
which international
partners contributed
(1).
The ‘open door
policy’ in support of
the APSA resulted in
too many donors
around the table,
high coordination
costs and an
overburdened AUC
administration.

with other donors or
other EU
instruments and
operations. The EU
did not fully
capitalize on the
knowledge-sharing
potential that
existed within the
different EU
Delegations and
the different DGs
involved in the
construction and
enlargement of the
internal market.

Despite good
examples of
coordinated
approaches in (post-)
conflict situations
(e.g. Ivory Coast,
Sierra Leone,
Rwanda), EU
institutions and the
EU MS did not have
a shared strategy
with clear objectives,
leadership and joint
instruments to
ensure a whole-ofEU approach (48).

Potential synergies
between the EU
and member states’
TRA interventions
were often
insufficiently
explored, and
where they did
occur – were, in
most cases, only
limited (10).

Despite the broadly
accepted division of
labour between the
partners supporting
the APSA,
coordination was
sub-optimal and
entailed the risk of
duplication.
In the case of the
APF, it was noted
that the EUD-AU
shared a lot of
information to
encourage
coordination, but the
reciprocity of other
donors was less than
expected (1). The
lack of information on
what the donor
community was
doing, where and at
what scale of funding
was an obstacle to

75

Rural and
agricultural
development
member states in
focal countries (16).
The EU’s capacity to
better integrate the
action of international
actors needed to be
strengthened, and
the large number of
climate funding
mechanisms posed a
challenge to
coordination, and
could reduce overall
effectiveness (17, 31,
50).
Complementarity
was not always
ensured in a
strategic and
systematic manner,
and opportunities for
synergies have not
always been fully
capitalised on (17).
In the transport
sector, the division of
labour led to
geographic isolation
of donor efforts with
little attempt to
generate
complementarity
and/or additionality
from the products of
such individual
efforts (19).

Social development

Preventing conflict
and instability

Private sector
development

Rural and
agricultural
development

Social development

coordination and
complementarity (1,
5).

Partner
country

There is little
evidence that the
Bêkou trust fund
facilitated donor
coordination efforts.
There were no
defined procedures
to ensure systematic
coordination of trust
fund projects with
those of other donors
working in the same
field (4).
Strong
AU/REC/national
government
coordination (which
would give each
partner its place and
could ensure that
there are no overlaps
in
support)
was
absent (1, 34).
The Bêkou trust fund
for the Central African
Republic did act in
coordination with the
CAR authorities (4).

Box 13. Key takeaways from the evaluations on added value and complementarity
●

●
●

●

The EU’s added value arose mostly from its nature as a supranational entity, its relative neutrality,
its financial weight, the predictability of its support, its global presence, and the scope of its
instruments. Combined, the characteristics gave the EU significant policy influence and allowed
it in many cases to take a leadership role. This added value was in some cases hampered by a
widespread portfolio of activities and the lack of coherence within and among sectors covered by
EU programmes.
EU added value has been particularly strong in areas where the Commission has acquired
specific capacity and expertise, such as budget support, that distinguishes it from other donors.
Joint programming did not, by itself, reduce aid fragmentation in the countries where it took place.
Yet, it triggered improved harmonisation, coordination and aid complementarity and favoured
convergence among the EU and MS regarding strategies and policies, especially at sector level.
Obstacles which hamper the potential of JP include increasing bilateralisation of aid, particular
MS strategic interests, emergence of new donor agendas, such as migration or security, and the
fact that joint programming is a very time-consuming process. Joint programming has also
remained very much an EU and member states exercise, thus limiting the potential ownership of
the process by the partner country.
The impact of delegated cooperation on aid efficiency and effectiveness has also been limited.
While it had positive effects on complementarity, added value and in reducing transaction costs,

76

there were insufficient linkages between DC and new instruments, and the lack of a
comprehensive DC policy framework has limited its strategic relevance. Finally, insufficient
attention was paid to political economy considerations, such as strategic interests, political factors
and institutional and procedural features of European donors.
2.2.2.

Budget support

As a brief introduction to this section, it is important to point out that the evaluations looked into general and
sector budget support, which entail differences in policy emphasis and dialogue approaches, yet both
revolve around the same direct budgetary transfers to government. As the findings and conclusions of the
evaluations tend to ‘lump’ findings on sector and general budget support, a few exceptions notwithstanding,
the same applies to the analysis of the evaluations presented here. Where possible, the analysis highlights
specific findings in relation to general and sector budget support in Sub-Saharan Africa58.
Relevance
A number of joint evaluations on budget support in Sub-Saharan Africa (20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28) confirmed
the relevance of this cooperation modality. Yet, several noted that relevance was context-dependent and
pointed to the lack of context-sensitive programming (23, 24, 29, 37, 50) of budget support which could
be negatively affected by political changes in the respective country (22, 23, 29). 59 Some evaluations (26,
21) point out that the relevance of budget support decreases over time, usually due to a changing national
political context.60 The budget support evaluations show that relevance is ensured by a mix of characteristics
(24, 25, 38):

The alignment of budget support with individual country contexts, needs and priorities;

The flexible design of budget support;

The predictability and reliability of the (annual) funding, particularly in comparison with other
aid modalities;

The fact that budget support can be disbursed relatively fast;

Government’s ownership of budget support.
Effectiveness
Across the countries examined, increased availability of funding for priority sectors has been the most
important contribution of the EU’s budget support. This allowed for greater spending and had a growth
boosting effect in the recipient countries and the support to reforms through policy dialogue and technical
assistance/ capacity development (20, 21, 22, 25, 26). Budget support stabilised public expenditure,
allowed for better sectoral policy dialogue (16) and increased aid effectiveness (10).
While budget support was utilised in slightly different ways in each case – a product of the alignment of
budget support with country contexts and its flexible design – in each country it helped to fund growth in
targeted sectors. In Sierra Leone and Burundi, budget support fostered the growth process which helped to
stabilise the political situation and the consolidation of society after a prolonged period of crisis and violence
(21, 24). In contrast, the initially promising results of budget support implementation in Burkina Faso were
hampered by poor national governance and eventually led to a reduction of funds from 2011 onwards (22).

58

59

60

The evidence for this section is taken from nine reports which covered the period 2000 to 2013 (10, 17, 23, 26, 27,
28, 27, 38, 47) and eight reports (16, 20, 21, 22, 25, 29, 32, 53) which covered the period 2013-2018 (until mid2017).
For instance, budget support to Uganda was crucial for protecting pro-poor allocations but its relevance was
drastically decreased when the Ugandan government shifted its focus towards the productive sector and defence
and reduced funding for the National Poverty Action Fund (23).
In Sierra Leone, for example, the reduced volume of development aid due to the financial crisis had a negative
impact on the ability of budget support to respond to the structural challenges in the country.

77

The benefiting sectors varied from country to country but the sectors benefiting most were: education (22,
24, 25), good governance (23, 26, 27,28), health (20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26), public finance management (22,
23, 24, 25), justice and legislative sectors (25, 28)61, and rural development (22, 23, 28).
The following paragraphs provide more information on the benefits of budget support at sector level.
Education
Budget support has supported government education policies in Mozambique, Uganda, Burkina Faso,
Sierra Leone, Zambia and Tanzania. It has contributed to the expansion of the education sector, including
higher enrolment rates of school-age children (21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27). However, in all countries, increased
enrolment in education has been accompanied by concerns over education quality and efficiency following
this expansion. In Mozambique, like in Zambia (25), budget support was crucial for the expansion of the
education sector across all provinces. As a result, 40% more children enrolled in primary school between
2004 and 2012 while secondary school enrolment saw a 65% increase in the same period. The largest
gains of primary enrolment were observed for children from poorer backgrounds. However, budget support
had limited effects in enhancing quality in education and learning achievements and failed to address girls’
drop-out rates and their limited attainment (26). Also, the expansion of the education sector in Tanzania
could not have been financed in the absence of general, and to a lesser extent sector, budget support. As
a consequence, access to primary and, more especially secondary education has dramatically increased
(27). In Burundi, general budget support allowed the government to implement its sectoral policy (24), pay
teacher salaries and mobilise funds for the construction of school infrastructure.
Good governance
Steady progress was achieved in governance, public financial management reforms, the fight against
corruption, and transparency and accountability in Mozambique, Uganda, South Africa, Tanzania and
Zambia (23, 25, 26, 27, 28). In Tanzania, development partners increasingly used the budget support
dialogue to discuss corruption concerns with the government. This created an avenue for communication
through which the government now provides information on progress in anti-corruption efforts, which had
not been provided in the past (27). In Uganda, budget support contributed to strengthening key governance
and accountability institutions (23). Improvements to the legislative and institutional framework for the
control of corruption were identified in Mozambique and Tanzania (25).
Health
The results of budget support in the health sector are mixed ranging from very positive to limited results (20,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26). In Burundi, efforts made in the health sector thanks to budget support resulted in a major
increase in access to healthcare infrastructure (24) while access of the poor to primary health facilities
improved in South Africa (25). In Uganda, important initiatives, such as the abolition of user fees and health
improvements, were implemented. However, there is a strong urban-rural gap in the distribution of these
improvements (23). In Ghana, the health sector has seen general improvement coupled with the expansion
in health service coverage, the increase in the use of health services and a decrease in inequalities achieved
through a combination of policy dialogue and accompanying measures. However, initial progress had stalled
since 2012 with several public finance management bottlenecks restricting a consistent framework for
strengthening the healthcare system. The EU missed opportunities to use budget support to address the
sector’s increasing institutional fragmentation and deteriorating financial situation (20). In Mozambique, the
impact of budget support was limited due to the government’s decision to decrease the share of government
funding (and of budget support) for the health sector (26).

61

In South Africa, various sector budget support programmes facilitated the piloting of policy innovations in the justice
sector and provincial legislative assemblies. In several cases, these innovations have been scaled up, mainstreamed
into policy and incorporated into national programmes (25). One of such innovations was the launch of a new
mechanism with the Foundation for Human Rights that aimed at deepening and broadening engagement with civil
society actors (28).

78

Public Finance Management
Some positive results were achieved in the partner countries’ Public Finance Management (22, 23, 24, 25).
In Uganda, budget support served as a catalyst for strengthening government systems and the additional
tools offered by budget support (technical assistance, capacity building etc.) promoted development and
implementation of reforms (23). Improvements in the quality of public finance management were also
recorded in Mali, Zambia, Mozambique and Tanzania (25).
Rural development
In Uganda, Burkina Faso and South Africa, budget support had significant impacts in the reform of the water
and sanitation sector (22, 23, 28). Through funds, policy dialogue, and capacity building, sector budget
support in Uganda supported the government’s move to decentralise the implementation of the water and
sanitation sector. This has improved access and functionality of rural and small towns’ water supply and as
well as the equity of this service (23). While in South Africa, budget support improved the access to water
and sanitation facilities in the poorest areas (28), in Burkina Faso, while it contributed to improved access
to water extraction points, it resulted in only minor improvements in access to water in rural areas (22). In
Ghana, on the other hand, budget support contributed to strengthening the sector’s policy and legal
framework and to the expansion of public actions in various areas such as the management of protected
areas and enforcement actions in forestry and mining sub-sectors (20).
The question whether better results could have been achieved through a different balance between general
and sector budget support is posed in the evaluations of budget support in Uganda (23) and Sierra Leone
(21). The report on Uganda states that general budget support in some cases diverted attention from sector
specific issues with dialogue focusing on conflicting views and coordination and leaving little room for joint
problem solving or targeted assistance to overcome specific constraints. Findings from the education sector
for example point to the deterioration of intensity and quality of dialogue and more generally of the
weakening of aid coordination frameworks as a result of the move from sector to general budget support.
However, the mechanisms established in the water sector (joint programme, strong dialogue) were such
that even in the absence of general budget support overall policy dialogue would remain strong (23). The
report on Sierra Leone suggests that budget support arrangements in the health sector may have had
greater influence on sector outcomes than general budget support arrangements due to the
effectiveness of the policy dialogue and technical assistance. At the same time, the report points out that
the fundamental problem in Sierra Leone was not an inappropriate choice of aid modality (i.e. general budget
support rather than sector budget support) but a “strategy gap”, regarding the policies, implementation
mechanisms and financing frameworks for the scaling up of service delivery (21).
Efficiency
Efficiency of budget support operations was closely linked to the extent to which it facilitated
complementarity and donor cooperation. Some reports provide specific examples of aspects that could have
increased efficiency:

Learning more from the EU’s experience gained by EU member states or other EU
programmes implemented in different regions of the world would have improved efficiency in
South Africa (28)

Improving the conditions for mobilising resources in Burundi (24)

Different design and management approach in Tanzania (27)

More efficient public administration in Lesotho (37)

Changes to existing budget support formats which include clear and logical linkages between
actions and prior defined results in Malawi and Rwanda (50)

Strengthening donor-government policy dialogue in an open and honest manner to
establish relationships of mutual trust (25).

Promotion of environment and climate change indicators in budget support operations (17).

79

Impact and sustainability
Although most evaluations present evidence of budget support contributing to poverty reduction and better
social welfare, picture of sustainability and impact is mixed. In lower- and middle-income countries, budget
support allowed governments to improve public finance management, to deliver services and regulate
economic activity, for the benefit of their citizens (25). In Burkina Faso and Togo, budget support contributed
to the development and stabilisation of the macroeconomic framework and economic growth (22, 25,
38). In Ghana on the other hand, the progress made was seen as the legacy of previous achievements
rather than uniquely attributable to the budget support provided (20). Some evaluations state that while
budget support often succeeded in strengthening the development of sector-wide approaches, its
influence on the general issues of public expenditure management was limited (22, 24). In Tanzania, impact
would have been greater had the budget support engagement been accompanied with a technical policy
dialogue in the agriculture sector (27), as shown in the case of South Africa where such a dialogue
encouraged cooperation across departments and allowed the government to access new sources of
expertise (28).
The impact of budget support on domestic revenue mobilisation in SSA remains unclear as the indicators
were insufficient to form the basis for an assessment. A report of the European Court of Auditors (29)
observed that there is no clear indication on the extent to which the Commission's budget support approach
had any significant impact on the level of domestic revenue collection in Sub-Saharan Africa. The report
noted an ineffective implementation of domestic revenue mobilisation specific conditions and assessment
requirements in partner countries (29).
The various evaluation reports on budget support do not provide substantial information on sustainability
and do not address environmental sustainability. When they do, they are concerned with the sustainability
of impact, especially because of the countries’ poor records in revenue mobilisation (with the exception of
South Africa). Sustainability of results are linked to the following elements: policy continuity or uncertainty,
financial (funding), economic (country or sector level), political, and social factors as well as government
ownership, commitment, and governance (23, 53), the poor quality of public procurement processes,
significant problems in budget credibility and the volatility of the prices of raw materials for export (21).
Whereas there are grounds for confidence that the high growth levels in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia
can be sustained (25), the initially promising developments in Burundi did not lead to a sustainable impact
due to the absence of a coherent long-term strategy and appropriate funding (24). Similarly, in Uganda, the
probability that outcomes achieved in the health, education and water sectors are sustainable is considered
to be limited due to low revenue mobilisation and thus lack of required funds (23). Its poor record in
improving domestic revenue mobilisation is seen as key factor impeding sustainability in Sierra Leone (21).
Box 14. Key takeaways from the evaluations on budget support
● Budget support played an important catalytic role in the access to basic social services, by
enabling increased sectoral expenditure, accompanying policy dialogue and other policy support.
● The increased availability of funding for priority sectors through budget support led to a growth
boosting effect in partner countries and the support to reforms through policy dialogue and
technical assistance/ capacity development.
● Particularly in lower- and middle-income countries, budget support allowed governments to
improve public finance management, to deliver services and regulate economic activities.
● Funding and sectoral investment, complemented by capacity-building and institutional
development were important factors enabling or inhibiting the impact or the sustainability of EU
interventions.
● However, the quality of institutional change and of services (e.g. health, education), and the
sustainability of the achievements remained low.

80

2.2.3.

Political dialogue

A broad-based political dialogue with government officials is a key component of the EU’s development
cooperation with Sub-Saharan African states. For this reason, it is a recurrent point of focus in external
evaluations of the EU’s engagement as reviewed for this study. Making such an assessment however
comes with conceptual as well as methodological challenges. Table 20 presents three different
understandings of policy and political dialogue as applied by the EU and its partners. EU policy documents
refer to a general understanding of political dialogue relating to a dialogue on fundamental values
(democracy, human rights) and policy dialogue relating to technical and substantive aspects of policy. Both
political dialogue and policy dialogue are part of the relationship between the EU and SSA countries. The
following table further describes the difference, and distinguishes two subtypes of the technical and
substantive policy dialogue: one taking place in the context of budget support operations, typically jointly
with other donors, and the dialogue that takes place in relation to other aid modalities.
Table 20. Policy and political dialogue defined
Dialogue in the framework of
Dialogue in the context of
the CPA
budget support
Under Article 8 of the CPA, the
When providing budget support,
EU, its member states and the
a distinction is often made
concerned Sub-Saharan states
between policy and political
commit to engaging in a regular
dialogue.
political dialogue in relation to the
overall objectives and
Under policy dialogue, reference
fundamental elements defined in
is made to an exchange at the
the agreement.
technical level, mainly focusing
on ‘how to’ questions and
This political dialogue should in
progress made towards agreed
principle take place on an annual
targets and indicators.
basis. If the dialogue would
observe a worsening situation in
Political dialogue, in turn, refers
terms of the fundamental
to a more high-level exchange
objectives, the partners could
(involving political actors rather
discuss taking appropriate
than civil servants) to discuss
measures under Article 96.
more contentious issues relating
to human rights etc.
Like under the CPA, these
dialogues are typically conducted
jointly by donors.

Broader understanding of
policy dialogue
Policy dialogue refers to the
dialogue the EU has with partner
countries regarding institutional
and financial support for sectorbased policies.
In contrast to the former two
types of policy dialogue, this
dialogue can take place under
various types of cooperation
modalities and is done bilaterally
between governments and their
external partners.
The dialogue may also involve
some degree of conditionality,
related to the assessment of
conditions for disbursement in
the form of subsequent project
phases.

The evaluation evidence collected in the reports mostly relates to the second understanding presented in
the table above, as well as more occasionally to the first type. The third type of policy dialogue remains
under-evaluated. Beyond the conceptual challenges involved in evaluating policy dialogue, there are also
methodological challenges in the sense that – contrary to a project intervention – expected results are not
defined ex-ante (29). While the extent to which process commitments were realised in practice can be
assessed, it is challenging to both measure as well as appraise the actual results of such dialogue.
Budget support policy dialogue. As the modality’s name indicates, budget support is primarily perceived
to revolve around financial transfers, as opposed to a tool for policy learning (20). This type of policy dialogue
contributed to improvements in the quality of health services in several countries (24, 31) and, e.g. in Burkina
Faso, to the safeguarding of social allowances in the education and health sectors (22). Evaluations also

81

recorded positive results in terms of strengthening transparency, access for information and
accountability (21, 26). In Uganda for example, the use of budget support meant that governance issues
remained on top of the agenda, and that non-government stakeholders could relate to the government on
these matters – which the use of development projects would not allow for (23). In relation to the cooperation
with regional economic communities, the focus of policy dialogue was predominantly on the disbursement
of funds, as opposed to substantive issues relating to regional integration. Dedicated efforts were made to
ensure the participation of civil society organisations in the policy dialogue, yet with limited results due to
the weak existing links between those organisations and the regional bodies concerned (35). Finally, in the
cooperation between the African Union and the EU, policy dialogue was considered strong in the context of
the implementation of the Africa Peace Facility and was characterised by good and regular exchange at the
working level (1).
Table 21. Enabling and inhibiting factors of political/policy dialogue
Enabling Factors

Inhibiting Factors

●

●

●

Policy dialogue in the context of
budget support is most
successful in a context where
there is a strong level of trust
between the government and its
external partners (20, 29).
A successful dialogue thus
requires good relations between
the government and its donors
overall, and among the donors
themselves.

●
●
●
●
●
●

Lack of a shared definition and understanding of
dialogue may contribute negatively to the quality of
the policy dialogue, as observed in the case of South
Africa as well as in the field of regional cooperation
(28, 35).
A deteriorating political dialogue with the government
(e.g. on elections or sensitive legislative actions)
affected the quality of policy dialogue (20, 23, 26, 27).
Lack of guidance on key EU policy priorities, which
prevented EU delegations from establishing a good
working relation with the relevant ministries (17).
Lack of trust turns policy dialogue into a technocratic
and box-ticking exercise (26, 27, 29).
Use of policy dialogue as a means to monitor and
promote the implementation of EU interventions (17,
1).
Irregular and insufficient meeting frequency (17,
29).
Considerable transaction costs for the recipient
government and its international partners (21, 27).

With regards to political dialogue, the Commission’s evaluation of the CPA assesses that human rights
have represented a large share of the political dialogue over the last decade, yet it was generally reactive
as opposed to proactive in nature, with limited and sometimes volatile effects (31). It moreover notes that
the CPA requires civil society’s participation in policy dialogue, yet observes that available external
evaluations do not provide sufficient information to assess its involvement. Finally, the Commission finds
that a structural and organisational separation between political and policy dialogue within EU delegations,
limited capacities and partner governments’ reluctance contributed to weak links between the political
dialogue and the broader cooperation programme (31).

3. Horizontal considerations
3.1.

Policy Coherence for development

EU and member states’ actions on policy coherence for development (PCD) are based on the commitment
contained in article 208 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU. The EU seeks to ensure a coherent
approach, whereby decision-making processes in other EU policy areas seek to take the possible effects in
developing countries into account.

82

The PCD evaluation report (46) notes that the EU PCD approach had a limited influence on existing or
planned policies/initiatives. EU non-development policies affecting developing countries do not generally
take account of development objectives as a direct result of PCD mechanisms. In general, the Commission’s
policy proposals that are likely to affect developing countries do not sufficiently take account of development
objectives in the Impact Assessments and Inter-Service Consultation process. Exceptions exist in some
policy areas, such as trade and migration, that have a track record of including PCD within their formulation
process due to their external dimension and the EU’s international commitments. Other policy areas that
are aligned with the EU’s PCD approach at the strategic level include agriculture, fisheries, and climate
change.
The EU PCD approach has yet to be further clarified at the operational level and there is no common
understanding of the approach nor clarity among institutional stakeholders regarding the PCD commitment
towards developing countries. Though article 12 of the CPA sets up a consultation mechanism to promote
the coherence of EU policies that might affect the interests of the ACP countries, there is no consultation
mechanism with all developing countries that allows the Commission services to structure a policy dialogue
with them at the early stages of policy formulation. The evaluation on EU cooperation with West Africa (43)
observed some cases of incompatible objectives of the EU’s foreign policy and development policy.
The below paragraphs provide findings on PCD in relevant themes.
Preventing conflict and instability
The evaluations pointed to the (potential) impact of EU support to peace and security on wider EU policies.
Examples are:

In the case of APF support, there was a risk that the participation of troop contributing countries
(e.g. Burundi or Ethiopia) in peace operations outweighed their repeated failure to meet
obligations on democracy and respect for human rights (1).

IcSP’s actions and programmes related to e.g. counter-terrorism, countering violent extremism
(CVE), migration, organised crime, and cyber security carried risks of negative knock-on effects
on human rights, rule of law, international law and good governance. However, these risks
decreased when ‘do no harm’ approaches were built in. Moreover, the Service for Foreign
Policy Instruments of the European Commission and DEVCO were reportedly aware of such
potential risks and made efforts to mitigate them. The IcSP evaluators also recognised that
such interventions could firmly promote EU cross-cutting priorities, and could be implemented
in partnership with law enforcement, judicial and in some cases military actors (e.g. response
to Ebola outbreak in West Africa; CVE activities associated with progress in security sector
reforms) (54).
The evaluations also pointed out how other policy areas influenced EU peace and security interventions,
especially when talking about resilience and migration. Examples are:

In countries like Angola and Kenya, support for the recovery of agriculture and access to basic
social services contributed to enhanced security and peace (31).

The EU’s interest in terrorism and migration increasingly influences its peace and security
interventions in Africa, an area in which the EU has the ambition to become a strong player.
For instance:
 The EUCAP Sahel Missions contributed to the design of EUTF projects, gathered
information on migratory flows and mapped EU activities connected with migration. The
mandate of EUCAP Sahel Niger was expanded in 2015 to assist Niger in exercising control
and fighting, as well as gathering information about irregular migration (3).
 In Mauritania, EU support to integrated border management and the fight against organised
crime mostly focused on contributing to slow down migration flows to Europe (55). At the same

83

time, the evidence available generally confirms increased coherence of EU support in these
fields with other EU external cooperation policies (e.g. migration, regional integration, trade
and security) (55).
Rural and agricultural development
EU interventions did not always take other policy areas into account, but when they did, coherence was
deemed good:

Conflict and political drivers, and more generally the root causes of food crises were seldom
taken into account in EU analyses of food insecurity to inform its resilience actions. This left
strategies weakly adapted to addressing the causes of conflict-driven protracted emergencies,
and the linkages between building resilience to food crises and managed migration were not
sufficiently developed (16).

Environment received a lot of attention in the agricultural commodities projects (e.g. in
Cameroon, Ghana and Madagascar), and in the transport sector (48). The coherence of EU
support to environment and climate change with policies in the field of agriculture, energy and
water was generally seen by EUDs as being good (17).

Generally, EU transport sector policies were coherent with wider EU development policies and
member states’ sector policies. EU transport sector support moreover had a positive impact on
trade and employment generation (19).
The evaluations also pointed out how other policy areas influenced EU support to rural and agricultural
development, especially when talking about migration. Examples are:

Migration priorities seem to have had an impact on EU interventions in the field of food security
and resilience-building. For instance, the building of resilience to food crises was recently put
together with the demand for better-managed migration under the EU Emergency Trust Fund
for Africa, the assumption being that food crises and migration share the same root causes and
solutions. However, studies highlight that migration is an important coping strategy that
contributes positively to building resilience to food crises and that there are risks associated
with immobility and an absence of opportunities to migrate. Addressing migration pressures by
cutting off these opportunities may thus do more harm than good (16).

EU initiatives like the Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) and the Sugar Protocol have
complicated the implementation of the EU support to the transport sector (19).

Some of the areas of EU intervention in Cameroon, such as roads and rural development, were
exposed very indirectly to the effects of EU policies; those that were more directly related
(promotion of the private sector, climate change) have effectively integrated the frameworks
and directions of the EU policies (40).

The evaluation of EU cooperation with Cameroon pointed out that a potential obstacle to PCD
is the fact that EUDs have limited control over key interventions in the “trade and regional
integration” sector and little involvement in the EPA negotiations (40). The same source also
stated that the benefits of the common agricultural policy of European banana producers had
eroded the comparative advantages of Cameroonian producers (40).
Social development
The EU’s support to social protection was coherent with policies in areas like employment, gender equality,
migration, etc. (47). In several countries, it moreover included an important social inclusion, human rights
and employability component (47). In other cases, however, social protection had to compete with other
priorities of cooperation, and aspects related to a specific sector such as health were not always coordinated
with the sector approach as a whole (47). Evaluations furthermore found that:

In ACP countries, EU support to social protection was closely linked to cash and in-kind transfer
programmes in the area of food security and, to a lesser extent, to other areas such as
HIV/AIDS (47).

84







Social protection got more prominent in bilateral and regional programmes, often in the context
of the “Food and Nutrition Security, Sustainable Agriculture” (FNSSA) cooperation area in e.g.
Ghana, Lesotho, Nigeria, Ethiopia, or with the African Union through the Pan-African
Programme (47).
In the West Africa Sahel region, ECHO was strongly involved in the EU Global Alliance for
Resilience Initiative (AGIR) programme that aims at reducing people’s vulnerability to shocks
and increasing their resilience. The strengthening of social protection systems is a key
objective in the programme’s first pillar (47).
In Ethiopia, there were efforts to link social protection to humanitarian assistance (especially in
the context of the resilience agenda and the emerging emphasis on migration and its root
causes), yet challenges remained in exploiting this nexus (e.g. because of differing objectives,
contrasting time frames, and distinct institutional cultures) (47).

Private sector development

Private sector development has indirectly benefited from support to good governance,
economic stabilisation and growth, while more direct support − aimed at the creation of an
enabling environment, improving quality standards, and facilitating access to finance − has
been relevant. (48)

Policy dialogue was an important instrument for promoting coherence. It has made an
important contribution in terms of paving the way for establishing and increasing coherence
with key development and trade-related policies

EU support to PSD did not explicitly consider elements such as health, education and
vocational training (9).
Box 15. Key takeaways from the evaluations on policy coherence for development
●

●

●

●

●

●

The EU PCD approach had a limited influence on policies. The Commission’s Impact Assessments
and Inter-Service Consultation process do not sufficiently take account of development objectives
in EU policy proposals. EU non-development policies affecting developing countries do not
generally take account of development objectives as a direct result of PCD mechanisms.
Political will from the top leadership of the European Commission from the onset of the policy
formulation process is more decisive than the instruments put in place to promote the EU PCD
approach.
Though the EU’s policy coherence for development commitment is enshrined in the EU Treaties,
there is no common understanding of the approach and there is a lack of clarity among institutional
stakeholders on the extent of this commitment towards developing countries.
On preventing conflict and instability, the evaluations point to the impact of EU support to peace
and security on wider EU policies as well as an impact of other policy areas on EU peace and
security interventions, especially when talking about resilience and migration.
In social protection, EU support has been coherent with policies in areas like employment, gender
equality, and migration. In several countries, it also included social inclusion, human rights and
employability components. However, in some cases, social protection aspects related to a specific
sector such as health were not always coordinated with the sector approach as a whole.
In rural and agricultural development, EU interventions did not always take other policy areas into
account. For instance, the linkages between building resilience to food crises and managed
migration were not sufficiently developed. Yet, migration priorities seem to have had an impact on
EU interventions. Environment received a lot of attention in the agricultural commodities projects
and in the transport sector. However, the evidence of PCD in the transport sector is mixed.

85

3.2.

Coherence between instruments62

The evaluations found relatively little overlap between the 11th European Development Fund (EDF) and
other external financing instruments (EFIs) as they often fund different priorities or actions. In principle, the
diversity of financing instruments allows for the design and implementation of programmes to be tailored to
the needs and constraints of the different contexts (48). For instance:








The IcSP and EIDHR can complement areas where the EDF falls short due to its relatively long
programming horizon and the requirement to agree on the use of funds with the recipient
government (32). They are designed to complement the EDF and DCI by allowing a degree of
flexibility and increasing the EU’s ability to react quickly to emerging needs (33, 53, 54).
Moreover, they can be mobilised only when other EFIs cannot intervene, which increases their
complementarity (53, 54).
IcSP actions complemented the peace and security programming of other EFIs and EUTFs,
but the extent to which this happened was variable (54). Actions and programmes under the
IcSP were used to achieve the objectives of other EFIs, to fill gaps, as a forerunner for
interventions by other (larger) instruments, and as a funding instrument of last resort (5, 33,
54). The lack of flexibility and lengthy procedures of most EFIs however hampered effective
synergies with the IcSP (54).
The EIDHR can intervene even when the government lacks the political will because its actions
do not require partner government approval (53, 32). This, combined with the EIDHR’s focus
on supporting CSOs and human rights defenders in challenging environments, makes the
EIDHR highly complementary to other EFIs.63
The DCI can complement the EDF by enabling the EU to work on EU thematic priorities or at
the pan-African level (52).

Box 16. Examples of successful use of multiple funding instruments
● In Togo, close cooperation between the different EU services led to coordinated actions,
especially in political dialogue and projects in democratic governance. Funding from the EDF was
supplemented by EU thematic programmes (Food Security, CSO-LA and Gender) and
instruments (EIDHR and the Instrument for Stability). Availability of the different instruments
enabled the EU to respond to a variety of situations and to intervene both in the short-term and
in the longer term, which is crucial in a situation of fragility. (38)
● In Ethiopia, the EU capitalised on both its political dialogue on migration and the multiplicity of
available instruments to maximise support to the sector over 2010-2016. The EU supported
migration because of the role of Ethiopia as the main host for migrants and refugees in the Horn
of Africa. Among other, it provided support to security through the APF and to migration through
the Pan-African Programme (DCI programme), two important bilateral migration projects as well
as other EDF funded projects. (32)
At a thematic level, there were positive examples of coordination and complementarity in many areas.
Thematic programmes were seen to fill gaps that could not be covered by geographical instruments in the
areas of environment and climate change and social protection (17, 47).

62

63

The main external financing instruments (EFIs) reviewed in this section are the 11th EDF, the DCI, the IcSP, and
the EIDHR (evaluation reports 32, 33, 52, 53, 54). Whereas none of these instruments focuses solely on Africa, they
all support interventions on the continent. In addition, the EU Trust Fund for Africa and EIB interventions are also
reviewed in this chapter (reports 4, 5, 14, 15). Finally, this section draws on several thematic and geographical
evaluation reports (e.g. reports 16, 17, 35, 40, 48).
For instance, the Human Rights Crisis Facility provides confidential assistance to CSOs in countries (including in
Sub-Saharan Africa) where public financial support would be impossible or put organisations and individuals at risk
(53).

86

Table 22. Evidence of coherence between instruments from thematic evaluations
Preventing conflict
Rural and agricultural Social development
Private sector
and instability
development
development
Strong policy drive for
There were creative
Despite
In private sector
close coordination
approaches and good
complementarity
development and EIB
among all EU
practices in building
between the
interventions, the
instruments responding synergies between
instruments used by the evaluation findings were
to conflict and crisis
different EU financing
EU to support social
mixed on coordination
through the
instruments, and in
protection and the
with other key
Comprehensive or
linking country
efforts to link social
stakeholders, such as
Integrated Approach.
programmable and
protection interventions
the European
There was also
thematic instruments
to other interventions
Commission (EC). The
progress in the
that provided timely,
(e.g. humanitarian
coordination
coordination of
flexible and predictable
assistance, food
mechanism between
programming of the
funding to contribute to
security), the level of
the EIB and EC worked
APF with Regional
building resilience to
synergy achieved has
well in several cases,
Indicative Programmes food crises (16). Good
remained limited (47).
but coordination was
(1, 2).
practices concern: (i)
Still, thematic
limited where it would
the linking of EU
programmes could fill
have been useful (15).
Positive examples of
development and
gaps when there was
In Togo, for instance,
complementarity can
humanitarian action;
no room for social
there was a lack of
also be found in the
and (ii) collaboration
protection under
comprehensive
Central African
between Commission
geographical bilateral
cooperation between
Republic, where the EU services in Ethiopia and instruments – although
the EIB and other
provided assistance
Mali (16).
their use to support
instruments but in Côte
through the Bêkou trust
social protection has
d'Ivoire there has been
fund, traditional
A thematic programme
been limited (47).
successful coordination
development aid, three
in the field of
(36, 38).
military Common
environment and
Positive examples of
Security and Defence
climate change was
complementarity
Policy missions and
able to deal with issues
between social
operations, civilian
that could not be
protection interventions
crisis response and
adequately covered by
and ECHO activities
humanitarian aid (4).
geographic instruments were found e.g. in
On the other hand, in
(17).
Ethiopia (47).
West Africa,
complementarity
between peace and
security instruments
was not as strong as
expected (43). In the
field of peace and
security, neither the
Commission nor the
EEAS had analysed the
comparative
advantages of all the
instruments at their
disposal (2).
In terms of coherence of EU instruments, the evaluations report the following main findings.

87

At the level of design and programming, there are mechanisms to ensure complementarity and
coordination between different units and instruments (1, 5, 40, 32, 52). The Quality Support Groups (QSG)
process is important in this regard as it ensures interaction between units and enhances complementarity
between instruments – although the levels of participation by the different units vary (1, 32, 40). Country
fiches (produced by the EEAS and DEVCO) that provide an overall view of developments in each country
and of the EU’s work, including the instruments used, were introduced under the 11th EDF to improve
complementarity and minimise overlap (32).
Risks of thematic overlaps and duplication between instruments were identified, especially between
the EDF and the DCI, and particularly in budget lines managed by Brussels (32, 52). There was also some
ambiguity as to which given instrument should be used in a particular situation, e.g. in the field of democracy,
civil society support and human rights (53, 17). The lack of coordination that was observed at times resulted
in unexploited synergies in project implementation and there are examples of similar issues being addressed
in the same country by different instruments (5, 35, 48). There were also difficulties to transition from using
one instrument to another. This was due to differences between services and units in mandates, objectives
and procedures (i.e. between DG ECHO and DG DEVCO) and a lack of synchronisation of timelines (16,
32).
Some evaluations suggest that one of the factors contributing to overlaps and duplication is the centralised
and largely compartmentalised decision-making and programming in Brussels while the day-to-day
management is in the EU Delegations (32, 48, 40, 52). In some cases, this set-up led to insufficient
consultation of the EU Delegation in project selection and in projects that were not in line with the
Delegation’s area of concentration and expertise (32). The lack of EU Delegation capacity and human
resources affected the extent to which overlaps and complementarities could be addressed (32, 40). That
these Delegations did not have a full overview of EU-funded programmes and projects resulted in
inefficiencies and high transaction costs. This was a key limitation for the EU to translate its investment in
regional cooperation and in Africa more generally into policy influence and transformative impact (35).
Lack of specific guidance for aid programming was a factor hindering complementarity and effective
synergies between different instruments. While the 11th EDF and DCI regulations called for coherence,
complementarities and synergies, the Programming Instructions did not give specific guidance on how to
achieve this (32, 52). Also, in the case of the EUTF for Africa, despite the emphasis on ensuring
complementarity with other instruments, the evaluation found no instructions on how to achieve this (5).
The following table summarises the main factors contributing or hindering complementarity between
instruments.

88

Table 23. Enabling and inhibiting factors affecting complementarity and synergies between
instruments
Enabling factors
Inhibiting factors
Instrument design and procedures
● Differentiation between the
instruments: clear mandates, and
focus areas, both regional and
thematic (52, 53, 32)
● Mechanisms and procedures exist
to ensure complementarity and
coordination between different
units and instruments (5, 40, 32,
52)
● A shared thematic/topical focus
between thematic and geographic
instruments (17)
Coordination and collaboration
● Close cooperation between EU
services (16, 38)
Political commitment and ownership
 Political commitment to invest
resources (in e.g. resilience) (16)

Instrument design and procedures
● Lack of collective strategy guiding the action of the
various internal EU services and instruments (e.g. for
peace and security) (48)
● Differences in procedures, programming cycles,
organisational priorities and mandates leading to
challenging transitions between different instruments
(16, 32)
● Lack of flexibility and lengthy procedures (54)
● Lack of specific guidance at programming level and on
which instrument should be used (5, 17, 32, 52, 53)
● Fragmentation of EU financing (e.g. in the resiliencebuilding area) (16)
Coordination and collaboration
● Different decision and management centres (32)
coupled with centralised and compartmentalised
decision making (32, 48, 40, 52)
● Lack of resources, involvement or capacities at EU
Delegation level (32, 17)
● Communication and coordination issues between
Brussels and EU Delegations and in programming and
project implementation (1, 32, 48, 40, 52)

Box 17. Key takeaways from the evaluations on coherence between EU instruments
●
●

●

●

3.3.

The evaluations found relatively little overlap between the 11th EDF and other EFIs, as they often
funded different priorities or actions.
At thematic level, there were positive examples of coordination and complementarity in e.g. the
areas of rural and agricultural development and peace and security. Thematic programmes were
seen to fill gaps that could not be covered by geographical instruments in the areas of
environment and climate change and social protection.
There are procedures, such as Quality Support Groups, to ensure complementarity and
coherence at the level of design and programming. Still, the evaluations identified that specific
programming guidance on how to achieve complementarity between instruments was absent.
Some evaluations found risks of thematic overlaps between different instruments. One
contributing factor to these overlaps was the insufficient coordination between Brussels and EU
Delegations. The comparative advantages of all instruments the EU had at its disposal were not
always clear.

The quality and use of monitoring and evaluation

The EU makes considerable investments in monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems for both
accountability and learning purposes. Key aspects of the EU approach are (1) the Results-OrientedMonitoring (ROM) System, (2) strategic evaluations commissioned by a dedicated evaluation unit in
DEVCO, (3) as well as decentralised evaluations that are commissioned by the EU Delegations. During the
period under review, the extent to which the first two aspects were fit for their stated purpose was subject
of two dedicated reviews of the European Court of Auditors (49, 50). M&E is also addressed in many of the
other evaluations analysed here.

89

According to the European Court of Auditors (ECA), while the EU makes considerable investments in
monitoring the performance of its programmes, it does not systematically ensure that this monitoring is used
in the effective implementation of these programmes. The same applies to the evaluations, for which the
ECA finds that proper mechanisms to monitor follow-up and dissemination are not in place (49). When it
comes to making information on results available to the European Parliament, member states and the wider
public, another study by the ECA observes that the Commission has taken important steps towards
launching an international cooperation and development results framework. It moreover finds that risks to
a result-oriented approach, including ensuring consistent terminology, up-to-date data and increased
complexity due to the integration of cross-cutting areas, were all acknowledged by the Commission (50).
The following table presents additional findings on M&E in relation to specific themes and areas.

90

Table 24. Evidence on M&E systems from thematic evaluations
Preventing conflict and
instability
M&E for the African
Peace Facility was not
optimal and often limited
to the level of outputs
(54). There is scope to
move to a system that
analyses effectiveness
and discusses ways to
improve performance (1).

Private sector
development
It is “difficult to obtain
a clear and complete
picture of the results
obtained by PSD
interventions and
even more of impact
levels for the different
dimensions of PSD
support” (11). Other
interventions either
lacked thorough M&E
(11) or did not
monitor beyond
output level (9).

M&E in crisis or conflict
affected contexts was
challenging (54).

Insufficient quality of
logframes and indicators
(54).

Not all implementing
partners used the EUTF
common monitoring
platform but instead used
a variety of information
and M&E systems. An
overview of the results of
the EUTF as a whole
was not available (5).
Evidence on the actual
implementation of the
findings and decisions of
the APSA monitoring
system (APSA 20172020 Roadmap, Action
Plans and log frames
and the monitoring of
APF actions) and
whether AU and EU
officials provided
adequate follow-up is
mixed (1).

Unclear EU project
reporting that did not
specify which of the
specific activities
undertaken
contributed to
achieving the
expected results
contributed to this
(11).

Rural and agricultural
development
M&E of EU support to rural
and agricultural development
can be enhanced (16). The
almost complete absence of
ex-post evaluation of
transport infrastructure
projects made it difficult to
quantify (or in some cases
even identify) the contribution
of the EU's transport sector
support to positive trends of
economic and social
parameters of many African
countries (19). Evaluation
efforts limited to the output
level and the evaluation of
socio-economic change or
poverty alleviation did not
take place (19).
When, from the beginning,
interventions in
environmentally-sensitive
sectors incorporated specific
outcomes and indicators that
were clearly directed towards
improvement of the
environmental situation,
actual implementation was
more likely to correspond
with the intentions (17).
Uneven quality of reporting
by implementing partners
(18) plus insufficient on-site
visits by programme
managers and insufficient
ROM reviews (18). Food
security indicators fell short
of monitoring progress in
building resilience (16) and
baselines and M&E reports
were absent (16)
Resilience measurement
tools were not geared
towards measuring the
contribution of specific
programmes and projects to
building resilience (16).

Social development
The quality of M&E varied but
sound M&E systems existed
for support to social protection
though these were at times
constrained by limited data
availability

Weakness of national
statistical systems, and in
terms of a results focus and
related measurable indicators
(47)

Ethiopia and Malawi offer
good examples of analysis
beyond level of inputs and
outputs, and of lessons learnt
considered in adjusting
programmes (47). On the
other hand, in Lesotho, the
EU failed to take into
consideration evaluations and
lessons from past experience
in the process of choosing
target sectors and in
programme design and
implementation (37).

91

4. Conclusions: Results of EU development cooperation
with Sub-Saharan Africa
This chapter presented a structured review of 55 independent evaluations to determine the extent to which
the EU’s cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa was effective during the period under review. This evaluation
evidence mainly concerns the interventions of the European Commission; the evidence on the operations
of the European Investment Bank – representing a quarter of EU institutions’ ODA – is much more limited
in comparison.
The analysed evaluation reports generally offer a detailed picture of the EU institutions’ cooperation with
SSA-states and regional bodies in a range of important thematic areas and of the way in which these
institutions have shaped development cooperation with this part of the world.
The evaluations present rich and detailed evidence concerning the relevance of the choices made and
approaches taken, as well as the results accomplished. By comparison, across the board, they are less
robust as to the sustainability of these results as well as to what extent these helped to advance key
development outcomes and advanced the overall objectives of EU development policy. The evidence base
is also comparatively thin on gender equality as a cross-cutting area, particularly in light of the high
importance attached to it in recent years, as well as in relation to joint programming and policy dialogue.
This is not unique to the EU as a donor, but represents a shared evaluation challenge faced by all DAC
members to different degrees. Further to this overall picture, the following specific findings can be
highlighted:












Peace and security: EU development aid has had a positive impact and contributed to more stability
in African crisis regions. Capacities for conflict prevention and management have been enhanced.
EU support enabled the African Peace and Security Architecture to be operational and indispensable.
It is challenging to provide detailed evidence at the level of outcomes and on impact because more
fundamental long-term effects typically take more time to achieve. While the factors and effects of the
conflicts were successfully mitigated, support has generally not been geared to tackling the root
causes of conflict. Inhibiting factors to the impact and sustainability of the EU’s support included the
weak financial, operational and institutional capacity of the partners, as well as the limited political
commitment and ownership of local stakeholders. Linked to this, financial sustainability was also a
major issue.
Private sector development: A crucial aspect of EU support to private sector development is the
improved access to long-term finance by small and medium enterprises. The EU has improved
partners’ trade policy environments, international trade standard setting, capacity of public
institutions, and trade development but the sustainability of these results is mixed. The EU’s ability to
increase employment through Trade Related Assistance however was limited.
Rural development: EU interventions in the energy, transport, resilience and environment sectors
brought overall tangible and positive results that improved the day-to-day living conditions of
populations and have contributed to the reduction of poverty. Long-term impacts were however
mixed, as transformative change and reversing worsening trends in some cases (e.g. in the
environment and climate change sector) require more time and an upscaling of support.
Prioritisation of the issues of climate change, food security and road maintenance by national
authorities was crucial to achieve impact and for the results to be sustainable. The extent to which
EU interventions involved innovative tools and financing instruments, took into account local capacity
issues and paid sufficient attention to the institutionalization of the support provided were also critical
for effectiveness, impact and sustainability.
Social development: The EU contributed to improved equitable access to basic social services
(education, health, water and sanitation) and to improved living standards. EU support also had

92

















positive results for women and girls, as it contributed to better access to education and health for
women and girls.
Budget support played an important catalytic role in the access to basic social services, by enabling
increased sectoral expenditure, accompanying policy dialogue and other policy support. Yet the
quality of institutional change and of services (e.g. health, education), and the sustainability of the
achievements remained low. Funding and sectoral investment, complemented by capacity-building
and institutional development were important factors enabling or inhibiting the impact or the
sustainability of EU interventions. Policy dialogue is a key aspect of budget support operations, yet
its effectiveness requires consistent and frequent engagement, while also being susceptible to
changes in the overall relationship between the government and its external partners.
Gender: Although many programming documents included gender issues in their project design, and
some achieved results, there was no evidence of gender being systematically addressed in the
implementation of the projects and activities, resulting in the impression that results were achieved
by default.
Important results were achieved with regards to gender equality in the education, social protection,
health and agriculture sectors. Although programmes include gender in their project design,
information on achieved results is limited due to absence of relevant gender indicators, which could
form the basis of results-oriented monitoring systems.
Donor cooperation: EU added value has been particularly strong in areas where the Commission
has acquired specific capacity and expertise, such as budget support, that distinguishes it from other
donors. The joint programming process did not, by itself, reduce overall aid fragmentation in the
countries where it took place. Yet, joint programming triggered improved harmonisation, coordination
and aid complementarity and favoured convergence among the EU and MS regarding strategies and
policies at country level. Joint programming has also remained very much an EU and member states
exercise, thus limiting the potential ownership of the process by the partner country.
The impact of delegated cooperation (DC) has also been limited, mainly due to insufficient linkages
between DC and new instruments such as joint programming and the lack of a comprehensive DC
policy framework. Finally, insufficient attention was paid to political economy considerations, such as
strategic interests, political factors and institutional and procedural features of European donors.
Policy Coherence for development: Although the EU’s PCD commitment is enshrined in the EU
Treaties, there is no common understanding of the approach and there is a lack of clarity among
institutional stakeholders on the extent of this commitment towards developing countries. Policy
coherence is covered by various evaluations that were reviewed, but generally in a cursory manner
without offering detailed evidence.
Coherence between instruments: The evaluations found little overlap between the different EUinstruments, as they often funded different priorities or actions. At thematic level, there were positive
examples of coordination and complementarity for instance in the areas of rural and agricultural
development and peace and security. Thematic programmes were seen to fill gaps that could not be
covered by geographical instruments in the areas of environment and climate change and social
protection.
Procedures were put in place to ensure complementarity and coherence on the level of design and
programming, but the evaluations also identified absence of specific guidance at the programming
level on how complementarity between instruments should be achieved. Some evaluations found
risks of thematic overlaps between different instruments. One contributing factor to these overlaps is
due to insufficient coordination between Brussels and EU Delegations. The comparative advantages
of all instruments the EU had at its disposal were not always clear.

Following this summary of the available evaluation evidence on the EU’s development cooperation with
Sub-Saharan Africa, a few concluding reflections are put forward as regards observed evaluation gaps that
could be addressed in the future.

93

With the exception of a dedicated, yet mainly process-oriented, evaluation of joint programming and a limited
number of joint evaluations conducted together with a number of EU member states, the evaluations
reviewed did not present detailed evidence on the EU’s added value vis-à-vis the bilateral development
cooperation of EU member states active in the same countries or regions. While there is merit in critically
evaluating the EU’s engagement as a development actor in its own right, the degree to which the EU’s
activities and involvement complement that of the member states is less scrutinised. The relatively low
number of joint evaluations conducted also indicates member states’ low interest, but given the unchanged
legal status of EU development policy (a parallel competence), there is a strong case for a dedicated
evaluation thereof.
In addition to this collective evaluation challenge, this study observed that some of the key priorities of EU
development cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa have not, or not sufficiently, been subject to independent
scrutiny. Four principal evaluation gaps with regard to the EU’s development cooperation with Sub-Saharan
Africa were identified that could inform future evaluation inquiry:

First of all, it has been over ten years since the EU commissioned an external independent evaluation
of the management of development cooperation through civil society organisations (CSOs) as
‘delivery channels’. A dedicated and detailed evaluation of the EU’s support to CSOs as an end in
itself, otherwise a key feature of the EU’s policies, has not yet been undertaken.

Second, as a result of the establishment of the EUTF and the EIP in recent years, the role for member
states’ implementing agencies and development finance institutions in implementing EU development
cooperation interventions has increased. Further discussion is needed as to how the EU and the
member states may best evaluate these forms of cooperation that have gained prominence in recent
years.

Third, the EIB should consider further investment in independent evaluation of its operations in Africa
in view of its stronger profile today, as appropriate in direct cooperation with the European
Commission’s evaluation services.

Finally, a dedicated review on the effectiveness of EU cooperation in terms of democracy promotion
has not been undertaken. This is to some respect covered by the evaluation of the European
Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR), yet it does not cover the interventions relating
to human rights that were financed through other external financing instruments.

94

Annexes
Annex 1: Summary of the Terms of Reference64
In December 2013, the EU’s multi-annual financial framework (MFF) for 2014-2020 was approved. Out of a
total of EUR 908.4 billion, close to EUR 59 billion (6%) was set aside for the EU’s external actions, including
development aid and humanitarian assistance. Outside the MFF, there is also the European Development
Fund (EDF) for development cooperation with African, Caribbean and Pacific countries, plus overseas
countries and territories.65 The EDF, linked to the Cotonou Partnership Agreement, is funded from direct
contributions from EU Member States; for the period 2014-2020 it has a total budget of EUR 30.5 billion. It
is estimated that the Dutch contribution to EU external action in the period 2014-2020 is between EUR 3.6
and 4.5 billion.
Different departments of the European Commission are involved in running these budgets for external
action66 in consultation with the EU’s diplomatic arm, the European External Action Service. There is range
of European instruments to do so. These instruments vary considerably in terms of their legal base,
geographical and thematic focus, target groups, etc. 67In addition, varies trust funds were established in
recent years.68 Also the European Investment Bank has a role in EU aid implementation as it invests in a
wide range of projects in, amongst others, sub-Saharan Africa.
The minister for Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation has committed to inform Parliament more
systematically on EU aid effectiveness. The review supports this commitment and aims to answer three
main questions:

How have EU overall development policies and the EU’s overall policies vis-à-vis Sub- Saharan
Africa in particular evolved in the period 2013-2018 and what explains the developments that
have taken place?

How has EU development spending in Sub-Saharan Africa developed in the period 2013- 2018
and what explains these developments? 69

What is known of the results accomplished by EU development aid in Sub-Saharan Africa and
what explains these accomplishments?
To address the first question, the review will capture the most significant elements of inter alia the EU Global
Strategy (June 2016), the European Consensus on Development (June 2017), A Strategic Approach to
Resilience in the EU's external action (June 2017) and the Trade for All strategy (October 2015). The second
question will be answered on the basis of the Commission’s annual and financial reports. The third question
64

65

66

67

68

69

A complete version of the terms of reference can be found on IOB’s website: https://www.iobevaluatie.nl/publicaties/terms-of-reference/2019/11/01/literatuuronderzoek-europese-ontwikkelingssamenwerkingmet-sub-sahara-afrika
The Policy and Operations Evaluation Department of the ministry of Foreign Affairs (IOB) finalised a policy evaluation
of the EDF in 2013.
These include the Directorate-General for International Cooperation and Development (DG DEVCO), the
Directorate-General for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Negotiations (DG NEAR) and the EU Civil Protection and
Humanitarian Aid Operations department (ECHO).
Instruments include: the Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance (IPA), the European Neighbourhood Instrument
(ENI), the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI), the Partnership Instrument (PI), the European Instrument for
Democracy & Human Rights (EIDHR), the Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace (IcSP), the Instrument for
Nuclear Safety Cooperation (INSC) and the Instrument for Greenland (IfG).
These include the EU Emergency Trust fund for Africa, the Africa Investment Platform and the EU-Africa
Infrastructure Trust Fund (EU-AITF), which is an instrument of the wider EU-Africa Infrastructure Partnership, Bêkou
(Central African Republic), MADAD (Syria-related), FRIT (related to Syrian refugees in Turkey), and Colombia.
This question concerns both financial flows per se and the different funding modalities as well as the channels that
the Commission has used to implement its development aid.

95

will be answered primarily on the basis of existing evaluation material of the European Commission. The
review of these evaluations follows the OECD/DAC evaluation criteria and will address the following more
specific questions:









Relevance 70 : (i) What do evaluations tell about the relevance of EU development aid
interventions, in particular for the poor (women & men)? (ii) How do the they interpret the notion
of the added value of EU development aid vis-à-vis bilateral aid of the EU-member states and
what are the findings and conclusions with respect to this added value?
Effectiveness 71 – (i) What do evaluations tell about the ability of EU development aid to
achieve results (main outputs) and realise the expected development outcomes and impact
(including attention for gender equality)? (ii) What do they tell about the results of the EU’s
political dialogue with partner countries?72
Impact and sustainability73: What do evaluations tell about the impact of EU development aid
and the sustainability of outputs and benefits
Coherence: What do evaluations tell about the influence of EU policies in other areas (i.e.
trade, agriculture, security, human rights and migration) on the results and outcomes of
development aid? (ii) What do they tell of the results of initiatives to ensure coherence and
complementarity of EU development aid with aid provided by EU-member states, other donors
(including NGOs), the private sector and national government funding? (iii) Have coherence
and complementarity between different EU-instruments (including EU trust funds, EIB
interventions) been ensured?
Efficiency74: (i) What do evaluations tell about the efficiency of EU development aid? (ii) What
is known about the use of monitoring and evaluation to improve development effectiveness?

The review will finally compare the findings with respect to the above questions with the outcomes reported
in IOB’s policy evaluation on the European Development Fund of 2013.
Geographically, the review focuses on Sub- Saharan Africa as defined by the UN. With this focus on SubSaharan Africa, the review will be limited to publications concerning the following instruments: EDF, DCI,
EIDHR, IcSP, and the above-mentioned EU trust funds targeting Africa. The review will also cover the work
of the EIB in the region. The review focuses on development aid and the different types of interventions that
the EU finances (programmes, projects, budget support) but does not deal with EU humanitarian assistance.
Thematically, the review will zoom in, where possible, on themes or topics that maintain a central position
in the most recent policy note of the Dutch government on development aid ('Investing in global prospects').
These are: (i) preventing conflict and instability - including EU support for the African Peace and Security
Architecture; (ii) private sector development (include trade-related assistance and infrastructure
development); (iii) rural and agricultural development (including issues related to climate); (iv) social
development (including education, water and sanitation, health and SRHR); (v) donor cooperation –
Working better together; (vi) gender as a key cross-cutting theme; (vii) budget support; and (viii) political
dialogue.

70

71

72
73

74

Relevance refers to ‘The extent to which the objectives of a development intervention are consistent with
beneficiaries’ requirements, country needs, global priorities and partners’ and donors’ policies’ (OECD, 2002,
Glossary of Key Terms in Evaluation and Results Based Management, page 32).
Effectiveness refers to ‘The extent to which the development intervention’s objectives were achieved, or are
expected to be achieved, taking into account their relative importance’ (OECD, 2002, page 20).
This includes e.g. the political dialogue referred to under Article 8 and Article 96 of the Cotonou Agreement.
Impacts refer to ‘Positive and negative, primary and secondary long-term effects produced by a development
intervention, directly or indirectly, intended or unintended’ (OECD, 2002: 24) and sustainability to ‘(the) continuation
probability of continued long-term benefits. The resilience to risk of the net benefit flows over time’ (OECD, 2002:
36).
Efficiency concerns ‘(a) measure of how economically resources/inputs (funds, expertise, time, etc.) are converted
to results’ (OECD, 2002: 21).

96

To answer the above review questions, a systematic desk review will be done of EU policy documents, EU
evaluation reports (strategic evaluations) and, to a lesser extent, other documents (reports of the European
Court of Auditors, grey literature, academic research) that were published in the period 2013– mid-2019.
For the analysis of the evaluations, the methodology that was introduced under the umbrella of OECD/DAC
for undertaking Development Effectiveness Reviews will be used.75 Basis for the methodology will be the
following set of documents:
IOB will sub-contract review implementation to an external party with good knowledge of EU development
policies in general and EU-Africa relations in particular; and good knowledge of and familiarity with EU
monitoring and evaluation systems. The report will be reviewed by Bas Limonard and Paul de Nooijer (IOB)
and Hester Stoker of DIE-EX.

75

See e.g. https://www.oecd.org/derec/netherlands/UNWOMEN-Review-Final- Report-April-2015.pdf. This approach
was also used in IOB’s EDF-policy evaluation. Two exceptions are relevant here: (i) the review will not be limited to
a selection of evaluation reports as is proposed by the methodology; (ii) the review will not conduct its own quality
assessment of the Commission’s evaluations given the quality control process that exists at Commission level.

97

Annex 2: Evaluation reports reviewed for this study (n=55)
Themes
Preventing conflict
and instability

Donor cooperation
Gender
Private sector
development

Food security,
climate change

Transport
Budget support

General and EDF

Title of report
1. Evaluation of the implementation of the African Peace Facility as an
instrument supporting African efforts to manage conflicts on the continent
2. European Court of Auditors, 2018, Special report No 20/2018: The African
Peace and Security Architecture: need to focus EU support
3. European Court of Auditors, 2018, Special report n° 15/2018:
Strengthening the capacity of the internal security forces in Niger and Mali:
only limited and slow progress
4. European Court of Auditors, 2017, Special report no 11/2017: The Bêkou
EU trust fund for the Central African Republic: a hopeful beginning despite
some shortcomings
5. European Court of Auditors, 2018, Special report no 32/2018: European
Union Emergency Trust Fund for Africa: Flexible but lacking focus
6. Strategic Evaluation of EU Joint Programming Process of Development
Cooperation (2011-2015)
7. Strategic evaluation of EU Support to Gender Equality and Women's
Empowerment in Partner Countries (2010-2015)
8. Strategic evaluation of EU support to Research and Innovation for
development in partner countries (2007-2013)
9. Review of evaluations of EU Private Sector Development Support to Third
Countries
10. Strategic evaluation of the EU trade-related assistance in third countries
(2004-2010)
11. Strategic evaluation of the EU support to private sector development in
third countries (2004-2010)
12. Mid-Term Evaluation of the West Africa Private Sector Competitiveness
Support Programme
13. European Court of Auditors, 2015, The ACP investment facility: does it
provide added value?
14. European Investment Bank, 2018, Evaluation of EIB Intermediated Lending
through the Investment Facility in ACP
15. European Investment Bank, 2014, Ex-post evaluation of EIB Technical
Assistance Outside the EU, 2003-2013
16. Strategic Evaluation of the EU approach to resilience to withstand food
crises in African Drylands (Sahel and Horn of Africa) 2007-2015
17. Strategic evaluation of the EU support to environment and climate change
in third countries (2007-2013)
18. European Court of Auditors, 2015, Special Report No 15/2015: ACP–EU
Energy Facility support for renewable energy in East Africa
19. Strategic evaluation of EU support to the transport sector in Africa (2005 2013)
20. Joint Strategic Evaluation of Budget Support to Ghana (2005-2015)
21. Joint strategic evaluation of budget support to Sierra Leone (2002-2015)
22. Joint strategic evaluation of budget support to Burkina Faso (2009-2014)
23. Joint strategic evaluation of budget support to Uganda (2004-2013)
24. Joint Evaluation of Budget Support to Burundi (2005-2013)
25. Synthesis of Budget Support Evaluations (2010-2014)
26. Joint strategic evaluation of Budget Support for Mozambique (2005-2012)
27. Joint strategic evaluation of budget support for Tanzania (2005-2012)
28. Strategic evaluation of the EU Budget Support for South Africa (2000-2011)
29. European Court of Auditors, 2016, Special report no 35/2016: The use of
budget support to improve domestic revenue mobilisation in sub-Saharan
Africa
30. Effective Development Cooperation: Has the European Union delivered?
31. Evaluation of the Cotonou Partnership Agreement (2000-2015)
32. Evaluation report on external financing instruments – 11th European
Development Fund
33. Mid-term review report of the External Financing Instruments

98

Sub-Saharan Africa

Other evaluations

34. Strategic evaluation of the European Union's Cooperation with the Republic
of Chad (2008-2014)
35. Strategic Evaluation of EU cooperation with the Eastern and Southern
Africa and Indian Ocean regions 2008-2015
36. External strategic evaluation of the European Union’s cooperation with the
Republic of Ivory Coast (2007-2015)
37. Strategic evaluation of the European Union’s cooperation with Lesotho
(2008-2013)
38. Strategic evaluation of the EU cooperation with the Republic of Togo (20072013)
39. Strategic evaluation of the EU cooperation with the Democratic Republic of
Congo (2008-2013)
40. Strategic evaluation of the EU cooperation with Cameroon (2007-2012)
41. Strategic evaluation of the EU cooperation with Kenya (2006-2012)
42. Joint strategic evaluation of the EU cooperation with Burundi (2005-2011)
43. External Evaluation of the European Union's Cooperation with the West
Africa Region (2008-2016)
44. Evaluation of the EU aid delivery mechanism of delegated cooperation
(2007-2014)
45. Evaluation of Blending, Final Report Volume I – Main Report, December
2016
46. External Evaluation of the European Union’s Policy Coherence for
Development (2009-2016)
47. Evaluation of EU support to social protection in external action (2007-2013)
48. Review of strategic evaluations managed by DEVCO to assess the
European Consensus on Development
49. European Court of Auditors, 2014, EuropeAid’s evaluation and results
oriented monitoring systems
50. European Court of Auditors, 2015, Special Report No 21/2015: Review of
the risks related to a results-oriented approach for EU development and
cooperation action
51. European Court of Auditors, 2018, Special report no 35/2018:
Transparency of EU funds implemented by NGOs: more effort needed
Effective Development Cooperation: Has the European Union delivered?
52. External Evaluation of the Development Cooperation Instrument (2014-mid
2017)
53. External evaluation of the European Instrument for Democracy and Human
Rights (2014-mid 2017)
54. External evaluation of the Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace
(2014-mid 2017)
55. Thematic global evaluation of the European Union’s support to Integrated
Border Management and fight against Organised Crime (2013)

99

Annex 3: Selected findings and conclusions of the 2013
IOB study of the European Development Fund
In 2013, the Policy and Operations Evaluation Department (IOB) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs carried
out a policy evaluation on EU development cooperation focusing on the EDF (IOB 2013). Its overall purpose
was to account for Netherlands funding and other inputs provided for EU development cooperation in the
period 2000-2010 and - based on the findings of this policy evaluation – to gain lessons for future policy
development and implementation.
Below are selected key findings and conclusions of the aforementioned study of relevance to the present
study76.
Selected findings of relevance to the present study
1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

6.
7.

8.

9.

10.

The EDF has a relatively strong poverty-focus, compared to other EU external financing
instruments. Poverty criteria played a key role in allocating resources at the country level.
Ownership has been a key principle driving EU aid, in particular in the ACP-EU partnership
through the co-management system. Yet pressure from the EP and member states have led
to an increase in facilities and trust funds that bypass the national programming process.
A considerable part of EU aid to Sub-Saharan Africa has been provided in the form of general
and sector budget support.
The Commission does not report sufficiently on (net) outcomes, for example in relation to UN
development goals. Budget support evaluations do not sufficiently report on political effects,
e.g. human rights and rule of law. Evaluations further observe that sustainability is a challenge
throughout EU development cooperation to Sub-Saharan Africa, and that ambitions on crosscutting issues (e.g. gender and environment) are often not translated into practice.
There remains a lack of clarity on the meaning of key concepts of EU added value and
complementarity. There is no commonly shared view of areas where the Commission enjoys
a comparative advantage. The commitment to concentrate EC aid into specific areas has not
been realised.
The EU’s assumed comparative advantage in development cooperation with regional
economic communities is not supported by evaluation evidence.
Devolution of the EU’s aid management sought to move decision-making closer to Delegations
in the field. Yet approval of country strategies and budget support remains centralised. The comanagement system with national authorising officers in ACP states remains a cause for
concern.
EU Court of Auditors assesses that financial management, risk management, financial
planning and reporting has improved over time. One issue concerns the significant reserves
that remain in the EDF.
The EU’s Result-Oriented Monitoring (ROM) system is of doubtful usefulness for aggregate
reporting, and the Joint Evaluation Unit’s means are limited given the size of the EU’s
development cooperation budget.
Availability of public information at ACP country level (decentralised evaluations, annual
reports, reviews, etc.) is still rather limited.

Selected conclusions of relevance to the present study
1.
76

Convergence between EU aid principles and key principles of Netherlands aid

The 2013 evaluation was different in scope as it only covered the EDF and it also evaluated the Netherlands’
influence on the EDF, which lies beyond the scope of this study.

100

2.
3.
4.
5.

Limited progress and frequent changes to discussion on coordination and complementarity of
EU aid
EDF has a clear poverty focus, yet little is known about its results in this respect
EU aid management has improved, yet concerns remain cumbersome procedures and quality
of M&E systems
Limited effectiveness of Cotonou-based approaches to policy and political dialogue

101

Annex 4: Study methodology
The different chapters of this study provide some details on its methodological choices and approach, which
this annex supplements with additional descriptive information. It is presented for each chapter, as
appropriate.
Supplement to chapter 2 (funding patterns)
a.

Databases and websites with information on EU development aid and results reporting

In 2005, the European Parliament, European Council and European Commission adopted a joint political
statement entitled the ‘European Consensus on Development’. The joint statement consisted of a first
part presenting the overall vision, followed by a second part specifying how the European Community’s
development policy would contribute to achieving this vision. The second last paragraph of the statement
instructed the Commission to systematically report on the entirety of the Commission’s development
cooperation operations by means of a results-oriented annual report: “The Commission should develop a
set of measurable objectives and targets for implementing this Policy and assess progress against this on
a regular basis, in the Annual Report for implementation of the European Community Development Policy”
(EU 2006: 18).77
In March 2015, the Commission launched the EU International Cooperation and Development Results
Framework through the publication of the Staff working document EU International Cooperation and
Development Results Framework. It presented a comprehensive methodology for measuring the results of
its external action and marked a significant step in improving the way the EU will manage and report results
in this area. This is one of the first systems within the Commission services that systematically measures
and reports results and publishes both aggregated and non-aggregated results data.
The annual report typically consists of a synthesis report designed to reach a broad audience,
complemented by a longer document with statistical and complementary qualitative assessments, the latter
carrying the status of a Staff Working Document. In addition to the annual reports, there are a number of
other reporting processes, which add up to an elaborate ‘reporting universe’ on the European Union’s
development cooperation activities:
1.
Accountability reports (2011 - 2015): in 2011, the ‘EU Accountability Report on Financing for
Development’ succeeded EU reporting on ODA by the EU and its member states that was
initiated in 2003. The Accountability reports were more detailed, in particular on the member
states’ engagement, and were phased out in 2015 as the Commission considered new
approaches to reporting in line with the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development.
2.
EU results reporting: in 2016 and 2017, the EU published a separate results report that
presented statistics in relation to the EU International Cooperation Development Results
Framework. This framework and the associated reporting was revised and integrated into the
annual reports.78
3.
In addition, various third parties - consisting of NGOs and international organisations - engage
in scrutiny of the EU’s development aid. These notably include the reporting by the EU NGO
federation CONCORD (the ‘Aid Watch’ reports) and the OECD Development Assistance
Committee’s (DAC) peer reviews on the EU as most recently published in 2018.

77

78

N.B. the Consensus was adopted in 2005 and published in the Official Journal of the European Union in early 2006:
https://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AC%3A2006%3A046%3A0001%3A0019%3AEN%3APDF
See: https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/10102/2018/EN/SWD-2018-444-F1-EN-MAIN-PART-1.PDF

102

4.

EU Aid Explorer: finally, the European Union is taking part in publishing ODA statistics using
open data standards as developed by the International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI).
Hence, in addition to the OECD’s Creditor Reporting System (CRS), statistics on the EU’s ODA
activities can also be viewed on a variety of open platforms, including the EU’s own initiative
the EU Aid Explorer.79

In addition to reporting on inputs (i.e. amounts of ODA committed or disbursed), several of the above
reporting processes are also used to track the EU’s contributions to advancing the global development
agenda. In this regard, the above reporting universe faced the challenge of relating to several interconnected
result frameworks:

First of all, during part of the period under review, the EU’s development cooperation aimed to
further the eight Millennium Development Goals that guided the international community’s
engagement during the period 2000-2015.

The adoption of the 2030 Agenda and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals in September
2015 triggered a rethink of the EU’s reporting approaches which prompted a revision of the
results framework adopted earlier in 2015 and resulted in the phasing out of the
aforementioned Accountability Report.

In 2017, following negotiations between the Council, Commission and Parliament on the basis
of a Commission proposal, the New European Consensus on Development was adopted and
replaced its 2005 predecessor. This document introduced the categorisation of the 17 SDGs
and the associated indicators into the so-called 5Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and
Partnership. The EU’s results framework was revised in 2018 in line with the New
Consensus.80
The above set of frameworks meant that, during the period under review in this study, the EU’s reporting on
development cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa had to relate to the MDGs, SDGs, the 5Ps, as well as to
other thematic priorities as determined in the EU’s strategies. 81 Whereas the 5Ps feature in the
Commission’s annual reporting, the essence of the reporting relates to the SDGs. One reason for the
inconsistency is that there are ongoing discussions in the OECD DAC about adapting the OECD Creditor
Reporting System, which would allow the application of SDG markers 82, whereas the EU would have to
make its own aggregations in relation to the 5Ps. The latter is not straightforward since there are a number
of overlaps between the SDGs that relate to the various Ps.
b.

Two observations on data consistency

First of all, the various reporting approaches do not always apply the same definition of sectors, or refrain
from presenting definitions of such sectors. Moreover, they tend to use aggregate labels that include various
sectors, to the point that the resulting totals presented are of limited descriptive value (e.g. ‘multi-sector
aid’). Other sources, such as the EU Aid Explorer, clarify that their sector definitions are based on the OECD
Creditor Reporting System’s purpose codes.83 Yet these codes are defined in a rather concise manner,
making a desk officer’s decision to report an intervention as ‘infrastructure’, ‘ICT’ or ‘energy’ at least partially
a subjective one.

79
80
81

82

83

See https://euaidexplorer.ec.europa.eu/
https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/10102/2018/EN/SWD-2018-444-F1-EN-MAIN-PART-1.PDF
One example concerns the EU’s separate reporting on aid for trade, with the 2019 edition available here:
https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/eu-aid-for-trade-progress-report-2019_en.pdf
The
proposal
of
introducing
such
markers
is
available
here:
https://one.oecd.org/document/DCD/DAC/STAT(2018)41/REV1/en/pdf
These are available here: https://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/purposecodessectorclassification.htm

103

Secondly, the involvement of several EU institutions and initiatives in development cooperation with SubSaharan Africa result in separate reporting processes on the individual initiatives. Specifically, in addition to
the Commission’s engagement that is covered in the annual reports, there is separate reporting on the
European Investment Bank, which represents roughly a quarter of total EU development cooperation
today.84 The same applies to the various EU-managed trust funds, chief among them being the Union’s
Emergency Trust Fund for Africa created in 2015.85 The OECD online statistics and the EU aid explorer
tend to use different understandings and concepts of channels and modalities compared to the EU’s own
reporting processes.
Given the above observations, the choice was made to primarily rely on the EU Aid Explorer website and
the OECD CRS, supplemented by the annual reporting in case additional information was available there.
Supplement to chapter 3 (evaluation evidence)
To analyse the evaluations, a common analytical grid was developed that allowed the study team to
examine the various reports in a systematic and consistent manner, and capture the main findings in relation
to evaluation criteria and the aforementioned eight Dutch priorities. It is emphasised that the present review
does not present an analysis of the quality of the evaluations analysed, since the EU institutions that
commissioned or produced these reports (as appropriate) have their own systems to assure this.
Once these individual grids were prepared and checked, the key findings were aggregated in an online
spreadsheet that allowed the study team to cross-analyse the findings in relation to the eight priorities. While
providing for a structured approach that the large number of evaluation reports necessitated, one limitation
of the analysis is that different (combinations of) research methods were applied in the evaluation reports
and that the evidence as collected thus differed in levels of robustness. Another limitation concerned the
differing time periods that the various evaluations looked into, some going back before the 2013-2018 period
under review here. Since this could not be differentiated or otherwise compensated for in the approach to
analysis used, the analysis presented should be seen as a structured yet inter-subjective assessment of the
EU’s development cooperation results in Sub-Saharan Africa.

84
85

See OECD’s 2018 DAC Peer Review of the European Union.
Headlines of the EU Emergency Trust Fund are reported in DEVCO’s annual report, with further details on the
expenditure
presented
in
the
reporting
by
the
EUTF
project
staff
(see:
https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/index_en).

104

Annex 5: Data grid used for the analysis of the 55
evaluations
Descriptive information
Title of study/evaluation
Focus (geographic, thematic, process)
Legal instruments covered
URL to online report

Main findings in relation to evaluation criteria
Relevance: (i) What do evaluations tell about the relevance of EU development aid interventions, in
particular for the poor (women & men)? (ii) How do the evaluations interpret the notion of the added value
of EU development aid vis-à-vis bilateral aid of the EU-member states and what are the findings and
conclusions with respect to this added value?
Result with page number
(add further rows if needed)

between

[brackets]

Link to Dutch thematic priorities

Effectiveness – (i) What do evaluations tell about the ability of EU development aid to achieve results
(main outputs) and realise the expected development outcomes and impact (including attention for
gender equality)? (ii) What do they tell about the results of the EU’s political dialogue with partner
countries?
Result with page number
(add further rows if needed)

between

[brackets]

Link to Dutch thematic priorities

Impact and sustainability: What do evaluations tell about the impact of EU development aid and the
sustainability of outputs and benefits (including environmental sustainability)?

105

Result with page number
(add further rows if needed)

between

[brackets]

Link to Dutch thematic priorities

Policy coherence for development: What do evaluations tell about the influence of EU policies in other
areas (i.e. trade, agriculture, security, human rights and migration) on the results and outcomes of
development aid?
Result with page number
(add further rows if needed)

between

[brackets]

Link to Dutch thematic priorities

Complementarity: (i) What do evaluations tell of the results of initiatives to ensure coherence and
complementarity of EU development aid with aid provided by EU-member states, other donors (including
NGOs), the private sector and national government funding? (ii) Have coherence and complementarity
between different EU-instruments (including EU trust funds, EIB interventions) been ensured?
Result with page number
(add further rows if needed)

between

[brackets]

Link to Dutch thematic priorities

Efficiency: (i) What do evaluations tell about the efficiency of EU development aid? (ii) What is known
about the use of monitoring and evaluation to improve development effectiveness?
Result with page number
(add further rows if needed)

between

[brackets]

106

Link to Dutch thematic priorities

Does the report present any reflections that is of interest to research question 1, in particular
reflections on the (un)intended consequences of policy changes?

(Overall assessment:) Does the report’s findings inform any overall assessment in relation to
changes since the outcomes of the 2013 IOB evaluation? (see annex 2)

107

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The European Centre for Development Policy Management
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