172 | CHAPTER4. HUMANRESoURCES
a

lntermediate categories include academic staff with substantial research or teaching
experience" typically granting them the right to lead research projects and to teach at
postgraduate level. This category includes titles such as research fellow, post-doctoral

fellow, senior assistant, lecturer, senior lecturer. senior teacher, teaching assistant.
assistant professor and associate professor.
a

Senior categories refer to the highest ranks ofacademic staff, including professors. senior
researchers and scientific directors. .Tob titles for this category of staff include professor
and senior researcher.

Table 4.a. Academic staff categories in higher education institutions in participating
jurisdictions (2017)

Category Estonia
Junio¡
categories

The Flemish

The Netherlands

Norway

, Early stage researcher

. Graduate teaching &

. Student assistant

(Nooremteaduf

research assistant
(Asslsfenf)

(Sfudenf asslsfenf)

. Lecturer
(Høgskolelektor/

' Teacher (Öpefa1a)

. Assistant (/sslsf enf )

. nstructor (lnsf rukfor)
I

Communig

. Senior research fellow

. Doctorate candidate

Universitetsleldor/

lPromovendus)

Høyskolelærer)

. Doctorate research
fellow (Sfþendraf)

(Docfor-assisfent)

. Junior researcher
lntermediate

. Lecturer (Lekfor)

. Practice tutor

. Post-doctoral

. Post-doctoral fellow

categories

. Research fellow

(Praktijklector)

(Postdoktor)

(Teadur)

. Tutor (Lecfor)

researcher
(Ondenoeker)

. Senior assistant

. Assistant professor

. Lectu rer ( Unluersrfair

( Vanemasslsfenf)

(Docentl

docent)

. Associate professor
(Forsleamanuensls)

. Associate professor

'Associate professor

(Hoofdocentl

(U niv ersit air hoof d d oce nt

. Teaching assistant

(UHD) - Senior lectere)

(Praktijkassistent)

. Assistant professor

. Lecturer (Forsf e/ekf or)

(U niver sitair d ocent (U D)

- Lecterer)
Senior
categories

(Dofsenf)

. Professor (Hoogleraar)
. Full professor (6ewoon

. Professor

hoogleraar)

. Associate professor

. Professor
(H o o g I e r a a r/p r ofe ss

ol

. Docent (Dosenf)
. Professor (Professor)

. Senior research fellow
(Vanemteadu¡)

. Research professor
(Juhtivteadur\

Note'. ln Norway and the Flemish Community, contract research staff remunerated from external funds have
not been included in the table. Some categories in the Flemish Community exist only in professional HEIs,
such as those found in the intermediate categories (practice tutor ( Praktijklector) and lutor (Lector)).
Source'. EC, EACEA and Eurydice (2017¡s), Modernisation of Higher Education in Europe - Academic Staff
2017, hthpslldo|.orgll}.27971408169; information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the reader's

guide for further information.

4. 2.2. Srølf quølifications

Academic staff qualifications give an indication of staff competences. The primary
qualification for academic staff is usually an advanced degree at the master's or doctorate
level, which largely prepares them for a research career. However, this can vary across
countries and depend on the level of programmes delivered. Specific qualifications,
ranging from education degrees to specific certificates on teaching in higher education or
research, are also becoming more important in some countries.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

cHAPrER4. HUMANRESoURcES I tzs

To ensure certain standards in higher education, govemments may monitor staff
qualifications or impose qualification requirements for access to certain job titles'
Information on qualìficatións and their requirements across OECD countries is not
generally availablã, but evidence shows that they differ among participating jurisdictions'

In Estonia, legislation defines each academic position (Box4.1); the minimum

qualification and-experience requirements for each position are regulated in the Standards
óf Hig¡.. Education (KHS). Fôr example, KHS sets a master's degree as a requirement
for juãior positions, and a doctoral degiee for senior positions. ln 2017 ,94Yo of academic
stafiwith ieaching duties across all inititutions had a master's or doctoral degree, and this
proportion was mirch higher in universities (99%) than in professional HEIs (75%). Only
àroun¿ lo/o of academ-íc sþff did not hold a higher education qualification. This
proportion was negligible in universities, while itwas 4o/o in professional HEIs'

In the Flemish Community, legislation defines the qualification requirements for

academic positions. For exarnple, ãcademic staff require at least a bachelor's degree for
(e.g.
the lowesf rank of teaching, and a doctoral degree for some intermediate positions
assistant professor and associate professor) and senior categories available to the
,.autonomôus" academic staff.t Foi other intermediate categories, such as teaching
assistant (university and professional HEIs) and lector (professional HEIs), staff must
have a master's degree.

In the Netherlands, the govemment sets targets on minimum qualifications for academic
staff in public institutions, with 80% of staffrequired to have at least a master's degree.
In Norway, there are national regulations on the minimum qualification standards for the
various cåiegories of academic staff (Norwegian Act on Universities and University
Colleges (Universitets og høyskoleloven, 2005), with supporting detailed regulation
(Forikrift om ansettelse ãg opprykk,2006) (Frølich etal., 2018¡rot). In 2016, around9Yo
òf académic staff with teactting duties in higher education did not have a higher education
qualification, 8olo of them had a short-cycle tertiary education qualification, and74o/ohad
either a master's or a doctoral degree.2 Qualification requirements are regulated for each
of the major positions (professõr, associate professor, senior lecturer and lecturer)'
professors are required ìo have scientific or artistic competence in alignment with
national and intemãtional standards and proven pedagogical competence, while lecturers
need a master's degree (or relevant professional practice) in addition to pedagogical
competence (Frølicñeta1.,20181101). Institutions will accept both doctorate holders and
profåssionals without a doctorate degree but with documented relevant academic
ðompetence for associate professor positions. A legal requirement has been put in place,
in wtricn peer review of qualifications is a condition for employment in positions at the
medium and senior levels.
Qual ificaÍ ions requ ired

þr te aching

Criteria for career advancement take into consideration qualifications and àchievements
in research and teaching, although, in some countries, achievements in research are
valued more highly thán teaching skills (OECD, 2008¡rr¡). Nevertheless, there is
increasing focusãn-improving teaching skills in higher education. For example, a2013
report b/ a High Levél Group on the Modemisation of Higher Education in the EU
reðommänded þedagogical trãining for academic staff, with mandatory continuing
professional developmãnt by 2020. The report also recommended that recruitment and

promotion be linked to teaching performance (High Level Group on the Modemisation of
Higher Education, 2013v).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

174 | cHAPTER4. HuMANRESouRCEs

Individual countries have also taken measures to enhance the consideration of teaching
skills when evaluating candidates for teaching positions (e.g. Australia, the Netherlands,
Norway and Sweden) (VSNU, 20l8rr:tt Australian Government,2}lírtqti Frølich et al.,
2018rrot).

The Standard of Higher Education (KHS) in Estonia requires all staff in teaching
positions to have teaching skills and experience. Specific training or teaching
qualifications are not required by legislation, but higher education institutions have the
autonomy to set them as a requirement. For example, teaching and supervising experience
are part ofthe competences required for doctoral graduates, although the extent to which
they must have engaged in these activities during their doctoral programmes is not
specified. The KHS also authorises specialists (with at least secondary education and

three years of work experience within their profession) to teach practical courses in
professional HEIs (referred to as "instructors"). In addition, the government encourages
teaching qualifications by including them in performance agreement goals.

In the Flemish Community, the Codex Hoger Onderwijs (Codex) presents a policy
framework for academic staff. There are no specific teaching qualifications required in
the Codex, but teaching activities may be undertaken during graduate programmes
(master's and doctoral). The Codex does, however, stipulate a minimum amount of time
dedicated to the preparation of doctoral degrees. For example, graduate students who
undertake teaching activities, as well as research assistants at universities and university
colleges, must spend at least half of their time on the preparation of their doctorates.
Teaching qualifications for academic staff in universities and professional HEIs have
been developed in the Netherlands to'strengthen quality of teaching. The university
teaching qualification (UTQ) was developed by universities in response to a call by
government þr better teaching skills (Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science,
20ll¡sti 2015rrøt) (Box 4.2). The UTQ has contributed to a greater recognition of teaching
in higher education and more focused evaluations oflecturer training and teaching. It has
also provided a stronger basis for assessing staff quality and human resource policies in
the accreditation process (VSNU, 2018rr¡l). The share of teachers holding a UTQ

certificate has been included among the compulsory indicators in the performance
agreements with universities (see Chapter 3) in 2012, and as of 2016, 70Yo of teachers at

universities held an UTQ.
Professional HEIs have introduced a policy requiring all teachers with at least a 0.4 fulltime equivalent workload to obtain teaching qualifications developed specifically for the
subsector - an initial or lower level qualification (Basls Didactische Behuaamheid,
BDB), and a further qualification, which builds on the BDB, for senior teaching staff
(Seni or Kw al ifi c ati e s Onderwij s, SKO).

In Norway, criteria for different positions, including professor, associate professor,
docent and senior lecturer are described in the Regulations for Employment and
Promotion, 2006 (Forslcrift om ansettelse og opprykk, 2006). Academic staff have two
different career tracks: research-oriented (predominantly in universities) and teachingoriented (predominantly in university colleges) (Frølich et a1.,2018¡ro1).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2OI9

cHAPTER4.HUMANRESouRCES I tzs

Box 4.2. University Teaching Qualification (UTQ)' the Netherlands

The University Teaching Qualification (UTQ) is a certificate that attests to the teaching
competences of staff in scientific and academic education in Dutch universities.
The generic UTQ competences were developed in 2008 and include:

l Testing, assessment and feedback
2. Education and ICT plus blended learning
3. Diversity and inclusion
4. Ongoing professionalisation.
The key components of the UTQ entail:

r
r
¡

Evaluation of the staff member's teaching portfolio
Mentoring by a senior lecturer or teaching expert

Pafticipation in a community of teachers to learn from peers and reflect on teaching
practices.

Source:Association of Universities in the Netherlands (20l8tr¡t) Professionalisation of
Universily Lecturers: The UTQ and Beyond,
http://www.vsnu.nl/files/documenten/Professionalisation%20ofllo20universitvo/o20lecturers.pdf.

4.2.3. Age structure of ucødemic stafÍ

The age structure of the academic workforce has been a concern in many OECD
countries since at least the 2000s (OECD, 2008trrl). On average across OECD countries
and economies, the majority of academic staff is 45 years of age or older, though the
share can reach as high as 70o/oin some countries (Italy and Slovenia). The share of staff
older than 44 increased from 49%o to around 54% between 2005 and 2016 (Figure 4.1)'

In contrast, in the participating jurisdictions, the share of staff older than 44 decreased in
the same period (2005 dala for Estonia is not available). Apart from Estonia, which has a
level similar to the OECD average, the participating jurisdictions also have a smaller
share of staff over the age of 45, compared to the OECD average. This is particularly the
case in the Netherlands, where the proportion of staff aged 44 or over is more than ten
percentage points below the OECD average.
Older age profiles in some countries are partly related to demographic and social changes
leading to an extension of the working life into an older age. The structure of the
academic career path in some countries is also a faclor, where a long career ladder means
that it can take a considerable amount of time for academic staff to work their way up to
the professorial level (OECD, 2008¡rr¡). It can also be affected by long training periods
for doctoral students in some countries and the age of new academics. For example, while
training periods of three to four years are common among the participating jurisdictions,
in the case of the United States, doctoral candidates can take from six to nine years to
complete, depending on the subject and institution (see Chapter 6).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

176 | CHAPTER 4. HUMAN RESoURCES
Figure 4.1. Share ofacademic staffin higher education older than 44 years old (2005 and
2016)
Full-time equivalent

o/o

t2016

o 2005

80
70
bU

oo o
o

50

40
30
20
'10

Notes: *Participating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance exercise 201712018.
Instead of20l6, data refer to 2013 for Australia and Ireland, 2014 lor Denmark and Poland, and 2015 for the
Czech Republic.
Austria, Latvi4 Luxembourg and Norway: Data refers to 2010 instead of 2005.
Czech Republic: Data for 2005 excludes staffwho are not only paid through the govemment budget.
Belgium and the Flemish Community: Data exclude independent private institutions; data on short-cycle
tertiary education refer only to the Flemish Community.
Canada, France and Norway: Data for 2005 and 2016 are not entirely comparable because ofmethodological
changes in the data sources or the underlying methodology.
Italy: Data for 2005 excludes private institutions.
Spain: Data for 2005 exclude university research staffwithout teaching duties.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2018112¡), OECD Education Sîaüstics, http://dx.doi.ore/10.1787/edu-data-en;
data provided by the Flemish Ministry of Education and Training.

staxLink +l¡p httos:/idoi.o¡r/l 0. 1787/888933940607

A substantial share of older academic staff may have implications for the sustainability of
a higher education system. On average across OECD countries, around 15% of academic
staff in higher education is 60 or older, some 40%o is between 45 and 59 years of age,
abouf 27o/o is between 35 and 44,and about 18% is younger than 35 (Figure 4.2).lna
number of countries, such as Germany, Luxembourg and Turkey, academic staff tend to
be younger, with over 40o/ounder the age of 35. Luxembourg in particular has a majority
of staff (almost 60%) aged less than 35, and less than 4Yo of staff are over 60.
However, this younger profile is the exception more than the rule. In Estonia, Hungary,
lfaly,Latviaand Slovakia 20o/o or more of academic staff is 60 or older. There are also six
countries (Poland, Korea. Greece, Italy, Slovenia and Switzerland) where the share of
staffyounger than 35 is less than l0olo.
The high share of academic staff in higher education older than 60 in the participating
jurisdictions (around 22o/o in Estonia and 17o/o in Norway) implies that it will be
necessary to attract a large number of younger academic staff in the near future, as the
older employees retire. The ability to attract younger staff appears to vary across
jurisdictions. The Netherlands has one of the largest shares of academic staff younger

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2OI9

cHAPTER4. HUMANRESoURcES I tll

than 35 (about one-third), while in Norway this share is about 30%o, and in Estonia and
the Flemish Community it is 16%, just below the OECD average.
Figure 4.2. Share ofacademic staffin higher education, by age group (2016)

¡ Younger thän 35 years

o/o

03S44 years

r 4$59 years

lOlder than 60 years

100

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
'10

.q.{c
Note: *Participating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance exercise 201712018.
Higher education systems are ranked in descending order ofthe share ofacademic staffaged younger than 35
years. For the definition of academic staff, see Box 4. I . Data exclude post-secondary, non-tertiary education
in Japan and exclude short-cycle education in Luxembourg. Data refer to public institutions for France and
Ireland, and exclude independent private institutions for Norway.
Soarce: Adapted from OECD (2018¡r1), OECD Education Statistics, http://dx.doi.ore/10.1787ledu-data-en;
data provided by the Flemish Ministry of Education and Training.

statllnk tup

httns ://doi. org/ I 0. I 78?/888933940626

Legislation around the age of retirement also can affect the age proflle of staff. For
instance, in the United States, the Federal Age Discrimination in Employment Act came
into effect in 1993 for higher education institutions, eliminating the requirement to retire
at 70. This was initially thought to have a minimal impact on higher education. However,
an empirical study of data from a large metropolitan research university (from l98l to
2009) indicated that 60%o of faculty are expected to remain employed beyond 70 yearsold (with the projections of 15% retiring at 80 years-old or over) since the change in law
(Weinberg and Scott, 2013¡ra1). Box 4.3 outlines requirements around the retirement age
in the participating j urisdictions.

An ageing academic staff can have significant budgetary implications, as older staff are
more likely to be in senior positions and therefore have higher salaries. Current staff in
some OECD countries may be members of generous pension schemes that were
developed at a time when there were less staff who retired earlier. The effects of
massification of higher education systems in the 1960s and 1970s in many countries, with
the comfnensurate recruitment of large numbers of academic staff, are now leading to
greater concerns about the workforce and budget implications. In some jurisdictions it is
becoming more difficult for younger people to enter the academic workforce or find
stable employment. Indeed, younger academic staff are more likely to work under
precarious contracts (Section 4.3.2).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

178 | CHAPTER4. HUMANRESOURCES
Box 4.3. Retirement age in participating jurisdictions

In Estonia, requirements around the retirement age vary for different categories of academic staff.
Some staff are entitled to remain at work past the retirement age. They can receive the title of

professor emeritus or docent emeritus, on the condition of having reached the age of retirement
with at least 10-15 years of working experience (depending on the type of higher education
institution). A professor emeritus or docent emeritus is entitled to a salary (according to the
procedures established by the council), which is paid by the government (Eurydice.20l8trsl).

In the Ftemish Community, in 2011. the retirement age and the required number of years of
se¡ice were raised with no frxed minimum age limit. Tenured staff with at least 20 years of work

experience at a university college may now opt to go on the reserve list full or part-time prior to
retirement (and may be entitled to an allouance). The reserve list start date is aligned with the

applicant's minimum pensionable age. A revised reserve list scheme was approved by the trader¡nions in 2012 with new criteria according to the year of birth and years of work. As of 2012, staff
members may continue working after retirement age (65) while respecting the rules for combining
pension and paid work (Eurydice, 2018¡rs1).
In the Netherlands, the General Old Age Pensions Act (AOW) defines the age for retirement. and
access to an old age pension. The government is implementing incremental changes, so that by
2021 the retirement age rvill be 67 years-old (currently 66 years). The retirement age will be linked
to life expectancy by 2022, with higher education staff entitled to supplementary pension (in
addition to the one available for civil servants). Pensions rvill be based on average salary up to the
age of entitlement. Pensions prepared before that date are based on the final salary (Eurydice,
2018¡re1).

In Norway, social security and pension rights are regulated by law. The retirement age is 67 years
and the government has set the maximum deferral age for retirement at 75 years.

Many OECD countries have policies aimed at attracting young academic talent, while
some also have initiatives for retaining and training both younger and older staff as seen
in the participating jurisdictions (see Box 4.4). For example, Australia's higher education
institutions target early career academic staff with teaching and research skills training
and mentoring programmes. In Canada, funding initiatives also focus on young academic
staff, providing support and mentoring pro$ammes, in addition to increasing the number
of senior academic positions (Hanover Research Council, 2009rzq).
Box 4.4 Policies related to attracting young talent to academia in the participating

jurisdictions
Estonia,s Research, Development and Innovation Strategy makes information on academic career
paths widely available to youth from Estonia and abroad (Estonian Ministry of Education and
hesearch, 2074ptù. Dedicated programmes include the Dora Plus programme (focused on learning
and teaching) and the Mobilitas programme (focused on R&D). Both programmes are largely
funded by the EU and aim to raise awareness of employment opportunities among young
international researchers (and post-doctoral researchers) and support mobility through grants.

In the Flemish Community, the Pegasus programme (a programme co-financed by the European
Union under the Marie Curie research funding scheme) funds one-year and three-year fellowships
for incoming and outgoing young post-doctorate researchers (91 by 2016). Selected fellows are
offered the same employment conditions as other researchers employed by the institutions at the
same level, in line with the European Charter and Code (8C,2016¡zz).

RENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 20I9

cHAPTER4. HUMANREsouRCES

The Dutch government and other stakeholders are responding to a forecasted shortage ofengineers
and scientists in all sectors ofthe economy, including higher education. The National Science Pact
2020, signed in 2013 by various stakeholders (including businesses, public authorities and
educational institutions), promotes science and engineering programmes to pupils, and as a career
for young graduates (Techniekpact,20l5¡zt). In addition, the Pact has encouraged recruitment
efforts towards young researchers working abroad.

The Research Council of Norway (RCN) has launched initiatives to increase an interest in
researcho such as the Science Knowledge Project for children (Nysgjerrigper), the Proscienlia
project (promoting interest in research and science among young people aged 12-21 years-old) and
an Annual Science Week. The RCN works in collaboration with other stakeholders, such as the
Norwegian Contest for Young Scientists. It also funds awards such as the Young Excellent
Researchers award; applicants need to prove scientific quality, leadership skills. and international
experience (Benner, Mats; Öquist, 2014¡ul.

4,2,4. Gender bølance among academic staff
Despite progress, female representation remains an issue in academia, especially in
certain fields and in senior positions. Women tend to be underrepresented at senior levels
of academia and management in higher education. Only 13% of higher education
institutions in27 EIJ countries were headed by women in 2009 (Morley, 2014tzsì. Studies
also show that the undeffepresentation of women at senior levels of higher education is an
important factor in explaining gender pay gaps. For example, reports on pay disparities in

UK higher education institutions show an average gender pay gap for academics of
around 12o/o, with the widest gap in favour of men for non-academic staff at the senior
management level at l4Yo;in some institutions this gap can be over 25yo (UCU,2015rza).
Overall, the gender gap is closing among OECD countries in terms of participation in the
academic workforce; the average share of women among academic staff increased by five
percentage points from 2005-2016 (Figure 4.3). Among participating jurisdictions with
available data, the Flemish Community and the Netherlands had the largest increase in
the share of women among academic staff over this period. The Flemish Community
increased the share of women to 49%o in 2016, from 38% in 2005; and the Netherlands
increased to 45%oin2016from35o/o in 2005.
Women accounted for 45Yo of academic staff of all ages in higher education in 2016, on
average across OECD countries. This share ranged from one-third or less in Greece and
Japan to more than two-thirds in the Czech Republic and Poland. In Estonia and the
Flemish Community, women accounted for close to half of the academic staff.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

I tll

1S0 | CIIAPTER4. HUMANRESoURCES
Figure 4.3. Share of women among academic staff in higher education, all age groups (2005
and 2016)
Yo

¡ 2016

o 2005

80
70
60
50
40
JU

l\)
10

llllllillllnllllllunllllnrh

Note: *Pafücipating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance exercise 201712018.
See Figure 4.1 for notes on academic stafftrend data.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2018¡r¡), OECD Education Statistics, http://dx.doi.orel10.1787/edu-data-en;
data provided by the Flemish Ministry of Education and Training.

statl.Dk æF

https://doi.orøl

0. I 7871888933940645

Women are better represented in younger age groups, accounting for about 50o/o of
academic staff younger than 35 on average across OECD countries, a substantially larger
share than among academic staff of all ages (Figure 4.4). The share of female academic
staff younger than 35 is larger than their overall share among all ages in all countries

except for the Czech Republic, Finland, Latvia and Lithuania (who already have a
relatively large share of women among academic staff). This suggests that future
representation of women among academic staff in the OECD could increase, if young
female academics are retained.

The share of women among acaelemie staff in the 35-44 and 45-59 a€e groups is lower
than in the youngest age group in most countries, and the share of women among
academic staff aged 60 and older is the lowest, on average across OECD countries (about
one-third). The share of women among academic staff aged 60 and older is largest in
Poland (almost 60%) while in Japan less than 20o/o of academic staff over 60 are women
(Figure 4.4).

The share of women among academic staff younger than 35 is over 60%o in the Flemish
Community, one of the highest shares among OECD countries. Women in this age goup
represent just over half of all academic staff in Estonia and the Netherlands, and around
45Yo in Norway. The share of female academic staff aged 60 or older is relatively high in
Estonia and Norway (about 40%o), while it is below 30o/o in the Flemish Community and
the Netherlands (Figure 4.4).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI 9

cHAPTER4.HUMANRESouRCES I tgt
Figure 4.4. Share of women among academic staff in higher education, by age groups (2016)
o/o

oYounger than 35 yeaß

x 35-44 years

.4$59 yeaß

-older than 60 years

80

^T

70
bU

50

40
30

IU

IÏtlttllÂlllll'rlltlTIt*Tr'1"sr

10

"È$"$e\.þÌ*1,..5.ie-.o
Note.. *Participating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance exercise 201'112018.

Data.refer to-pubùc institutions for France and lreland, and exclude independent private institutions for
Norway.

Sourci: Adapted from OECD (2018¡rz¡), OECD Education Statistics, http://dx.doi.ore/10.1787/edu-data-en;
data provided by the Flemish Ministry of Education and Training.

statLink*ry
The gender gap at senior levels of academia is persistent in many OECD countries,
incluãing the United States and Canada. In fhe United States, only about 39% of women
achieved tenure positions in 2015 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016wì.
Similarly, a study covering the length of service and average years of experience of
university presidents in Canada from 1840-2011 showed that female representation
increaseã d-uring the 1980s to close Io 20o/o in the mid-1990s, but has since stagnated
(Turpin, De Decker and Boyd, 20l4psù.

In Australia, national frameworks such as the Australian Vice Chancellors' Committee
Action Plan for Women Employed in Australian Universities, 1999 to 2003, supported
female leadership in higher education (Winchester and Browning,20t5¡ze1). This action
plan and subsequent initiatives led to the inclusion of equity strategies and performance
indicators in the institutional planning of many higher education institutions. Monitoring
gender representation in academia over the past three decades has shown a signifìcant
improvement in gender balance. In the mid-1980s, women composed only 20%o ofacádemic staff (60/o of senior positions), while in 2014 this share had increased Io 44o/o of
academic staff (3lYo of senior positions) (Winchester and Browning, 20152sù.
Nonetheless, a 2016 report by Universities Australia indicates that only l5Yo of
chancellors and 25Yo of vice chancellors in Australia were women in 2016. Furthermore,
while the majority of university councils were gender balanced and the majority of
academic board chairs were women, they only represented 20o/o of chairs of key boards
and committees. In addition, only 34%o were heads of faculties or schools (Universities
Australia, 201 6po1).

In Japan, where the share of women in academia is the lowest in OECD countries with
availáble data (Figure 4.3), the government has addressed gender inequity through the
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERTORMANCE O OECD 2019

1s2 |

CHAPTER 4. HUMAN RESOURCES

Promotion of Women's Participation and Advancement in the V/orkplace Act 2016
(Japanese Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2016t¡rl). In response, the Association
of National Universities in Japan developed an Action Plan for 2016-2020 to improve
gender equity in Japanese public universities, with targets to increase the share of women
in faculty by 10% on average, and the share of women at the senior level (e.g. presidents,
chairmen and vice-presidents) by 12% on average (The Japan Association of National
Universities, 2017 ¡tz).
Table 4.1. Initiatives that promote gender equity among academic staff in participating

jurisdictions (2017)

European Charter
for Researchers and
the Gode of Conduct
for Recruitment of
Researchers

Estonia

The Flemish Community The Netherlands

Endorsed by five

Endorsed by 20

organisalions,
including the

organisations, including
higher education

Norway

Endorsed by 10
organisations, including
the Association of
Universities on behalf of
all members

organisations, including
the Research Council of
Universities Norway

Endorsed by 22

Research Council and

institutions, ministr¡es,

the Academy of Arts

funding and research
organisations*

European Research
Area and lnnovation
Committee (ERAC)
(EU initiative)

Member

lVlembef

Member

Observer

European Research
Area (ERA)
Roadmap

lmplementation Plan
2016-2019

Belgian EM Roadmap
2016-2020*

Top Action Priority in the

Norwegian ERA
Roadmap 2016-2020

(EU initiative)

EM Roadmap 20152020

(EU initiative)
Inclusion of a gender
diversity indicator (the
share of women in
research positions at
different levels) ìn
indicators for research
formula funding - 2% of
the Special Research Fund

National initiatives:

funding

(see Chapter 3)

Nat¡onal initiatives:

Public-private co-funding

networking

of research fellowships for

women ¡n biomedical
sciences (with the
involvement of L'Oréal
Belgilux, the Flemish
Research Foundation and
other organisations (FW0,
2018Bq)

National initiatives:

Monitor gender

monitoring
processes

balance when hiring
researchers,
allocating granls and
filling positions in
decision-making
bodies (Research and
Development and
lnnovation Strategy

2014-2020)

Gender monitoring
programme that reviews
and assesses policies.
Further monitoring is also
undertaken by the Flemish
lnteruniversity Council

Funds for the recruitment
of 100 female professors
(Westerdijk lmpulsl

Additional funding for
institutions appointing
female faculty members

(NWO,20l71sat);

Government target: 200
new female professors by
2020; Government grants
for women in physics
research (NWO, 20171æl)
The Dutch Network of
Women Professors

Several networking
platforms (e.9. Women's

(LNVH), ofover 1 100

lnformation Network of

fenrale (associate)
professors, promotes

Europe), store and share

equal representation of
women within the
academic community
(LNVH,2018¡$t)

informalion and academic
publiætions on gender
related studies; and
connect doctoral students
and junior researchen

All higher education
institutions are

encouraged to increase
the diversity of staff
(including gender, migrant
background, etc.), monitor
and report on progress in
this area (Dutch Ministry
of Education, Culture and
Science,20lTpq)

Note: *lnitiaÍives implemented at the national (Belgian) level.
Source: Adapted from information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the reader's guide for
further information.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

cHAPTER4.HUMANREsoURcEs

Numerous initiatives have been put in place in recent years at EU and national levels to
promote gender equity among academic staff in Europe (Table 4,1). Ìvlany national policy
äctions iñthe participating jurisdictions are aligned with EU policy initiatives such as the
Charter and tÈe Code of Conduct for the Recruitment of Researchers, the European
Research Area Innovation Committee and the European Research Area,3 all of which
embed principles and encourage practices to promote gender balance at all levels'
Howevei, uuuilubl" evidence suggests that the gender gap is not closing in certain fields_
of work, for example technology ãnd engineering, as well as in the commercialisation of
research (see Chapter 6). Intemationally comparable data on gender balance by seniority
would be required to assess whether there is still a gender gap in the most senior positions
across countries.

All participating jurisdictions are also recipients of the Marie-Sklodwaska-Curie Actions
(MS'CA), à*ttr.i EU initiative . A 2012 study prepared indicated that female academics
àre genórally found to be less mobile than their male peers, at least in terms of
intemationaimobility (Euraxess, 20l7ptù. The MSCA provides grants to researchers at
all stages of their óureers supporting intemational, intersectoral and interdisciplinary
mobility (EC, 20l8pE). MSCA practices for gender equality include training on
un"onrðiou. gender biàs for evaluators of proposals; equal opportunities in projects

regarding support for researchers and project supervision; balanced gender representation
inãecisión-màking bodies, with a higher representation of women in the MSCA Advisory^
Group; and a higñer weight on gender dimension as a component of the research itself
(Euraxess, 2017ptù.
Gender equity is also promoted through many practices at the national level (Table 4.1),
indicatinggov"m-enf efforts to improve the system effectiveness in terms of equity. In
Estonia, thã Gender Equality Act2004 (Soolise võrdõiguslikkuse seadus 2004), amended
in2014, makes references to the responsibility of educational and research institutions, as

well as employers, to promote equality between men and women (Estonia Official
Gaze1fe, 20j3r;rr). Gender balance is also included in R&D objectives within the
Research and bévelopment and Innovation Strategy when frlling positions, allocating
grants and composing decision-making bodies (Estonian Ministry of Education and
Research, 20l4pt).
In the Flemish Community, the Flemish Ministry of Higher Education and Training, and
the Ministry of Work, Economy, Innovation and Sport are jointly responsible for gender
equality in research. Following a consultation process in2012 which included input from
fatulty deans and other stakeholders, regulations were developed to set targets for the

particlpafion of both genders in public universities' decision-making bodies (i.e.
university boards, research councils and selection juries).

In the Netherlands, gender equality and diversity are featured in the strategic plans of
many higher education institutions and promoted through gender equity frameworks. For
example, The Westerdijk Talentimpuls programme offers universities the opportunity 1o
apply for premiums if they appoint female researchers as professors (Table 4'l). The
Ministry oi Education, Culture and Science has also made a one-off investment of EUR 5
of 100 female professors' An amount of EUR 50 000 (per
million for the appointment
-U.
applied to additional salary costs associafed with the promotion of
appointment)
4.1) to professor, or with the research budget of the appointed professor.
ÚO¡UHO (Box"un

In Norway, all public institutions are obliged by law to take active steps to promote
gender eqiality (Norwegian Research Council, 20l7voù. The Research Council of
Ñort"uy is responsible for initiating, implementing and monitoring research activities on

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

I ts¡

184 | CHAPTER4. HUMAN RESOURCES
gender equality in higher education. The Committee for Gender Balance and DiverSity in
Research provides advice on matters related to the recruitment and promotion of women
in research in senior and management positions in higher education institutions.
4. 2, 5. Non-academic

støff categories

The role of non-academic staff in higher education has gained prominence due to an
increase in numbers in recent decades in some countries. ln the United Kingdom, data
collected by the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) for 2015 and
2016 indicated that more than half of the staff employed in higher education institutions
were professional and support staff (non-academic). The number of non-academic staff
has increased by 6% since2012-2013 (a substantial increase, although not as large as the
increase in academic staff by 9%) (HEFCE,2017srl HESA, 2017v2ù.
Research suggests that the ratio of non-academic staff to academic staff may not have
varied over time, although the nature of non-academic staff work has evolved over time
to meet changing needs. For instance, in Australia, the ratio of 1.3 non-academic staff to
academic staff members is the same as it was before the 1990s, when a large number of
support staff were engaged in tasks such as typing documents (Watts, 20l7vsù.
Figure 4.5 shows the ratio of non-academic staff per 100 academic staff in European
countries by subsector. Among countries with available data, the Flemish Community has
one of the lowest ratios of non-academic staff to 100 academic staff when lookingatall
higher education institutions, while the Netherlands and Norway are closer to the average.
Figure 4.5. Non-academic staff per 100 academic staff, by subsector (2015)
x Universities

a Professional HEls

-All HEls

200
180

x

160

140
120
100
8û
60

è4
40

^

X

I

È+

20
0

".,"*o ',$""_..".""

_$ì"._{.""" ..c ....- .c .""*

"*u Ìì*"."

* -.\$".":"t

Note: *Participating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Perlormance exercise 201712018.
Flemish Community: Data may exclude academic staff working in academic hospitals; data for professional
HEIs exclude staffthat is not paid by the institutions.
Norway: Data include only staff workng a minimum of 40%o of a full-time workload.
Source: Adapted from European Tertiary Education Register (20181++1), ETER Database, www.eterproiect.com.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 20I9

cHAPTER4.HUMAN RESoURcES I tss
Statl.ink a-ìa*$ httos ://doi.org/1 0. I 787l88893.3940683

Overall, universities tend to have higher ratios than professional HEIs. This may reflect
their distinct nature of work, i.e. the need for support staff in R&D activity. Figure 4.5
also highlights that different systems appear to have very different requirements for nonacademic staff, which may indicate differences in the functions carried out by different

job categories across countries.
The expansion which has occurred in many higher education systems has also created
changes in the profile and tasks ofadministrators, technicians and support staff. Increased
internationalisation, engagement, technology transfer and commercialisation of research

has led to the creation of more specialist positions (Di Leo, 2017vsù. Demands for
accountability have also led to greater numbers of staff responsible for reporting. The
development and implementation of technologyJed programmes (including online
delivery) has required staff to often perform a hybrid role (a mix of academic and nonacademic) that requires expertise in the areas ofinnovation, technology and pedagogy.
Non-academic staff are increasingly highly qualified and well paid, professionalised and
demanding more specialised career paths (Fahnert, 2015¡+ø1). As a result, many higher

education systems have witnessed a "managerial revolution" of non-academic
professionals in management and specialist roles in the university administration
infrastructure. Their impact on higher education performance is as yet unclear (Baltaru,
2018s), but highly skilled specialist staff could, in principle, contribute to a more
efficient use ofresources in higher education.

4.2.6. Senior manugement in higher education institutions
Table 4.2. Senior management roles in higher education (2017)
Estonia

Level I
(Chief
Executive)

Level 2

Universities and
professional HEls:

rector

Universities and
professional HEIs:

Examples from
othe¡
jurisdictions
(universities)

The
Netherlands

Norway

Community

Univenities:

Universities:

Universities and

Chanællor, vice

rector;

rector, president

university colleges:

chancellor,
president, provost,

The Flemish

rector

Professional HEls:
general director

principal

vice rector

Deputy vice
chancellor, provice chancellor

Dean

Universities: vice

Universities: vice

Universities and

rector

president

university colleges:

chancellorl director
for non-academic
units
Level 3

Universities: dean;

Universities: dean;

Universities:

Universities and

Professional HEls:
head of

Professional HEls:
head of
department

dean

university colleges:

department,

dean

director

Source: Eurydice (2018¡u1), National Education Systems, https://eacea.ec.eurooa.eu/national-

policies/eurvdice/national-description en; information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the
reader's guide for further information.

The transformation of universities in many countries from collegial communities of
academics into hierarchical organisations incorporating elements of private sector
management has led to changes in the way universities are managed (Broucker and De

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2OI9

136 | CHAPTER4. HUMANRESOURCES
V/it, 2015¡+r¡). However, senior management roles in higher education, from the executive
head (rectors, presidents, vice chancellors, general directors, etc.) to deans or heads of
faculties (Table 4.2), are usually held by academic staff. This reflects the long tradition of
intemal govemance in higher education and the importance of maintaining a strong
relationship and credibility with the academy.
However, in the modem higher education institution, a strong academic background
needs to be complemented by management and business skills to deal with large and
diversified funding streams, multiple internal govemance structures, and an external
representative profile (locally, nationally and internationally) (Middlehurst, 2013¡+o),
Senior managers need to be able to engage effectively in complex negotiations with
government and understand a vast array of laws and regulations related to higher
education.

The processes to select senior management staff and the selection criteria and
qualifications for these roles vary across countries, reflecting management practices
within jurisdictions. In some countries, legislation prescribes mandatory qualifications
and selection criteria for executive heads, including the academic staff level.
Requirements vary across the participating jurisdictions, as seen in the qualification
require*ents for executive heads in universities (Table 4.3). The process to select senior
management may entail an election by staff or the appointment by the council or board
(executive heads) or senior managers (those below executive heads). The European
Universities Association (EUA) Autonomy Tool notes four categories of selection
procedures for executive heads in European universities:

¡

elected by a specific electoral body that is usually large, representing (directly or
indirectly) the different $oups of the university community (academic staff, other
staft students), and whose votes may be weighted

o elected by the governing body that is democratically elected within the university
community (i.e. the body that decides on academic issues)

.

appointed by the council/board of the university (i.e. the governing body that
decides on strategic issues)

.

appointed through a two-step process in which both the senate and the council or
board are involved (Bennetot Pruvot and Estermann,201'7 ¡sol).

The election or appointment of executive heads in some jurisdictions needs to be
validated by extemal authorities, such as minister or head of government.
Some jurisdictions have specific protocols for the selection of executive heads of higher
education institutions. For example, in Estoni4 the selection process for the appointment
of executive heads ofuniversities is organised differently in four universities, according

to the University Act (UnA) (Ûlikooliseadus, 1995), as Tartu University and Tallinn
University of Technology have separate Acts (Estonia Official Gazette,1995¡sr¡). While
in Tartu University they are elected by council and senate, in Tallinn University of
Technology they are elected by university council (the highest decisive body). In
professional FIEIs under the Ministry of Education and Research, the selection process
requires a public competition. The candidates are selected by an electoral body composed
of seven members, where two are named by the ministry, two by the academic body (one
ofthem being a student), two by the advisory body, and one representing organisations
and companies from the field of professional HEIs. (Table 4.3).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

cTTAPTER4.HUMANRESouRcES I tsz

In addition, in Estonia there is no practice or mechanism for external validation
conceming the selection of the rector. However, the Minister of Higher Education and
Research appoints five out of I I members of the university council and the senate for the

two largest universities in Estonia (Tartu University and Tallinn University of
Technology). Meanwhile, the position of vice rector is defined in legislation (Estonian
Ministry of Education and Research,2014¡z¡). Professional higher education institutions
have ministry representatives in their committees (Table 4.3). In the case of universities,
according to the UnA, the most senior member of the council shall enter into a contract
with the rector for five years.
Table 4.3. Selection ofexecutive heads ofhigher education institutions in participating

jurisdictions (2017)
Estonia
Selection
criteria

. Univenities: open to all
professon

. Professional HEls: open to

Flemish Communi$ The Netherlands

Norway

Univercities:

Universities:

Universities: determined at

determined at the
institutional level

determined at the
inslitutional level

lhe instìtutional level

[Jniversities:

Universities:
members of the

Universities: determined at
the ¡nstitutional level. A
change in the law (April
2016), has made the
appo¡ntment of the reclor
by the university board the
main model to be used by
univenities, rather than an
election model

all Estonian citizens who are
professors or have at least a
maste/s degree
Selection

pfocess

. Universities: rectors are
elected in accordance with
procedures established
under the statute of each

determined at the
institutional level

institution

executive board, i.e.
the president, vice
president and rector

. Professional HEIs: elected

ofthe university, are

in accordance with lhe
procedure established by a

selected by the
supervisory board
(Raad van Toezichtl

government regulation
External

Not required

Not requked

validation

of
decision

Universities: must be
confirmed by the
Minister of Science
and Education

Not required

Note: ln Norway, around halfofthe universities appoint their rector through the university board or council,
while the other halfelect their rector through a process involving the university staff and students.
Source'.For universities, Bennetot Pruvot and Estermann (20171sq), University Autonomy in Europe III The
I 7. For professional
Scorecard 201 7, wwrv.eua.be/Libraries/publications/University-Autonomy-in-Europe-20
HEIs and independent private institutions, the OECD collected the information from the Estonian Ministty of
Education and Research and from national higher education institution associations (for the Flemish
Community, the Netherlands and Norway), based on the instruments developed by the European University
Association (Bennetot Pruvot and Esterman¡ , 2017 po).

As demands for efficiency and effectiveness increase, executive heads are being asked to
lead in a more proactive way, acting as CEOs of higher education institutions. They need
to prove management (including financial matters), leadership and business skills (Dinya,
2070¡sz1), although the provision of training is not done systematically across (nor within)
countries. This may have an effect on the capacity of higher education institutions to
implement reforms and perform efficiently.

4.3. Working in higher education

High quality working conditions are necessary to aflract and retain excellent academic
staff. Across the OECD countries covered in the Changing Academic Profession (CAP)
international survey in2007,2008 or 2010, there is a perception that working conditions
for academic staffare deteriorating. On average across these countries, the surveyed staff
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9

lSS I CHAPTER4. IIUMANRESOURCES
reported working 48 hours a week and almost half of them considered their job as a
source of considerable personal strain (Section 4.3.7) (Teichler, Arimoto and Cummings,
2013p:1). In addition, evidence from the OECD Survey of Adult Skills shows that higher
education offers young doctorate holders careers with similar job satisfaction, but less job
stability than other sectors of employment (Box 4.5). Good working conditions can help
to ensure an effective and sustainable higher education system; satisfied staff have the
right environment to produce better outputs and can be more easily retained in the
profession.
Box 4.5. Job stability and job satisfaction among doctorate holders

Within a representative sample of l6-65 year-olds in OECD countries and economies participating
in the OECD Survey of Adult Skills. 26% of doctorate holders younger than 45 worked in higher
education at the time the survey was conducted (in either 2012 or 2015), a proportion slightly (but
not significantly) lower than among 45-65 year-olds (28%)'
Doctorate holders in the 45-65 age group working outside higher education were slightly less
satisfied with their job than those working in higher education. but they were also slightly more
likely to repoft holding a permanent job (neither result is significant). The differences between
those working in higher education and other sectors were sharper among doctorate holders
younger than 45. In particular, younger doctorate holders in higher education were about 2'5 times
i.ss iit"ty to be employed on a permanent basis than those working in other sectors (this
difference is significant atthe'lo/o confidence level).

Table 6.a. Job stability and job satisfaction among doctorate holders (2012 or 2015)
Percentage reporting to be satisfied or very satisfied with their job and to have indefinite contracts, by sector
ofemployment and age grouP
With indefinite contracts

Satisfied with their iob

Younger than 45

45-65

Younger than 45

45-65

Higher educat¡on

71Yo

88%

24o/o*

69%

Other sectors

83%

79Yo

61o/o*

73o/o

Age group

Note: * The difference between higher education and other sectors is significant atthe SYo confidence level
(also when controlling for country fìxed effects). The sample size for the test is 582 fo¡ Column 1,574 for
Column 2, 5l 9 for Column 3, and for 475 for Column 4.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2016pa), OECD Sw"vey of Adult Skills, www.oecd.ordskills/piaacldata/.

These results are consistent with the findings from recent studies. However, the difficulty in
developing a sampling frame containing the full population of doctorate holders (McDowell,
2016psr) implies that such evidence is often not generalizable. For example, based on an online
survey, Sinche et al. (2017pøù found that US doctorate holders in research-intensive (including
academic) and non-research-intensive careers had similar levels ofjob satisfaction. Starting from
the premise that longitudinal data on career destinations for doctoral graduates are not routinely

collected in Australia, McGagh et al. (2016p21) review a small number of existing studies
suggesting that doctorate holders working in the academic sectot' have lower job stability than
others. ln addition" based on a survey of recent doctoral graduates from selected universities in
various European countries. the European Science Foundation (2017tsst) found that doctorate
holders in universities were less likely to be employed on permanent contracts than in other
sectors, while enioying similar levels ofjob satisfaction'

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

cITAPTER4.HUMANRESouRCES I tsq

4,3,1, Cureer paths in øcademia
Clear and well-designed academic career paths help ensure the sustainability of higher
education systems. An ideal academic career path will attract excellent staff, reward
productivity, promote stability, enable high quality teaching and innovative research, and
help to build a "world-class" reputation (Altbach and Musselin, 2015tssl). Career paths in
academia entail training,a employment contracts, hierarchy and the option of tenure
(Pechar and Andres, 2015¡eo1).

Employment contracts can be permanent or fixed term (for an overview of permanent and
non-perlnanent staff, see Section 4.3.2). Permanent or indefinite contracts in higher
education are often referred to as tenure. Staff on a tenured appointment are employed
under a permanent contract following a probation period and can only be dismissed for a
specific cause or under extraordinary circumstances. The process to obtain tenure may
comprise an agreed evaluation procedure with a peer-reviewed assessment of academic
accomplishments. However, the tenure system and academic staff career structures
remain very much national in form, with substantial variation across countries (OECD,
20081r r l).

There are different types of tenure due to different contexts; for example, in many
European countries, academic staff have the status of civil servants, in which case they
already have special treatment for job termination (only under special circumstances).
Academic tenure in North America follows a long probation period and rigorous (intemal
and external) peer review. In some countries, the career model of tenure has been
abolished (e.g. the United Kingdom), and employment contracts are limited to permanent
and fixed term.

While there is no single model for career paths across countries, initiatives such as the
European Union's Charter for Researchers and the Code of Conduct for the Recruitment
of Researchers facilitate academic mobility and help higher education institutions in the
region ensure that an academic's experience is recognised equally across the EU
countries. Associated guidelines for the recruitment process of academic staff include
advice on qualification requirements, working conditions and entitlements (i.e. career
development prospects), information to include in the advertisement for the post and what
is expected from applicants in their curriculum vitae (EC, 2005pr¡) (see Chapter 6).
"lable 4.4. Academic career structure, public institutions (2017)
Estonia

The Flemish

The

Netherlands Norway

Community
Criteria for career

Accomplishments as

progression withín
the national career

a researcher;

slruclure

Determined at the
institutional level

Determined at the

Accomplishments as

institutional level

a researcher and
teacher (academic
qualifications,

academic
qualifications

alternate academic
career path)
Basis for promotion
to a higher position

Positìon needs to be

vacant

Position needs to be
vacant

Determined at the
institutional level

Promotion is
possible upon
fulfilment of given
requirements or on a
vacant position

Not¿: National academic career structure varies according to the type of higher education institutions. The
information in this table applies to all public and government-dependent universities and professional HEIs.

RENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 20I 9

190 | CHAPTER4. HUMANRESOURCES
Source: Adapted from information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the reader's guide for
further information.

Table 4.4 provides a brief description of national frameworks for the career structure of
academic staff established in the participating jurisdictions.
Estonia and Norway have similar criteria for career progression (i.e. accomplishments as
a researcher, teacher and academic qualifications). The career structure is the same for all
higher education institutions in Norway. In addition, criteria for recruitment of new staff

in Norway are laid down in regulations that apply to all higher education institutions
(including some restrictions on the composition of selection panels and promotion
requirements)- The same criteria may vary in the Flemish Community and the
Netherlands, as they are determined at the institutional level.

In the Flemish Community, within the Codex framework, higher education institutions
define their own standards and procedures for professional ethics and evaluation, as well
as the appointment and dismissal of officials. If institutions use non-government funds,
candidates can be hired without going through the required recruitment procedure for
academic staff, which includes public advertising and a formal selection process (EC,
EACEA, Eurydice, 2017p1). In the other participating jurisdictions, higher education
institutions enjoy a large degree of autonomy in the hiring of new staff, provided that the
vacancies are made public.s

Higher education institutions have a relatively high level of autonomy in deciding on
promotion processes in the participating jurisdictions. Academic staff can be promoted
only when a position is vacant in Estonia, the Flemish Community and Norway
(universities). Meanwhile, in the Netherlands, rules for promotion are determined at the
institutional level.

In Norway, the criteria for promotion are similar to those for recruitment (including the
restrictions) (Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research,2006¡oz). Employees may
initiate the promotion process by requesting the appointment of a panel of academics to
take a decision on their promotion, e.g. from associate professor to professor. The
recruitment process follows public administration rules. V/orking conditions that are not
directly specified in the civil service regulations (such as salaries and provisions on career
development) are drawn from collective agreements between unions and higher education
institutions (Eurydice, 20 I Srrsl).
Based on the categories presented in Box 4.1, Table 4.5 presents a typical career path in
academia in the participating jurisdictions.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

cI{APTER4.HUMANRESouRCES
Table 4.5. Typical career path by type and subsector in participating jurisdictions (2017)

Estonia

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Teacher )

Lecturer

à Associate

) Professor

Step 5

Step 6

professor
The Flemish

Community

Graduate
teaching and

) Senior

) Asslstant

à Associate

professor

professor

research

) Professor

à Full
professor

lellow

research

assistant

The
Netherlands

Doctorate
fellow

) Posldoc

à Senior

(paid

)

Professor

lecturer

(onderzoeke

0

position)

Norway

Lecturer,
research
fellow, post-

)

Associate
professor

)

Professor

doc

Source: EC, EACEA and Eurdydice (2017¡s), Modernisation of Higher Educatìon in Europe - Academic Staff
20l7,httos:l1doi.ors.110.27971408169; information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the reader's
guide for further information.

In the case of Estonia, existing statutes (UnA, Standard of Higher Education) in addition
to presenting staff categories and responsibilities, also state the minimum qualification
requirements, requirement for public competition and open application procedures for the
election of teaching and research staff (with exceptions when the competition has failed
or the position is of temporary nature).
Estonian higher education institutions are free to promote academic staff; with minimum
requirements set in legislation. A typical academic career follows four steps (Table 4.5).
A doctorate is a requirement for a professorship under the Universities Act 1995 (Estonia
Official Gazefhe,1995rsrl). Appointments to professorial positions in public universities
are usually based on research performance and the successful supervision of doctoral
students. Performance and experience in other levels ofteaching is also considered, but it
receives less weight in the evaluation of a candidate. Associate professors (dotsent

-

teaching as main'activity) are also required to have a doctorate, but the successful
supervision of doctoral students is not as important (Estonian Ministry of Education and
Research, 2014¡et). There is a growing interest from higher education institutions in
adopting a framework of regulations that applies to academic career models, including the
awarding of tenure (Kanep, 2017¡e+). Such developments are being prepared within the
new higher education legislation.

In the Flemish Community, there are six steps to reach the most senior academic level.
Higher education institutions are free to promote senior academic staff (although the
promotion of administrative staff is more regulated) (Table 4.5). The Flemish government
also introduced a number of measures to provide more career stability to staff. Tenure
track for assistant professors was introduced in 2008, leading to a position of associate
professor with an ongoing contract upon positive evaluation at the end of a five-year

tenure period. The government has set a target of success rate for the Research
Foundation Flanders (Fonds voor \letenschappelijk Onderzoek (FWO)) grant applicants
of at least one-third, from the current 20o/o to allow sufficient competition among
researchers, without discouraging the submission of proposals. The aim is to retain

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2OI9

I tqt

192 | CIIAPTER 4. HUMAN RESouRcL,s
Flemish researchers who would apply abroad otherwise, and also to attract researchers
from abroad.

To ensure the sustainability of human resources in higher education, the Human

Resources in Research database in Flanders has been tracking academic career
progression of researchers connected to one of the five main universities since 1990'91,
collecting data on gender, discipline and funding. This data provides a solid base for the
planning and monitoring ofshort-term research contracts at entry and doctoral level, postdoctoral appointments, tenure positions and retirement (Debacker and Vandevelde,
20l6rosl).

There are four main steps in the academic career in the Netherlands (student assistant,
lecturer, senior lecturer and professor) (Table 4.5). Tenure tracks are a common step in
Dutch career paths. Each institution can autonomously define the length of tenure track
contracts (within the existing regulation) and the criteria for conversion to an ongoing
contract. The Netherlands also offers tenure track options for positions that are more
focused on teaching, such as lecturer. Under a job classification system (universitair
functieordeningssysteem, UFO) (Section 4.2.2), all Dutch university employees are
assigned ajob profile at a corresponding level.

The govemment has also implemented two programmes to assist professional higher
education institutions in improving the beginning of new teachers' academic careers, as

well as introduce new teaching ideas and practices in the higher education system. The
Vliegende programme aims to allract, select, and guide new teachers in their goals with
the aim to improve the career development of teachers (career launch and retention of
good teachers). The Comenius programme recognises outstanding and innovative
teaching by offering fellowships to academic staff, thereby increasing the status of
teaching within higher education institutions and advancing the careers of fellows (see
Chapters 3 and 5).

The typical academic career in Norway goes from lecturer, to associate professor, and
then professor (Table 4.5). At large universities, the typical career starts as a doctoral
fellow, then on to post-doc, associate professor and professor. \Mhile the associate
professors and professors are more common in universities, lecturers are most prominent
in other institutions. Career progression follows the rules applying to civil service and the
criteria laid down in the regulations on qualifications requirements and promotion for
academic staff.

4.3.2. Permanent and non-permanent staff
Academic staff careers have changed significantly over recent decades. Previously, they
were based on a two-stage process, with a first period characterised by apprenticeship,
selection and time-limited positions; and the second beginning with access to a permanent
position (OECD, 2008root). However, academic staff nowadays have varying types of
ðontracts, leading to different levels ofjob security. Similar to many other regions, higher
education staff in the European Union can be classified according to the type of contract
with which they are employed (EC, EACEA, Eurydice, 2017¡s):

.

Hourly contract staff denotes staff employed and paid by the hour, usually on
termly or annual contracts (including "zero hours contracts" with no guarantee of
work).

.

Fixed-length contract staff refers to staff on contracts which expire at the end of
the period specified.
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

cHAPTER4.HUMANRESouRCES I tqr

.

Ongoing contract staffrefers to staffon contracts without an expiration date; these
are also referred to as indefinite or permanent contracts.

Internationally comparable data on job performance and satisfaction of staff with
different contract modalities are not available. Although, according to Education
International, a federation of teachers' unions, employment on fixed-term contracts
negatively affects the motivation and professional identity of academic stafl harming the
ability of higher education institutions to carry out their missions (Stromquist, 2017wù.
In addition, job security is considered important for academic freedom (Box 4.6).
Box 4.6. Academic freedom in higher education institutions
Academic freedom is generally characterised as the freedom to teach and conduct research (for
academics) and to learn (for students) rvithout constraints imposed from outside the academic
community. although it is a concept inherently difficult to define (Altbach, 200lte¡tl Åkerlind

and Kayrooz, 2003¡eqt). It is related to working conditions through regulations at 'the

institutional" national and international levels, while shaped in direct and more subtle ways by

the dynamics of relationships between academic staff, non-academic staff, students,
communities and governmental bodies. The reconciliation of academic freedom with
institutions' contributions to society points requires institutions to develop frameworks that
link institutional goals to individual academic work. Such reconciliation efforts aim to benefit
society and make the academic profession more attracti\,e (OECD, 2008trri).

The 1997 UNESCO Recommendation concerning the Status of Higher Education Teaching
Personnel (UNESCO and ILO, 2008p0) identified a number of elements which support
academic freedom, including institutional autonomy; individual rights and freedoms; selfgovemance and collegiality; and tenure (Karran, 2009¡zr1). In terms of self-governance and
collegiality, UNESCO recommended that academic staff should have the right and opportunity
to participate in governing bodies and be able to elect the majority of representatives to
academic bodies. Furthermore, it suggested that collegial decision-making should encompass
decisions regarding the administration and determination of policies of higher education,
curricula, research, extension work, the allocation of resources and other related activities.
However, self-governance will not ensure academic freedom if it translates into bad
management; and tenure may limit the freedom of young. non-tenured academic staff to
criticise the academic establishment (OECD, 2008trrl).
Academic freedom is ensured by legislation in all the participating jurisdictions, through Acts
related to higher education or through the constitution (Estonia Official Gazette. 1992¡t4;Legal
Affairs and Parliamentary Documentation Departmenf,Z}lT¡tq) Dutch Ministry of the Interior
and Kingdom Relations, 2002¡t+g Norway Acts and Regulations, 2005psì.

There are also no internationally comparable data covering a large number of OECD
countries on the share and profile of staff by type of contract, although some data have
been collected by academics and various organisations. In Australia, only one of four
newly appointed faculty is hired on an ongoing basis (Ryan et a1.,2013¡ta). In Canada,
one-third of university faculty members are on fixed-length positions and not on a tenure
track, and in the United States, this applies to 70Yo of new faculty appointments as
reported by Education Intemational (Stromquist, 2017w).In France, approximately 60%
of the total faculty are adjunct faculty (academic staff in fixed-length contracts) (lLO,
2018¡tn). The share of academic staff without ongoing contracts also differs by gender,
with women representing on average more than 60% of the fixed-length or hourly
positions across European countries (Stromquist, 2017wù.In addition, women in Europe
represent more than 30% of the professors (permanent faculty position) in only six

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

194 | CHAPTER4. HUMAN RESOURCES
countries whose institutions are listed in the European Tertiary Education Register
(Stromquist, 2017 ¡et).
Table 4.6 shows the percentage of staff with ongoing contracts across different age
groups for the participating jurisdictions (this data excludes staff without teaching duties
ánd doctoral students with temporary contracts). In all jurisdictions, having an ongoing
contract is equivalent to tenure in terms ofjob security, as the labour law protects workers
with ongoing contracts from dismissal without just cause. In addition, Norwegian public
institutions, Dutch public universities and the Flemish Community (in that which relates

to autonomous academic staff) must follow the stricter regulations applying to civil
servants for the dismissal of staff with ongoing contracts.
Table 4.6. Share ofteaching staffwith ongoing contracts, by age (2016)
Academic staffwith teaching duties, excluding doctoral students
Age group

Estonia

The Flemish

Community

The Netherlands

Norway
23.1

34 and younger

46.9

9,8

25.2

35.44

44,7

47.4

72.0

Âoo

45-59

42.4

73.1

93.4

77.5

79,4

02Ã

85.3

51,9

74.4

70.4

60 and oldet

All ages

46,9
44.8

ly'o¡¿: For the definition of academic staff, see Box 4.1 '

Source.. AdapTed from information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the reader's guide for
further information.

In Estonia, 45Yo of academic staff with teaching duties across all age groups are on
ongoing contracts. The share of ongoing contracts does not differ much across age
groups, with very close values for the age groups 60 and older and 34 and younger. The
share is slightly lower in the age group 45-59 years (42%).In principle, academic staff in
Estonia should be employed with ongoing contracts, after an open competition process
designed by the university council or, for professional HEIs, by the ministry. Fixed-lenglh
or hourly contracts can be used if a position cannot be filled through regular procedure'
Temporary employment with the same employer cannot last longer than five continuous

years, after which the work relationship must end or the person should be oltered an
ongoing contract.

In the Flemish Community, the total share of academic staff with teaching duties in
ongoing contracts is 52o/o. Fixed-length contracts are much more common across younger
acãd"mic staff. The share of academic staff younger than 34 in this type of contract in the
Flemish Community is about 10%. In contrast, the share of academic staff in ongoing
contracts is above 70o/o for the age groups 45-59 and 60 and older.

In the Netherlands, the share of academic staff with teaching duties in ongoing contracts
for all ages is about 74o/o,muchhigher than for Estonia and the Flemish Community. The
share is in line with the cap of 22Yo of fixed-length or hourly contracts set in 20 15 by the
Association of Universities in the Netherlands (VSNU, 2015r28t). Collective labour
agreements in the Netherlands have ensured more contractual stability for academic staff
including a maximum duration (six years) for work on fixedlength or hourly contracts
with the same employer and a limit to the number of renewals (two) of hourly or fixedterm contracts (Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 2017pøì.

RENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2OI9

cHAPTER4.HUMANREsoURCES I tgs

In Norway, the share of academic staff with teaching duties in ongoing contracts for all
ages is 70o/o. The remaining 30% in temporary posts include contract staff hired with
funds extemal to the institutional budget. The shares show a higher percentage of staff in
fixed-length positions in the youngest age group, as just 23o/o of staff younger than 35
have an ongoing contract.

4.3.3. Part-time acødemic støff
Working hours for academic staff differ across countries, institutions and staff categories.
In this discussion, part-time staff are defined as academic staff employed for less than
90o/o of fhe normal or statutory working hours in the same job or role at a given level of
education. This implies that part{ime academic staff may work additional hours outside
the education sector.

Part-time academic staff working outside the academic sector may help establish
enduring links with the world of work, thus contributing to the effectiveness of higher
education in preparing students for the labour market. It has been argued that part-time
positions help institutions reduce costs, more easily adjust to fluctuations in enrolments
and increase flexibility for employees. Others argue that part-time staff are often
underpaid and lack benefits such as medical insurance (Benjamin, 2015ttsù.
Some academic staff may also be working in enterprises or other organisations which can

bring benefìts to both sectors. Academic staff working part-time in enterprises or other
sectors can bring research expertise into the business environment and public sector. Nonacademic professionals working part-time as lecturers in higher education can also help

bring valuable professional experience into the classroom (Arnhold et al., 2018¡+1).

Among EU countries, the variation in working hours for academic staff is often due to
factors related to professional norms, system structures, institutional expectations, and the

proportion of staff by academic field (EC, EACEA, Eurydice, 2017, p.7lp¡). Part-time
work (as well as work on fixedJength contracts) is associated more with junior and
intermediate staff categories across EU countries. On average across EU systems with
different subsectors, the average number of working hours is lower for academic staff in
universities than other subsectors (EC, EACEA, Eurydice, 2017¡s).
On average across OECD countries, around 40%o of academic staff in higher education
are employed by higher education institutions part-time. Latvia, Mexico and Switzerland
present the largest share of part-time academic staff. Among the participating
jurisdictions, the share of part-time academic staff is higher than the OECD average in the
Netherlands (over one-half), while the share is around the average in Estonia. About 35%
of academic staff are employed part.time in the Flemish Community and about one-third
in Norway (Figure 4.6). While in some countries, such as the Netherlands, a large share
of part-time academic staff goes hand in hand with alarge share of part-time workers in
the overall economy, in other countries, such as Latvia, this appears to not be the case. In
Norway, most of the part-time academic staff has their main employment outside of
academia (according to background information from the Norwegian Ministry of
Education and Research).

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9

196 I CHAPTER4. HUMANRESOURCES
Figure 4.6. Share of higher education academic staff working part-time (2016)
As compared to the share part-time workers in the workforce; based on headcount
¡Academic staff

o/o

ôWorKoræ

90
80

70
bU

50

40

o

30

ooo

20

o

10

o

"$ef"*$a$-**i.{.+sl..l.$"i.'".*"
vs'
".S
Note: *Participating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance exercise 201712018.
Data on acadêmic itaffrefer to 2013 for Aushalia and Turkey, 2014 for Denmark, France and Norway, and
2015 for Poland. Data for Belgium, Denmark, the Flemish Community and France exclude independent
private institutions. Data include post-secondary non-tertiary education for France, Portugal and the United
States and exclude short-cycle tertiary programmes for Australia.
Source: Adapted from OECD (20l8rrzt), OECD Education Statistics, http://dx.doi.ors/10.1787/edu-data-en;
data provided by the Flemish Ministry of Education and Training.

statrrni ñæ

httos://doi.orq/10.1787/888933940702

It must be noted that the incidence of part-time work among academic staff in higher
education and among workers in the population are not directly comparable because of
the differences in their definitions. Part-time workers are those who usually work less
than 30 hours per week in their main ìob (OECD, 2077¡eo1), so an academic who is
classified as part-time academic staff may not be classified as a part-time worker (and
vice versa). Despite this limitation, comparing the two series aiiows an investigation of
whether the sharè of part-time academic staff is related to the labour market context of a
country. There is a mild positive relationship between the two series in Figure 4.6
(conelation coefficient of 0.29), suggesting that while the share of part-time academic
staff is somewhat associated with the prevalence of part-time work in a country, many
other factors play a role in determining it.

In 1998, the Dutch government set a standard work year (the exact number of work hours
per year) as 1,659 hours, for all sectors of education. The working intensity is negotiated
with the employer, and the extent to which an individual works (part-time or full+ime) is
referred to as the "working hours factor". Academic staff can choose to work 36, 38 or 40
hours. The govemment has implemented a system of age-related leave, where employees
with a contract of at least 0.4 full-time equivalent and at least three years of experience
(within the last five years) in professional higher education institutions, are entitled to an
annual sustainable employability budget (45 hours for full-time employees - 40 hours for
the period between 2015 and 2019). Employees in similar position who are within 10

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9

cHAPTER4. HUMANRESouRCES I tgl

years of retirement (with at least five years of work experience in higher education) are
also entitled to reduce their annual hours by 20%o for five years (Eurydice, 2018rrsl).

4.3.4. Salaries of øcødemic staff
Higher education systems vary in their approaches to compensation of staff. In Europe,
many countries determine salaries through collective bargaining, while a few countries
classi$, academic staff as civil servants, in which case salaries follow public sector rules.
In the United Kingdom, a national Framework Agreement for the Modemisation of Pay
Structures is in place since 2006, as a result of national negotiation. The Framework
provides a reference salary base with five salary grades for the majority of higher
education staff (academic and non-academic staff). Based on the framework, higher
education institutions can create their own salary and grading structures (UCEA,
2013rarl). Aúother approach is that of countries that develop collective agreements by
subsector (e.g. Finland and Malta) (ILO,20181zz¡). Meanwhile, in the United States,
academic staff salaries can differ significantly within the country. There are different
salary regimes within higher education institutions and unions negotiate with employers
at the local level (i.e. enterprise agreements), rather than at the national level.
(Angermul le r, 20 77 ßzt).
Some countries have adopted performance-based pay, aiming for a more economic higher
education system. For example, in Finland, the salary of academic staff entails two
components: the position-specific salary and the personal performance salary component.
For the first, the requirement level is assessed within six months from the start date (and
is only reassessed if management notices changes in duties to an extent that calls for a
reassessment or if there is a request for reassessment) (The Finnish Union of University
Researchers and Teachers, 2016¡a:1). The second component is often based on
performance appraisal (see Chapter 5).

Across the OECD higher education systems with available datafor 2014, the average
annual salary of teaching staff (academic staff with teaching duties) in public and
govemment-dependent private higher education institutions ranged from less than
USD 30 000 in the Slovak Republic to over USD 130 000 in Luxembourg. The average
salary for all teaching staff was equal to about USD 60 000 in Norway, while the average
salary for full-time professors was about USD 73 000 (Figure 4.7).
The average annual salary of full professors (or staff with an equivalent title), in countries
where data is available, is higher than the average for all teaching staff. The difference in
salary between full professors and all teaching staff ranges from USD 7 000 in
Luxembourg to USD 38 000 in Italy. Full professors are at the top of the academic
hierarchy. Their activities usually entail both teaching and research, anda doctoral degree
is usually a requirement for this job title (although it is not officially required in the
Netherlands). However, this job title may be understood slightly differently in different
countries, so that the comparability of the datain Figure 4.7 is not perfect.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9

198 | CIIAPTER4. HUMANRESOURCES
Figure 4.7. Average annual salaries ofteaching staffin public and government-dependent
institutions (2014)
Calculations based on full-time equivalent in USD converted using PPPs
x Full professors (or country equivalent)

¡All tertiary academic stafl
160000
140000
120000

X

XX

100000

X

80000

X

X

X

X

x

60000

X

X

40000

X
X

20000
0

'o'*d":"'C

s *S .*.*"".".*

".8-

..".

"**".".ñ

.."-- ."-- .n

-$"S""n

Note: *Participating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance exercise 2017 /2018.
Data exclude acadèmic staff without teaching duties for all jurisdictions. Staff working at the short-cycle
tertiary level are also excluded in Finland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, the Slovak Republic and
Slovenia. Data include only universities for Finland, and only professional HEIs for the French Community
of Belgium.
Glance 2016: OECD Indicators,
Source: Adapted f¡om OECD (2016¡s+¡), Education

at a

httns ://doi.ore/ I 0. I 787leae-20 l 6-en.

statlink ñÈP hllps:rdo¡.ordl0.l787l8889i3940721
Salaries of higher education teachers6 are nominally higher than those of teachers at lower
levels of education comparable to other teachers and gÉduates, but are around similar
levels once their higher levels of attainment and skills are accounted for (Box 4.7).
Box 4.7. Higher education teachers in the Survey of Adult Skills

Academic staff tend to be very skilled and highly qualified, as graduation from doctoral or
master's programmes with a strong researçh orientation is often required to enter the profession.
Therefore, a relatively high salary can be considered as a structural characteristic of higher
education (see Chapter 3).

Across OECD countries and economies participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC),
higher education teachers are 25 times more likely to have an advanced research degree than other
higher education graduates, and almost 50%o more likely than secondary education teachers to
score at the highest numeracy proficiency levels (levels 4 and 5) (see table below). Individuals at
these proficiency levels can understand a broad range of mathematical information that may be
complex, abstract or embedded in unfamiliar contexts'

Higher education teachers eam l7%o more than'secondary education teachers and 24o/o more than
other higher education graduates, after controlling for age, gender and the average earnings of
graduates in each economy. However, once their higher levels of education attainment and
ñumera.y skills are taken into account, they earn a similar amount as secondary education teachers

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2OI9

cHAPTER4. HUMANRESoURcES I tqq
and other higher education graduates

Table 4.b. Skills, education attainment and earnings ofhigher education teachers (2012 or

20rs)
Across OECD countries and economies participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), as compared to
secondary education teachers and other graduates

teachers

Secondary
education teachers

Other highet
education graduates

40*

28

¿3

45.

I

2

124*

106*

100

105

104

100

Higher education

Proportion reaching numeracy proficiency
level 4 or 5

Proportion with an advanced research
degree
Hourly earnings, relative to other higher

education graduates
Hourly earnings, relative to other higher
education graduates, conditional on skills
and having an advanced research deqree

Note: The asterisk indicates statistics that are significantly different (57o confidence level) from "other higlter
education graduates". The relative hour{y earnings refer to the average hourly eamings, including bonuses,
for wage and salary eamers. measured in USD at purchasing power parity (PPP). It is derived from a
regression oflog earnings on two binary variables (for higher education and secondary education teachers),
age, gender and the average eamings ofgraduates in each economy. The numeracy proficiency score and a
binary variable for having an advanced research degree have been added as control variables for the
regressions whose coefficients are displayed in the fourth row. All estimates are based on a sample of 670
higher education teachers, 1 590 secondary education teachers and 36 519 other higher education graduates
across the 30 OECD countries and economies participating to the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC).
Source: Adapted from OECD (2016¡sø¡), OECD Sm,ey of Adult Skills, www.oecd.ors/skills/oiaac/datal.

"lable 4.7 . Determination of academic salaries in public and government-dependent
institutions in participating jurisdictions (2017)
Estonia

The Flemish

The Netherlands

Norway

Salary scale at the level of
higher education institution
(with¡n the collective

National salary scale
(collective.ag reement)

Community
Basis to
determine
academic

salaries

Criteria
influencing
progression
within the
national salary
scale

Case by case negotiation
between higher education
institution and individual
academic staff (and salary
scale at the level of the
higher education
institution)
Determined at the
institutional level

National salary

scales

agreement negotiated
between the assoc¡ation of
universities or professional

HEls and the staff unions)
Qualifications
and years of
experience in
the job

. Universities: years of
experience in the job,
pelormance evaluations
. Professional HEls: years of
experience in the job, field of
expertise, performance
evaluation, academic
qualifications and

and negotiations
between higher
education institution
and trade unions at
the institutional level
Criteria agreed

through negotiations
between higher
education institution
leadership and trade
unions within the
higher education
institution

experience in the industry

Notei A salary scale is based on a minimum and a maximum salary, with several intermediary grades of pay,
which are due at the time ofsalary increase.

Source: Eurydice (2018¡u¡), National Education Systems, https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-

policies/eur"ydice/national-description en; information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the
reader's guide for further information.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

200 | CHAPTER4.HUMANRESoURCES
The autonomy of institutions to determine the salary for senior staff, both by promoting
and by increasing the salary within a given gtade, varies greatly from country to country
(see Chapter 2). The basis for determining and increasing salaries for academic staff also
varies across countries (see Table 4.7 for participatingjurisdictions).

In Estonia, higher education institutions have full autonomy over the decision of salary
levels for academic staff. Salaries differ according to the position, work load, number of
years worked and qualification. Participation in R&D projects may also affect the income
of academics (Eurydice, 201 Srrsl).

In the Flemish Community, salary scales are defined through regulation and reflect
qualifications and years of work experience, therefore determining the evolution of the
compensation through time, according to the work experience within the job and the
individual qualifications. In recent years, additional salary scales have been added for
assistant and associate professor at universities. In Flemish universities, it is the
institutions that pay the salaries for academic staff. In the case of professional HEIs, most
of the salaries are paid directly by the government. To avoid situations in which personnel
compensation constitutes an excessive share of institutional expenditure, the govemment
requires that no more than 80% ofinstitutional funding can be spent on personnel.

In the Netherlands, there is a single salary scale system that frames negotiations around
the starting slep (trede) on a scale (schaa[) (The Young Academy,20l8rtsl). Salaries in
public institutions are negotiated between the associations of higher education institutions
ãnd the unions representing their employees. There are no regulations conceming salaries
in the private higher education sector. Within the labour agreement, there are also
arrangements for the award of performance-based allowances or bonuses. The rate of
salary increase between one year and the next can be doubled for staff with an excellent
performance evaluation. When reaching the maximum of the salary scale for their job
title, staff members can be allocated a permanent allowance (up to l5% of their salary) in
recognition of their performance (Eurydice,2018rrsl). In addition, the Public and SemiPublic Sector Senior Officials (Standard Remuneration) Act states that senior govemment
offìcials' salaries must not exceed those of government ministers. This Act applies to
salaries of senior officials of organisations in the semi-public sector, such as universities
(The Young Academy, 2018ra5t).

In Norway, a national minimum salary is defined for each category of staff. Higher
education institutions have full autonomy to pay more than the minimum salary. Publicly
funded higher education institutions must abide by the Civil Service Act and conditions
drawn from previous collective agreements apply to all higher education institutions.
Academic staff are considered to be civil servants for regulatory purposes (Box 4.8), and
are entitled to social security, pension rights, parental leave, kindergarten coverage, etc.
Some of these benefits, such as social security and pension rights are regulated by law.
Salaries and career prospects are set out in collective agreements (Eurydice, 2018¡r1).

Likewise, salaries for senior management staff can vary greatly among participating
jurisdictions. For example, Estonian universities have the autonomy to decide their
salaries. Universities in the Flemish Community may also decide on salaries, however
they are restricted to conditions that apply to civil servants (including salary grids). Salary
bands are negotiated with other parties in Dutch and Norwegian universities (Bennetot
Pruvot and Estermann, 2017 poù.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

cHAPTER4. HUMANRESoURCEs I zot

Box 4.8. Regulatory frameworks for higher education staff in the participating jurisdictions

In Estonia, regulations to define academic positions (including categories and their
responsibilities) and their minimum qualification requirements are outlined in the legislation for
universities (Universities Acr - Ùtikootiseadus 1995), professional HEIs (lnstitutes of Professional
Higher Education Act - Rakenduskõrgkooli seadus 2003), associated regulations. and the
Standards of Higher Education (Estonian Official Gazette, 2009t¡el). The Research and
Development Organisation Act (RDOA - Teadus- ja arendustegetuse korralduse seadus 2002)
provides the requirements for research staff, who may also perform teaching activities (Estonian
Offi cial Gazette, 20 I 4¡u).

In the Flemish Community, the Codex Hoger Onderu,ys (Codex) presents the policy framework
for autonomous academic staff, including staff categories, responsibilities. minimum
qualifications, requirements for recruitment and criteria for evaluation. Autonomous academic
staff(i.e. assistant, associate or full professors) are considered to be civil servants. hence following
the applicable regulations (and are entitled to a government pension). This group represents 58olo
of all academic staff (EC, EACEA, Eurydice, 2017O1). Contract research staff, i.e. staff on
scholarship or on contract, usually paid with international, private or public third party funding
(see Chapter 3). are outside of this regulatory framework.

In 2003. the Dutch government created a job classification system (universitair

functieordeningssysteem, UFO) for all academic and non-academic staff in Dutch universities
(VSNU, 2003rssl). This job classification includes an overuiew of the job titles and levels with I 15
job descriptions; and a Competence lnstrument list linking 32 staff competences to academic job
profìles (VSNU, 2003t¡q). Detailed terms and conditions of employment (including salary scales)
for permanent staff can be found in the Collective Labour Agreement of Dutch Universities
(Collectieye Arbeidsotereenkomst voor de Nederlandse Unitersiteiten - CAO NU) (The Young
Academy, 2018tst).
In Norway, similar to the autonomous academic staff in the Flemish community, all staff in public
higher education institutions are civil servants" following the applicable regulations.

4.3.5. Røtio of students to academic stüÍf
Academic staff interact with students in a range of ways, including through lectures,
tutorials, seminars, laboratories, and so on. They also provide individual students advice
and feedback outside the classroom. Student-staff ratios are often used as a proxy for
quality in higher education on the basis that fewer students per academic staff member
means that staff are able to give students more attention and therefore help them learn.
However, the indicator fails to provide a direct relationship between the time allocated on
teaching, research and engagement and the number of students. V/hile the indicator is still
commonly used to inform student choice through rankings and by institutions (as a proxy
to assess quality), it provides an incomplete picture and does not guarantee good quality
ofteaching or access to academic staff.

Gibbs (20lOrsst) identifies a range of dimensions of quality and examines the extent to
which they could be considered a valid indicator. Variables related to leaming and
teaching include class size, the amount of class contact and the amount of feedback
provided,to students. Class size, for instance, can affect the quantity and quality of the
effort teaching staff put into study and how engaged they are. However, these variables
interact with numerous other dimensions of qualify in higher education, including the
quality of students and academic staft the selectivity of institutions, resources, and the
nature ofresearch, as well as the outcomes ofthe educational processes.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 20I 9

202 | CHAPTER4. HUMAN RESOURCES
On average across OECD countries, there are 16 students per academic staff member in
higher education (Figure 4.8). The ratio of students to academic staff is 45 in Greece for
bachelor's, master's and doctoral programmes combined, and it exceeds 50 students per
staff in Turkey for short-cycle tertiary education programmes. In contrast, the ratio of
students to academic staff is close to 10:1, or lower, in Luxembourg, Norway and Sweden
for bachelor's, master's and doctoral programmes combined. For short-cycle tertiary
education progr¿rmmes, this ratio is 10:1 or lower in Austria, France, Poland, the Slovak
Republic, Spain and Sweden. There are 14 students per academic staff in all levels in
Estonia, 20 in the Flemish Community (excluding junior academic staff, e.g. postdoctoral researchers), about I 5 in the Netherlands and l0 in Norway.
Figure 4.8. Ratio of students to academic staff in higher education institutions (2016)
By higher education level; estimates based on full-time equivalent

rBachelor's, master's and doctoral levol

EAll levels

o Short-cycle level

ô0

ô
50

40

30

20

o

o
o

o

10

o

lúoles: *Participating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance exercise 201712018.
Data for thc Flcmish Community cxclude junior academic staff (e.g. employed doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers).
France, Portugal and the United States: data include post-seconciary non-tertiary education. For Luxembourg,
short-cycle tertiary education is not included.
Ireland: data refer to public institutions only.
Source: Adapted from OECD (20181r¡), OECD Education Statistics, http://dx.doi.ore/l!-178?/edudata:94;
data provided by the Flemish Ministry of Education and Training.

Statt-ink Fdg https ://doi. o¡9./ I 0. 7871888933940740
1

Table 4.8 presents the ratio of students to academic staff by subsector in Estonia, the
Netherlands and the Flemish Community (in contrast to Figure 4.8, data for the Flemish
Community in Table 4.8 include junior academic staff). The number of students per

academic staff member in the Flemish Community, the Netherlands and Estonia is
substantially higher at professional HEIs when compared to universities. In the Flemish
Community and the Netherlands, the ratio of students for each member of academic staff
is more than two times higher in professional HEIs than in universities.
The higher number of students per academic staff in professional HEIs is probably due to
the lower research intensity, which implies a lower allocation of academic staff per

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI 9

cTTAPTER4.HUMANRESoURCES

student. However, internationally comparable data on the repartition of academic staff
workload between teaching and research would be needed to answer this question more
precisely.
Table 4.8. Ratio of students to academic staff in higher education institutions, by subsector
(2016)
Estimates based on full+ime equivalent
Estonia

The Flemish

Community The Netherlands

Universities

14.7

6.7

8.2

Professional HEls

19.0

15.4

18,4

Source: Adapted fiom information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the reader's guide for
further information.

Figure 4.9. Ratio of students to academic staff and expenditure on compensation of academic
staff per student (2015)
Based on full-time equivalent
Ratio of students to teaching staff
25

Greece (1425,45)

a Czech Republic

Belgium' a

Italy a

20

a Flemish Community-

Ò
Average

a

Lilhuaniâ

a

lrelând

O France

Mexico a

F¡nland a
Australia o

tc

l

Republic a

a

a

Estonia'

Portugal

t

a
United K¡ngdom

a

tjnited States

Spain
10

Luxembourg a
Compensation

ofteacheß perstudent (PPP USD)

5

2m0

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

lúoles: *Participating in the Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance exercise 201712018.
See Figure 4.8 for notes on the ratio of students to academic staff. The expenditure on compensation of
academic staffexcludes the salary ofstaffwithout teaching duties.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2018¡r1), OECD Education Statistics, http://dx.doi.ore/10.1787/edu-data-en;
data provided by the Flemish Ministry of Education and Training.

sxatLlnk ñfl

https://doi.orø10.1787/888933940759

A low student-to-staff ratio can reflect alarge financial investment in academic staff in a
higher education system, but this can also be related to expenditure on staff
compensation. For example, Figure 4.9 indicafes that Austria spends the most in
comparison to the average on academic staff per student, while also having a belowaverage student-staff ratio. However, this is not always the case. In the Flemish
community, the student-staff ratio is relatively large despite a high level of expenditure
on academic staff per student. The level of staff compensation in Greece is much lower,
and the student-staff ratio is substantially higher than the average. The same applies to the

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9

I zos

204 | CHAPTER4. HUMAN RESoURCES
Czech Republic, to a lesser extent. This is probably due to the relatively low level of
academic staff salaries in these countries.

Some countries have developed new methods to track the cost of higher education
activities. An example is the Transparent Approach to Costing (TRAC) in the UK, in
place since 1997. Institutions collect data on the time allocation by academics, and this
data shows a wide range of time spent on teaching across academic staff (HEFCE,
2018rsot). This aligns with previous conclusions that lower student-staff ratio is not
necessarily an indication ofhigher interaction between student and staff.
4.3.6. Academic staff mobility
Academic mobility does not only refer to intemational mobility, but also to institutional
mobility and inter-sectoral mobility. Academic staff experience institutional mobility
when moving for work to a different higher education institution. A lack of institutional
mobility is referred to as inbreeding (Horta, 2013p\, Sugimoto, Robinson-Garcia and
Costas, 20l4pzì.

Inter-sectoral mob ility
Inter-sectoral mobility denotes a job transfer from higher education to another sector of
the economy, or vice versa. This type of academic mobility can give access to new social
networks, as well as new scientific and technical human capital, which results in higher
productivity (Dietz and Bozeman, 2005tg¡t). New perspectives and experiences are
brought to higher education while the economy at large benefits from the sharing of ideas
and knowledge. Professionals moving to higher education from other sectors can help
integtate the needs of the world of work into the curriculum, and strengthen the links
between higher education and the economy, increasing higher education labour market
relevance.
Just as intemational mobility aims to achieve brain circulation (see Chapter 6), mobility
between industry and academia should ideally achieve knowledge circulation. However,

research indicates that the movement between academia and industry is mostly
unidirectional, with university-trained researchers moving to industry, but with low or
almost no movement in retum (from the industry to academia) (Scholz etal.,2009¡t).
Reasofis outlined for this include the lower salary levels in academia, the different
working cultures, restrictions irr employment legislation of researchers in public
universities, and limited resourcing interactions with small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs) (Scholz et a1.,2009¡t1; Scholz, 20l2pat). There also appear to be bottlenecks for
those professionals who go to the private sector for long periods of time and try to return
to academia (Scholz eT a1.,2009¡21).
Good practices to help bridge the industry-academia gap include: academic or industrial
sabbaticals, secondments and part-time professorships or industrial sabbaticals, and the
reassessment of merit parameters so that they acknowledge the needs of academia and the
industry (Scholz et al., 2009¡t1; Scholz, 20l2pqù. This can be done through initiatives
such ai industrial doctoral programmes (industry-oriented research, partly funded by the
industry). On the other side, for researchers working in the private sector, incentives to
suppori peer-reviewed publications, while in compliance with intellectual property rights
rules, can be encouraged (Scholz, 2012¡o+)'
Inter-sectoral mobility is well established in professional HEIs in the Flemish Community
and the Netherlands. In Belgium and the Netherlands, over one-third of doctorate holders

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD2Ol9

cTTAPTER4.HuMANRESoURCES

are employed in the business enterprise sector (Cameron, Horta and Vandevelde,
2014¡es).

The Research Council Norway has developed recommendations to support the European
Union's efforts to address "grand challenges", which include inter-sectoral mobility
across academia, the industry and public sectors (including public research institutes,
health trusts, business enterprises, public administration, etc.) (Borchgrevink, 2013tqot).
Initiatives include the Industrial PhD Scheme (managed by the Research Council through
a scheme that aims to fund industry-oriented doctoral research fellowships) (Millard,
2014¡n).
Inte rnat io nal mo b i I ity

International academic mobility is the movement of academic staff across borders to
perform teaching or research activities. It has been argued that academic mobility affects

the productivity and quality of academic staff output (Horta, 2013p+ Sugimoto,
Robinson-Garcia and Costas, 20l4pzù.Intemationally comparable data on the mobility of
academic staff are not available, with the exception of some specific mobility
programmes.

European temporary mobility schemes such as Erasmus* play a role in fostering
academic staff mobility in all participating jurisdictions. Erasmus* funds short stays
abroad (with a typical duration of a few days) for teaching assignments (e.g. the
development of teaching material or of inter-institutional education co-operation) or
professional development. In the period 2014-2016, around 170 000 higher education
staff have been mobile through Erasmus* in EU countries, of which around 60% went
abroad to teach and 40Yo for professional development (EC, 2017psù.

Many European countries established national mobility centres in the context of the
EURAXESS network (Ferencz, Irina; Wächter,20l2¡se1). Some programmes are common
to all participating jurisdictions, such as Erasmus* and Fulbright. Others are specific to
some regions, such as NordplusT for Estonia and Norway.

Academic mobility can be temporary and possibly related to internationally or nationally
funded programmes (e.g. Erasmus*), or it can be permanent (staff moving abroad for a
new job without the intention to retum). Intemational staff mobility can be integrated in
national immigration and other policies; some examples include the design of special
pension schemes, the provision of social securify and childcare, special tax, salary and
career affangements for mobile staff, and special provisions regarding work and residence
permits (Bennion, Alice; Locke, 2010¡oot).

In Belgium, the government and higher education institutions try to stimulate
intemational and interregional mobility as well as co-operation. One example is the
Belgian inter-community exchanges for higher education within the framework of the
Prince Philippe Fund for the development of common course material. Another example
is Erasmus Belgica, a collaboration project between the communities of Belgium
supporting staff and students participating in education in different linguistic
communities (Eurydice, 201 Srrst).

In Estonia the govemment offers scholarships to encourage incoming mobility and
outgoing mobility of staff working in Estonia. Examples include:

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2OI9

I zos

206 | CHAPTER4. HUMAN RESOURCES

.

The Dora Plus programme supporting international visiting doctoral students, and
attendance to conferences, seminars and other professional activities abroad by
Estonian young researchers;

o The Kristjan Jaak scholarship programme, offering secondments abroad to
teaching staffand researchers up to 35 years-old;

o Government scholarship programmes for academic staff of foreign universities
coming to work in Estonia and the organisation of summer schools and other
international events; and

o The Mobilitas Plus programme, financing Estonian and international researchers
who work abroad and want to move to work in Estonia (Eurydice, 2018¡sl)'
The Flemish Community, the Netherlands and Norway have mechanisms for monitoring
incoming and outgoing mobility, while Estonia has mechanisms for monitoring only

outgoing mobility.
In the Netherlands, the development of initiatives to foster academic mobility falls under
the responsibility of higher education institutions. The Association of Universities in the
Netherlands and the Netherlands Association of Universities of Applied Sciences have
developed regulations on salaries and remuneration, and have agreed on a plan to

guarantee social security provision for staff involved in mobility programmes
(background information from the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science).

Norway has also developed a few programmes that enhance academic co-operation with
non-European countries. For example, the UTFORSK programme supports academic cooperation at an institutional level with Brazil; China, India, Japan, Russia and South
Africa. Similarly, the INTPART programme funds collaboration at an institutional level
with the above six countries, Canada and the United States. In addition, the govemment
funds a number of progtammes supporting training experiences abroad for interested
staff. Internationally mobile staff reported that mobility has improved their competences
(e.g. by exposing them to new teaching methods), in addition to providing opportunities
to develop their intemational network (Nordhagen and Dahle, 2017wt).
Ins tí lut io n al m ob ility

Endogamy (academic intrreeding) refers to academic staff whose last degree was eamed
at the institution where they currently work. This happens to some extent in all higher

education systems, and in some cases it can also be an indication of institutions'
attractiveness and their ability to retain excellent academics.

Endogamy is not necessarily a negative outcome in a higher education system. Academic
staff working in the institutions from which they hold a degree may still experience
institutional mobility in the academic career, for example of a temporary nature. Some
evidence suggests that if these staff are mobile at least once in the course of their
academic career, they have a similar research performance as other academic staff. In
addition, they may contribute disproportionally more to teaching and outreach activities
(teaching and engagement) (Horta, 2013rsrt). Nevertheless, there is little research on the
relationship of endogamy with the three functions of higher education (teaching, research
and third mission).

High levels of endogamy may also signal that higher education institutions deviate from
merit-based recruitment practices (Altbach, Yudkevich and Rumbley,20l5pti Lundgren,
Pipping and Ä.mossa, 20l8rrozl). Endogamy has been associated with lower publication
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clrAPTER4. HUMANREsouRcES I zol

rates and less internationally-oriented publications, as inbred academic stafftend to focus
on the knowledge within their institutions rather than the intemational developments of
their subject domain (Horta, Veloso and Grediaga, 2010rro3l). Higher education
institutions with a high rate of endogamous staff could also become more rigid and
slower to respond to social needs, decreasing their social legitimacy (Horta, Veloso and
Grediaga, 2010tro:l) as well as ability to update teaching methods and contents. Causes of
endogamy include, among others, the absence of a fluid national academic labour market,

the economic context (i.e. limited apartment rentals or housing prices), and cultural
values (Altbach, Yudkevich and Rumbley, 2015p¡).

Intemationally comparable data on endogamy are not available for the OECD area, but
evidence from European countries shows that it is quite common. Researchers estimate
high shares of academic staff holding a doctoral degree from the institution where they
work in many countries, including Belgium (52%), the Netherlands (a0%) and Norway
(56%) (Seeber and Lepori, 2014wqì. In Estonia, in 2017, more than half of academic
staff held their highest level degree from the institution where they worked. Endogamy in
Estonia also appears more common in universities than in professional HEIs. According
to national data, in professional HEIs the share of endogamy is about l5o/o and in
universities it is four times higher (about 60%).
In the Flemish Community, about 60%o of the academic staff at universities who started
their employment between 2010 and 2014 held a doctorate degree from the university
where they worked. This share declined after 2014, the year in which association between
universities and professional HEIs was completed (see Chapter 2).
4. 3. 7. Staff profe s s io nøl deve lop ment

Higher education learning and teaching is informed by research and professional practice
(UNESCO, 20l2uosù, making it necessary for academic staff to leam and keep up to date
with new ideas and methods. In many OECD countries, systematic approaches to the
professional development of academic staff have not been traditionally embedded in the
higher education system (OECD, 2008rru), except for sabbatical leave (Box 4'9). A
number of countries are supporting education and training programmes for doctoral
students and academic staff. Ñon.th"l.r., the overall focus of professional development
for academic staff tends to be towards the development of research skills rather than
teaching skills.
Development of the professional capacity of teachers and researchers does not come
without challenges. For example, the more successful academic staff are in their activities
and roles, the higher the expectation on their performance in engagement (in addition to
their core activities, namely; teaching and research) (Enders, 2007wøù. This added
responsibility (combined with increasing number of students, concems with quality levels
and worldwide competition) can lead to additional work pressure and stress in higher
education. Findings from a systematic review of the literature on stress in higher
education indicate four main problem areas: workload and time constraints; professional
role identity and content; disincentives and mismanagement; leadership and organisation
(Persson, 2017w). Opportunities for professional development and appraisal (see
Chapter 5) of higher education staff aim to contribute to their performance and wellbeing.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 2019

20S I CHAPTER4. HUMANRESOURCES

Box 4.9. Sabbatical leave

A sabbatical term is a period of leave (usually one semester to one year) that academics can use for
professional and personal development. Sabbatical leave can enhance the well-being ofacademics
and reduce their stress (Davidson eta1.,2010¡rosl), as well as giving them opportunities to update
thcir skills (Otto and Kroth, 201 1¡ror1).
Regulations on sabbatical leave relate to the duration and frequency ofpaid and unpaid sabbatical
leave. ln many European countries, sabbatical leave is only available for academic staff at the most
senior ranks, such as professors (EC, EACEA, Eurydice, 2017v1).lnternationally comparable data
on the number of staff on sabbatical leave are not available, although some information on the
duration and conditions for the leave are available for European countries.
Table 4.c. Academic staff sabbatical leave regulations in participating jurisdictions
Most recent available year
Estonia

The Flemish

The Netherlands

Norway

Community
Remuneralion
Duration

Frequency

Paid

1 semester

Every 5 years

Negotiated at the

Negotiated at the

institutional level

institutional level

Up to 2 years during

Negotiated at the

Negotiated at the

the academic career

institutional level

institutional level

Negotiated at the

Negotiated at the

Negotiated at the

institutional level

institutional level

institutional level

Paid

Source: Adapted ftom European Commission, EACEA, Eurydice (2017n), Modernisation of Higher
Education in Europe - Academic Staff20lT,httpslldoi.ore/10.27971408169; Research Council ofNorway
(20l81rro¡), Evaluation ofNorwegian education research; Association ofUniversities in the Netherlands
(VSNU) (201S¡rst), Collective Labour Agreetnent of Dutch Universities,
https://wwwvsnu.nllfiles/docurnenten/CAO/Januari7o2020l6/CAO NU7o20ENG%20jan2016.pdf.

In Estonia, sabbatical leave is a right for all academic staff. not only those at senior levels. Paid
sabbatical leave can take place every five to seven years and it can last one semester. In the
Flemish Community, a member of the autonomous academic personnel can take up to two years of
paid sabbatical leave over one's entire cal'eer. For countries where there is no specific legislation
conccrning sabbaticals, as in thc casc of thc Ncthcrlands and Norway, it is common that such
anangements are decided at the institutional level, indicating a high level of institutional autonomy
on academic staff leave.

Among EU countries, there are almost no large-scale continuing professional
development (CPD) initiatives focusing on teaching skills. Most initiatives in this area are
isolated examples of individual higher education institutions (Eurydice, 2017¡rrr1). In
Australia, the Research Workforce Strategy 2020 has identified research skills definition

and career development as key policy priorities (Australian Government,2}TTuzt).
Box4.10 provides more examples of professional development strategies for academic
staff.

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cHAPTER4.HUMANRESouRCES I zol

Box 4.10. Professional development strategies in the higher education sector

A number of countries across the OECD have developed strategies aimed at enhancing the

development of academic staff. For example, the National Research Council (NRC) in Canada
works with the education community to provide innovation suppofi, strategic research, and
scientific and technical services, such as career tools and resources for researchers (including
behavioural competences) (National Research Council Canadao 20l8tlr:ù. Professional
development programmes are provided to faculty (mostly new instructors) targeting specific core
competences and the use of technology in teaching and learning (Jacob, Weiyan and Ye. 2015trr+ù.
f'aculty self-reports indicate a positive impact on teaching, faculty interest and enthusiasm, selfconfidence, sense of belonging and educational leadership. Evaluations on the effectiveness of
such teaching development programmes are not common (.lacob, Weiyan and Ye, 2015trr¿l).

In other cases, dedicated government agencies are also training providers. This is the case of the
Training and Educational Korea Institute of R&D Human Resources Development (KIRD), lvhich
offers transferable skills training programmes for researchers and master's students, as part of its
Long-Term Development Strategy for 2020 (e.g. leadership, English academic writing, research
methods and data analysis, intellectual property management and research performance) (OECD.

2012¡ts).

ln Poland, the Foundation for Polish Science (FNP) is a non-plofit organisation that supports
science, and is one of the largest sources of R&D funding in the country. FNP has developed
training and mentoring initiatives to give researchers the opporlunity to improve their research
project management, research team management, interdisciplinary collaboration, technology
trànsfer and entrepreneurship skills through the "skills progtammes" (Foundation for Polish
Science, 2016t¡ot). These programmes include: the Skills-coaching and Skills-FNP programmes,
which provide coaching and mentoring to young scholars to progress in their scientific careers; the
Skills-science and Skills-engage competitions to foster interdisciplinary research among young
scientists and the dissemination of results; Skills training for academics at all levels of seniority on
the management of scientific research, technology transfer and enterprise. and scientifìc
communication; and the Skills-internships programme aiming to provide work-based learning to
young researchers.

In Estonia, higher education institutions undertake the responsibility to provide
professional development opportunities, which include teaching, training and supervising
skills of academic staff. The government provides targeted funding, through the Mobilitas

Plus programme, which is largely financed by the European Union, to support the
participation of researchers in training progrummes and study visits, nationally and
abroad. The targeted funding for agreed delivery contributes to control costs. Until 2014,
the Primus proglamme (also funded by the European Union) funded some pedagogic
training for academic staff.

The Flemish Community has been providing targeted funding (EUR 4 million per year,
as of 2013) for training in a wide range of transferable skills to doctoral students and
junior researchers (but also to senior academic staff) employed both in academia and
industry (the OJO programme - Omkadering Jonge Onderzoekers). Some institutions
made this training a compulsory component of their doctoral programmes. Training
focuses on career guidance and transferable skills (e.g. project management, grant
writing, communication, and research ethics). Attendees also have the opportunity to
develop research-specific skills through their interaction with group members, mentoring
relationships, as well as exposure to new methods and techniques (Wastyn and Steurs,
20l4tnì (8C,2016¡zz¡). For example, at Ghent University, doctoral students and post-

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE O OECD 20I9

210 | CIIAPTER4. HttMAN RESoURCES
docs are offered extemal mentoring support, career coaching programmes and courses on
transferable skills as part of their doctoral training (Euraxess, 20l6rrrsl). In addition,
Flemish higher education institutions receive some targeted funding for the training and
education oftheir staff(see Chapter 3).

In the Netherlands, there have been some changes in the past years in the collective
labour agreement in research universities concerning career development regulations for
academic staff. Training is to be provided to staffon fixedJength or hourly contracts and
doctoral students in research writing proposals, in order to facilitate career progression.
Professional HEIs have also adopted a common set of guidelines for professionalisation,
including: allocation of at least 60/o of the annual budget and a share of working hours to
training or education for academic staff; additional incentives for continuing education,
life-long learning and opportunities for professional development. For example, teaching
personnel (or supporting staffl with a workload of at least 0.4 full-time equivalent are
entitled to at least 40 hours per year of training and education (Box 4.1). The UTQ also
supports assessment and professional development for teaching skills of academic staff
(Section 4.2.2).

The Dutch government has also introduced Vliegende Start; a programme to introduce
new teaching ideas and practices in higher education. Vliegende Start is focused on
professional higher education institutions, and aims at attracling, selecting, and guiding
new teachers in their goals with the aim to improve the career development of teachers.

Additionally, in the Netherlands, higher education institutions are adopting the Career
Framework for University Teaching, designed to support the career progression of
academics on the basis of their contribution to teaching and learning. It offers a pathway
for academic career progression and an evidence base with which to demonstrate and
evaluate teaching achievement. The framework can be adapted to higher education
institutions' academic career structures and progression points, and used at each stage of
the academic career, including appointment, professional development, appraisal and
promotion. The Framework's design draws on educational research, feedback from the
higher education community and global best practice. It was developed in partnership
with pedagogical experts and partner universities from across the world (Graham,
2018¡r re¡).

In Norway, as a f'ollow-up of the 201'7 rWhite Paper 'Quality Culture in Higher

Education', a requirement to undergo educational training will take effect in 2019' both
for employment and promotion in academic posts.

4.4. Concluding rernarks
This chapter explored data, policies and practices related to higher education staff and
concerning their profile, working conditions, mobility and professional development. The
analysis of human resources in this chapter focused on academic staff, but also
considered other staff categories. The remainder of this section reviews some key
messages from this analysis of human resources in higher education, and identifies some
important information gaps which limited the analysis.

o Higher education institutions rely on the support of non-academic staff to ensure

the strategic, technological, administrative, financial and operational aspects of
teaching, research and engagement. If their utilisation is well planned, nonacademic staff can fulfil these tasks more efficiently than if they were assigned to
academic staff. The benchmarking exercise uses data from the ETER project to
BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2019

cFTAPTER4. HuMAN REsouRcES

estimate the non-academic to academic staff ratio, but this is limited to European
countries. There is no internationally comparable data available on academic and
non-academic staff for the further exploration of the size, tasks and role of nonacademic staff.
a

Two-fifths of academic staff work part-time, on average across OECD countries.
However, this indicates little about whether part-time work is used as a strategy to
ensure better work-life balance of academic staff, to reduce costs or to encourage
academic staff to work some time outside higher education (and contribute to the
development of an effective connection with the world of work). A better
understanding of part-time work among academic staff would require collection
of more detailed data on work intensity, and also of data on the distinction
between academic staff who are effectively working part-time and staff who have
other jobs outside higher education (i.e. share of academic staff holding multiple
jobs).
There is not a very clear relationship between the ratio of students to academic
staff and expenditure on compensation of academic staff. However, neither of
these two measures is an accurate indicator of the input to the teaching process,
because it is not possible to distinguish between the time spent by staff teaching
and doing research. Data on the teaching time of academic staff would allow
better evaluation of the efficiency of higher education systems in producing the
outcomes discussed in the following chapters.

a

The available evidence from past surveys of academic staff suggests that they
may be working well over 40 hours a week in some countries, and that they may
be subject to a considerable level of work-related strain. Staff satisfaction and
motivation are key to ensuring the sustainability and effectiveness of higher
education systems. The collection of comparative data to explore the opinions,
level of stress and working conditions of academic staff would yield an up-to-date
view ofthese issues.

a

Academic staff can play very different roles within higher education institutions,
based on their seniority and specialisation. Having agreed definitions of academic
staff categories would facilitate the investigation of a range of policy-relevant
topics, such as gender representation in academia and the role of teaching and
research among staff.

a

Women are bridging the gap in terms of participation in the academic labour
force, but the available evidence suggests that they are still under-represented at
the top ofthe academic hierarchy. Data on gender representation disaggregated by

seniority level would allow to provide evidence across countries more

systematically, and to assess how effective higher education systems are in terms
of providing an equitable working environment.
a

Working conditions differ among academic staff. For example, professors can
earn much more than other academic staff in some countries, while young
academic staff are much more likely to be employed on a temporary basis in some
jurisdictions. Data by academic staff categories would contribute to the
understanding of academic staff working conditions at different career stages.
This would help designing policies to improve the sustainability and effectiveness
of the higher education system, by making it easier to retain and motivate
academic staff.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 2OI9

I ztt

212 | CHAPTER 4. HUMAN RESouRCr,s
The participating jurisdictions responded to some of the challenges related to academic
staff with specific policies. Table 4.9 summarises some selected policies presented in the
chapter.
Table 4.9. Selected policies from the participating jurisdictions (2017)
Policies

Motivation

Estonia

Giving higher education
institutions autonomy in
staff decisions

. Higher education instilutións have full autonomy over the decision of
salaries for academic and non-academic staff

. Higher education institutions have autonomy over promotions and salary
increase

. Some restrictions are placed on the hiring of academic staff through
temporary contracts

ïhe Flemish
Community

Bridging the research
gender gap

. lnclusion of a gender diversity indicator (the share of women in research
positions at different levels) in indicators for research formula funding

. Public-private co-funding of research fellowships forwomen in biomedical
sciences

. Regulations on set targets for the participation of both genders in public
univenities' decision-making bodies (i.e. university boards, research
councils and selection juries).

The

lmproving staffteaching

, The university teaching qualification (UTQ) was developed by universities
in response to a call by government for better leaching skills

Netherlands qualifications

. The UTQ attests to the teaching competences of staff in scientific and
academic education in universlties in the Netherlands (e,9. assessment and
feedback, inclusion of diverse students)
. The share of teachers holding a UTQ certil¡cate has been included among
the indicators in the perfonnance agreements with universities
. The certifìcation of competences is based on peer evaluation, mentoring

and particlpation in a community of teachen from differenl institutions
. Professional HEls also developed a teaching qualification, divided into an
initial or lower levet qualification and a further qualification for senior staff
Norway

Stimulating interest in
research and a
research career among
young people

. The Research Council of Norway (RCN) runs various initiatives to increase
interest in research and a research career, such as the Annual Science
Week, the Science Knowledge Project for children (Nysglemgper) and the
Proscientia.

Source'. Adapted from information provided by the participating jurisdictions. See the reader's guide for
further information.
TL^
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PUrru¡ç)

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:lll

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designed across OECD countries to tackle the most pressing challenges facing human
resources in higher education. Future benchmarking exercises would benefit from a more
systematic and standardised data collection of human resource policies in a larger number
of countries.

BENCHMARKING HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE @ OECD 20I9

cHAPTER4.HUMANRESoURCES I zts

Notes
I In the Flemish Community, autonomous academic staff refers to academic staff with civil servant
status who work in universities.
2

Short-cycle programmes at the ISCED 5 level are not recognised as part ofthe higher education
system in Norway and are offered through vocational colleges (see Chapter 2). However, Norway
offers a two-year bachelor's programme at ISCED 6 level (høgskolekandidat) and students who
successfully complete the two-year programme cah enter into the third year of a bachelor's

programme.
3

The ERA Roadmap, a tool developed by EU member countries with related stakeholder groups
and the Commission, aims to provide a framework for change. It was launched in May 2015 for

the period 2015-2020 with a defined set of goals (Council of the European Union, 2015¡ræ¡).
Participating jurisdictions have developed national plans on their contributions towards achieving
the goals in each of the priority areas, including gender equality in Research (Table 4.1). In
addition, ERAC has been established, which includes a Standing Working Group on Gender in
Research and Innovation, with the goal to facilitate the exchange of practice and the monitoring of
gender policy in research and innovation at the European level (Council ofthe European Union,
201 8¡rzrl).
a

Academic training is covered more extensively in Chapters 5 and 6.

5 Flemish institutions have considerable autonomy to hire and promote staff, but applicants for
some positions must meet some language requirements. Academic staff whose role will require the

delivery of courses (titularis van een vafr) must demonstrate a high level of proficiency in the
Dutch language. Applicants to administrative positions must also demonstrate proficiency in the
language, but at a lower level. Similarly, the Estonian Language Act (Keeleseadus) also requires
proficiency by academic staff in the Estonian language (Riigi Teataja,2}llqol). Lecturers and
researchers whose first language is not Estonian do not have to abide by the proficiency
regulations before five years ofwork experience in Estonia. In addition, regulations also require
language proficiency in Estonian at the level Cl for Directors (Heads), their Deputies and Heads
of Study Affairs of education institutions (Riigi Teataja,20l3vcù.
6

Higher education teachers here follow the definition used in the Survey of Adult Skills (Standard
Classification of Professions - ISCO). "University and higher education teachers prepare and
deliver lectures and conduct tutorials in one or more subjects within a course of study at a
university or other higher educational institution. They conduct research, and prepare scholarly
papers and books'o (ILO, 2012¡rzzl). Educational attainment in Box 4.7 also follows the
classification of the Survey of Adult Skills (ISCED 1997), with "advanced research degrees'o
instead of doctoral degrees.
7

The Nordplus programme suppofts teacher mobility in various ways. Among various purposes,
the programme aims to contribute to the establishment of a Nordic-Baltic educational region,
contribute to quality and innovation in higher education and promote Nordic languages.

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