upstage/dp-bench huggingface dataset:
content: text: YARROW

content: text: 1999 such iterations to form parameter distributions. If these distributions are
symmetric, we can pretty much just read values straight out of them to form
confidence intervals (e.g., the 50th and 1950th values out of 1999 will give us a
roughly 95% confidence interval). If they are not, we must do something more
complicated, with the best choice being the bias-corrected and accelerated
(BCa) approach. Because of the large number of fits that are required,
bootstrapping is fairly slow. If the experiment contains many trials, the BCa
method makes it even slower (because it incorporates additional "jackknife"
resampling, implying one further fitting iteration for almost every trial).18

content: text: The code accompanying this chapter offers options to generate confidence
intervals on fitted parameters. Confidence intervals sometimes imply
statistical inference, as for example when they fail to overlap some value and
thus imply that our statistic differs significantly from that value. However, in
SJ experiments we are more likely to want to ask a question such as whether
a particular parameter differs between two conditions for a single observer.
To answer this kind of question, you will need to modify or develop the code.
If we take the example of whether parameters vary across conditions, my
recommendation would be to adopt a permutation test approach.

content: text: To do so, take the trials from both conditions and think of each trial as a
card in a deck of cards. Making sure you keep each trial intact (i.e., without
breaking the link between SOAS and responses) shuffle the trials and then deal
them at random into two new piles, each representing a pseudo-condition.
If your original conditions contained different numbers of trials, make sure
the two pseudo-conditions match the size of the original conditions. For each
pseudo-condition, perform a model fit. Now calculate the difference between
model parameters in the two pseudo-conditions. This is the value you want to
retain. Now repeat this whole process many times. What you are forming is a
null distribution of the expected difference between model parameters that
would occur just by chance. You can then compare the difference you actually
obtained against this null distribution to generate a p value for your difference
of interest.

content: text: 7 Variants of SJ Observer Models

content: text: In this chapter, I have presented two variants of a latency-based observer mod-
el applied to the SJ task. Both assume that a single SOA will generate an inter-
nal response (△t) that is a Gaussian random variable. Both assume a simple

content: text: 18 E.g., <SimultaneityNoisyCriteriaMultistart 225-386>. Note that Matlab has inbuilt func-
tions, which could have done most of this if you have the statistics toolbox extensions.
content: text: YARROW

content: text: where SOAS below some threshold cannot be recovered, so that an observer
can only guess about order.19 However, either kind of model can easily be fitted
and interpreted from either theoretical perspective.

content: text: 8 Choosing between Observer Models and Rejecting Participants

content: text: Two further reasonable questions one might ask are: 1) could my observer
model have generated these data? and 2) does another observer model de-
scribe the data better? Model comparison is a large and complex topic, so once
again, what I have to say here should be treated as a brief introduction rather
than a comprehensive summary.

content: text: Let's begin by considering a metric I have not yet mentioned: Deviance. De-
viance (sometimes called G2) is a measure based on log likelihood, but which
looks rather more like summed squared error, in that it is zero for a perfectly
fitting model and large/positive for a poorly fitting model. Formally, deviance
is two times the difference in log likelihood between the saturated model and
the model with our current set of parameters. A saturated model is one that
exactly predicts the data (which can always be accomplished by a model that
has one parameter per data point). Hence it represents the situation with the
maximum possible log-likelihood when predicting this particular set of data.
Deviance is closely related to a simpler calculation (-2 × log likelihood) that
forms the basis of a couple of well-known metrics for model comparison (the
Akaike information criterion, AIC, and the Bayesian information criterion,
BIC) and indeed is occasionally defined this way. That's because we are of-
ten only really interested in differences (in Deviance, or AIC, or BIC) between
models, and the log-likelihood of the saturated model gets subtracted out in a
comparison between two models (because it has contributed to the deviance
in the same way for both) SO calculating it is not necessary.

content: text: However, if you want to say something about the goodness of fit of a model
without relating it to any other model, based on asymptotic statistical theory,
you do need to calculate deviance properly. Asymptotically, it turns out that
the deviance of a model fitted to data when that model actually generated those
data follows a chi-square (x2) distribution, with degrees of freedom equal to
the number of data points minus the number of model parameters (note: for

content: text: 19 Garcia-Perez and Alcala-Quintana's commitment to this account is a little unclear, be-
cause they often let � vary across experimental conditions, suggesting flexibility more
akin to a criterion-based account. It may be that they believe a low-threshold exists, but
that synchrony is often additionally reported beyond this hard limit.
content: text: INTERP RETING SIM ULTANEITY JUDGEMENTS

content: text: model (discussed for a binary fit in Section 6.2). Because there are three pos-
sible choices, the appropriate data model (applied at each SOA) is no longer
the binomial distribution, but rather the multinomial distribution, which can
provide an exact likelihood of obtaining any particular combination of prob-
abilities that divide N choices into three bins when the actual probabilities of
selecting each bin are known (or rather, for fitting purposes, predicted).22

content: text: 11 Dual-Presentation SJ Data

content: text: Several authors have investigated the use of a dual-presentation SJ task in
which two bimodal stimuli are presented (one after another) and compared,
for example by reporting which one was (most) synchronous (Allan & Kristof-
ferson, 1974; Powers, Hillock, & Wallace, 2009; Roseboom, Nishida, Fujisaki, &
Arnold, 2011). This is a form of what would, in classical signal detection theory,
be described as a two-alternative forced choice (specifically the two-interval
forced choice variant). However, that designation is ambiguous (about wheth-
er there are two presentations or two response categories) and has been ap-
plied to cases where either or both of the possible qualifying conditions are
met, which is probably why the dual-presentation SJ task has ended up being
given a variety of names (e.g., temporal 2AFC; forced-choice successiveness
discrimination; 2IFC SJ, where the classic SJ is referred to as 2AFC SJ in the
same paper). I will label it the 2xSJ.

content: text: The simplest form of the 2xSJ would have a synchronous standard on every
trial along with a non-synchronous test pair. Based on the kind of observer
models discussed in this chapter, the resulting psychometric function (plotting
the probability ofjudging the standard more synchronous than the test against
the test's SOA) is U-shaped and centred over the PSS. This approach represents
a reasonable way to derive estimates of inverse precision (i.e., ��t) but a fairly
poor way to estimate the PSS, because having a synchronous standard on every
trial provides feedback about objective synchrony. A simple solution is to also
include a range of standards as well as a range of tests, in a roving standard
design.

content: text: The observer model can be fitted to data even when both standard and test
are non-zero, as described in detail by Yarrow et al. (2016; see also Garcia-Perez
& Peli, 2014). To present all of the data, it is necessary to plot a function for
each standard SOA (using several standard plots, or a single 3D plot), which is
somewhat cumbersome, but not a major obstacle to using the task. A simple

content: text: 22 <MultinomialLikelihood 9>.
content: text: YARROW

content: text: observer model with three parameters captures PSS, sensory noise and an in-
terval bias (i.e., a tendency to select one interval in preference to the other
under uncertainty).

content: text: The 2xSJ task provides estimates that correlate fairly well with equivalent
parameters estimated using TOJs, SJs, and ternary tasks. However, each trial
takes longer than in those single-presentation tasks, which makes experi-
ments more onerous. There are a few reasons why the roving-standard 2xSJ is
still worth considering. Firstly, it asks about synchrony explicitly (unlike the
TOJ) and by requiring relative judgements it reveals a point of maximal syn-
chrony perception (whereas the SJ and ternary tasks often reveal a range of
SOA values that are classified as synchronous). Secondly, it can be added in
to a single-presentation task (as a follow-up question every two trials), which
somewhat mitigates the burden of additional experimental time. Finally, a case
can be made that it will be more resistant to some forms of decision-level bias
(Morgan, Grant, Melmoth, & Solomon, 2015; Morgan, Melmoth, & Solomon,
2013). As with the other tasks I have described, code to fit data from the 2xSJ
accompanies this chapter.23 For further information, read the comments there
and consult Yarrow et al. (2016).

content: text: 12 Conclusion

content: text: In this chapter, I have outlined the benefits of fitting formal observer models
to judgements about simultaneity, and described how this can be achieved us-
ing Matlab code (see book's GitHub repository). In doing so, I have presented
one particular observer model in some detail, and highlighted the fundamen-
tally subjective nature of the SJ task, which requires us to think carefully about
how both the strategic decisions and perceptual sensitivity of a participant
can affect their psychometric function. I have gone on to supply a brief over-
view of appropriate models for several closely related timing tasks. I hope I
have also provided enough of a tutorial regarding bespoke model fitting and
evaluation to allow the interested reader to go forward and explore their own
models of perceived simultaneity. Modelling may seem intimidating, but in
fact, a good understanding of just a few basic concepts (which is best gained
through practical exploration) will take you a long way, providing tools to
engage more fully with the timing literature. This is an endeavour I would very
much encourage!

content: text: 23 <TwoAFCSimulanety_3PEq_Multistart_rawdata>.
content: text: CHAPTER 1

content: text: FIGURE 1.5. The San Mateo Ixtatan men's jacket, lopil
(Spanish capixay). Photo by Elizabeth Purdum.

content: text: FIGURE 1.6. Vegetation along the trail from San Mateo
Ixtatan to Bulej, May 1965. Photo by author.
content: text: Chuj Country

content: text: FIGURE 1.15. On the trail in the Yolcultac (yol k'ultak,
"center of the brushland") forest, municipio of Nenton.
May 1965, at the end of the dry season. Photo by the author.
content: text: CHAPTER 2

content: text: Narratives in Chuj

content: text: T broad variety of stories people tell one another and the variety of sources
HIS COLLECTION OF SIX narratives told in Chuj demonstrates the
of those stories: personal narratives, legendary events, mythological
tales, and stories borrowed from other cultures. All were recorded by me during
field work on Chuj from 1964 to 1965. (See the Archive of the Indigenous Lan-
guages of Latin America, www.ailla.utexas.org, for these and other samples of
Chuj speech recorded during field work; AILLA reference codes for each text
are given below and at the head of each transcription.)

content: text: Introduction to the Texts

content: text: Two of the stories are ultimately of foreign origin, but their origins are not the
same. In one case, the story known to the narrator as An Old Man Whose Son
Killed Him [CAC 002 R022], the clearly comes from the European tra-
story
dition, and must have been introduced to the Chuj by schoolteachers. It is the
classic Greek tale of a couple whose child is destined to kill his father and how
that came about, including the solution to a famous riddle: What animal walks
on four legs at dawn, on two legs at noon, and on three legs in the evening?

content: text: The other tale, Coyote and Rabbit [CAC 002 R027], is probably ultimately
of African origin, although some of its episodes are traditional in the American
South and have been introduced secondhand to the Chuj. This is the series
may
of incidents that make up stories, stories that reflected earlier
the Br'er Rabbit
African tales involving Hyena instead of Fox (Diarassouba 2007). Here the story
features Coyote instead of either Fox or Hyena. Coyote stories and stories of
Rabbit Trickster abound in the native New World, and some of the episodes may
be of American origin, adapted to the framework of the African stories. Some ep-
isodes have a local flavor (such as misty mountains) and are likely of local origin.

content: text: A third story, Friend of the Animals [CAC 002 R020], expresses such a
universal theme that it could possibly be of foreign origin as well, but it has
content: text: BAIRD

content: text: The H O N E Y - M O O N .

content: text: FIGURE 4.3
The Honey-Moon [graphic]. Mezzotint,
hand-colored.
PRINTED FOR CARINGTON BOWLES,
LONDON, JUNE 1777

content: text: this list, Richard Walker, apothecary to the Prince
of Wales, adds Arabic henna, manna, and rhu-
barb.34 The influence of the Arabian medicine first
on the Greek, then on the French and English phy-
sicians, although often decried, brought an influx
of medicinal plants from or through the Arabian

content: text: Peninsula to Europe, where they were customarily
used in tinctures, purges, and other more or less
effective elixirs.35 Alternately, incense was used for
its love-inducing and rejuvenating properties, as
seen in an 1787 etching by James Gillray represent-
ing a group of five elderly women of fashion at-
tending an altar of Love (fig. 4.5).36

content: text: Book. Interspersed with Some Occasional Observations
on Some of the Most Celebrated Modern Dispensatories,
and the Present State of Pharmacy (London: Printed
and Sold by R. Willock, 1744). This volume contains a
wealth of detailed recipes for various afflictions, albeit
providing few specifics as to what was treated by using
them.
34 Richard Walker, Memoirs of Medicine; Including a
Sketch of Medical History from the Earliest Accounts to
the Eighteenth Century (London: Printed for J. Johnson,
1799).

content: text: 35 For the influence of the Arabian medicine on Western
Europe, see volume 3 of John Astruc's Treatise on the
Diseases of Women, in Which Is Attempted to Join a Just
Theory to the Most Safe and Approved Practice... (Lon-
don: Printed for J. Nourse, 1767). For detailed recipes of
medicines containing ingredients of Arabic origin, see
Pharmacopoia Reformata cited above.
36 Arabian incense is made by using frankincense or gum
Arabic resin mixed with sweet-smelling essential oils,
such as myrrh and oud.
content: text: CIRCULATING THINGS, CIRCULATING STEREOTYPES

content: text: The Three Pigeons
J G High-Change in Bond Street. on la Politesse du Grande Monde. 417

content: text: FIGURE 4.10 James Gillray, High Change in Bond Street; ou la politesse du grande monde [graphic]. Etching on wove paper,
hand-colored.
PUBLISHED BY H. HUMPHREY, LONDON, 1796

content: text: meant to bewilder the viewer. Satins, silks, ivory,
gigantic eggs, and "artificial" apples describe, in
fact, the things of the trade: expensive and rare
fabrics, on the one hand, strange collectibles and
exotica, on the other. Lavish dresses and embel-
lishments become insignia of wealth, power, and
nonconformity, of a way of life outside the eco-
nomic constraints of the Western civilization. In-
terestingly, such projections were internalized by
eighteenth-century British subjects in the fashion-
able "Turquerie" that allowed the wearers to dis-
play their wealth by wearing Oriental dress, tur-
bans, ostrichplumes,longcapes, veils,andflattering
shalvars (figs. 4.9 and 4.10). Anotherinfusion ofOri-
entalismin the West, the tradition ofpainting Euro-
pean figures in Middle Eastern dress, becomes a
form of cultural cross-dressing meant to suggest

content: text: misuse of power or excessive wealth (fig. 4.11).
Such cultural imports are difficult to be under-
stood, to use Said's qualification, as expressions of
the Occident's cultural "antipathy"84 toward the
Orient;rather, they reflect the West's attraction to a
space that connotes difference understood as ex-
traordinariness rather than inferiority.

content: text: Besides their connotations of magic, exoticism,
and wealth, the things in the Arabian Nights are also
rich bearers of cultural information: as Marina War-
ner correctly pointed out, "stories are lodged in
goods"85 and as such, they expand the reader's

content: text: 84 Said, Orientalism, 260.
85 Marina Warner, introduction to Stranger Magic:
Charmed States and the Arabian Nights (London: Chat-
to & Windus, 2011), 8.
content: text: MACDONALD

content: text: FIGURE 5.1 Mr. Bologna Jun-r as Kalim Azack in Aladdin, or
The Wonderful Lamp.

content: text: theatrical prints, which are informed by intercul-
turation and illustrate the Orientalized look of the
tale's theatrical life: one of John ("Jack") Peter Bo-
logna as Kalim Azack, the vizier's son betrothed to
Badroulboudour, and one of the extraordinary
pantomime clown Joseph Grimaldi as Kazrac, the
magician's Chinese slave, who, disillusioned by the
magician's cruel plans concerning the lamp, be-
friends Aladdin (figs. 5.1 and 5.2). The creation of
this non-speaking role (Kazrac's tongue had been
removed by the "Tartarian Hord" from whom the
magician rescued him) added much to the play,
besides giving both the magician and Aladdin an
ally and a confidant. Interestingly, these two prints
likely represent a notable scene in the play, cer-
tainly a favorite with children playing with a toy
theater. The prints show Kalim Azack and Kazrac
fighting while Aladdin follows the princess to the
royal baths. The wealthy Kalim Azack is depicted
wearing an elaborate ensemble: long embroidered
tunic with fringe, short jacket with embroidery
and tassels, full trousers tucked into boots, a sash,

content: text: FIGURE 5.2 Mr. Grimaldi as Kazrac (the Chinese slave) in
Aladdin, or The Wonderful Lamp.

content: text: necklace, earrings, and brooches. With his fanciful
hat and long moustache, he depicts a theatrical
version of "a Tartar," or "a Man from Crimea." An
illustration with the same title was included in an
1804 edition of The Costume of Turkey that aptly as-
sociates Kalim Azack with the "Tartarian Hord"
responsible for Kazrac's disfigurement.41 Kazrac's
"Chinese" costume resembles contemporary Qing
Dynasty (1636-1912) fashion with its changshan tu-
nic, long, loose trousers, and a cap with upturned
brim, topped with a knob. Despite his role as a
poor peasant, Kazrac's theatrical costume is em-
bellished with embroidery and a gold trim, and the
character wears white stockings. Additionally,
Grimaldi sports a braided pigtail and long mous-
tache and brandishes two curved swords. Taken
together, these two cultural images exemplify the
Orientalized look that contributed to the fantasy

content: text: 41 "A Tartar. A Man from Crimea," in Octavien Dalvimart,
The Costume of Turkey, 1802 (London: Printed for Will-
iam Miller, 1804), n.p.
content: text: AL-OGAYYEL AND OSKAY

content: text: FIGURE 8.7A-C A gazelle horn used in al-Sadu weaving.

content: text: 4 Al-Sadu Symbols and Social Significance

content: text: Perhaps the main reason for the uniqueness of
al-Sadu weaving is that it was never mass-pro-
duced for export in the same way other carpets
were. Although it was traded among tribes, due
to the length of time it takes to produce a tent,
and due to its particular function in the harsh
climate of the desert, it was not replicable in
other geographies. Al-Sadu weaving could not
be commercialized in the same way that other

content: text: FIGURE 8.8 Symbol of stars in contemporary al-Sadu
weaving by Leila Yaser.

content: text: objects-such as kilims, clothes, bags, blankets,
and tablecloths-were in other parts of the
world. Therefore, although the weaving practice
and the symbols used may have changed, they
did not change as much as in other textiles, so
examining the symbols embedded in these weav-
ings may yield a wealth of information about the
life of local populations. In the absence of writ-
ten records, al-Sadu weavings become, thus, re-
cords of memories embodied in a thing.

content: text: The natural environment of the nomadic tribe
can be seen in al-Sadu designs, which contain
symbols that reflect astronomical elements and
the desert environment.24 Quite frequently, al-
Sadu symbols indicate constellations and stars
(fig. 8.8). 25 In the vast sky of the pre-electric desert,
the stars, the moon, and the sun had a great signifi-
cance, being the main sources of orientation. It is
important to note that, currently, the weavers in
Kuwait explain these symbols simply as "stars,"

content: text: 24 For more details on the symbols that appear in al-Sadu
weavings, see also Altaf Salem Al-Ali Al-Sabah, Ibjad:
Ornate Tent Dividers and Weavings of the Kuwait Desert
(Kuwait: Al Sadu Society, 2006); Khawla Mohamed Ab-
del and Aziez Al Manai, Al Sadu (Doha: National Mu-
seum of Qatar, 2013); and Ali S. Alnajadah, "The Picto-
graphic Codes in Al-Sadu Weavings of Kuwait,"
International Design Journal 8, no. 3 (2018): 63-74. In
this latter study, Alnajadah tracks changes in the mean-
ings of some al-Sadu symbols.
25 Khawlah M. Manna, Al-Sadu in Qatar: Traditional Tech-
nical Values and Techniques (Doha: Qatar Museums
Authority, Qatar National Museum, 2013), 99-100.