upstage/dp-bench huggingface dataset:
content: text: Overcoming Barriers to Filipino Women's Political Representation 15

content: text: the way for women to enter the House of Representatives. In 2019,
20 women from party lists have contributed to the increase in female
legislators. However, the Party-List Law's implementation has been
controversial owing to the entry of political dynasties and traditional
politicians. The ideal that it serve as the gateway to political power of
disadvantaged groups has been lost due to vague provisions in the
law and subsequent Supreme Court decisions. The party list system
has also been "co-opted by the traditional political system or have
become the training ground for future influence-peddling traditional
politicians" (Tigno 2019). In other words, it has deviated from the idea
of proportional representation practiced in other countries. Dynastic
families took advantage of the system's flaws and used them to field
relatives, including some women, to expand their political power.
However, recent interviews with legislators from progressive party
lists demonstrate a better understanding of women's issues than some
representatives elected from single-member districts (Encinas-Franco
2022, 157).

content: text: Table 2. Women-Members of the House of Representatives
per Region, 2007-2019

content: html: <tr><td>REGIONS</td><td>2007-2010</td><td>2010-2013</td><td>2016-2019</td></tr><tr><td>National Capital Region</td><td>9</td><td>8</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Cordillera Autonomous Region</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>I - Ilocos Region</td><td>1</td><td>5</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>II - Cagayan Valley</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>III - Central Luzon</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>IVA - CALABARZON</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>11</td></tr><tr><td>IVB - MIMAROPA</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>V - Bicol Region</td><td>2</td><td>0</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>VI - Western Visayas</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>VII - Central Visayas</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>VIII - Eastern Visayas</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>3</td></tr>
content: text: 16 Encinas Franco and Laguna

content: html: <tr><td>IX - Zamboanga Peninsula</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>X - Northern Mindanao</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>XI - Davao Region</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>XII - SOCCSKSARGEN</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>XIII - Caraga</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>ARMM</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Party-List</td><td>10</td><td>15</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>TOTAL (w/ Party- List)</td><td>55</td><td>66</td><td>88</td></tr><tr><td>TOTAL (w/o Party- List)</td><td>45</td><td>51</td><td>68</td></tr>

content: text: Source: HOR 2022. Computations made by the authors.

content: text: Overall, the abovementioned situation indicates that Filipino
women have gradually increased their presence in formal politics.
In Asia, the Philippines and Taiwan are the only countries above the
global average of 24.5 percent of women in parliament (Liu 2021).
However, challenges remain as the increased participation of women
comes from dysfunctional features of the country's political system:
political dynasties and the Party-List law. Nonetheless, not all women
from these groups are necessarily averse to women's issues.

content: text: Barriers to Filipino Women's Participation

content: text: Previous studies have identified political, economic, and cultural
factors that impede women's participation in politics. However, context
still matters since the perception of women's role in societies and the
evolution of political systems differ. The following section examines
some of these barriers.

content: text: The Philippine electoral system's "first-past-the-post" electoral
type, coupled with the lack of well-developed political parties, inhibits
women's entry into politics. Encinas-Franco (2021) argues that "[w]
ithout party discipline and institutionalized rules within parties, one
content: text: EFB = empty fruit bunch.
Source: Murdiyatmo (2021).

content: text: However, the main obstacle with producing second-generation bioethanol is the cost of
enzymes. Murdiyatmo (2021) stated that, at the pilot scale, the cost of enzymes is very
high, i.e. Rp18,000 per litre of ethanol produced. Some studies provided the cost of
enzymes in the US. NREL (2011), for instance, estimated that the cost of enzymes to
produce second-generation bioethanol in the US was equivalent to around $0.34 per
gallon or Rp1,5292 per litre of ethanol produced, i.e. less than one-tenth of the cost of
enzymes in Indonesia.

content: text: In the next sub-sections, we analyse biodiesel and bioethanol introduction in Indonesia.
In each sub-section, we first discuss the current supply and demand of the biofuels and
the related conventional transport fuel. Second, we estimate the conventional transport
fuel, i.e. gasoline and diesel fuel demand in road transportation during the period of
2020-50. Third, we estimate the volume of pure biofuel (fatty acid methyl ester
[FAME]/biodiesel and bioethanol) needs in scenarios, and in the amount of feedstock, i.e.
CPO in biodiesel and molasses in bioethanol needed to meet the demand required in each
scenario.

content: text: 2.1. Diesel and biodiesel use

content: text: The consumption of diesel fuel in Indonesia, used primarily for road freight transport,
fluctuated between 2010 and 2019 as it correlated with the economic condition (Table
2.8). Diesel consumption in the industry sector decreased significantly, around 10% per
year between 2010 and 2019, resulting from the shift to another energy type. During the
same period, with some fluctuations, diesel production increased at 3.6% annual growth
rate, while imports were cut by half from nearly 13 billion litres in 2010 to nearly 6.5 billion
litres in 2018. The biodiesel blending rate increased from only 1% in 2010 to nearly 20%
in 2019, representing a growing level of mandatory biodiesel programmes. Apparently,
diesel imports dropped with the increase of the biodiesel (B100) blending rate.

content: text: 2 Assuming average inflation rate of 2% between 2011 and 2021 and an exchange rate of $1 =
Rp14,131.
content: text: pharmaceutical products (Casson, Muliastra, and Obidzinski, 2014). The development of
biofuels from biomass has raised interest in expanding the palm oil plantation area. This
is because palm oil is the main raw material for biodiesel in Indonesia.

content: text: CPO is the primary product derived from the red fruit of the oil palm, while palm kernel
oil, derived from the fruit's nut, is considered a secondary product. Oil palm biomass
includes EFBs, palm mesocarps fibres (PMFs), PKS, oil palm fronds, oil palm trunks, as well
as palm oil mill effluent (POME). Oil palm fronds account for 70% of the total oil palm
biomass produced, while EFB accounts for 10% and oil palm trunks account for only about
5% of the total biomass produced.

content: text: According to Harahap et al. (2019), Indonesia housed 11 million hectares (Mha) of oil palm
plantations and produced 31 million tonnes (Mt) of CPO in 2015. Oil extraction from palm
fruits occurs in palm oil mills. One tonne (t) of CPO production results in nearly 5 t of solid
biomass waste, including EFBs, PKSs, PMFs, and POME; see Figure 3.3. This implies that,
in 2015, Indonesia produced around 155 Mt of palm biomass residue.

content: text: Figure 3.3. Biomass Use in Oil Palm Industry

content: text: ~2 t
Effluent
Mesocarp Crude palm oil
One hectare of oil
Fresh fruit Palm
palm plantation
bunch fruits
~8 t
Shell
Palm kernel
~15 t
~1 t
Legend:
Empty fruit bunch
Residue production
~3 t

content: text: Source: Harahap et al. (2019).

content: text: Regarding the potential for biodiesel, the previous Table 2.10 projected the demand of
FAME for both B30 and B40 mandates using the volume of diesel fuel needed for the road
transport sector. As shown, the FAME demand will reach 19.1 million kL in 2040 for the
B30 mandate and 25.4 million kL for the B40 mandate. The current FAME production
capacity is 12.85 million kL, indicating a shortage of supply to meet the 2040 demand for
both the B30 and B40 mandates.

content: text: Increasing the capacity for FAME production implies that the demand for domestic CPO
will continue to increase. The estimated CPO required to produce FAME in 2040 is also
calculated above (Table 2.11). The estimated CPO consumption for B30 and B40 mandate
in 2040 will be 17.5 and 23.4 million tonnes, respectively. This was calculated based on
content: text: scheme helped the biomass power capacity to increase by more than double in 7 years.
Under the FIT scheme, biomass fuels for power generation are grouped into six categories.

content: text: · General wood: sawmill residues, import wood such as pellets and chips, palm kernel
shell (PKS) and palm trunk
· Liquid biomass: palm oil
· Unutilised wood: domestic thinned wood
· Construction wood waste: wood waste salvaged from construction and other wood
materials
· Waste materials and other biomass: pruned branched, paper, food waste, waste
cooking oil, and black liquor
· Biogas: methane derived from sewage sludge, manure, and food waste.

content: text: While inexpensive biomass sources such as wood waste from construction and waste
materials, were the main fuels under the RPS, the domestic unutilised wood and the
general wood whose tariff rates are set higher increased specifically (Figure 4.1, 4.2).

content: text: Figure 4.1. Approved Capacity under the FIT Scheme

content: text: MW
700
■ Waste materials
600
■ Biogas
500
■ Construction wood waste
400
300 ■ General wood (10MW≤)
200 ■ General wood (<10MW)
100 (2MW≤)
■ Unutilised wood
0
■ Unutilised wood (<2MW)
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

content: text: FIT = feed-in-tariff.
Note: Liquid biomass approved under the FIT scheme between FY2012 and FY2017 is included in general wood
and no liquid biomass has been approved since FY2018.
Source: METI (2021a).
content: text: Figure 4.2. Operating Capacity under the FIT Scheme

content: text: MW
400
■ Waste materials
350
■ Biogas
300
250
■ Construction wood waste
200
■ General wood (10MW≤)
150
■ General wood (<10MW)
100
50 ■ Unutilised wood (2MW≤)
0
■ Unutilised wood (<2MW)
12-13 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

content: text: FIT = feed-in-tariff.
Source: METI (2021a).

content: text: The newly approved capacity has stagnated lately because some strict measures reduced
the accumulated idle capacity in the revised FIT Act of 2017. For instance, developers are
required to have entered into the grid connection agreement with a utility company for
an FIT approval and to submit a business plan for assessment of feasibility and
sustainability. As a result, the approved biomass power capacity is about 160MW on
average in FY2018 and FY2019.

content: text: A recent change in the FIT scheme is that new projects of biomass co-firing with coal in
the category of unutilised wood, general wood, and construction wood waste are no
longer eligible for the FIT scheme from FY2019.4 The data collected after implementation
of the FIT scheme revealed that the generation costs of these biomass co-firing with coal
are lower than the estimated costs of conventional biomass power plants in terms of
capital expenditures, operation and maintenance, and fuels. Hence, biomass co-firing
with coal does not have a rationale to receive support through the FIT scheme since it
could make profits without it. For reference, Figure 4.3 illustrates a biomass co-firing ratio
of the major power utilities' coal-fired power plants. Nearly half of the coal-fired power
plants co-combusted biomass in FY2019 and most of them are less than 1% ratio of
biomass.

content: text: 4 Biomass of waste materials co-firing with coal is not eligible for the FIT scheme from FY2021.
content: text: 3. Perspective of supply and demand balance of wood pellets and cost
structure in Japan

content: text: According to a survey taken by the Japan Woody Bioenergy Association in FY2018 (from
April 2018 to March 2019) with 55 biomass power generators, more than half of fuel for
biomass power generation is domestically produced wood biomass at present in Japan in
terms of weight (Figure 4.5).

content: text: Figure 4.5. Breakdown of Biomass Power Generation Fuel in Japan

content: text: Waste
Others
materials
Construction
wood waste
PKS
Domestic logs
Import pellets, and wood
chips chips
Domestic
wood pellets

content: text: PKS = palm kernel shell.
Note: The share of fuel calculated in terms of biomass fuel weight ('Wood pellets', 'Construction wood waste',
'Waste materials', 'Others': tonne; others: dry tonne).
Source: Depicted by IEEJ based on Japan Woody Bioenergy Association (JWBA), 2020.

content: text: When translating the survey result into energy form, it is estimated that, within biomass
power generation using wood biomass ('Unutilised wood', 'General wood', and
'Construction wood waste'), around 30% of input fuel is met by import biomass fuel
(Figure 4.6).
content: text: Figure 4.6. Input Biomass Fuel for Each Type of Biomass Power Generation

content: text: 100% 2%
8%
90%
80% 27%
70%
60%
50% 98% 33% 100% 100%
40%
30%
20%
31%
10%
0%
Biogas Unutilised wood General wood Construction Waste materials
wood waste and other
biomass
■ Domestic logs and wood chips ■ Domestic wood pellets
■ Import pellets, chips ■ PKS
■ Construction wood waste ■ Other waste
■ Others

content: text: PKS = palm kernel shell.
Heat value used: Domestic logs and wood chips: 19.4 MJ/kg; Domestic wood pellets, Import pellets, chips:
15.5 MJ/kg; PKS: 18 MJ/kg; Construction wood waste, Other waste, and Others: assuming the same with wood
pellets.
Source: Depicted by IEEJ based on Japan Woody Bioenergy Association, 2020.

content: text: According to Japan's trade statistics, its import of wood pellets has increased around 16
times from 2014 to 2019. Viet Nam and Canada are the largest suppliers of Japan's wood
pellet imports (Figure 4.7). On the other hand, domestic wood pellet production stayed
almost the same over the same period (Figure 4.8).

content: text: Figure 4.7. Wood Pellets Import

content: text: 1,800
1,614
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,060
1,000tonne
1,000
800
600 506
400 347
232
200
97
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
■ China ■ Viet Nam ■ Malaysia ■ Indonesia
■ Canada ■ US ■ Australia ■ Others

content: text: Source: Trade Statistics of Japan.
content: text: Figure 4.8. Domestic Wood Pellets Production

content: text: 1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000tonne
1,000
800
600
400
200 126 120 120 127 131 147
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Domestic production

content: text: Source: Forestry Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF), 2020.

content: text: Applications of wood pellets in Japan include power generation, boilers, stoves,
agriculture use, and others. Although the trade statistics do not specify the usage of the
imported wood pellets, according to the Japan Wood Pellet Association (JPA), most are
used for power generation.

content: text: The price of domestic wood pellets for power generation has a wide range. According to
a survey of domestic wood pellet manufacturers undertaken by JPA in 2020, the average
price of domestic wood pellets for power generation is around 14,000~29,000 ¥/tonne,
while according to the Trade Statistics of Japan, the average cost, insurance, and freight
(CIF) price of imported wood pellets is around 18,000 ¥/tonne in 2020 (Figure 4.9).

content: text: Figure 4-9. Average Cost, Insurance, and Freight Prices of Wood Pellets
and Wood Chips

content: text: 30,000
25,000
20,000
Yen/tonne
15,000
10,000
5,000
-
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Wood pellets Wood chips, coniferous Wood chips, non-coniferous

content: text: Average price = import value/import tonne.
Source: Estimated by IEEJ based on Trade Statistics of Japan.
content: text: iii. Looking at cost items, the cost of raw woods procurement will be highest
share at 42%, followed by labour cost at 35%, electricity cost of the
fabrication department at 10% (refer to figure 5-2). For this analysis, $35 per
tonne is assumed for raw wood costs and this assumption will be crucial to
maintain the economics of this business model.
iv. This business model will be operating cost-oriented not capital cost-oriented
(refer to figure 5.1); thus, management of raw wood cost, labour cost, and
electricity cost is essential. Few variations of capital cost will not affect this
business seriously.
v. Assumed selling price of wood pellet is $100 per tonne and appropriate.

content: text: Figure 5.1. Operating Cost Structure by the Three Departments of A Company

content: text: ■ Cutting raw woods ■ Fabrication ■ Transportation

content: text: Source: Author.

content: text: Figure 5.2. Operating Cost Structure by the Cost Items of a Company

content: text: ■ Raw woods ■ Electricity ■ Diesel oil ■ Labour ■ Depreciation ■ Interest payment

content: text: Source: Author.
content: text: 1. Shipping as a vector for marine IAS
List of Philippine Ports is in Appendix 3

content: text: Shipping remains as the only scientifically
documented pathway for marine
biological invasion in the Philippines with
the introduction and invasion of the
South American mussel Mytella strigata
(Vallejo et al. 2017). This invasive was first
recorded from the South Harbor of
Manila in 2014 and has been known to
have spread throughout Manila Bay, to
Lingayen Gulf, Aparri, Cagayan and
Batangas Port in the Philippines. It has
since then reported in Singapore, Taiwan,
Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, the Gulf of
Thailand, and Sri Lanka.

content: text: Figure 2. Foulers from the South Harbor of Manila Bay.
Photo by SAILS-PORTEC Manila Bay

content: text: Mytella was likely spread through hull fouling and ballast water release. In the Philippines its
spread to other ports was likely through small vessel hull fouling as the first adult samples were
recorded from the fishing boat FV Ocean in 2015 which was docked in Manila Bay. An intensive
monitoring of the South Harbor area in 2014 resulted in the detection of the first cohort of
recruits in Manila Bay. The likely first introduction by ballast water release or by biofouling was
in December 2013 and the first cohort of recruits was detected in July 2014.

content: text: There are at least 15 marine non-indigenous species ship hull fouling recorded from Manila Bay's
South Harbor (Vallejo et al. 2019; Trinidad et al 2017.) Only Mytella is considered invasive enough
to have wide scale ecological and economic impacts. The most numerous species is the well-
studied Hydroides elegans, which is a known ship fouler with a present pantropical distribution.
content: text: The other potentially invasive fouler is the tropical American Mytilopsis sallei and M. adamsi
which has been recorded invasive in Singapore, Australia, Thailand among other regions. While
they are recorded from the Manila South Harbor, there is no evidence that it is invasive as it exists
in low abundances.

content: text: A B C D E F G
H I J K L

content: text: Figure 3. Non-indigenous macrofoulers from Manila Bay with IAS, Mytilopsis sallei and Mytella strigata
(=charruana). (From Trinidad et aL 2019)

content: text: Newer estimates (2021) on the number of possible IAS in Manila Bay is likely more than 30
species based on more intensive biofouling ecological monitoring and the use environmental
DNA in detecting species. When research started in 2006 on IAS in Manila Bay, 3 species were
initially observed.
content: text: estuarine influenced areas. Batangas, Cebu and Iloilo are located very near to protected areas
and tourism areas. Batangas is within the center of the center of global marine biodiversity while
Cebu is in the Mactan key biodiversity area. Manila has the highest number of foreign shipcalls
while Cebu has the highest domestic shipcalls and second to Manila in international shipcalls.

content: text: PORT

content: text: SHIPCALLS

content: html: <tr><td></td><td>Foreign</td><td>Domestic</td></tr><tr><td>MANILA</td><td>2454</td><td>6,125</td></tr><tr><td>CEBU</td><td>1138</td><td>79,500</td></tr><tr><td>BATANGAS</td><td>958</td><td>13,196</td></tr><tr><td>SUBIC</td><td>313</td><td>136</td></tr><tr><td>CAGAYAN DE ORO</td><td>137</td><td>3,159</td></tr><tr><td>DAVAO</td><td>750</td><td>17,807</td></tr><tr><td>ILOILO</td><td>212</td><td>24,381</td></tr><tr><td>GENERAL SANTOS</td><td>112</td><td>704</td></tr><tr><td>ZAMBOANGA</td><td>40</td><td>41,27</td></tr><tr><td>LUCENA</td><td>74</td><td>4,428</td></tr>

content: text: Table 1. Top 10 ports in the Philippines in shipcalls (2020 data from PPA, CPA and SBMA)

content: text: The port of Manila has been documented to have a significant number of possible IAS. The on-
going SAILS-PORTEC research program has detected IAS in Davao, Cebu and Matnog ports. These
ports are adjacent to specific oil tanker pathways/routes. In Luzon where the refineries and oil
storage facilities are located such as Batangas, are at higher risk. These loading ports are at high
risk for IAS/MNIS and these are located near to international ports.

content: text: The shipcall statistics in Table 1 represent the year 2020, when the COVID 19 pandemic caused a
global and domestic maritime transport slowdown. The average reduction in shipcalls is around
40%. Nonetheless, Manila and Cebu are likely the main ports that need to be closely monitored
for potential IAS bioinvasion. In 2018, before the COVID-19 pandemic, Manila was experiencing
port congestion with a report that ships may stay at berth for five days (Wallis, 2019). This will
increase the risks for biofouling. Based on the 2021 statistics from the PPA, the average berthing
time has been reduced to 1 day. This is a result of less shipping traffic due to the pandemic.
content: text: Figure 6. Mytella strigata biofouling green mussel farms in Bacoor City, Cavite, Manila Bay Photo from
https://businessmirror.com.ph/2020/02/17/fake-tahong-invades-bacoor-mussel-farms/

content: text: 5. Natural dispersal

content: text: Dispersal by purely natural means is not included as a pathway of biological invasions (Gaston
1996). Examples include range expansion by flight or any other medium of natural locomotion or
transport. However if human created or crafted material is involved in rafting dispersal of IAS,
then this may be considered as a case of biological invasion. The 2011 Great East Japan
earthquake generated a large tsunami that caused an unprecedented biological transoceanic
rafting event from the northwestern Pacific coastline of Japan towards North America on the
eastern Pacific(Carlton et al. 2017). Millions of human made objects from small plastics to large
docks and whole ships were cast adrift in the Pacific (Murray et al. 2018). This provided a
substrate for biofoulers. Large debris could carry up to 20 to 30 mega-species of biofoulers
(Carlton et al. 2017). These biofouled debris can constitute an IAS risk (Therriault 2017).

content: text: While a tsunami is a relatively rare event, a more common one is fouler dispersal by rafting on
coastal currents of floating plastic debris, wood and, bamboo. Marine litter often originate from