History of fu poetry
The History of "fu" poetry covers the beginnings of the Chinese literary genre of "fu". The term "fu" describes literary works which have certain characteristics of their own. English lacks an equivalent native term (or form). Sometimes called "rhapsodies", sometimes called "rhyme-prose", "fu" are characterized by qualities of both poetry and prose: both are obligatory. The "fu" form of literary work is a treatment in a poetic manner, wherein some topic (or topics) of interest, such as an exotic object, a profound feeling, or an encyclopedic subject is described and rhapsodized upon, in exhaustive detail  and various angles of view. And, for a piece to be truly considered to be within the "fu" genre, it must follow the rules of this form, in terms of structure, meter, and so on. The first known "fu" in the fully accepted, modern meaning of the term, dates from the later part of the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC), which is also known as the Warring States period (4th or 5th century BC - 221 BC), since the central regime of the Zhou dynasty had weakened and political power devolved to control by various regional hegemons. During the Han dynasty  (206 BC – 220 AD), the "fu" style developed into one of the Classical Chinese poetry forms. The "fu" literary-poetic form continued to develop through the Tang Dynasty (618-906 AD), where it even found as great an exponent of this form as the poet Li Bai, although he is less known in modern translation for this than for his "shi" and "yuefu" poetry. After this, new forms of poetry and literature continued to arise and spread, and the "fu" form became less prominent. During the Song dynasty (960 - 1278 AD) the "ci" form became dominant; and, after Kublai Khan 's establishment of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, it was the turn of the "qu" to rule as the poetry style of the times. More recently, the "fu" form has been the subject of historical study and critical interest. Origins. Word "fu". The term ""fu"", when applied to Chinese literature, first appears in the Zhou dynasty (during the time period also known as the "Warring States"), where it meant "to present", as in poetic recitations. The term ""fu"", when not applied to Chinese literature, appears earlier than this with the meaning of "tribute", in the sense of a  military contribution of goods or services. Ancestry. The "fu" form derives from a long tradition of Chinese poetry and literature. There are also related genres, such as "ch'i" and "chiu". Section::::"Classic of Poetry". The "fu" form was one of the three literary devices traditionally assigned to the songs of the "Classic of Poetry" ("Shijing"). "Fu" became the name of poetic expositions in which an author or composer created a comprehensive exposition and perform it as a rhapsody. Han dynasty historian Ban Gu in the "Monograph on Arts and Letters" defined "fu" as "to recite without singing". Section::::"Verses of Chu". "Fu  poetry is often viewed as a descendant of the Verses of Chu" (also known as the "Chu Ci" or "Ch'ü Tz'u") songs combined with the rhetorical expositions of the "Intrigues of the Warring States". The "Chu Ci" is an anthology of Chinese poetry traditionally attributed mainly to Qu Yuan and Song Yu from the Warring States period (ended 221 BC), though about half of the poems seem to have been composed several centuries later, during the Han Dynasty. Particularly, literary historians sometimes see an influence upon the "fu" from the "shaman-inspired catalogues of royal luxury" of the "Verses of  Cu" pieces such as appear in "Zhao Hun" (or the somewhat similar "Da Zhao"). First "fu". The first "fu" is unknowable, both due to the vicissitudes of historical survival of literature, or failure thereof; but, also, there is the further definitional question of identifying early "fu"-like pieces as full-on, actual "fu", or as archetypical prototypes. There is scholarly debate regarding the origin of the "fu", and the identity of the first surviving example. A chapter of "Xunzi" contains a series of riddles which Idema and Haft cite theoretically as the earliest known "fu", but they also cite the earliest  definitively identified "fu" to be Jia Yi's ""Fu" on the Owl" (), composed about 170 BC. Hellmut Wilhelm definitively identifies "the oldest "fu" in existence" to be by Xun Qing (also known as Hsün Ch'ing, Xun Kuang, and Xunzi), the attributed author of the "Xunzi", in a chapter of which this "fu" is contained. Wilhelm remarks that the scholarly identification of this "fu" as such has been impeded by limiting examination of the piece to the series of riddles, but ignoring the immediately succeeding poems which form the coda ("luan") of the "fu". Wilhelm points out that the "Hanshu" (also  known as the "Book of Han") specifically refers to this as a "fu". The "Hanshu" even specifies what categorical type or genre of "fu" this is, calling it a ""fu" of frustration", a genre (or subgenre) which later experienced significant development as the ""Fu" of the scholar's frustration", a name taken from the "Xunzi" "fu". Xun Qing ("Xun Zi") flourished ca. 312–230 BC, during the Warring States period, but the flourishing of the "fu" is identified with the Han dynasty, which was established in 206 BC, and with the hands of authors such as Jia Yi (200 BC – 169  BC) and Sima Xiangru (also known as Ssu-ma Hsiang-ju) (179–127 BC). Han dynasty. Western Han. "Fu" achieved its greatest prominence during the early Han dynasty. On his way into exile, and upon crossing the Xiang River, Jia Yi wrote a "fu" named "Lament for Qu Yuan". After 3 years in exile, at sunset, an owl flew into his room: the depressed Jia Yi considered this as an omen of his exile soon reaching its miserable end, but only by means of his impending death, as signaled by this avian harbinger of doom; and so, he wrote another and  subsequently renowned "fu", "The Owl". After making these contributions to the Xiaoxiang poetry tradition, Jia Yi nevertheless lived on to be subsequently recalled to court. And thus, in terms of the history of the "fu" genre, Jia Yi's "Owl" was not even his own first "fu", being written some 3 years after his "Lament for Qu Yuan" "fu". Emperor Wu of Han ascended the throne in 141 BC, and his long reign is considered the golden age of "grand "fu"" (). Emperor Wu summoned famous "fu" writers to the imperial court in Chang'an, where many of them composed and presented  fu to the entire court. The earliest grand "fu" of Emperor Wu's reign is "Seven Stimuli" (), by Mei Sheng (; d. 140 BC). In "Seven Stimuli", Mei Sheng acts as a Warring States-style travelling orator who tries to cure a Chu prince of an illness caused by overindulgence in sensual pleasures by pushing his senses to their limits with his "fu" descriptions. During the golden age of "fu" in the 2nd century BC, many of the greatest "fu" composers were from the southwestern area of Shu (modern Sichuan Province); for example, Sima Xiangru. Sima Xiangru is the most famous  fu writer of Chinese history. A native of Chengdu, he was traditionally said to have been summoned to the imperial court after Emperor Wu happened to personally read his ""Fu" of Sir Vacuous" (), though this is almost certainly a story added later. After arriving in the capital around 136 BC, Sima Xiangru expanded his ""Fu" of Sir Vacuous" into his "magnum opus", ""Fu" on the Excursion Hunt of the Son of Heaven" (), generally considered the most famous "fu" of all. This work, often known as ""Fu" on the Imperial Park" (), after the second half of the poem, is a grand  celebration of the Emperor's personal hunting park east of Chang'an, and is famed for its rich number of rare and difficult words and characters. The grand "fu" of the Western Han dynasty were read and recited as celebrations of pure poetic delight, and were the first pieces of Chinese literature to fuse both unrestrained entertainment and moral admonitions together in single works. However, after the reign of Emperor Wu, his court culture began to be criticized as having placed undue emphasis on the grandiose language in "fu" and therefore having missed opportunities to encourage moral restraint. The most prominent  critic of "grand "fu"" was the other great "fu" writer of the Han dynasty: Yang Xiong. As a youth, Yang was an admirer and imitator of Sima Xiangru's "fu", but later came to disapprove of grand "fu". Yang believed that the original purpose of "fu" was to "indirectly admonish" (), but that the extended rhetorical arguments and complex vocabulary used in grand "fu" caused their hearers and readers to marvel at their aesthetic beauty while missing their moral messages. Yang juxtaposed early Han dynasty "fu" with the "fu"-like expositions in the "Classic of Poetry", saying that while those in the  Poetry provided moral standards, the "fu" of the Han poets "led to excess". While known as one of the "fu" masters of the Han dynasty, Yang's "fu" are generally known for their focus on admonishing readers and listeners to uphold moral values. Eastern Han. Two of the most famous "fu" writers of the Eastern Han period were the great polymaths Zhang Heng and Cai Yong. Among Zhang Heng's large corpus of writings are a significant number of "fu" poems, which are the first to have been written in the shorter style that became typical of post-Han "fu . Zhang's earliest known fu" is ""Fu" on the Hot Springs" (), which describes the hot springs at Mount Li which famously later became a favorite of Imperial Concubine Yang during the Tang dynasty. ""Fu" on the Two Metropolises" () is considered Zhang's masterpiece. Zhang spent ten years gathering material for the "fu", which is a response to an earlier "fu" by Ban Gu that is a poetic comparison between the two capitals of the Han dynasty: Luoyang and Chang'an. Zhang's "fu" is highly satirical and cleverly mocks many aspects of the Western Han period, including Emperor Wu himself. The  piece contains long passages colorfully describing life in the two capitals in great detail, including the entertainment areas. Cai Yong, like Zhang Heng, was a prolific writer in addition to his mathematical, astronomical, and musical interests. In AD 159, Cai was summoned to Chang'an to perform on the Chinese zither for the imperial court, but became ill shortly before arriving and returned to his home. Cai composed a poetic record of his journey in ""Fu" on Recounting a Journey" (), which is his most well-known "fu". In ""Fu" on Recounting a Journey", Cai cites examples of treacherous and dishonest rulers  and officials from Chinese history, then criticizes the eunuchs of the capital for similar crimes. A number of "fu" writers from the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD became considered great "fu" poets, and were noted for their descriptions of the chaos and destruction following the collapse of the Han dynasty. Wang Can, who lived as a refugee in Chu following the assassination of Dong Zhuo in AD 192, wrote a famous "fu" entitled ""Fu" on Climbing the Tower" () in which Wang movingly describes climbing a tower near Jingzhou and gazing longingly in the direction of his home in  Luoyang. Poets often used subjects of descriptive "fu" poems to symbolize themselves, as in ""Fu" on the Parrot" (), by Mi Heng, in which Mi uses a caged parrot as an allegory for a scholar whose talents go unrecognized and whose inability to control his tongue results in his captivity. During the Three Kingdoms period, the court of the warlord Cao Cao and his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi became a famous literary salon, and a number of "fu" poems from their court have survived to modern times. Cao Zhi's ""Fu" on the Luo River Goddess" () uses an ancient  motif from the "Verses of Chu" in which the author's ultimately unfulfilled erotic desire for a goddess symbolically represents their frustration in failing to be given a high-ranking position at court or in government. Six Dynasties. During the Six Dynasties period, "fu" remained a major part of contemporary poetry, although "shi" poetry was gradually increasing in popularity. Six Dynasties "fu" are generally much shorter and less extravagant than Han dynasty "fu", likely due to a tradition of composing works entirely in parallel couplets that arose during the period. While lyrical "fu" and ""fu" on things" had been starkly  different forms in the Han dynasty, after the 2nd century AD the distinction mostly disappeared. Although the extravagant "fu" style of the Han mostly disappeared, ""fu" on things" continued to be widely written. Western Jin. During the Western Jin period, "fu" writing moved away from the extravagant style of the Han dynasty and more toward the style of ""fu" on things". Rather than use "fu" to laud the glories of the Emperor or the Chinese empire, "fu" writers often wrote on humble living and mundane subjects. Pan Yue, the most famous writer of the period, wrote ""Fu" on my Tiny  House" (), which describes his life enduring heat and rainstorms in a small cottage, though he actually lived in a large mansion. Poet Shu Xi (; AD 263–302), one of the most famous scholars of the Western Jin, has five "fu" which have survived to the present, and seem to be written in a playful style. One of Shu's "fu" has become well known in the history of Chinese cuisine: his ""Fu" on Pasta" () is an encyclopedic description of a wide variety of dough-based foods, including noodles, steamed buns, and dumplings, which had not yet become the traditional Chinese foods  they are in modern times. The two most prolific "fu" writers of the Western Jin were Fu Xuan and his son Fu Xian (), who together have 94 "fu" which survive today. Fu Xuan and his son's "fu" on things frequently involve the natural environment. Fu Xuan has "fu" describing many different species of plants, fruits, and birds, of which he was especially fond. Fu Xuan's ""Fu" on the Running Dog" (), describes an especially quick racing dog. Fu Xian wrote on topics similar to those of his father, but seems to have been particularly fascinated by insects. His ""Fu  on Paper () is well known as an early description of writing paper, which had only been invented about 150 years earlier. Eastern Jin. In AD 317, the Western Jin was conquered by a confederation of Xiongnu and Xianbei (Särbi) states, forcing huge numbers of Han Chinese aristocrats and landowners to flee to southern China. Many of the writings from the Eastern Jin, which only controlled land south of the Yangzi River, recount the chaos following north China's conquest and try to extol the imperial power reestablished at the new Eastern Jin capital, Jiankang (modern Nanjing). Guo Pu, who was  famed for his skills in writing and divination, is considered the foremost writer of the Eastern Jin period. Guo wrote a number of "fu" while fleeing his hometown of Wenxi (modern Wenxi County, Shanxi Province) in the face of an invading Xiongnu army, and a number of his "fu" describe the large number of destroyed or deserted towns and villages throughout the Chinese heartland. Guo's ""Fu" on the Yangzi River" (), written around 317, brought him wide renown. This "fu" is a Han dynasty-style "grand "fu"" praising the Yangzi River from its origin in Sichuan (as was then believed ) to its mouth at the eastern sea. Like early Han "fu", the poem displays Guo's broad knowledge and familiarity with rare, obscure vocabulary and ancient legends. Another of Guo's notable "fu" is ""Fu" on Making Sacrifices to Heaven in the Southern Suburbs" (), a "fu" on the traditional ritual sacrifice to Heaven made by the Emperor. When Guo composed the "fu", an altar for the sacrifice had not yet been constructed in Jiankang. Emperor Yuan of Jin was impressed by Guo's detailed description of the grand ritual, and quickly decided to reinstate it. The general and poet Lu  Ji wrote a number of "fu", the best known of which is the Wen fu (Essay on literature), an essay on the nature of poetry and poetic forms. Liu Song. The Liu family gained control of the Eastern Jin in 420, changing the name of the dynasty to Song. A number of famous "fu" were composed during the Liu Song period. ""Fu" on the Weed-covered City" () by Bao Zhao (; 414–466), is a moving "fu" on the city Guangling (modern Yangzhou), which once had been a flourishing metropolis, but in Bao's time lay abandoned after being ruined in a  battle. "Fu" were still part of the poems composed at the imperial court, though five-syllable poems were increasingly becoming the main form of verse. In 441, Yan Yanzhi (; 385–433) composed a famous "fu" on a prized piebald horse of the Liu Song emperors, entitled ""Fu" on the Russet-and-white Horse" (), which is known for its extensive use of equine terminology and folklore. Xie Lingyun is the best-known poet of the Liu Song period and is generally considered one of the greatest of the entire Six Dynasties period, second only to Tao Yuanming. In contrast to his older  contemporary Tao, Xie is known for the difficult language, dense allusions, and frequent parallelisms of his poetry. Xie's greatest "fu" is ""Fu" on Dwelling in the Mountains" (), a Han-style "grand "fu"" describing Xie's personal estate that borrows its style from the famous ""Fu" on the Imperial Park" by Sima Xiangru. Like classical Han "fu", the poem uses a large number of obscure and rare characters, but ""Fu" on Dwelling in the Mountains" is unique in that Xie included his own annotations to the poem, without which the poem would be nearly incomprehensible. Liang. During the Liang dynasty , "fu" continued to be a popular form of literature, though it began to merge with the popular five- and seven-syllable poetry forms, which would completely eclipse "fu" during the Tang dynasty. Some "fu" pieces, such as Shen Yue's ""Fu" on Dwelling in the Suburbs" (), an homage to Xie Lingyun's ""Fu" on Dwelling in the Mountains", followed the traditional forms and subjects of classical "fu", but an increasing number did not. ""Fu" on Lotus-picking" (), by Xiao Gang (later Emperor Jianwen of Liang), is a short, lyrical "fu" that mixes freely with popular lyric poetry, and portrayed southern  China as a romantic land of pleasure and sensuality. Lotus-picking was an activity traditionally associated with peasant women, but in the early 5th century became a popular topic in "fu" and poetry. Sui dynasty. The second half of the 6th century saw southern China conquered by the northern kingdoms and eventually incorporated into the Sui dynasty in 589. Soon after the south's fall, Emperor Wen of Sui ordered its capital, Jiankang, razed to the ground: all buildings in the city and its walls were completely demolished, and the land turned into fields. Many notable writers were forced back  to the north, and much of the writing of the early Sui dynasty is in the form of stories of survival. The most famous writers of the late Six Dynasties and early Sui periods are Yan Zhitui and Yu Xin. Yan's most well-known "fu" is ""Fu" on Contemplating My Life" (), which gives an account of Yan's entire life, itself having spanned four separate dynasties. This "fu" contains Yan's personal annotations added in between various lines in normal prose, and shows Yan's concern that northerners of his generation, as well as members of future generations, would  learn of the chaos that had taken place in the south through his writing. Yu Xin is generally considered the last great "fu" poet of Chinese history. Yu, like Yan Zhitui, was born in the south but forced to relocate to northern China after the south's defeat, and spent the rest of his career writing of the loss of the south as a loss of an entire culture and way of life. Yu's most famous piece is ""Fu" on Lamenting the South" (), in which he describes his life's experiences in the context of the larger context of  the destruction of the south and its culture. Tang and Song dynasties. The "fu" genre changed rapidly during the Tang dynasty. During the early Tang, a new form of "fu" called "regulated "fu"" () supplanted the original form. "Regulated "fu"" had strict rules of form and expression, and required the use of consistent rhymes throughout each piece. Additionally, rules were created to govern the arrangement of tones in each poem, as the introduction of Buddhist texts written in Sanskrit and Pali had stimulated the Chinese the study of their own language and the identification of the four tones of Middle Chinese . Beginning in the Tang dynasty, these "regulated "fu"" were required for the composition sections of the imperial examinations. Tang writers added new topics to the traditional subjects of "fu", such as purely moral topics or scenes from Chinese antiquity. The "parallel "fu"" () was another variant of the "fu" developed in the Tang, and was only used for rhetorical compositions. In 826, Tang poet Du Mu's poem ""Fu" on E-pang Palace" () laid the foundation for a new form of "fu" called "prose "fu"" (), in which prose is freely rhymed. This form of "fu" became the dominant "fu" form during  the late Tang and the Song dynasty. By the 9th and 10th centuries, traditional "fu" had become mainly historical pursuits, and were largely read and copied because of their inclusion on the imperial examinations. Later. "Fu" continued to be written after the demise of the Song dynasty, but these later "fu" have generally received less scholarly attention.