List of later historians of the Crusades
This list of later historians of the Crusades identifies the historians and their works related to the Crusades that were published after the fall of Acre in 1291. As such, it provides context for the post-medieval historiography of the Crusades. This includes authors and works from the late thirteenth century through the nineteenth century, with some material from the early twentieth century. Works are referenced, where available, to the various national collection of biographies, collections linked to the digital libraries of the University of Michigan's HathiTrust and OCLC's WorldCat, and  the bibliographic work of "Les Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge" (ARLIMA) and "Bibliothèque nationale de France" (BnF). Overview. Historians of the Crusades are generally of two types. The first are the authors of works, the original sources, that were done contemporaneously with the historical events. Biographies of the more important of these authors can be found in "The Crusades—An Encyclopedia" (2006), edited by historian Alan V. Murray"." The later works, written in the later 13th century through the 19th, are the subject of this article and include a variety of subjects including: Two good sources for biographies are  available. The first is Part V: Brief Biographies of Crusade Historians, of "The Routledge Companion to the Crusades" by historian Peter Lock"." Part IV: Historiography, or What Historians have said about the Crusades, of Lock's tome, also provides an interesting perspective on the authors and their works. The second is the "Historians of the Crusades" (2007–2008), an on-line database of scholars working in the field of Crusader studies. The related articles are listed above. Thirteenth century. After the fall of Acre in 1291, there was a significant push for a new Crusade to retake the Holy Land. Histories  written after that time have typically combined a chronology with proposals for additional Crusades. This period also saw the rise of knighthood and the notion of chivalry. William of Tudela. William of Tudela (fl. 1199–1214), also known as Guillaume de Tudèle, a poet who wrote in Old Occitan of the Albigensian Crusade of 1209–1229. Jean Pierre Sarrasin. Jean Pierre Sarrasin (died 1275), chamberlain to Louis IX of France. Primat of Saint-Denis. Primat of Saint-Denis (died between 1277 and 1285), a Benedictine monk and historian. La Devise des Chemins de Babiloine. An anonymous account detailing the strengths of Mamluk  armies in Egypt and Syria and gave mileages of the various routes between Cairo and the Delta ports. Prepared as an intelligence report in preparation for a future Crusade to be launched against Mamluk Cairo. Fidentius of Padua. Fidentius of Padua (before 1226 – after 1291), a Franciscan friar and historian. Thaddeus of Naples. Thaddeus of Naples (fl. 1291), an Italian magister. Jacques Bretel. Jacques Bretel (fl. 1285), a French-language "trouvère." Galvano of Levanti. Galvano of Levanti (fl. late 13th century), a physician in the papal court of Boniface VIII (1294–1303) and a propagandist. Ramon Lull. Ramon Lull (1232/1236–1315), also  known as Raymond Lully or Ramon Llull, a Spanish missionary to the Arab world. Lull was stoned to death in Tunisia in 1315. Guillaume de Nangis. Guillaume de Nangis (died 1300), a French chronicler and biographer, particularly of Louis IX of France and Phillip III of France. Pierre Dubois. Pierre Dubois (1255–1321), a French publicist and propagandist. Hayton of Corycus. Hayton of Corycus (1240–1310/1320), also known as Hethum of Gorigos, an Armenian noble and historian. Jacques de Molay. Jacques de Molay (1240–1314), last Grand Master of the Knights Templar. Guillaume Adam. Guillaume Adam (died 1341), a missionary to and later  archbishop of Soltaniyeh, Persia. Guy of Warwick. Guy of Warwick (Gui de Warewic), a legendary English hero popular in England and France from the thirteenth to seventeenth centuries. He is reputed to have made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and is erroneously regarded as real in some fifteenth-century chronicles, including that by English historian John Rous. Fourteenth century. The Crusaders maintained a presence in the Holy Land until the fall of Ruad in 1302 and much of the historical work was then concentrated on the Kingdom of Cyprus, the military orders and the Mongol invasion of Europe, and  renewed plans for a new Crusade to retake Jerusalem. Significant portions of the "Recueil des historiens des croisades" (RHC), Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (PPTS) library and Francesco Gabrieli's Arab historians of the Crusades are devoted to works from the 14th century. Gérard de Monréal. Gérard de Monréal (fl. 1314–1321), secretary to Guillaume de Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Knights Templar from 1273 to 1291. Monréal is believed to have written the later part of "Les Gestes des Chiprois" (Deeds of the Cypriots), an Old French chronicle of the history of the Crusader states and Kingdom of Cyprus between 1132  and 1311. Jean de Joinville. Jean de Joinville (1224–1317), a French chronicler who accompanied Louis IX of France on the Seventh Crusade and Eighth Crusade who wrote his influential biography. Rashid-al-Din. Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (1247–1318), a Jewish-turned-Islamic physician and historian who was vizier to the Ilkhan Ghazan. Foulques de Villaret. Foulques de Villaret (died 1327), Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller from 1305 to 1319. Peter of Dusburg. Peter of Dusburg (died after 1326), a German historian and chronicler of the Teutonic Knights. Jean de Vignay. Jean de Vignay (c. 1282/1285 – c. 1350), a French  monk and translator. John VI Kantakouzenos. John VI Kantakouzenos (1292-1383), was Byzantine emperor from 1347 to 1354. Hamd-Allah Mustawfi. Hamd-Allah Mustawfi (1281-1349), a Persian historian and geographer. Also known as Hamd-Allah Mustawfi Qazvini. Geoffroi de Charny. Geoffroi de Charny (1300–1356), a French knight and author. De Charny and his wife are the first recorded owners of the Shroud of Turin, lost after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Guillaume de Machaut. Guillaume de Machaut (1300–1377), an influential French poet and composer. "Informatio ex parte Nunciorum Regis Cypri." "Informatio ex parte Nunciorum Regis Cypri" is an  anonymously written history of Cyprus through the 14th century including an account of Henry II of Cyprus, the last crowned king of Jerusalem, and his plans to retake the Holy Land from the Mongols. It is included in "Documents" and "Histoire de l'île de Chypre sous le règne des princes de la maison de Lusignan" by French historian Louis de Mas Latrie. Ibn al-Furat. Ibn al-Furat (1334–1405), an Egyptian historian. Nicephorus Gregoras. Nicephorus Gregoras (1295–1360), a Byzantine theologian and historian. Guillaume Durand. Guillaume Durand (1267–1328/1330) was bishop of Mende. Durand was sent as an embassy by pope John  XXII and Charles IV of France to the Ottoman sultan Orhan (1326–1360) in order to obtain more favourable conditions for the Latins in Syria. Jean Dardel. Jean Dardel (fl. 1375–1383), a French friar who was an advisor to Leo V of Armenia. Eustache Deschamps. Eustache Deschamps (1346–1407), a French poet. Nicephoros Callistus. Nicephoros Callistus (Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos) (c. 1256 – c. 1335), a Greek ecclesiastical historian. Ibn Khaldūn. 'Abd al-Raḥmār ibn Khaldūn (before 1337 – 1406), an Arab scholar of Islam, social scientist and historian, who has been described as the father of the modern discipline of historiography. Al-Nuwayrī. Muḥammad  ibn al-Ḳāsim al-Nuwayrī al-Iskandarānī al-Māliki (fl. 1365–1373) also known as al-Nuwayrī, a Muslim historian from Alexandria, Egypt. Eyewitness to the Alexandrian Crusade of 1365. Leontios Machairas. Leontios Machairas (1360/1380 – after 1432), a Cypriot historian. Badr al-Din al-Ayni. Badr al-Din al-Ayni (1360–1453), known as al-Aini, was an Arab Islamic scholar. Al-Makrizi. Al-Makrizi (1364–1442), an Egyptian historian, also known as al-Maqrisi, descended from the Fatimids. Wrote extensively on the caliphates and sultanates that ruled the country. Some of his material appears to be based on the works of ibn  Muyessar and ibn Abd al-Zahir. Philippe de Mézières. Philippe de Mézières (c. 1327 – 1405), a French knight and author. De Mézières travelled to Jerusalem and the Cyprus. In 1362, he traveled with Peter I of Cyprus, titular king of Jerusalem, visiting the princes of western Europe in quest of support for a new Crusade. Jean Froissart. Jean Froissart (c. 1337 – c. 1405), a Belgian medieval author and court historian. Fifteenth century. The fifteenth-century historical works on the Crusades saw the beginning of anti-Islam sentiments in Western works, with calls for a new crusade (e.g., Jean Germain's  works) as well as propaganda by both Christian and Islamic writers. There were also accounts of conflicts of the Military Orders with the Turks, continued travel accounts, and regional chronologies. Several works from the "Recueil des historiens des croisades" (RHC), including Western, Arabic, and Greek works, can be found here. The first attempts at histories of the Crusades were made through the "Itinerario di la Gran Militia" and Benedetto Accolt's "De Bello a Christianis contra Barbaros..". Juan de Segovia. Juan de Segovia (1395–1458) was a Castillan theologian who translated the Koran into Latin with the assistance of Islamic scholar  ʿĪsā ibn Jābir. Jean Germain. Jean Germain (1400–1461), bishop of Nevers from 1430 to 1436 and bishop of Châlons from 1436 to 1461. Councilor to Philip the Good and chancellor to the Order of the Golden Fleece. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Abu'l-Mahāsin. Abu'l-Mahāsin Yūsuf (1411–1469), an Arabic historian who was a student of Egyptian historian al-Makrizi (1364–1442). Enguerrand de Monstrelet. Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c. 1400–1453), a French chronicler who was present at the 1430 interrogation of Joan of Arc. "Itinerario di la Gran Militia". "Itinerario di la Gran Militia, a la Pavese" (Itinerary of the Great Army, in  Pavese) is an anonymous fifteenth-century work on the First Crusade based on the work of William of Tyre. In RHC "Historiens" "occidentaux", Volume 5.XIII. Benedetto Accolti. Benedetto Accolti (1415–1464), also known as Benedict Aretini Accolti, an Italian historian. His primary work was the first attempt at a history of the Crusades, concentrating on the First Crusade and the heroic role of Godfrey of Bouillon. The work was written to encourage support to pope Pius II for a new Crusade to the Holy Land and is regarded as propaganda. "Grandes Chroniques de France". "Grandes Chroniques de France", 6 volumes (1461 ). A compilation of the history of France produced between the 13th and 15th centuries by the monks of Saint-Denis. The original work, "Roman des rois" by a Benedictine monk and historian Primat of Saint-Denis (died between 1277 and 1285), traced the kings of the Franks from the origins until the death of Philip II of France in 1223 and extended at a later date to the death of Charles V of France in 1380. The edition by French philologist Alexis Paulin Paris was published 1836–1840. Doukas. Doukas (c. 1400 – 1470), a Byzantine historian who flourished under Constantine XI  Palaiologos. William Caxton. William Caxton (c. 1422 – c. 1491) was an English merchant, diplomat, and writer, introducing the printing press into England, in 1476, and the first English retailer of printed books. Laonikos Chalkokondyles. Laonikos Chalkokondyles (c. 1430 – c. 1470), a Byzantine Greek historian from Athens. Gulielmus Caoursin. Gulielmus Caoursin (1430–1501), vice-chancellor of the Knights Hospitaller. An eye-witness to the siege of Rhodes in 1480, an unsuccessful attack by the Ottoman fleet. Pierre d'Aubusson. Pierre d'Aubusson (1423–1503), Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller from 1476 to 1503. Commander of the garrison opposing the Turks during the siege of  Rhodes in 1480. Mīr-Khvānd. Mīr-Khvānd (1433–1498), a Persian-language historian from Bukhara. Francesco Amadi. Francesco Amadi (died after 1445), an Italian chronicler. John Rous. John Rous (c. 1411 – 1491), an English historian and antiquary. Sixteenth century. The 16th century was marked by two major influences on Crusader histories: the Turkish wars and the Protestant Reformation. The wars with the Ottoman Turks had begun in the 13th century but reached their peak in the 16th. The dichotomy between Protestant and Catholic was reflected in the differing views of the Crusades--an evil arm of the papacy versus meritorious and  laudable endeavours. Highlights include: John Caius. John Caius (fl. 1480), an English poet, also known as John Kay. Erasmus. Erasmus (1446–1536), a Dutch philosopher and Christian scholar who was critical of the Western response to the Turkish invasions. Robert Fabyan. Robert Fabyan (died 1513), an English draper of London, sheriff, alderman, and author. Martin Luther. Martin Luther (1483–1586), a German theologist and seminal figure in the Reformation. Basilius Johannes Herold. Basilius Johannes Herold (1511–1581), a Swiss theologian and historian. John Foxe. John Foxe (1516–1587), an English historian and martyrologist, and prominent influencer in English Protestantism. Just War Theory. The major  proponents of the concept of a Just War include Spanish theologian Francisco de Vitoria (1483–1546) in his "De Indis De Jure Belli" (1542); Italian jurist Alberico Gentili (1552–1608), who write "De Jure Belli Commentationes Tres" (1588–1589); and Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), a Dutch humanist who wrote "De jure belli ac pacis" (On the Law of War and Peace) (1625) and "Mare Liberum" (The Freedom of the Seas) (1609). Floria Bustron. Floria Bustron (died before 1570), a Cypriot jurist and historian. Étienne Pasquier. Étienne Pasquier (1529–1615), a French lawyer who first assigned numbers to the Crusades, counting six. Lodovico Dolce. Lodovico Dolce  (1508/10–1568), an Italian man of letters and painting theorist. Heinrich Meibom. Heinrich Meibom (1638–1700), a German physician and scholar. Justus Lipsius. Justus Lipsius (1547–1606) was a Flemish philologist, philosopher and humanist. Reinier Reineck. Reinier Reineck (1541–1595), a German historian. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Matthäus Dresser. Matthäus Dresser (1536–1607), a German philologist and historian. A scholar of Greek and Latin, his principal work was on Aristotle. His commentaries reflect a desire to affirm great deeds done by the Germans. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Torquato Tasso. Torquato Tasso (1544–1595), an Italian poet. Widely read before the twentieth century, Tasso was at the forefront of  Crusader writing for two centuries. Also known as Le Tasse. Uberto Foglietta. Uberto Foglietta (1518–1581), an Italian historian. (cf. Italian Wikipedia, ) Heinrich von Nettesheim. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1486–1535), a German polymath, theologian, and occult writer. Di Antonio Mossi. Di Antonio Mossi (fl. 16th century), an Italian historian. Michele Zappulo. Michele Zappulo (1548–16..), an Italian historian. Edward Fairfax. Edward Fairfax (c. 1580—27 January 1635), an English translator. Seventeenth century. Historians of the 17th century continued with concerns about the rise of the Turkish threat, the discovery and publication of original sources, and the beginning of serious histories of the  Crusades. Richard Knolles. Richard Knolles (c. 1545 – 1610), an English historian, known for his seminal account of the Ottoman Empire. Jacques Bongars. Jacques Bongars (1554–1612), a French scholar and diplomat who prepared the first comprehensive collection of original Crusades sources. Congregation of Saint Maur. The Congregation of Saint Maur (1616–1818), a school of prominent Benedictines, known as the Maurists, which produced a large number of historical documents, many of particular interest to the Crusades including the "Recueil des historiens des croisade" (RHC) and "Histoire littéraire de la France". (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Francis Bacon. Francis Bacon (1561–1626), an English philosopher and  statesman. George Sandys. George Sandys (1578–1644), an English traveller, colonist, poet, and translator. Sandys' writings influenced contemporary literature and other disciplines including art, archaeology and geography. Sandys is considered to be the first English Egyptologist. Paolo Sarpi. Paolo Sarpi (1552–1623), a Venetian historian. Thomas Roe. Sir Thomas Roe (c. 1581 – 1644), an English diplomat, representing England in the Mughal Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Holy Roman Empire. Théodore Godefroy. Théodore Godefroy (1580–1649), a Swiss historian. Thomas Dempster. Thomas Dempster (1579–1625), a Scottish scholar and historian. A. de Clermont. A. de Clermont (fl. 17th century), a presumed French historian. The  only mention of de Clermont is by Crusader historian Hans E. Mayer in his "Bibliographie zur Geschichte der Kreuzzüge". Jean Besly. Jean Besly (1572–1644), a French historian who challenged the version of the anonymous "Gesta Francorum" presented in "Gesta Dei per Francos". André and François Duchesne. André Duchesne (1584–1640), a French geographer and historian, and his son François Duchesne (1616–1693), also a historian. Thomas Fuller. Thomas Fuller (1608–1661), an English churchman and historian. Fuller's work was anti-Jewish and relied heavily on that of William of Tyre. It was the first to incorporate accounts of the military orders, the  Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades into his narrative. Edward Pococke. Edward Pococke (1604–1691), an English orientalist and Biblical scholar. John Selden. John Selden (1584–1654), an English orientalist and polymath. Philippe Labbe. Philippe Labbe (1607–1667), a French Jesuit who wrote on historical, geographical and philological topics, including those of the Byzantine empire. Kâtip Çelebi. Elhac Mustafa Kâtip Çelebi (1609–1657), an Ottoman-Turkish polymath and author. Also known by the name of Ḥājjī Khalīfa. Luc d'Achery. Luc d'Achery (1609–1685), a French Benedictine of the Congregation of Saint Maur specializing in the study and publication of medieval manuscripts. Charles du Fresne du  Cange. Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange (1610–1688), a French philologist and historian of the Middle Ages and Byzantium. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (1646–1716), a prominent German mathematician and philosopher. Étienne Baluze. Étienne Baluze (1630–1718), a French scholar and historiographer. Also known as Stephanus Baluzius. Louis Maimbourg. Louis Maimbourg (1610–1686), a French Jesuit and historian. Bernard Lamy. Bernard Lamy (1640–1715), a French mathematician and theologian. Jean Mabillon. Jean Mabillon (1632–1707), a French Benedictine monk and scholar of the Congregation of Saint Maur. Regarded as one of the greatest historical scholar of the 17th century and the founder  of the disciplines of palaeography and diplomatics. Pierre Bayle. Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), a French philosopher, author, and lexicographer. John Nalson. John Nalson (1638–1686), an English clergyman, historian and pamphleteer. Paul Rycaut. Sir Paul Rycaut (1629–1700), a British diplomat and historian, known as an authority on the Ottoman Empire. Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont. Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont (1637–1698), a French ecclesiastical historian. Barthélemy d'Herbelot. Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville (1625–1695), a French orientalist. Robert Saulger. Robert Saulger (1637–1709), an author and Jesuit missionary to Greece. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Eighteenth century. The principal Crusader historians of the 18th century  include the following. Antoine Galland. Antoine Galland (1646 –1715), a French orientalist and archaeologist"." Eusèbe Renaudot. Eusèbe Renaudot (1646–1720), a French theologian and orientalist. Georg Christoph Müller. Georg Christoph Müller (1673–1721), a German historian. His work assigned five numbers to the Crusades. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Aaron Hill. Aaron Hill (1685–1750), an English dramatist and miscellany writer. Edmond Martène. Edmond Martène (1654–1739) was a French Benedictine historian and liturgist of the Congregation of Saint Maur. Ursin Durand. Ursin Durand (1682–1771), a Benedictine historian of the Congregation of Saint Maur. Pierre Nicolas Desmolets. Pierre Nicolas Desmolets (1678– 1760), a French librarian and  oratorian historiographer. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Pierre François Giffart. Pierre François Giffart (1638–1723), a French engraver and publisher. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Antoine Rivet de La Grange. Antoine Rivet de La Grange (1683–1749), a French benedictine monk and archivist. Maurus Dantine. Maurus Dantine (1688–1746), a Belgian Benedictine of the Congregation of Saint Maur and a founding chronologist. Pierre Carpentier. Dom Pierre Carpentier (1697-1767), a Benedictine historian. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Dimitrie Cantemir. Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723), a Moldovian statesman and historian. A direct descendant of Tamerlane, he was twice ruler of Moldovia. Martin Bouquet. Martin Bouquet (1685-1754), a French Benedictine monk and  historian of the Congregation of Saint Maur. Burkhard Gotthelf Struve. Burkhard Gotthelf Struve (1671–1738), a German librarian and historian. René-Aubert Vertot. René-Aubert Vertot (1655–1735), a French clergyman and historian of the Knights Hospitaller. Thomas Hunt. Thomas Hunt (1696–1774), an English Arabic scholar. Joseph de Guignes. Joseph de Guignes (1721–1800), a French orientalist. Voltaire. Voltaire (1694–1778), a French philosopher and historian. Voltaire's negative view on the Crusades was tempered with his admiration for the Crusaders. His work on the Crusades did not adhere to any real chronology, providing little detail and no numbering. Charles Clémencet. Charles Clémencet (1703–1778 ), a French Benedictine historian of the Congregation of Saint Maur. Camille Falconet. Camille Falconet (1671-1762), a French physician and historian. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) David Hume. David Hume (1711–1776), Scottish philosopher and historian. Hume regarded the Crusades as the "nadir of Western civilization" and "the most signal and most durable monument of human folly that has yet appeared in any age or nation." He also famously stated that "the Crusades engrossed the attention of Europe and have ever since engaged the curiosity of mankind." This view was continued by E. Gibbon. Jean-Pierre de Bougainville. Jean-Pierre de Bougainville (1722–1763 ), a French writer. Giovanni Domenico Mansi. Gian (Giovanni) Domenico Mansi (1692 –1769), an Italian prelate, theologian, scholar and historian. François-Louis Claude Marin. François-Louis Claude Marin (1721–1803), a French editor and journalist who wrote a biography of Saladin. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Richard Hurd. Richard Hurd (1720–1808), an English Anglican bishop and essayist. Horatio Walpole. Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford (1717–1797), an English writer and art historian who claimed a Crusader pedigree. William Robertson. William Robertson (1721–1793), a Scottish historian. Regarded, with David Hume and Edward Gibbon, as one of the great historians of the British Enlightenment. Edward Gibbon . Edward Gibbon (1737–1794), an English historian. Gibbon presented the Crusades as "heroism as a cultural rather than merely personal feature, an active energy that, once freed of savage fanaticism, offered future advantages to the West." He was among the first to assign numbers to the First through Seventh Crusades and treat them unequivocally as a movement. Wilhelm Albert Bachiene. Wilhelm Albert Bachiene (1712–1783), a German cartographer. George François Berthereau (Dom Berthereau). George François Berthereau (1732–1792), a French orientalist and member of the Congrégation of Saint Maur. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Jean Baptiste Mailly. Jean Baptiste Mailly (1744–1794), a French traveler and  historian. Giovanni Filippo Mariti. Giovanni Filippo Mariti (1736–1806), an Italian antiquarian, scientist and historian. (cf. Italian Wikipedia, ) René-Prosper Tassin. René-Prosper Tassin (1697–1777), a French historian and Maurist. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), a German writer and philosopher. Pierre Chiniac de La Bastide. Pierre Chiniac de La Bastide (1741–1811), a French politician and author. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Jean-Baptiste de La Curne de Sainte-Palaye. Jean-Baptiste de La Curne de Sainte-Palaye (1697–1781), a French historian, classicist, philologist and lexicographer. Johann Georg Meusel. Johann Georg Meusel (1743–1820), a German bibliographer, lexicographer and historian. Salvator Lusignan. Salvator  (Sauveur) Lusignan (fl. late 18th century), a French biographer and traveler most noted for his biography of Mamluk leader in Egypt Ali Bey al-Kabir (1728–1773). His travels were documented in Titus Tobler's "Bibliographia Geographica Palestinæ" (1867). Richard Warner. Richard Warner (1763–1857), an English clergyman and writer. Religious Tract Society. The Religious Tract Society was founded in London in 1799 to publish Christian literature. Sharon Turner. Sharon Turner (1768–1847), an English historian. Turner's historical work was acknowledged by Sir Walter Scott in his introduction to "Ivanhoe." Nineteenth century. The nineteenth century saw Crusader historians develop in three separate  schools, French, English and German. Arabic and Turkish historians also made a re-emergence, as well as continued translations of original sources. The French school of historians. Principal French historians of the Crusades are presented below. Silvestre de Sacy. Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy (1758–1838), a French linguist and orientalist. François Pouqueville. François C. H. L. Pouqueville (1770–1838), a French diplomat, writer, explorer, physician and historian. Étienne Marc Quatremère. Étienne Marc Quatremère (1782–1857), a French orientalist. Joseph François Michaud. Joseph François Michaud (1767–1839), a French historian and publisist, specializing in the Crusades. In 1830, he travelled to the Holy Land  in order provide more realistic accounts of his "Histoire". He was unable to complete the final edition. Jean Joseph François Poujoulat. Jean Joseph François Poujoulat (1808–1880), a French historian and journalist. Adrien-Jean-Quentin Beuchot. Adrien-Jean-Quentin Beuchot (1777–1851), a French bibliographer. François Guizot. François Pierre Guillaume Guizot (1787–1874), a French historian, orator, and statesman who published a collection of original or transcribed documents, many of which are of particular relevance to the Crusades. Honoré de Balzac. Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850), a French novelist and playwright. Joseph Toussaint Reinaud. Joseph Toussaint Reinaud (1795–1867), a French orientalist. Jean Alexandre Buchon . Jean Alexandre Buchon (1791–1849). a French historian. François Pouqueville. François Charles Hugues Laurent Pouqueville (1770–1838), a French diplomat and historian. Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi. Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi (1773–1842), a Swiss historian and economist. Nicholas Rudolphe Taranne. Nicolas Rudolphe Taranne (1795–1857), a French historian. Secretary to the "Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques" from 1838 to 1857. Alexis Paulin Paris. Alexis Paulin Paris (1800–1881), a French philologist and author. Jean Louis Alphonse Huillard-Bréholles. Jean Louis Alphonse Huillard-Bréholles (1817–1871), a French archivist and historian. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) "Recueil des historiens des croisades" (RHC). A history of the  Crusades that was begun by the Congregation of St. Maur in the eighteenth century by Dom George F. Berthereau. Publication was precluded by the French Revolution, but later turned into a general collection of Crusader sources for the "Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres", resulting in the collection "Recueil des historiens des" "croisades". Auguste-Arthur Beugnot. Auguste-Arthur Beugnot (1797–1865), French historian and statesman. Charles Defrémery. Charles Defrémery (1822–1883), a French orientalist, specializing in Arabic and Persian history and literature. "Salles des Croisades". The "Salles des Croisades" (Hall of Crusades) opened at the Palace of Versailles in 1843 and houses  over 120 paintings related to the Crusades. Historiographers of the Crusades frequently use the gallery to demonstrate their popularity in the nineteenth century. Vincent-Victor Henri Viénot de Vaublanc. Vincent-Victor Henri Viénot de Vaublanc (1803–1874), a French writer and artist. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Jacques Paul Migne. Jacques Paul Migne (1800–1875), a French priest and scholar. Carl Benedict Hase. Carl Benedict (Charles-Benoît) Hase (1780–1864), a French Hellenist. Thomas de Reiffenberg. Frédéric Auguste Ferdinand Thomas de Reiffenberg (1795–1850), a Belgian writer, historian-medievalist, and linguist. Ludovic Lalanne. Ludovic Lalanne (1815–1898), a French historian and librarian. René de Mont-Louis. René  de Mont-Louis (1818-1883), a French historian who also wrote under the name Charles Farine. Louis de Mas Latrie. Louis de Mas Latrie (1815–1897), a French historian specializing in medieval Cyprus. Jules Berger de Xivrey. Jules Berger de Xivrey (1801-1863), a French historian. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Léopold Victor Delisle. Léopold Victor Delisle (1826–1910), a French bibliophile and historian. Jean-François-Aimé Peyré. Jean-François-Aimé Peyré (1792–1868), a French historian. Louis-Alexandre Foucher de Careil. Louis-Alexandre Foucher de Careil (1826–1891), a French politician and author. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Marie Henri d'Arbois de Jubainville. Marie Henri d'Arbois de  Jubainville (1827–1910), a French historian. Léon Pigeotte. Léon Pigeotte (1811–1894), a French historian. Gustave Dugat. Gustave Dugat (1824-1894), a French orientalist. Paul E. D. Riant. Paul Edouard Didier Riant (1836–1888), a French historian specializing on the Crusades. Emmanuel Guillaume-Rey. Emmanuel Guillaume-Rey (1837–1913), a French archaeologist, topographer and orientalist who wrote seminal works on the archaeology of the Holy Land. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Auguste Honoré Longnon. Auguste Honoré Longnon (1844–1911), a French historian and archivist. Francisque Michel. Francisque Xavier Michel (1809–1887), a French historian and philologist. August Molinier. Auguste Molinier (1851–1904), a French palaeographer and historian. Ernest Lavisse . Ernest Lavisse (1842–1922), a French historian nominated by the Nobel Prize in Literature five times. Gustave Doré. Paul Gustave Louis Christophe Doré (1832–1883) was a French artist, printmaker and illustrator. Gabriel Hanotaux. Albert Auguste Gabriel Hanotaux (1853–1944), a French statesman and historian. Henri Vast. Henri Vast (1847–1921), a French historian. Clément Huart. Clément Huart (1854–1926), a French orientalist and translator of Persian, Turkish and Arabic documents. Ulysse Robert. Ulysse Robert (1845–1903), a French archivist. Henri-Victor Michelant. Henri-Victor Michelant (1811–1890), a French librarian, Romanist and medievalist. Gaston Raynaud. Gaston Raynaud (1850–1911), a French historian. Étienne Antoine Vlasto. Étienne Antoine  Vlasto (born 1831), a French historian. Léon Gautier. Émile Théodore Léon Gautier (1832–1897), a French literary historian. Jules Tessier. Jules Tessier (1836–1908), a French historian. Geoffroi Jacques Flach. Geoffroi Jacques Flach (1846–1919), a French historian. Henri de Curzon. Henri de Curzon (1861–1942), a French historian, musicologist and archivist. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Gabriel Mailhard de La Couure. Gabriel Mailhard de La Couture (19th century), a French writer. Albert Lecoy de La Marche. Albert Lecoy de La Marche (1839–1897), a French historian. Émile Bouchet. Émile Bouchet (born 1848), a French historian. Élie Berger. Élie Berger (1850–1925), a French palaeographer and archivist. Eugène  Jarry. Eugène Jarry (1865-1940), a French paleographer and archivist. Henri-François Delaborde. Henri François, comte Delaborde (1854–1927), a French historian. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) Gaston Dodu. Gaston Dodu (1863-1939), a French historian. Charles Farcinet. Charles Farcinet (1824-1903), a French historian and numismatist. Jean-Barthélemy Hauréau. Jean-Barthélemy Hauréau (1812–1896), a French historian"." Abbé A. Parraud. Abbé A. Parraud (fl. later nineteenth century), a French cleric. Marcel Schwob. Mayer André Marcel Schwob (1867–1905), a French symbolist writer. David Léon Cahun. David Léon Cahun (1841–1900), a French traveler, orientalist and writer. Louis Petit. Louis Petit (1868–1927), a French orientalist, founder  of "l'Institut d'etudes Byzantines". English historians and other authors. English, Scottish, Irish and American historians of the Crusades in the 19th century are presented below. James Lamb. Sir James Bland Lamb, 1st Baronet (1752–1824), born James Burges, a British author, barrister and Member of Parliament. Thomas Johnes. Thomas Johnes (1748–1816), an English politician, farmer, printer, writer and translator. Robert Walpole. Robert Walpole (1781–1856), an English classical scholar. Henry Ellis. Sir Henry Ellis (1777–1869), an English antiquarian, once principal librarian at the British Museum. John Taaffe. John Taaffe (1787-1862), an English historian and Knight Commander of the Sovereign Order of  St. John of Jerusalem. Charles Mills. Charles Mills (1788–1826), an English historian. Henry Hallam. Henry Hallam (1777–1859), an English historian. Sir Walter Scott. Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832), a Scottish novelist and historian. Thomas Love Peacock. Thomas Love Peacock (1785–1866), an English novelist, poet, and official of the East India Company. Eleanor Anne Porden. Eleanor Anne Porden (1795–1825), a British Romantic poet. George Procter. Major George Procter (1795–1842), an English historian. Henry Stebbings. Henry Stebbings (1799–1883), an English historian and editor. G. P. R. James. George Payne Rainsford James (1799–1860), an English novelist and historical writer, holding the honorary office of  British Historiographer Royal. Samuel Bentley. Samuel Bentley (1785–1868), an English printer and antiquarian. Ellis Cornelia Knight. Ellis Cornelia Knight (1757–1837), an English gentlewoman, traveler and writer. Thomas Keightley. Thomas Keightley (1789–1872), an Irish writer known for his works on mythology and folklore. Nicholas Harris Nicolas. Nicholas Harris Nicolas (1799–1848), an English antiquary. James Mackintosh. Sir James Mackintosh (1765–1832) was a Scottish jurist, politician and historian. Thomas Duffus Hardy. Sir Thomas Duffus Hardy (1804–1878), an English archivist and antiquary. Richard Barham. Richard Harris Barham (pseudonym Thomas Ingoldsby) (1788–1845), an English cleric, a novelist and a humorous poet. John Charles Conybeare. John  Charles Conybeare (fl 1840), an English barrister and poet. John Allen Giles. John Allen Giles (1808–1884), an English historian and scholar of Anglo-Saxon language and history. Among his works were the revisions of Stevens' translation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. John Breakenridge. John Breakenridge (1820–1854), an English poet. Henry George Bohn. Henry George Bohn (1796–1884), a British publisher. Benjamin Disraeli. Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield (1804–1881), a British politician and prime minister of the United Kingdom from 1874 to 1880. John Mason Neale. John Mason Neale (1818–1866), an English  Anglican priest, scholar and hymnwriter. John Kitto. John Kitto (1804–1854), an English Biblical scholar. Henry Thomas Riley. Henry Thomas Riley (1816–1878), an English translator, lexicographer and antiquary. William Robson. William Robson (1785–1863), a British author and translator. Henry Hart Milman. Henry Hart Milman (1791–1868), an English historian and ecclesiastic. William Bernard McCabe. William Bernard McCabe (1801–1891), an Irish author of historical romances. Thomas Wright. Thomas Wright (1810–1877), an English antiquarian and writer. Celestia Angenette Bloss. Celestia Angenette Bloss (1812–1855), an American teacher and historian. John George Edgar. John George Edgar (1834–1864), an English writer of miscellany. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley. Arthur  Penrhyn Stanley (1815–1881), an English Anglican priest and ecclesiastical historian. Stanley was a co-founder of the Palestine Exploration Fund. William Stubbs. William Stubbs (1825–1901), an English historian and Anglican bishop. Charlotte Mary Yonge. Charlotte Mary Yonge (1823–1901), an English novelist. Barbara Hutton. Barbara Hutton (fl. 1863–1892), an English author of juvenile works and biographies. William Makepeace Thackeray. William Makepeace Thackeray (1811–1863), an English novelist. George Zabriskie Gray. George Zabriskie Gray (1837–1889), an American clergyman and author. Frederick Charles Woodhouse. Frederick Charles Woodhouse (1827–1905), an English historian. Edwin Pears. Sir Edwin Pears (1835–1919), a British barrister, author and historian. Jacob  Isadore Mombert. Jacob Isadore Mombert (1829–1913), an American historian. Alfred Hayes. Alfred Hayes (1857–1936), an English poet and translator. Henry Charles Lea. Henry Charles Lea (1825–1909), an American historian, specializing on church history of the Middle Ages. Thomas Andrew Archer. Thomas Andrew Archer (1853–1905), an English historian of the Crusades. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford (1862–1926), an English historian and author. C. R. Conder. Claude Reignier Conder (1848–1910), an English soldier, explorer and antiquarian. Member of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Claude Delaval Cobham. Claude Delaval Cobham (1842–1915), a British colonial official and historian. Alfred Trumble. Alfred Trumble, a British  historian. Guy Le Strange. Guy Le Strange (1854–1933), a British orientalist specializing in historical geography of the Middle East and the editing of Persian geographical texts. George William Cox. George William Cox (1827–1902), a British theologian and historian. Stanley Lane-Poole. Stanley Edward Lane-Poole (1854–1931), a British orientalist and archaeologist. Henry Edward Watts. Henry Edward Watts (1826–1904), a British journalist and author on Spanish topics. J. Dunbar Hylton. J. Dunbar Hylton (1837-1893), an American author. Ephraim Emerton. Ephraim Emerton (1851–1935), an American author, translator and medieval European historian. Hilaire Belloc. Hilaire Belloc (1870–1953), a British-French writer and  historian. James M. Ludlow. James Meeker Ludlow (1841–1932), an English historian and novelist. John Fulton. John Fulton (1834–1907), an English traveler, archivist and historian. Marvin Vincent. Marvin R. Vincent (1834–1922), an American theologian and author. Richard Davey. Richard Davey (1848–1911), an English author and journalist. William Foster. Sir William Foster (1863–1951), a British historiographer and member of the Hakluyt Society. Israel Smith Clare. Israel Smith Clare (1847–1924), an American historian. Charles Oman. Sir Charles William Chadwick Oman (1860–1946), a British military historian. German historians and other authors. German historians of the Crusades from the 19th century included the following. August  von Kotzebue. August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue (1761–1819), a German dramatist and writer. Frederich Wilken. Friederich Wilken (1777–1840), a German orientalist. Referred to as the first professional historian to capture the Crusades in book form, pioneering the use of Eastern sources. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren. Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren (1760–1842) a German historian. Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall. Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1774–1856), an Austrian orientalist and historian. Friedrich Heinrich Karl de la Motte. Friedrich Heinrich Karl de la Motte, Baron Fouqué (1777–1843), a German writer of the Romantic style. Georg Heinrich Pertz. Georg Heinrich Pertz (1795–1876), a  German historian. Josef Dobrovský. Josef Dobrovský (1753–1829), a Czech philologist and historian. Barthold Georg Niebuhr. Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831), a Danish–German statesman and historian who was a founder of modern historiography. Leopold von Ranke. Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), a German historian and a founder of modern source-based history. Heinrich Ferdinand Wüstenfeld. Heinrich Ferdinand Wüstenfeld (1808–1899), a German orientalist, known as a literary historian of Arabic literature. Karl Georg von Raumer. Karl Georg von Raumer (1783–1865), a German geologist. Friedrich Emmanuel von Hurter. Friedrich Emmanuel von Hurter (1787–1865), a Swiss historian. Heinrich von Sybel. Heinrich von Sybel (1817–1895), a  German historian who studied under Leopold von Ranke. Sybel and Ranke challenged the work of William of Tyre as being secondary. Joseph Derenbourg. Joseph Derenbourg (1811–1895) was a Franco-German orientalist. Gottlieb L. Tafel. Gottlieb Lukas Friedrich Tafel (1757–1860), a German classical philologist and a pioneer of Byzantine studies in Europe. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Georg Martin Thomas. Georg Martin Thomas (1817–1887), a German philologist and historian. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Wilhelm Wattenbach. Wilhelm Wattenbach (1819–1897), a German historian. August Potthast. August Potthast (1824–1898), a German historian. Joseph Müller. Joseph Müller (1825-1895), a German philologist. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Bernhard von Kugler . Bernhard von Kugler (1837–1898), a German historian. Karl Hopf. Karl Hopf (1832–1873), a German historian, specializing in medieval Greece, both Byzantine and Frankish. Carl Hermann Ethé. Carl Hermann Ethé (1844–1917), a German orientalist who specialized in catalogues of Islamic manuscripts and German translations of Persian poetry. Tabulae Ordinis Teutonici. "Tabulae Ordinis Teutonici" (1869) is a collection of original documents related to the Teutonic Order. Edited by German archivist Ernst Strehlke (1834–1869), completed posthumously by German historian Philipp Jaffé. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Karl Fischer. Karl Fischer (1840–1933), a German historian and social scientist. Augustin Theiner. Augustin Theiner (1804–1874), a German theologian  and historian. Prefect of the Vatican secret archives. Reinhold Röhricht. Reinhold Röhricht (1842–1905), a German historian of the Crusades, regarded as a pioneer with fellow German historian Heinrich Hagenmeyer (1834–1915) in the history of the kingdom of Jerusalem, laying the foundation for modern Crusader research. Eduard Winkelmann. Eduard Winkelmann (1838–1896), a German historian. Hans Prutz. Hans Prutz (1843–1929), a German historian. Hermann Hagen. Hermann Hagen (1844–1898), a German-Swiss classical philologist. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Heinrich Hagenmeyer. Heinrich Hagenmeyer (1834–1915), a German Protestant pastor and historian, specializing in writing and editing Crusader texts. Closely associated with fellow German Reinhold Röhricht, their  contribution to the history of the kingdom of Jerusalem set a sound archival footing for the discipline. In particular, Hagenmeyer's "Peter der Eremite" established an orthodoxy on the Crusade's origins and course not seriously challenged until the 1980s. Charles A. Kohler. Charles A. Kohler (1854–1917), a Swiss archivist and director of the "Revue de l'Orient Latin" (ROL). Wilhelm Heyd. Wilhelm Heyd (1823–1906), a German historian. (cf. German Wikipedia, ). Theodor Ilgen. Theodor Ilgen (1854–1924), a German archivist and historian. Karl Neumann. Karl Neumann (1860–1934), a German historian. Karl von Lama. Karl von Lama (1841–1920), a German librarian and bookseller . (cf. German Wikipedia, ) August Reifferscheid. Karl Wilhelm August Reifferscheid (1835–1887), a German archaeologist and classical philologist. August Müller. August Müller (1848–1892), a German orientalist. Theodor Wolff. Theodor Wolff (1867–1927), a German historian and editor. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Julius Hermann Gotthelf Gmelin. Julius Hermann Gotthelf Gmelin (1859–1919), a German historian specializing in the Knights Templar. Franz Xaver von Funk. Franz Xaver von Funk (1840–1907), a German Catholic theologian and historian. Richard Sternfeld. Richard Sternfeld (1858–1926), a German historian and musicologist. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Nicolae Iorga (Jorga). Nicolae Iorga (1871–1940), a Romanian historian and politician. Walter Carl Norden. Walter Carl Norden (1876–1937 ), a German historian and community scientist. (cf. German Wikipedia, ) Alexander Cartellier. Alexander Cartellieri (1867-1955), a German historian. Eduard Heyck. Eduard Heyck (1862–1941), a German cultural historian, editor, writer and poet. Other historians. Original works by other historians, including Sicilian and Muslim historians are the following. Michele Amari. Michele Amari (1806–1889), a Sicilian patriot and historian. Namik Kemal. Namik Kemal (1840–1880), a Turkish journalist and political activist. One of the founders of the modern Ottoman literature. Sayyid 'Ali al-Hariri. Sayyid 'Ali al-Hariri (fl. 1899), an Egyptian historian. Translations of original sources. Translations of Arabic, Persian, Coptic and Byzantine  works by Western historians include the following. Joseph White. Joseph White (1745–1814), an English orientalist and theologian. Gustav Flügel. Gustav Leberecht Flügel (1802–1870), a German orientalist. Michael Jan de Goeje. Michael Jan de Goeje (1836–1909), a Dutch orientalist focusing on Arabia and Islam. William Muir. Sir William Muir (1819–1905), a Scottish orientalist. Beniamino Raffaello Sanguinetti. Beniamino Raffaello Sanguinetti (1811–1883), an Italian orientalist. David Samuel Margoliouth. David Samuel Margoliouth (1858–1940), an English orientalist. Jean-Baptiste Chabot. Jean-Baptiste Chabot (1860–1948), a leading French Syriac scholar. Constantine Sathas. Constantine Sathas (1842–1914), a Greek historian and researcher. Charles Henri Auguste Schefer. Charles Henri  Auguste Schefer (1820-1898), a French historian. (cf. French Wikipedia, ) François Nau. François Nau (1864–1931), a French Catholic priest, mathematician, Syriacist, and specialist in oriental languages. Louis R. Bréhier. Louis R. Bréhier (1869–1951), a French historian specializing in Byzantine studies. Encyclopedias. The first encyclopedia article on the Crusades is credited to Denis Diderot in the 18th century. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, three notable encyclopedia articles appeared. These are Philip Schaff's article in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge; Louis Bréhier's two works on the Crusades and their Bibliography and Sources in the Catholic Encyclopedia ; and the work of Ernest Barker in the 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, later expanded into a separate publication. All three have interesting bibliographies showing histories deemed important at the time. Denis Diderot. Denis Diderot (1713-1784), French author who regarded the effects of the Crusades as "uniformly dire" ("Oeuvres", Volume 14). Ersch-Gruber "Encyclopädie." The "Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste," 167 volumes (1813–1889). The Universal Encyclopaedia of Sciences and Arts, originally compiled by German bibliographers Samuel Ersch (1766–1828) and Johann Gottfried Gruber (1774–1851)"." Philip Schaff. Philip Schaff (1819–1893), a Swiss theologian and ecclesiastical historian. Allgemeine Geschichte in  Einzeldarstellungen. The "Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen," 45 volumes, Berlin (1876–1891), edited by German historian Christian Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Oncken (1838–1905). "Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen" (General history in individual representations) includes Bernard von Kugler's "Geschichte der Kreuzzüge" and August Müller's "Der Islam im Morgen- und Abendland." (cf. German Wikipedia, ). Louis R. Bréhier. Louis R. Bréhier (1869–1951), a French historian specializing in Byzantine studies. Ernest Barker. Ernest Barker (1874–1960), an English political scientist.