Laws (dialogue)
The Laws (Greek: Νόμοι, "Nómoi"; Latin: "De Legibus") is Plato's last and longest dialogue. The conversation depicted in the work's twelve books begins with the question of who is given the credit for establishing a civilization's laws. Its musings on the ethics of government and law have established it as a classic of political philosophy alongside Plato's more widely read "Republic". Scholars generally agree that Plato wrote this dialogue as an older man, having failed in his effort to guide the rule of the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse, instead having been thrown in  prison. These events are alluded to in the "Seventh Letter". The text is noteworthy as Plato's only undisputed dialogue not to feature Socrates. Summary. Setting. Unlike most of Plato's dialogues, Socrates does not appear in the "Laws": the dialogue takes place on the island of Crete, and Socrates appears outside of Athens in Plato's writings only twice, in the "Phaedrus", where he is just outside the city's walls, and in the "Republic", where he goes down to the seaport Piraeus five miles outside of Athens. The conversation is instead led by an Athenian Stranger () and two  other old men, the ordinary Spartan citizen Megillos and Cleinias of Crete, from Knossos. The Athenian Stranger, who resembles Socrates but whose name is never mentioned, joins the other two on their religious pilgrimage from Knossos to the cave of Zeus. The entire dialogue takes place during this journey, which mimics the action of Minos: said by the Cretans to have made their ancient laws, Minos walked this path every nine years in order to receive instruction from Zeus on lawgiving. It is also said to be the longest day of the year, allowing for the densely packed twelve chapters . By the end of the third book Cleinias announces that he has in fact been given the responsibility of creating the laws for a new Cretan colony, and that he would like the Athenian stranger's assistance. The rest of the dialogue proceeds with the three old men, walking towards the cave and making laws for this new city which is called the city of the Magnetes (or Magnesia). Topics. The question asked at the beginning is not "What is law?" as one would expect. That is the question of the apocryphal Platonic dialogue "Minos". The dialogue rather proceeds from  the question, "who it is that receives credit for creating laws." The questions of the "Laws" are quite numerous, including: The dialogue uses primarily the Athenian and Spartan (Lacedaemonian) law systems as background for pinpointing a choice of laws, which the speakers imagine as a more or less coherent set for the new city they are talking about. The tenth book of the "Laws" most famously discusses the priority of soul: both explanatory priority and ontological priority. Plato here refutes the views of his predecessors who argued that soul (and what soul is related to, such as intelligence, knowledge, skill , etc.) is "posterior" to corporeal things such as earth and fire. The natural philosophers had explained soul, intelligence, and so on, in terms of corporeal things: corporeal things exist first and give rise to psychic phenomena. In contrast, Plato argues that soul is first, both as that in terms of which corporeal things ought to be explained and as that which gives rise to the corporeal world. Plato concludes this by relying on his view that the soul is intelligent and a self-mover and that soul is that which supervises the cosmos. There is an important scholarly discussion of  whether Plato means to allow for there to be an evil soul governing the cosmos, alongside a virtuous soul. Gabriela Carone, for instance, maintains that Plato "does not dismiss the existence of a kind of evil soul as such." But more-recent scholarship has argued otherwise. In general, recent scholars have understood Plato's psychology to be such that souls are by their very nature intelligent (for it is by means of their intelligence that they move things), and that Plato's view of intelligence requires that intelligent things not be vicious; this rules out the very possibility of an  evil soul. Comparison with Plato's Republic. The "Laws", like the earlier "Republic", concerns the making of a city in speech. Yet it is in opposition to the earlier dialogue, and the constitution of the hypothetical Magnesia described in the Laws differs from that of Kallipolis described in the Republic, on several key points. The city of the "Laws" differs in its allowance of private property and private families, and in the very existence of written laws, from the city of the "Republic," with its property-system and community of wives for the guardians, and absence of written law. Also , whereas the "Republic" is a dialogue between Socrates and several young men, the "Laws" is a discussion among three old men. There is a discussion of piety and ritual. The city of the "Laws" is described as "second best" not because the city of the "Republic" is the best, but because it is the city of gods and their children. Traditionally, the "Minos" is thought to be the preface, and the "Epinomis" the epilogue, to the "Laws", but these are generally considered by scholars to be spurious. Comparisons to other works on Greek law. Plato was not the only Ancient  Greek author writing about the law systems of his day, and making comparisons between the Athenian and the Spartan laws. Notably, the "Constitution of the Spartans" by Xenophon, the "Constitution of the Athenians", wrongly attributed to Xenophon, and the "Constitution of the Athenians", possibly by Aristotle or one of his students, have also survived. Some centuries later Plutarch would also devote attention to the topic of Ancient Greek law systems, e.g. in his "Life of Lycurgus". Lycurgus was the legendary law-giver of the Lacedaemonians. Plutarch compares Lycurgus and his Spartan laws to the law system Numa Pompilius introduced in  Rome around 700 BC. Both pseudo-Xenophon and Plutarch are stark admirers of the Spartan system, showing less reserve than Plato in expressing that admiration.