Ousia
Ousia (; ) is an important philosophical and theological term, originally used in ancient Greek philosophy, then later in Christian theology. It was used by various ancient Greek philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, as a primary designation for philosophical concepts of "essence" or "substance". In contemporary philosophy, it is analogous to English concepts of "being" and "ontic". In Christian theology, the concept of ("divine essence") is one of the most important doctrinal concepts, central to the development of trinitarian doctrine. The Ancient Greek term was translated in Latin as or , and hence in English as "essence" or "substance". Etymology. The term  is an Ancient Greek noun, formed on the feminine present participle of the verb , , meaning "to be, I am", so similar grammatically to the English noun "being". There was no equivalent grammatical formation in Latin, and it was translated as or . Cicero coined and the philosopher Seneca and rhetorician Quintilian used it as equivalent for , while Apuleius rendered both as or . In order to designate , early Christian theologian Tertullian favored the use of over , while Augustine of Hippo and Boethius took the opposite stance, preferring the use of as designation for . Some of the most prominent Latin authors, like Hilary  of Poitiers, noted that those variants were often being used with different meanings. Some modern authors also suggest that the Ancient Greek term is properly translated as (essence), while has a wider spectrum of meanings. From οὐσία (essence), philosophical and theological term (essentiality) was also derived. It was used by Platonists, like Alcinous, as designation for one of the basic properties of divinity or godhead. Philosophy. Aristotle defined (), "primary essences", in the "Categories" as that which is neither "said of" nor "in" any subject, e.g., "this human" in particular, or "this ox". The genera in biology and other natural kinds  are substances in a secondary sense, as universals, formally defined by the essential qualities of the primary substances; i.e., the individual members of those kinds. In Book IV of "Metaphysics" Aristotle explores the nature and attributes of being (ousia). Aristotle divides the things that there are, or "beings," into categories. Aristotle calls these substances and argues that there are many senses in which a thing may be said "to be" but it is related to one central point and is ambiguous. Aristotle states that there are both primary and secondary substances. In "Categories" Aristotle argues that primary substances are ontologically  based and if the primary substances did not exist then it would be impossible for other things to exist. The other things are regarded as the secondary substances (also known as accidents). Secondary substances are thus ontologically dependent on substances. In "Metaphysics," Aristotle states that everything which is healthy is related to health (primary substance) as in one sense because it preserves health and in the other because it is capable of it. Without the primary substance (health) we would not be able to have the secondary substances (anything related to health). While all the secondary substances are deemed "to  be" it is in relation to the primary substance. The question, what is being, is seeking an answer to something "that is." A contemporary example in rhetoric would be to look at a color. Using white as an example, when we define a color, we define it by association. Snow is white. Paper is white. A cow is white. But what is white? While we are saying things that are white, we are not defining what white is without qualification. Ousia is thus the answer to the question of "what is being" when the question is without qualification. The unqualified  answer of what is white is the ousia of white. Much later, Martin Heidegger said that the original meaning of the word was lost in its translation to the Latin, and, subsequently, in its translation to modern languages. For him, means "Being", not "substance", that is, not some "thing" or some "being" that "stood" (-stance) "under" (sub-). Moreover, he also used the binomial parousia–apousia, denoting "presence–absence", and hypostasis denoting "existence". Christian theology. The concept of (; "divine essence") is one of the most important concepts in Christian theology. It was developed gradually by Early Church Fathers during the first  centuries of Christian History. Central debates over the doctrinal use and meaning of ουσία were held during the 4th century, and also continued later, some of them lasting up to the present day. New Testament. The word is used in the New Testament only in relation to the "substance" in the sense of "goods", twice in the parable of the Prodigal Son where the son asked his father to divide to him his inheritance, and then wasted it on riotous living. An apparently related word, (affixing the prefix "epi-" to the word), is used in the Lord's Prayer, but  nowhere else in the scriptures. Elsewhere, it was believed to be present in one papyrus (a list of expenses) among expenses for chick-peas, straw, etc., and for material. In 1998, according to a xerographic copy of a papyrus found in the Yale Papyrus Collection (from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library) inventory 19 (a.k.a. "P.C.+YBR inv 19"), it was suggested that the document had been transcribed differently from other early manuscripts and that the actual word used in that particular papyrus was "elaiou", meaning "oil". Early Christianity. Origen (d. 251) used "ousia" in defining God as "one genus  of ousia", while being three, distinct species of hypostasis: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Synods of Antioch condemned the word "homoousios" (same essence) because it originated in pagan Greek philosophy. The Catholic Encyclopedia entry for Paul of Samosata states: In 325, the First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism and formulated a creed, which stated that in the Godhead the Son was "Homoousios" (same in essence) of the Father. However, controversy did not stop and many Eastern clerics rejected the term because of its earlier condemnation in the usage of Paul of Samosata. Subsequent Emperors Constantius II  (reigned 337–361) and Valens (reigned 364–378) supported Arianism and theologians came up with alternative wordings like "Homoios" (similar), "homoiousios" (similar in essence), or "Anomoios" (unsimilar). While the "Homoios" achieved the support of several councils and the Emperors, those of an opposing view were suppressed. The adherents of the "Homoiousios" eventually joined forces with the (mostly Western) adherents of the "Homoousios" and accepted the formulation of the Nicene creed. The generally agreed-upon meaning of "ousia" in Eastern Christianity is "all that subsists by itself and which has not its being in another" - in contrast to "hypostasis", which is used to  mean "reality" or "existence". John Damascene gives the following definition of the conceptual value of the two terms in his Dialectic: Ousia is a thing that exists by itself, and which has need of nothing else for its consistency. Again, ousia is all that "subsists" by itself and which has not its being in another.