Teeth blackening
Teeth blackening or teeth lacquering is a custom of dyeing one's teeth black. It was most predominantly practiced in Southeast Asian and Oceanic cultures, particularly among Austronesian, Austroasiatic, and Kra–Dai-speaking peoples. It was also practiced in Japan prior to the Meiji era, as well as in India. It was also performed among some groups in the Americas, most notably among the Shuar people of northern Peru and Ecuador. Teeth blackening is usually done during puberty. It was primarily done to preserve the teeth into old age, as it prevents tooth decay similar to the mechanism  of modern dental sealants. It was seen as a sign of maturity, beauty, and civilization. A common belief is that blackened teeth differentiated humans from animals. Teeth blackening is often done in conjunction with traditions of tooth sharpening and dental evulsion, as well as other body modification customs like tattoos. Teeth blackening and filing were regarded with fascination and disapproval by early European explorers and colonists. The practice survives in some isolated ethnic groups in Southeast Asia and Oceania but has mostly disappeared after the introduction of Western beauty standards during the colonial era, and continues among many minority groups  in China, Pacific Islands and Southeast Asia. It is mainly prevalent in older women, though the practice is still carried on by some younger women. Sometimes artificial teeth are used to achieve blackened teeth. Teeth blackening is commonly confused with the red-stained teeth from betel chewing. However, betel chewing damages the teeth and gums, while teeth blackening does not. Far Eastern practices. Teeth blackening has been documented throughout a number of peoples in the Far East: Japan. In Japan, teeth blackening is known as . existed in one form or another for hundreds of years, and was seen amongst the  population as beautiful until the end of the Meiji period. Objects that were pitch black, such as glaze-like lacquer, were seen as beautiful. Name. The word was an aristocratic term. There is an alternate term for , . At the old Imperial palace in Kyoto, it was called . Among civilians, such words as , and were used. History. Traces of blackened teeth can be seen in the buried bones and (250 to 538 CE) from the Kofun period. References to exist in "The Tale of Genji" and . At the end of the Heian period, at the time when aristocratic men and woman  reached puberty and celebrated their or , the Taira clan and other samurai, and pages working at large temples, dyed their teeth. In particular, the Imperial family and other high-ranking aristocrats who had finished their (ceremony where a child is fitted with a ) blackened their teeth and painted their eyebrows (). This was done in the Imperial household until the end of the Edo era. In the Muromachi period, was generally seen among adults, though when the Sengoku period arrived, so as to prepare for political marriages of convenience, when the daughters of military commanders were around 8 to 10 years  old, they would blacken their teeth as a marking of their coming of age. Relatives and guardians of the bride who blackened their teeth were called . It is said that military commanders who were struck in the head on the battlefield and who did not want to be ugly would wear average women's makeup and would blacken their teeth. These faces imitated the Noh masks of women and young boys. After the Edo period, only men of the Imperial House of Japan and the aristocracy blackened their teeth. Due to the odor and labor required for the process, as  well as a feeling among young women that they were ageing, was done only by married women, unmarried women who were older than 18, sex workers and geisha. For rural people, was done only at times of special celebrations, such as Japanese festivals, wedding ceremonies, and funerals. There were also depictions of in fairy tales, such as "Gon, the Little Fox". On February 5, 1870, the government banned and the process gradually became obsolete. After the Meiji period, it temporarily spread, but it almost entirely died out in the Taishō period (ending in 1927). In contemporary times, the only places  where can be seen is in plays, on some older geisha apprentices, some festivals, and movies. Social function. Many Westerners, including Engelbert Kaempfer, Philipp Franz von Siebold, and Rutherford Alcock, who visited Edo period Japan, described as an abhorrent custom which disfigured women. Alcock conjectured that the purpose of it was to encourage chastity, by making the women intentionally unattractive to prevent extramarital relationships. Japanese social scientist Kyouji Watanabe disagrees with this theory, arguing that based on the fact that Japanese girls were allowed a large degree of both social and sexual liberty until the time of , when they assumed  the responsibility of wife and mother, constituted a social ritual by which both society and girls confirmed the determination of matured women. Dyes. The main ingredient used to blacken teeth was a dark-brown solution of ferric acetate called , made by dissolving iron filings in vinegar. When the solution was combined with vegetable tannins from such sources as gallnut powder or tea powder, it would turn black and become non-water-soluble, in the same manner that iron gall ink is produced. Coating the teeth with this liquid helped to prevent tooth decay and enamel decay. The dye had to  be applied once a day or once every few days. As a convenient prescription, a fine powder of gallnut powder, sulfuric acid, and oyster shell could also be applied to the teeth, though this did not experience much popularity and was not common. In theatrical plays, ink mixed with turpentine was used, though these days, ink mixed with tooth wax is used. Superstitions and urban legends. In the Meiji period, a rumor spread about an area where a virgin's blood was painted on an electric line. As a result of not wanting to have their blood taken as well , many of the young women in this area changed their appearances to match those of married women by blackening their teeth, painting their eyebrows and wearing simple kimono. In Yamada Norio's 2010 book , a story about Fukushima Prefecture is described (). Vietnam. In Vietnam, tooth painting was practiced by the majority Vietnamese people as well as by minority ethnic groups. Si La men paint their teeth red and the women paint theirs black. This practice has slowly declined with each new generation. The Baiyue in southern China and northern Vietnam also practiced teeth blackening. When Han Chinese ruled the Vietnamese  in the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam due to the Ming dynasty's conquest during the Ming–Hồ War, they imposed the Han Chinese style of men wearing long hair on short haired Vietnamese men. The Vietnamese people were ordered to stop cutting and instead grow their hair long and switch to Han Chinese clothing in only a month by a Ming official. Ming administrators said their mission was to "civilize" the unorthodox, by Han Chinese standards, appearance of the Vietnamese. The Ming dynasty only wanted the Vietnamese to wear long hair and to stop teeth blackening so they could  have white teeth and long hair like Chinese. A royal edict was issued by Vietnam in 1474 forbidding Vietnamese from adopting foreign languages, hairstyles and clothes like that of the Lao, Champa or the "Northerners" which referred to the Ming. The edict was recorded in the 1479 Complete Chronicle of Dai Viet of Ngô Sĩ Liên. The Philippines. In the Philippines, Spanish colonial official and historian, Antonio de Morga, recorded in his book, (1609), on how local men and women of the Philippines cared and presented themselves at the time. It was noted by Morga: The late 19th century Filipino  nationalist, writer, and polymath, José Rizal, commented in his annotations to Morga's account that: "This custom still exists... This custom exists also among the married women of Japan, as a Sign of their chastity. It is now falling into disuse." Thailand. Teeth blackening was practiced in Thailand since the very early kingdoms of Sukhothai, Lanna and Ayutthaya through betel chewing. The dark red black stain left on the teeth was considered a sign of beauty, and betel nut chewing was an activity performed during courtship. Elsewhere. Teeth blackening was also documented across Islamic culture in South Asia: Further West , teeth blackening has been documented as far as Madagascar.