Zeta–Raška dialect
The Zeta–Raška dialect () is a dialect of Štokavian / Serbo-Croatian. Its prevalence is mostly in southern Montenegro and parts of the historical region of Raška in Serbia. It is spoken mainly by local ethnic Serbs, Montenegrins, Bosniaks and Muslims. Geography. Zeta–Raška dialect is found mostly in the southern half of Montenegro. At its westernmost boundary, speakers of the dialect can be found along the Adriatic Sea from Ulcinj at its southernmost point to the town of Perast near Kotor in the north, where it borders with the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect. This border runs roughly northeast  toward Grahovo and further east to Kolašin. The border continues northeast toward Bijelo Polje and crosses into Serbia near the town of Brodarevo and meets the Ibar river near Sjenica. The border continues east, just south of Sjenica, into Ibarski Kolašin (North Kosovo), where it borders the Kosovo–Resava dialect. The Zeta–Raška dialect then veers south toward Leposavić, reaching the vicinity Kosovska Mitrovica before continuing westward across Mokra Gora and Žljeb back into Montenegro. Upon re-entry into Montenegro, the dialectal border continues through the Prokletije mountains and straddles along the entire Montenegrin border with Albania. Enclaves of the  Zeta–Raška dialect are scant. One enclave is in Petrovo Selo near Kladovo by the Đerdap Gorge in northeastern Serbia. Another enclave is in Vrakë, a region near Shkodër in northern Albania. The dialect is also spoken in Peroj, a town in Istria, northwestern Croatia. Characteristics. Section::::-a ending for masculine active past participle. In the standard varieties of Serbo-Croatian, certain verbs carry the -ao ending for the active past participle in the masculine gender. However, depending on the speaker, this ending is either contracted to -a (-ā in official Montenegrin orthography) or -ä (phoneme explained below) in the Zeta –Raška dialect. Thus, words like "mogao" and "rekao" are pronounced as "mogā / mogä" and "rekā / rekä". This type of contraction is not the usual norm for Štokavian speakers, as it is primarily elsewhere found in Croatian seaside vernaculars. Moreover, this characteristic is not present in all areas of the Zeta–Raška dialect. In certain peripheral areas, the active past participle is not contracted to either -ā or -ä and pronounced fully. In other areas, such as Paštrovići in Budva and Zupci in Bar, speakers contract the masculine active past participle from -ao to -o, such as in "mogo" and "reko  (tonal mȍgō", "rȅkō"). This type of contraction of the active past participle considered the norm among Štokavian speakers. In certain parts of the dialectal region, namely Broćanac and Pješivci, the contraction the masculine active past participle from -ao to -o takes on a further step, where speakers add a v in the coda position, giving "dov" from davao and "prodov" from prodavao (tonal "dȏv", "prȍdōv"). Presence of /æ/. Many vernaculars in southern and southeastern Montenegro have a distinct phoneme, characterized as a sound between /a/ and /e/, which is unusual for Štokavian speakers. The phoneme, transcribed here as ä, can  be pronounced as either /ɛ/ or /æ/, depending on the region. This feature is characteristically a reflex of Proto-Slavic ь and ъ (see examples below), but can also form by analogy by the speaker. This phoneme in syllable-final position becomes nasalized by speakers found along the border with Albania, notably "rekän" and "zatekän" (standard "rekao" and "zatekao", respectively). Yat reflexes. The Zeta–Raška dialect follows the Ijekavian reflex of yat, where ě (ѣ) in Proto-Slavic became either ije, je or e, depending on length and position. Long yat reflex. Words with a long yat reflex became pronounced  as disyllabic -ije- in middle positions. Examples include "bijelo" ("*bělo"), "snijeg" ("*sněgъ"), "vrijeme" ("*vrěmę"). This transformation was largely ignored by ethnic Bosniaks living in Podgorica and Plav-Gusinje, who followed an Ikavian reflex of yat. Ikavian is another reflex of yat where ě (ѣ) in Proto-Slavic would become -i- in almost all positions. Notably, instead of normal Ijekavian reflexes of yat, like "mlijeko" and "sijeno", speakers in these regions would instead say "mliko" and sino". Aside from disyllabic -ije-, speakers in Mrkojevići region near Bar have multiple long yat reflexes. One reflex is -je-, which is a long yat  reflex typically found among Bosnian and Croatian Ijekavian speakers. Another is -e-, which is typically found among Ekavian speakers in Serbia and elsewhere. Secondary ijekavisms, also known as hyperijekavisms, are widespread in the dialectal region. Examples include "botijega" ("botega"), "kosijer" ("kosir"), "pancijer" ("pancer"), but also "drijevo" and "pokrijeva" ("pokriva"). Short yat reflex. Words with a short yat reflex become transformed as either -je-, -e- or -i-, depending on length and position. The transformation of the short yat reflex in a word to -je- creates an iotified vowel. This forces the consonant that comes into contact with the iotified vowel to  become either partially or completely palatalized. In the Zeta–Raška dialect, dental consonants such as d, s, t and z become completely palatalized into đ, ś, ć and ź, respectively, before an iotified vowel. In standard varieties of Serbo-Croatian (except Montenegrin), these dentals would merely be partially palatalized, i.e. dj, sj, tj and zj respectively. This iotation is present even in words that do not have a short yat reflex, namely "koźetina" ("kozjetina"), "iźelica" ("izjelica") and "kiśelo" ("kisjelo" - hyperijekavism). Iotation of -je- continues in labial consonants such as b, f, m, p and v where they undergo complete palatalization  before an iotified vowel. Due to the iotation of labial consonants, the short yat reflex may become transformed into either -je- or -lje- as is common in many vernaculars found in the dialectal region. Such examples include: "mjesec" / "mljesec" (tonal "mjȅsēc" / "mljȅsēc"), "pjesma" / "pljesma" (tonal "pjȅsma" / "pljȅsma") and "vjera" / "vljera" (tonal "vjȅra" / "vljȅra"). Short yat transforms into -e- before r, especially where the Proto-Slavic prefixes *pre- and *prě- are merged into pre-, a characteristic common in Ekavian but not in Ijekavian. Examples include: "prevoz" and "prelaz" (standard Ijekavian forms: "prijevoz" and "prijelaz"). Other examples that follow this trend are  gorelo, "ređe", "rešenje", "starešina", among others, but it is common to hear their Ijekavian counterparts ("gorjelo", "rjeđe", "rješenje", "starješina") throughout the dialectal region. Ekavian is more present in vernaculars closer to the Serbian border, namely Rožaje and Novi Pazar-Sjenica, where they are under the influence of literary Serbian, which is strictly Ekavian in Serbia. Moreover, Ekavian is also widespread in vernaculars in Crmnica and Mrkojevići near Bar. Short yat transforms into -i- before consonants j and lj, examples: biljeg, grijat and vijavica. Short yat also transforms into -i- before vowel o, usually seen in verbs where the masculine active  past participle in Proto-Slavic ends in *-ěl (later forming Proto-Western South Slavic *-ěo). Examples for this transformation include htio, vidio and želio, which is standard in Ijekavian reflexes. However, it is not uncommon to hear "htjeo" / "sćeo", "viđeo" (> "vidjeo") and "željeo" respectively. Another example is the adjective "cio", an unusual contraction of cijel. Its Ekavian counterpart is "ceo" (from "*cělъ") where the -l in coda position transformed into -o, and similarly in Ikavian "cio", where it is a contraction of "*cil". Here, "cio" is not an Ikavian borrowing, but rather both Ijekavian and Ikavian reflexes form "cio . Lack of phoneme /h/ ~ /x/. Certain areas of the Zeta–Raška dialectal region preserved the phoneme /h/ while others either dropped it completely or replaced it with other consonants. Areas where /h/ was preserved are Old Montenegro (specifically Riječka nahija, Lješanska nahija and parts of Katunska nahija (Bjelice, Ćeklići, Njeguši)) and Paštrovići, as well as by ethnic Bosniaks near Bihor, Novi Pazar and Sjenica. In areas where /h/ was dropped, such as Bar, Bjelopavlići, Kuči, Mrkojevići, Piperi and Zupci, speakers would replace /h/ with either /k/, /g/ (trbuge" > "trbuhe"), /j/ ("kijat(i)" > "kihat(i)", "Mijajlo" > "Mihailo") or /v/  ("muva" > "muha"). Ironically, some of these forms became part of standard Montenegrin and Serbian, notably "kijati" and "muva", while their original forms "kihati" and "muha" can be found in standard Bosnian and Croatian. Palatalization of /l/ into /lʲ/. The alveolar lateral approximant, or /l/, is softened (palatalized) to /lʲ/ in certain vernaculars found in the dialectal region. This characteristic is most present in Bjelopavlići (partially), Bratonožići, Crmnica, Kuči, Mrkojevići, Novi Pazar, Paštrovići Plav-Gusinje and Rijeka Crnojevića. Examples include: aprīl' /apri:lʲ/, dal'ȅko /d̪alʲêko̞/ and kol'a᷈č /ko̞lʲât͡ʃ/. This characteristic may be due to influence of Northern Albanian dialects present  along the border with Montenegro.