Employee voice
Employee voice refers to the participation of employees in influencing organisational decision-making. Because research and analysis have grown around the voice concept in a variety of disciplines, ‘employee voice’ has become an elastic term meaning somewhat different things to different policy, academic and practitioner actors. In the many disciplines that cover voice, such as human resource management, political science, economics, organisational behaviour, psychology or law, perspectives toward the concept differ. Drawing on Dundon et al. voice can be seen with different lenses. First, voice is an articulation of individual dissatisfaction or concern that aims to address a  specific problem or issue with management. Second, voice takes the form of collective organisation, where voice provides a countervailing source of power to management. Third, there is the role of voice as a contribution to management decision-making. Here the purpose is to gain employee input to improve work organisation and efficiency more generally, perhaps through quality circles or teamwork, or eliciting workforce engagement. Fourth, voice can be seen as an instrument for mutual gain, with productive collaboration between capital and labour increasing the long-term viability of an organisation and economic well-being of employees. The editors of the  Elgar Handbook of Employee Voice define employee voice as the ways and means through which employees attempt to have a say and potentially influence organisational affairs about issues that affect their work and the interests of managers and owners. This definition combines a variety of voice mechanisms that analysts often group in separate boxes (e.g. involvement or bargaining; union and non-union). It allows for employer implemented Non-union Employee Representative (NER) systems as a collective form of voice, be it chosen to marginalise a union presence or to provide an alternative to union influence. In general, employee voice is  about how employees are able to have a say over work activities and decisions within the organizations in which they work, regardless of the institutional channel through which it operates—whether through speak-up programmes, quality circles, teamwork, or collective negotiation. Arguments for employee voice can be both moral and political as well as economic. There are a wide range of mechanisms related to employee voice, and these may be direct or indirect, formal or informal, and power-centred or task-centred. As well as trade union representation, voice may refer to a wide array of techniques including Empowerment, Employee  Engagement and Teamworking initiatives. In reality, many employers adopt a blend of voice mechanisms. However, some employers may also wish to limit employee voice, believing instead that the best approach is for management to command and control the organisation. Equally, some employees may not want to have their voice heard, or may not want to express their thoughts. Informal and formal mechanisms. Employee voice is attained through both informal and formal mechanisms. Informal employee voice mechanisms include general conversation between employees and employers, email communication, employee feedback, social functions and meetings at the workplace. Employees can also influence corporate decision  making through their actions, such as turnover and absenteeism. Formal mechanisms include communication tools implemented by an organisation's human resource department, such as employee surveys and suggestion boxes. Some organisations promote employee voice through financial participation, such as share ownership and profit-sharing opportunities. Employee ownership trusts, employee consultative committees and representation through trade unions are also formal ways of ensuring employees are informed and are given a voice in decisions that affect their employment. Encouraging employee voice. Various factors influence the willingness of employees to voice a dissenting opinion. Besides individual characteristics and the nature of the work  performed, employees' voice decisions are also thought to be shaped by their expectations regarding whether their use of voice will be successful and whether they may be disciplined for it. Research from public administration shows that recruiting personnel on the basis of merit encourages employee voice. European Works Councils. In an international context, the role of employee voice varies immensely. The European model is fundamentally based on employee communication and consultation between employees and corporate management. European Works Councils were introduced through the European Directive 1994 to accommodate these goals and provided employees with an opportunity to gain access to  senior levels of their employers. The European model has required amendments to improve its effectiveness in managing employee voice and legal compliance.