KEY TO GOOD FIT: BODY MEASUREMENT PROB-
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ISSN 0378-5254 Journal of Family Ecology and Consumer Sciences, Vol 38, 2010
KEY TO GOOD FIT: BODY MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS SPECIFIC TO KEY DIMENSIONS
Mariette Strydom* and Helena M de Klerk
Die doel met hierdie navorsing (as deel van ‘n groter
studie) was om die probleme wat die Suid-Afrikaanse
Klerebedryf met die sleutel liggaamsmates vir die
vervaardiging van klere ondervind, te verken en
beskryf. Suid-Afrika kon nie in die laaste aantal jare
daarin slaag om die uitvoer van klereprodukte te
verhoog nie, maar het egter die uitdaging om uitvoere
te verhoog, aanvaar. Een manier om hierdie
uitdaging die hoof te bied, is om met goeie pas ‘n
meer mededingende kledingproduk vir die plaaslike
sowel as internasionale mark te verseker. Die
sleutelmates is die eerste stap in die proses om ‘n
goedpassende kledingstuk daar te stel. Om
konsekwentheid met groottes te verseker is dit
gestandaardiseerde manier deur alle vervaardigers
en kleinhandelaars gemeet word. Aangesien
sleutelmates ‘n integrale deel van die kledingstuk
vorm, sal die effektiewe kommunikasie van toepaslike
sleutelmates en klere-groottes aan die verbruiker die
keuse van korrekte grootte kledingstukke aansienlik
‘n Pos-opname is gedurende Julie tot November
2002 gedoen, deur vraelyste na Suid-Afrikaanse
klere- en skoenvervaardigers en kleinhandelaars te
stuur. Uit die terugvoer op die pos-opname is ‘n aantal respondente vir individuele onderhoude met behulp van doelbewuste steekproefneming gekies. ‘n
Gestruktureerde onderhoudskedule het verseker dat
akkurate beskrywings van liggaamsmates tydens die
onderhoude in Julie 2003 verkry is. Data wat tydens
die pos-opname ingesamel is, is deur middel van
frekwensie tabelle ontleed om ‘n lys van liggaamsmates, wat deur die respondente gebruik word, saam
te stel. Transkripsies van die onderhoude is deur
inhoudsanalise ontleed, en sodoende is sleutelmates
geïdentifiseer en gedefinieer. Hierdie sleutelmates is
daarna vergelyk met die sleutelmates wat in ‘n studie
deur Simmons en Istook (2003) geïdentifiseer is.
van die beskrywings van sleutelmates konsensus is
ten opsigte van hoe die sleutelmates geneem moet
word. Dit is van uiterste belang dat die beskrywings
van liggaamsmates absoluut korrek en herhaalbaar
is, sodat dit op die mees akkurate manier in produksie aktiwiteite toegepas kan word.
Samevattend en ter aanbeveling is dit duidelik dat die
klere-industrie die identifisering van landmerke,
asook spesifieke metodes vir die neem van die mates
op die liggaam, moet aanspreek. Landmerke is krities
wanneer liggaamsmates na die patroon oorgedra
word. Dit is tot voordeel van alle lande wat klere vervaardig om ooreen te stem ten opsigte van watter
landmerke gebruik moet word. Dit is ook noodsaaklik
dat rolspelers in die industrie in detail beskryf hoe
hierdie landmerke konsekwent geïdentifiseer kan
word en presies hoe die sleutel liggaamsmates
geneem behoort te word. Die pas van ‘n kledingstuk
is ‘n baie belangrike aanduiding van die kwaliteit
daarvan. Uitnemende kwaliteit is die enigste manier
om mededingend te bly in ‘n uiters kompeterende
bedryf, en deur akkurate sleutelmates wat uiteindelik
goeie pas verseker, kan die uitdaging om nasionaal
— Ms M Strydom *
Tel: +27 (0)12 420 4310
Fax: +27 (0)12 420 2855
— Prof HM de Klerk
Die resultate weerspieël dat, alhoewel internasionale
beskrywings vir 100% van die sleutelmates beskikbaar is, daar nogtans probleme met landmerke ondervind word, en dat daar min konsensus rakende die
metingsmetode en identifisering van landmerke is. ‘n
Studie deur Hwang en Istook (2001) het ook bevind
dat daar ‘n gebrek aan konsensus ten opsigte van
terminologie en beskrywings van liggaamsmates is.
Die onsekerheid in die industrie ten opsigte van waar
en hoe die sleutelmates geneem moet word, is te
verstane as in ag geneem word dat Suid-Afrikaanse
kleinhandelaars en vervaardigers van standaard internasionale beskrywings afhanklik is. Hierdie onsekerheid word weerspieël deurdat daar vir slegs 41,2%
The goal of providing custom-fitted quality apparel to
“every body” has not been achieved even into the 21st
century (Bye et al, 2006). The garment production and
retail industries have struggled with the challenge of
providing well-fitting garments for the variety of the
population since the industrial revolution and the first
introduction of mass-produced clothing (Ashdown,
2007:xvii; Bye et al, 2006; Knight, 1994:1). Because
people vary along many dimensions, a multitude of
sizes, proportions and postures need to be accommodated (Ashdown, 2007:xvii). As is the case in many
developed and developing countries, one of the challenges that the South African apparel industry still
faces, is that of providing well-fitting garments for the
variety of human shapes and sizes. According to
Shim and Istook (2007), LePechoux and Ghosh
(2002) and Roberts (1972:12,13), different ethnic
groups have different body proportions and shapes,
and therefore apparel fit problems are likely to be aggravated by the diversity of figure shapes (Ashdown &
Dunne, 2006; Bougourd, 2007:124 ; Zwane & Magagula, 2007), as can be found among the different
ethnic groups in South Africa. The black affluent
group of middle class South Africans has grown in
numbers from 2-million in 2005 to 3-million in 2010
and their collective spending power has risen from
R103-billion to R237-billion in 2010 (Da Silva, 2010;
CNBC Business, 2010; Simpson & Dore, 2007:4).
According to Simpson and Dore (2007:7) an increase
in income leads to a shift in social class which could
indicate a shift in consumption patterns and lifestyle
changes, and this is evident in the black middle class’
emphasis on luxury and branded goods, especially
clothing (Odhiambo, 2008; CNBC Business, 2010).
It is common knowledge that in some cultures, mainly
in Africa, the bottom-heavy body shape typifies a substantial percentage of black African women (Zwane &
Magagula, 2007). In an effort to create loyal customers, retailers pride themselves on a unique fit through
private labels, which represent the body image and
profile of their target market (Bye & LaBat, 2005;
Myers-McDervitt, 2009:5). Retailers and manufacturers expect the human body to match the clothing
standard for their target market, based on the ideal or
hourglass figure (Bye et al, 2006). Therefore, dissatisfaction with fit is still one of the major complaints expressed by female apparel consumers (Loker et al,
2005), and according to Petrova (2007:59) this leads
to loss of customers because fit is an important criterium in a consumer’s evaluation of an apparel product
(Bye & LaBat, 2005; Newcomb & Istook, 2004; Shim
& Istook, 2007). Understanding how body shapes
differ from the ideal figure is crucial, because to
achieve customer loyalty good fit is imperative. Providing more consumers with better fit will benefit the
retailer, the manufacturer, as well as the consumer
(Zwane, et al, 2010).
The development of three-dimensional body scanners
has opened up new possibilities for the measurement
and analysis of the human body (Ashdown, 2002;
Connell et al, 2006; Zwane et al, 2010). Unfortunately
three-dimensional body scanners are, especially in
developing countries, not always available for use in
the apparel industry. In general, measurements are
therefore taken in the traditional tailor’s manner with
normal tape measures. In order to ensure well-fitting
garments and good fit in general, it is, however, of the
utmost importance that manufacturers and retailers
should have a sound knowledge on exactly how and
where on the body the various measurements should
be taken, and use the equipment that will enable them
to consistently take accurate measurements. According to Bye et al (2006) developing accurate and reliable methods of measuring the body, is one part of
solving the fit puzzle. Unfortunately, very little is
known about how apparel industries ensure good fit,
especially with regard to the taking of key body measurements. The purpose of this research (as part of a
broader research project) was therefore to explore
and describe the problems that the South African
Clothing Industry currently experiences with regard to
the key body measurements needed for the manufacturing of well-fitting clothes.
The basis for designing well-fitting garments for a
local or international target market is reliable anthropometric data. Scientific garment cutting is based on
measurements of the human form, and therefore the
correct set of key dimensions related to the specific
product is vitally important. Key dimensions are measurements that serve as predictors of the sizes of other
parts of the body (Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1996). A key
dimension is a body dimension that has a strong relationship with most other body dimensions that are
important in the design of the garment. According to
Winks (1990:22), the correlations among relevant
body measurements are critical in the manufacturing
of body-fitting garments. Key dimensions are fundamental to the definition of body size and are used to
assign an appropriately sized garment for a wearer
(Winks, 1997:24; Apeagyei & Otieno, 2007). It is
therefore critical for fit that a producer is exactly sure
how and where these key dimensions should be
measured on the human body. For consistency in
sizing, it is also important that the key dimensions be
measured in a standardised way by all manufacturers
and retailers. Various aspects can determine which
key dimensions are required to manufacture certain
garments, for example, who the garment is made for
and which part of the body is to be covered. Tamburrino (1992) explains, for example, that a tailored
jacket may require at least six dimensions for construction, namely chest or bust girth, waist girth, seat
girth, jacket length, sleeve length and waist length,
while a men’s dress shirt requires three dimensions –
neck girth, shoulder girth and sleeve length. These
key measurements are the first steps towards drafting
a correct pattern (Joseph-Armstrong, 2010:38). Fit is
determined by pattern making (Hudson, 1980), and
pattern making starts with the key body measurements (Joseph-Armstrong, 2010:38). The way in
which the human body is measured is critical to the
development of an apparel pattern, as key body
measurements that have been measured incorrectly,
can lead to inaccurate patterns and ill-fitting garments
(Bye et al, 2006).
Key dimensions are used as the basis for creating
sizing systems, drafting garment patterns, grading
patterns, choosing fit models for fit testing and for
communicating size designation of garments to the
consumer. Key dimensions are therefore fundamental
to the definition of body size and are used to assign
an appropriately sized garment to a wearer (Winks,
1997:24; Apeagyei & Otieno, 2007). It is therefore
critical for fit that one is exactly sure how and where
these key dimensions should be measured on the
human body. For consistency in sizing it is also important that the key dimensions be measured in a standardised way by all manufacturers and retailers (Bye
A sizing system generates the size charts, which
provide the measurements necessary for garment
production (Kunick, 1984:9). Chun-Yoon and Jasper
(1993) and Ashdown and Dunne (2006) identified the
problems with fit as being the result of sizing systems
that are based on outdated anthropometric data, and
sizing systems’ lack of appropriate sizes to
accommodate the full range of variation in body types
occurring in the current population. Very few sizing
proportions related to age, ethnicity or body weight
(Giddings & Boles, 1990; Goldsberry et al, 1996;
Ashdown & Dunne, 2006) because it is the function of
a sizing system to establish limits regarding the
variability in sizes . To perform this function a sizing
system prescribes the set of key dimensions relevant
to each specific size. However, an adapted version of
the British sizing system is used in South Africa and
thus the block patterns and garments are not made
from body measurments of the South African
population, explaining the problem of ill-fitting and
unsatisfactory clothing (Zwane & Magagula, 2007).
But if new sizing systems are to be developed, not
only should the body measurements be reviewed but
also the definitions of the body measurements,
including key dimensions (Honey and Olds, 2007).
The key dimensions prescribed by the sizing system
are firstly used in the drafting of the block patterns for
the specific garment size. If the pattern maker starts
off with inaccurate body measurements, no matter
how accurate all the other aspects of the production of
a garment up to labelling and fit and wear testing are
executed, it will be almost impossible to create a good
fit. According to Myers-McDevitt (2009:241) a perfectfitting garment begins with accurate measurements.
Hudson (1980) confirms that fit is determined by
pattern making. During pattern making, key body
measurements are used together with specific
amounts for ease of movement and design ease
(Zwane et al, 2010), to create a specific silhouette or
style of garment. Therefore, for a garment to meet the
needs and desires of the consumer, the key
dimensions together with the correct amounts of ease
must be translated into garment measurements,
appropriate for the garment design and fabric
variables (Bye et al, 2006). It is therefore not possible
to create suitable garment measurements without an
applicable set of body measurements as a starting
Secondly, key dimensions are important for fit tests.
Before a pattern goes into production, a sample garment is made and then evaluated in terms of fit, to
ensure that it meets the requirements of the company.
Le Pechoux and Ghosh (2002), Yu (2004:33-35), Bye
and LaBat (2005) and Joseph-Armstrong (2010:2324) state that a live model or a dress form (dummy)
can be used to verify whether a garment fits the
measurement specifications. The choice of a live
model and/or an appropriate dummy is based on the
key dimensions prescribed by the sizing system for
the sample size of the garment (Le Pechoux & Ghosh,
2002). Fit testing is critical to reveal problems with the
fit or the functionality of a garment, and can result in a
better product. Improving garment fit before mass
production is undertaken, is necessary to ensure garment quality and consumer satisfaction, and to avoid
unnecessary expenses due to the production of unsuitable garments. Fit testing and wear testing are the
means to improve garment fit before mass production,
provided that the key dimensions used for garment
design and for choosing the fit model are accurate.
The size label is a way to communicate sizing information to the consumer. The size label should assist
the consumer in selecting the appropriate size garment. The size code used on the label can however
be a code or number that does not refer to body or
garment measurements at all (Chun, 2007:220). A
labelling system should enable consumers to find their
correct garment sizes easily without trying on too
many garments. Consumers do indeed use size labels to find the garment size before they actually try
on a garment (Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1993). Brown (in
Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1993) as well as Honey and
Olds (2007), indicate that retailers and manufacturers
use the size label as a marketing tool. The result of
this is clothing from separate companies differing so
much that garments indicating the same size on the
label, do not nearly have the same dimensions. Sizing
systems are also often created and adjusted by trial
and error, resulting in changes to dimensions without
changing the size designation (Chun, 2007:222). This
miscommunication between clothing industry and the
consumer leaves the customer confused and dissatisfied with his or her clothing shopping experience, but
may also induce negative feelings towards one’s own
body (LaBat & DeLong, 1990). Clear size labelling,
which provides the key dimensions that a specific size
is supposed to fit, will reduce manufacturers’ and retailers’ costs on account of frequent returns and damage to garments caused by customers frequently trying them on (Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1993). It will also
simplify garment selection for the consumer. Effective
communication of the relevant key dimensions, together with size codes, is therefore essential for the
consumer and for the clothing industry.
The interaction and interdependence between key
dimensions and sizing systems, block patterns,
grading, fit testing and size communication are
TABLE 1: BREAKDOWN OF THE SAMPLE
Lasts / Fit dummy manufacturers
abundantly clear. It is therefore important that the key
dimensions be current, accurate, well-defined and
representative of the population for which the sizing
system is being developed. If population measurements, and consequently the key dimensions, are
outdated and inaccurate for a specific population, the
best sizing system will not be able to ensure wellfitting garments for that population. Since little is
known about how apparel industries function with
regard to the taking of key body measurements, or the
problems that they experience with regard to these
measurements, the specific research aims of this
• to compare international descriptions of identified
key dimensions with the South African respondents’
descriptions of the identified key dimensions; and
• to describe the problems that the South African apparel industry is experiencing with key dimensions.
To address the research problem new or primary data
was collected and existing or secondary data was
analysed. A quantitative research paradigm was necessary for this study, and quantitative data collection
techniques were used to adequately address the research problem and objectives. A postal survey was
conducted among South African apparel and footwear
manufacturers and retailers, from which a number of
respondents were selected for follow-up individual
interviews. In this manner, key dimensions were identified and defined.
South African apparel and footwear manufacturers
and retailers were the target population for this study.
The Clothing Federation of South Africa Handbook
(2000/1) and Shoes and Views Directory (2001) were
used to define the sampling frame. The major retail
chains were included in the target population. According to Frings (1999:362), chain stores are a group of
stores that sell essentially the same merchandise and
are centrally owned, operated and merchandised. It is
assumed that the major retailers lead the way as far
as sizing systems used are concerned, and therefore
have more experience and knowledge with regard to
body measurements and key dimensions. Dunne
(2000) supports the view that smaller retailers follow
the lead of the major retailers, and therefore, only
national retailers of both clothing and footwear products were included. Manufacturers for the footwear
industry, and figure form manufacturers for the cloth-
ing industry, are also important users of body measurements and formed part of the target population for
Based on the fact that the response rate for postal
surveys is often poor (Neuman, 2000:266), it was
decided to include the entire target population of 472
manufacturers and retailers in the survey. One hundred and sixty three respondents were rejected because of factories that had closed down, respondents
that were not manufacturers but only distributors or
importers, and respondents that were untraceable.
The new total of 309 manufacturers and retailers were
thus used as the final total of questionnaires in the
study. A purposive or judgemental sample was taken
from the 54 manufacturers and retailers that responded to the postal survey. The 12 companies selected to be interviewed were selected by keeping the
purposes of the study in mind, and based on the parameters listed below. A breakdown of respondents
included in the sample is illustrated in table 1. This
sampling technique ensured a representative sample
for the interviews. The interview sample was selected
• manufacturers and retailers covering the whole
spectrum of garment categories;
• manufacturers and retailers catering for specific figure requirements;
• manufacturers and retailers that indicated problems
with specific measurements;
• involvement in the development of sizing systems;
The closed-question questionnaire seemed appropriate for the postal survey, because the objective was
to identify all the body measurements that are used by
the clothing industry. Time is critical in the clothing
and footwear industries, and closed questions are
easier and quicker for respondents to answer
Because the survey was followed by an interview, the
researcher kept a complete and accurate record of
questionnaires posted and returned. The survey was
not anonymous but confidentiality was guaranteed.
Some strategies to achieve a better response rate
included phone calls to follow up non-responses, and
sending a second questionnaire by e-mail or by post.
The response rate was poor (17,5%); however, it was
better than the 10% response rate generally expected
from a postal survey.
The questionnaire was developed by identifying
measurements as contained in local and international
documentation, such as published by the International
Standards Organisation (ISO), the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and documents of
the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) (refer
to Strydom, 2006:38-39 for the full list). Body
dimensions that were included in the Nedscan (2001)
(Dutch part of the CEASAR project) and SizeUK
(2000) anthropometric surveys, were also considered
for inclusion in the questionnaire. The questionnaire
was reviewed by an expert in the clothing industry,
and following his recommendation, figures indicating
the positions of the body dimensions were included to
enhance the clarity of the questionnaire. The questionnaire is available in Strydom (2006:276-324).
Individual interviews, using a structured interview
schedule, seemed the appropriate technique to gather
accurate definitions of the identified measurements.
This ensured that the objectives of the study were
covered during the interview. Four production managers, one quality assurance manager, five fit technologists and two designers/pattern makers from the apparel industry were interviewed (total 12). This contributed to the reliability of the data.
Years of experience in the industry, rather than theoretical knowledge of the definitions of the measurements, often contributed to respondents’ finding it
difficult to describe or explain how and where measurements are taken. The interview technique enabled
the researcher to observe how and where a specific
measurement is taken, because it provided the respondent the opportunity to demonstrate how measurements were actually taken, rather than to provide
mere descriptions. Audiotapes were kept and notes
were taken where possible during the interview, in
order to preserve the original data and to confirm the
The data obtained from the postal survey made it possible to compile a list of all the key body measurements used by the survey’s respondents. Frequency
tables seemed sufficient for this stage of the research
and gave a complete overview of collected data. It
also assisted in the identification of respondents who
have been in business for a longer period of time, and
who are involved in the development of sizing systems and provide for special figure requirements.
These aspects were important considerations in the
sampling for the interviews.
Content analysis was applied to analyse the transcriptions of the interviews, together with notes taken during the interviews and documents received from some
of the respondents, for example measurement charts
and illustrations. A quantitative analysis was then
done on a spreadsheet, to identify and define key
dimensions and the problems experienced with them.
The key dimensions used by the respondents were
also compared to the key dimensions identified from
pattern-making textbooks and patternmakers, in a
study by Simmons and Istook (2003).
Key dimensions are the suggested body measurements that can be used to describe the size of a garment (Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1993). The ISO suggests
that key dimensions be indicated on the size labels,
but this is not the case in South Africa. The respondents were asked to name the critical measurements
for pattern making and thus for ensuring a good fit.
The measurements identified as key dimensions were
compared to the 16 critical measurements identified in
a study by Simmons and Istook (2003), and then the
KEY DIMENSIONS IDENTIFIED (N=12)
Key dimensions identified in the study by Simmons & Istook
Key dimensions identified by respondents
Mid-neck / neck base
Waist by natural indentation / waist by navel
Sleeve length / arm length
Over-arm / sleeve length
10. Across chest
Across front width
11. Back of neck to waist
Back waist length (cervical to waist)
Body rise / Crotch depth
13. Crotch length
Total crotch length
14. Thigh circumference or girth
15. Biceps circumference or girth
16. Wrist circumference or girth
descriptions of the key dimensions were compared as
• whether an international description was available;
• whether there was consensus among the international descriptions, or only one international description;
• whether there was consensus among the respondents’ descriptions, only one description, or no description from respondents;
• whether there was consensus between the international and the respondents’ descriptions;
• whether problems were related to no consensus
about measuring straight or on the contour;
• whether problems were related to landmarking;
• whether problems were related to landmarking as
well as to no consensus.
Sixteen measurements that were considered critical in
the design of the initial blocks or slopers, needed for
well-fitting garments, were identified in a study by
Simmons and Istook (2003). Simmons and Istook
(2003) consulted pattern-making experts and textbooks to determine these 16 critical measurements. In
Table 2 the 16 critical measurements are listed and
compared to the measurements that the respondents
in this study identified as key dimensions. For the
purposes of this article only measurements relevant to
garments were included, and not key dimensions for
headwear or footwear.
Key dimensions should form an integral part of the
garment (McConville in Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1996).
The critical measurements identified by Simmons and
Istook (2003) that would be applicable to trousers,
included waist by natural indentation/waist by navel
circumference, hips/seat circumference, in-seam, outseam, rise, crotch length and thigh circumference.
The key dimensions stated by the respondents from
this study correspond with the critical measurements
identified in the study by Simmons and Istook (2003).
It is important to note that the respondents referred to
the circumference at the natural waist and not at the
level of the navel, which is suggested as an alternative measurement by Simmons and Istook (2003). It is
alarming that rise was identified as a key dimension
by one respondent only. Rise is very important in order to distribute the crotch length and subsequently
determine the curve of the crotch seam. The correct
shape of the crotch seam is critical for the fit of trousers, and it is therefore surprising that the rise measurement was not regarded as a key dimension by
With regard to skirts, waist and hip girth are the only
key measurements among the 16 critical measurements identified by Simmons and Istook (2003) that
are necessary for drafting a skirt pattern. In addition to
waist and hip measurements, the South African respondents identified garment front length and garment
back length as key dimensions for skirts. Hip circumference, waist circumference and garment length
(outer leg length for trousers) are the most used
measurements for skirts and trousers, as suggested
by Chun-Yoon and Jasper (1993), and this is con-
firmed by the results of this study.
The critical measurements from the study by Simmons and Istook (2003) that would be applicable to
upper body garments included mid-neck/neck base
circumference, chest/bust circumference, waist by
natural indentation/waist by navel circumference, hips/
seat circumference, sleeve length/arm length, shoulder length, across-back, across-chest, back of neck to
waist, biceps circumference, and wrist circumference.
These measurements were also identified as key dimensions by the respondents from this study, except
for shoulder length, which refers to the distance from
side neck to the shoulder joint (Simmons & Istook,
2003). A study by Chun-Yoon and Jasper (1996), as
well as Joseph-Armstrong (2010:35, 40), identify
shoulder length as a key dimension for ladies’ upper
body garments. The respondents noted that shoulder
to shoulder is a key dimension; however, in the
above-mentioned two studies, this measurement was
not listed. Shoulder to shoulder could be critical for
men’s wear to aid in determining the corresponding
garment measurement. This would be applicable to
men’s shirts and t-shirts that are not really closefitting. For ladies, the appearance of the garment at
the shoulder can determine the success of the garment, particularly in tailored jackets. If the shoulder
seams do not fit properly the garment can appear to
be too small or too large, regardless of whether the
bust dimension is correct. Therefore the shoulder
length, from side neck to shoulder, should be a critical
measurement. In addition, the respondents identified
centre back garment length as a key dimension. Although only one respondent identified nape to waist
as a key dimension, the centre back garment length
would incorporate the nape to waist dimension. Garment length was also listed as a key dimension for
ladies’ upper body garments by Chun-Yoon and Jasper (1993).
The use of key dimensions on a national level compares well with key dimensions used internationally.
What was surprising was that nape to waist, which is
a critical measurement for upper body garments,
namely to position the waistline correctly, and rise
height, which is critical for the fit of trousers, were
both identified by only one respondent. Shoulder
length, also critical for the fit of upper body garments,
was not identified as a key dimension by any of the
respondents. The reason for this could be that the
respondents question the accuracy of measurements
concerning side neck point as a landmark, because of
the difficulty to consistently identify the exact position
Table 3 reflects the results from the comparison of the
descriptions of the key dimensions as identified by
Simmons and Istook (2003), as well as those identified by the respondents (although the broader research project included all measurements that the
South African Clothing Industry identified for apparel
manufacturing). These 16 key dimensions are reflected as 17 key dimensions in Table 3 because bust
(for ladies wear) and chest (for menswear), and
sleeve length (menswear) and arm length (ladies
COMPARISON OF DESCRIPTIONS OF KEY DIMENSIONS
Arm length bent
*Back waist length
Biceps girth (straight)
Totals – Yes
Totals – No
wear) are counted as one dimension in the study by
Simmons and Istook (2003), but as two separate dimensions for the purpose of this study. In addition, the
South African respondents did not identify shoulder
length as a key dimension. Table 3 also reflects the
existence of international consensus, national consensus, as well as international-national consensus with
regard to how the key dimensions should be taken. In
cases where only one description or no description
was available, it was classified as no conclusion possible. The percentage of cases where problems with
regard to the taking of the key dimensions were reported, and whether these problems were related to
the measurements being taken on the contours of the
body or in a straight line next to the body, whether
problems were related to landmarking, or whether to
landmarking together with a lack of consensus on the
measurement definition, are also indicated in the table.
International descriptions are available for all (100%)
of the key dimensions, and there is consensus among
the international descriptions for 70,6% of the key
dimensions. For 29,4% (23,5% + 5.9%) of the key
measurements there either is no international consensus or no conclusion was possible regarding consensus because only one description was available. For
more than half (58,8%) of the key dimensions, the
respondents did not agree on the description of how
and/or where the measurement should be taken.
These are also the same key dimensions where the
respondents disagreed with the international descriptions. This could be an indication that the international
descriptions may be vague with regard to landmarking
and measuring method, which leads to confusion and
a different interpretation of the description by the respondents. Because of the importance of the key dimensions, this finding is real cause for concern and
needs serious attention from the industry, since these
measurements are critical for providing a good fit in
garments. This has definite implications for the taking
of consistent and accurate measurements, which further impacts on the drafting of well-fitting patterns.
From Table 3 it is clear that the respondents experienced problems with 52,9% of the key dimensions.
This can only predict problems with the sizing and fit
of clothing items. The industry realises the problem by
admitting to having problems with the key dimensions.
It implies that the respondents from the industry
probably value and are interested in having accurate
body measurements, which highlights the need for a
body measurement survey of the South African population. The problems with the key dimensions are related to landmarking per se (82,4%), as well as to
landmarking and lack of consensus as to where the
measurement should be taken (58,8%). This has important implications for taking accurate body measurements and drafting well-fitting patterns, especially
because the key dimensions form the foundation of
the basic patterns. Once again, the importance of
having detailed descriptions on the identification of
landmarks and measuring techniques is highlighted.
Since the key dimensions are so important for the
proper fit and correct sizing of garments, the situation
regarding the descriptions of key dimensions needs
serious attention from the clothing industry.
The results indicate that the highest percentage of
problem measurements was experienced with the
taking of width and depth measurements. To be able
to take the width and depth measurements consistently and accurately, special equipment is needed –
which the respondents did not have. This lack of
equipment could possibly be the reason for the large
number of problems experienced with the width and
depth measurements. For the sake of consistency
and accuracy of measurements, one would also expect a higher rate of consensus among respondents’
descriptions of measurements, and between the international and the respondents’ descriptions.
The interviews revealed that the problems that the
respondents experienced with regard to all measurements, and/or the fact that there was no consensus
between the respondents’ and the international descriptions, were due to one or more of the following
• It was a difficult measurement to take (as in the case
of crotch length, for instance);
• The international description was not clear with regard to the landmarking – exactly where and how
the landmark should be determined (as in the case
of armscye depth, for instance);
• Uncertainty with regard to whether the measurement
should be taken on the contour of the body or in a
straight line (as in the case of cervical height, for
• The unavailability of the necessary anthropometric
tools (as in the case of neck width, for instance).
The above results confirm Hwang and Istook’s (2001)
study, which found that a lack of consensus exists
regarding terminology, and that traditional body measurement methods for apparel have mostly been based
on “feel” by hand. Therefore, a definite need seems to
exist for as much information as possible on the body
measurements of South African consumers. It is also
of vital importance to potential industry users that
measurement definitions be absolute and repeatable,
so that they can be used most accurately for customisation and production. This is in accordance with the
view held by Simmons & Istook (2003).
It was also clear from the interviews that much effort
goes into fit testing, and live models as well as
dummies are used. The respondents also put effort
into developing the perfect dummy. It is commendable
to use both methods for fit testing because the
dummy is the control for the garment specifications.
Fit testing is done before mass-production starts,
which is a good practice, since any fit problems can
be corrected before the garment reaches the
consumer (Smit, 1997; Le Pechoux & Ghosh, 2002). It
also prevents wastage due to garments being
manufactured to the wrong size specifications. Choice
of a live model and/or an appropriate dummy is,
however, based on key dimensions prescribed by the
sizing system for the sample size of the garment. Fit
testing and wear testing are therefore only the means
to improve garment fit before mass production,
design and for choosing the fit model, were correct.
The overall conclusion that can be drawn with regard
to key dimensions is that, although international descriptions are available for 100% of the key measurements, major problems seem to be experienced with
landmarking, and with consensus about the measuring method as well as the landmarking. Landmarks
are crucially relevant when transferring measurements to a pattern and play a defining role in the accuracy of pattern drafting. The goal of measuring
methods is to provide a description of the body that
will aid in the development of a garment that fits an
intended body (Bye, et al, 2006). In order to translate
a body measurement to a garment pattern, there is a
need to identify consistent body landmarks that directly relate the body to the pattern (Bye, et al, 2006;
Connell, et al, 2006; Joseph-Armstrong, 2010: 30).
If one assumes that South African retailers and manufacturers probably rely on standardised international
descriptions, one can understand the confusion in the
industry as to where and how the key dimensions
should be taken. This is reflected in only 41,2% of
cases with consensus among respondents as to how
the measurements should be taken, as well as consensus between respondents’ descriptions and international descriptions for, again, less than half of the
measurements (41,2%). One would expect, and in
fact require, a much higher rate of consensus in order
to ensure consistency and accuracy of measurements. Since these are the key dimensions, it will
require serious attention from the industry. The key
dimensions have serious implications for the sizing as
well as the fit of garments. They determine the size
and measurements of the final garments because
they are used for the drafting and grading of patterns.
The sample garment is fit-tested on a dress form and/
or a live model whose measurements are based on
the key dimensions. In some cases the key dimensions are also indicated on the label together with the
size designation to assist the consumer in finding the
correct garment size. Key dimensions play a vital role
in the complete garment production process, and the
problems experienced can therefore not be ignored.
Since landmarking seems to be the biggest contributor to the problems experienced with key dimensions
(82,4%), it is critical for accuracy and comparability
that the data be collected using consistent measuring
methods and landmark identification, which would
most probably only be possible when 3-D body scanners are used. Landmark identification can be more
difficult with some figures than others, for instance,
landmarking the waist may be easier with a hourglass
figure than a rectangular figure (Connell et al, 2006).
The 3-D body scanner identifies landmarks automati-
cally and consistently, and such a survey could assist
the industry in reaching consensus with regard to
landmarking and the exact measuring positions on the
Because of the fact that the labour intensity of apparel
production can generate a substantial number of jobs,
apparel manufacturing is still well suited to those nations seeking economic development. However, in
order to survive in a highly competitive market, manufacturers and retailers have to focus on both price and
non-price factors, such as quality, innovation and adherence to standards. As a result of more competition
in the apparel manufacturing and retail sectors, and to
be competitive with Eastern markets, it is therefore
important for retailers and manufacturers to improve
fit, because fit is an important indicator of quality –
and better quality is the only way (especially in vulnerable and the so-called loser countries) to face the
challenge to stay nationally and internationally competitive.
The importance of accurate and current body measurements can therefore no longer be ignored by apparel manufacturers and retailers. It is necessary that
the South African industry addresses the problem of
consensus with regard to landmarking and measuring
methods. Even if the problem is not addressed on an
international level, it is to the advantage of every apparel manufacturing country that they reach consensus on which landmarks are to be used, describe in
detail how these landmarks can consistently be identified, and agree on the method for taking body measurements on the human body.
According to Joseph-Armstrong (2010:23), there will
never be a universally acceptable standard because
of the variety of anatomical figure types. A standardised body scanning protocol should be developed for
worldwide use (Honey & Olds, 2007), because increasing world trade has created a need for a central
database that contains regional measurements for
non-Western trading partners (Joseph-Armstrong,
2010:23). Revision of the definitions of the body
measurements will assist in a more accurate and efficient updating of such a central database.
The Textile and apparel industry represents one of the
two most dynamic sectors in global exports, with
global apparel exports increasing by 138% during the
last 14 years. With continuing increases in world
population and global incomes, this industry is expected to grow by 5,3% over the next decade (MultiFibre Arrangement Forum, 2008). This promises a
potential market share for all efficient producers, including smaller and developing countries. Following
the establishment of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement, it
has been noticed that, although China’s share of the
cake got larger, the cake itself is now larger. Although
there have been winners, there have unfortunately
also been losers, with only nine of the 22 identified
potentially vulnerable countries having succeeded in
increasing their exports (Multi-Fibre Arrangement Forum, 2008). Two African countries, namely South Africa and Lesotho, are among those developing coun-
tries (also included are South Korea, Mexico, Thailand
and Romania) that have not succeeded in increasing
their exports. The global apparel market therefore still
remains a challenging environment for developing
countries for pursuing responsible competitiveness.
As is most probably the case in many of these socalled loser countries, South Africa has decided to
face the challenge of increasing its apparel export.
Trade and Investment South Africa, a division of the
Department of Trade and Industry, has decided to
focus on promoting eight sectors of the South African
economy that have shown the greatest growth potential and marketability, amongst which the Textile,
Clothing and Leather and Footwear sector. Several
leading international companies now have manufacturing facilities in South Africa, or have substantial
procurement contracts with South African producers
(South African Department of Trade and Industry;
Textile, Clothing and Footwear Sector, 2009), while
three major trade agreements are in effect, namely
the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act, the South Africa/European Union (EU) Trade Development Agreement, and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Free Trade Agreement. In addition,
the Customised Sector Programme (CSP) was finalised in 2006 and is intended to develop and modernise the Clothing and Textile Industry for higher competitiveness. The industry therefore now has the opportunity to upgrade every level of its operations to
become viable, to build strong relationships with the
powerful retail sector, which also operates in many
other African countries, and to increase its export
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