Ethnic groups in Latin America
The inhabitants of Latin America are from a variety of ancestries, ethnic groups and races, making the region one of the most diverse in the world. The specific composition of the group varies from country to country. Many have a predominance of European-Amerindian or Mestizo population; in others, Amerindians are a majority; some are dominated by inhabitants of European ancestry; and some countries' populations have large African or Mulatto populations. Overview. According to Jon Aske: Aske has also written that: In his famous 1963 book "The Rise of the West", William Hardy McNeill wrote  that: Thomas C. Wright, meanwhile, has written that: Ethnic groups. According to Lizcano. The following table contains information based on a 2014 non-genetic work entitled "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" ("Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the 21st Century") by National Autonomous University of Mexico professor Francisco Lizcano Fernández. Fernández compiled his estimation of groups based on criteria of cultural patterns, not on genotypes nor even phenotype. In these estimations, therefore, "whites" encompasses all those whose practiced culture is predominantly  Iberian-derived, while "mestizos" encompasses those whose practiced culture noticeably mixes Iberian and Amerindian cultural traditions, and "Amerindians" only those whose practiced culture is predominantly indigenous. The resulting effect of employing these criteria, therefore, skews the figure of said groups if they had been based on genetic factors, or even based on phenotypic factors. Thus, for instance, the estimate of "whites" given for Chile would include mostly genetic mestizos, while the estimate of "mestizos" in Mexico would include not only a significant proportion of genetic Amerindians, but also many genetic whites, and so on for other countries. According to Latinobarometro . The following table shows how Latin Americans answer the question "What race do you consider yourself belonging to?" in the Latinobarometro survey. According to other sources. This is a list of ethnic groups based on national or other sources. Genetic studies. Skin pigmentation. In Latin America, human skin color and ancestry are often conflated, with lighter skin commonly assumed as indicative of higher levels of European ancestry. A 20th century study on Mexican Americans used skin reflectance data (a method of measuring the lightness or darkness of skin) as an estimation of European ancestry. However, genetic evidence published in 2019  has challenged this presumption. A genome-wide association study of 6000 Latin Americans from Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, Chile and Peru found that the strongest correlation for light skin color in these populations was actually an amino acid variant of the MFSD12 gene; which is absent in Europeans, but very common in East Asians and Native Americans. The old presumption that lighter skin in Latin Americans is an indicator of European ancestry was unjustified. Argentina. Genetically, the composition of Argentina is mostly European in ancestry, with both Native American and African contributions. A 2009 autosomal DNA study found that of the  total Argentine population, 78.5 percent of the national genepool was European, 17.3 percent Native American, and 4.2 percent African. An unweighted autosomal study of blood donors from 2012 found the following composition among samples in four regions of Argentina: 65% European, 31% Native American and 4% African. The study's conclusion was not to achieve a generalized autosomal average of the country, but rather the existence of genetic heterogeneity among differing sample regions. Brazil. Genetic studies have shown the Brazilian population as a whole to have European, African and Native American components. An autosomal study from 2013, with nearly 1300  samples from all of the Brazilian regions, found a predominant degree of European ancestry combined with African and Native American contributions, in varying degrees. 'Following an increasing North to South gradient, European ancestry was the most prevalent in all urban populations (with values up to 74%). The populations in the North consisted of a significant proportion of Native American ancestry that was about two times higher than the African contribution. Conversely, in the Northeast, Center-West and Southeast, African ancestry was the second most prevalent. At an intrapopulation level, all urban populations were highly admixed, and most of the variation  in ancestry proportions was observed between individuals within each population rather than among population'. An autosomal DNA study (2011), with nearly 1000 samples from all over the country ("whites", "pardos" and "blacks", according to their respective proportions), found a major European contribution, followed by a high African contribution and an important Native American component. "In all regions studied, the European ancestry was predominant, with proportions ranging from 60.6% in the Northeast to 77.7% in the South". The 2011 autosomal study samples came from blood donors (the lowest classes constitute the great majority of blood donors in Brazil), and also public  health institutions' personnel and health students. The study showed that Brazilians from different regions are more homogenous than previously thought by some based on the census alone. "Brazilian homogeneity is, therefore, a lot greater between Brazilian regions than within Brazilian regions". According to a DNA study from 2010, "a new portrayal of each ethnicity contribution to the DNA of Brazilians, obtained with samples from the five regions of the country, has indicated that, on average, European ancestors are responsible for nearly 80% of the genetic heritage of the population. The variation between the regions is small, with the possible exception  of the South, where the European contribution reaches nearly 90%. The results, published by the scientific magazine "American Journal of Human Biology" by a team of the Catholic University of Brasília, show that in Brazil, physical indicators such as skin colour, colour of the eyes and colour of the hair have little to do with the genetic ancestry of each person, which has been shown in previous studies (regardless of census classification). "Ancestry informative SNPs can be useful to estimate individual and population biogeographical ancestry. Brazilian population is characterized by a genetic background of three parental populations (European, African, and  Brazilian Native Amerindians) with a wide degree and diverse patterns of admixture. In this work we analyzed the information content of 28 ancestry-informative SNPs into multiplexed panels using three parental population sources (African, Amerindian, and European) to infer the genetic admixture in an urban sample of the five Brazilian geopolitical regions. The SNPs assigned apart the parental populations from each other and thus can be applied for ancestry estimation in a three hybrid admixed population. Data was used to infer genetic ancestry in Brazilians with an admixture model. Pairwise estimates of F(st) among the five Brazilian geopolitical regions suggested  little genetic differentiation only between the South and the remaining regions. Estimates of ancestry results are consistent with the heterogeneous genetic profile of Brazilian population, with a major contribution of European ancestry (0.771) followed by African (0.143) and Amerindian contributions (0.085). The described multiplexed SNP panels can be useful tool for bioanthropological studies but it can be mainly valuable to control for spurious results in genetic association studies in admixed populations". It is important to note that "the samples came from free of charge paternity test takers, thus as the researchers made it explicit: "the paternity tests were free of  charge, the population samples involved people of variable socioeconomic strata, although "likely to be leaning slightly towards the ‘‘pardo’’ group"". An autosomal DNA study from 2009 found a similar profile: "all the Brazilian samples (regions) lie more closely to the European group than to the African populations or to the Mestizos from Mexico". A 2015 autosomal genetic study, which also analysed data of 25 studies of 38 different Brazilian populations concluded that: European ancestry accounts for 62% of the heritage of the population, followed by the African (21%) and the Native American (17%). The European contribution is highest in Southern  Brazil (77%), the African highest in Northeast Brazil (27%) and the Native American is the highest in Northern Brazil (32%). According to another autosomal DNA study from 2008, by the University of Brasília (UnB), European ancestry dominates in the whole of Brazil (in all regions), accounting for 65.90% of heritage of the population, followed by the African contribution (24.80%) and the Native American (9.3%). São Paulo state, the most populous state in Brazil, with about 40 million people, showed the following composition, according to an autosomal study from 2006: European genes account for 79% of the heritage of the people  of São Paulo, 14% are of African origin, and 7% Native American. A more recent study, from 2013, found the following composition in São Paulo state: 61.9% European, 25.5% African and 11.6% Native American. Chile. According to 1994 genetic research based on blood types, by Ricardo Cruz-Coke and Rodrigo Moreno, Chilean genetic admixture consists of 64% European, 35% Amerindian, and 1% African ancestry. The European admixture goes from 81% in East Santiago to 61% in West Santiago. Valparaiso (Chilean central coast) and Concepción (central southern Chile) have 77% and 75% of European genetic admixture respectively. An autosomal DNA study  from 2014 found the Chilean overall national genepool to be 44.34% (± 3.9%) Native American contribution, 51.85% (± 5.44%) European contribution, and 3.81% (± 0.45%) African contribution. The samples came from all the 15 regions of Chile, and they were collected in Arica, as the researchers made it clear: "Beginning 2011, 923 volunteers from all 15 regions of Chile, living temporarily or permanently in Arica, with an average age of 28.05 ± 9.37 and belonging to social classes A and B (4%), CA and CB (60%) and D (36%) were invited to participate on this study". A 2015 autosomal DNA  study found Chile to be 55.16% European, 42.38% Native American and 2.44% African (using LAMP-LD) and 43.22% Native American, 54.38% European and 2.40% African (using RFMix). Another 2015 autosomal DNA study carried out in two public hospitals found Chile to be 57.20% European, 38.70% Native American and 2.5% African. A 2020 autosomal DNA arrived at the following conclusion: "The country’s average ancestry was 0.53 ± 0.14 European, 0.04 ± 0.04 African, and 0.42 ± 0.14 Amerindian, disaggregated into 0.18 ± 0.15 Aymara and 0.25 ± 0.13 Mapuche. However, Mapuche ancestry was highest in the south (40.03%) and Aymara  in the north (35.61%) as expected from the historical location of these ethnic groups". Chilean mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome studies indicate mostly Native American haplogroups on the maternal side and European haplogroups on the paternal side. Colombia. According to genetic research by the University of Brasilia, Colombian genetic admixture consists of 45.9% European, 33.8% Amerindian, and 20.3% African ancestry. An autosomal study found the following composition to be the contribution to the national genepool: 57.6% European, 31.8% Native, and 10.6% Subsaharan African. This list shows the regional admixture in Colombia according to a 2016 DNA study with nearly 800  samples: Costa Rica. While the majority of Costa Ricans identify as of "criollo" or "castizo" descent, genetic studies demonstrate considerable pre-Columbian Amerindian and a smaller African ancestry. According to an autosomal study, the genetic makeup of Costa Rica is 61% percent European, 30% percent Amerindian and 9% percent African. Regional variation was observed, with greater European influence in the northern (66%) and central (65%) regions . Increased Amerindian ancestry was found in the south (38%), and a higher African contribution in coastal regions (14% in the Pacific and 13% in the Atlantic). The Central Valley—where more than half of  Costa Ricans live—has a mestizo population with one of the highest European components in Latin America (comparable to Rio de la Plata), areas with low pre-Columbian Native ancestry (then occupied by heterogeneous groups of hunter-gatherers) and where the current Native population is sparse. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, Costa Rica was one of the more isolated regions in the Americas. According to genetic studies, the average Costa Rican from the Central Valley is 67 percent European, 29 percent Native and 4 percent Subsaharan African. Cuba. An autosomal study from 2014 has found the genetic ancestry  in Cuba to be 72% European, 20% African and 8% Native American. Dominican Republic. According to a recent autosomal study, the genetic composition of the Dominican Republic was 51.2 percent European, 41.8 percent African and 8 percent Native. Ecuador. According to a 2010 DNA autosomal study, the genetic composition of genepool of Ecuadorians is 53.9% Native American, 38.8% European, and 7.3% African. Another genetic study shows Ecuadorias are 64.6% Native American, 31.0% European, and 4.4% African. According to a 2015 DNA autosomal study, the composition of Ecuador is: 50.1% Native American, 40.8% European, 6.8% African and 2.3% Asian. El Salvador . A large majority of the population is declared mestizos. El Salvador is one of the most homogeneous countries in Latin America. According to a genetic research from 2015, Salvadoran genetic admixture is 46% from European contribution, 44% form Amerindian contribution, and 10% from African contribution.The genetic study "Genetic Components in America's demography" revealed a similar genetic mix and genetic makeup, with 52% European component, 40% Amerindian component, 6% African and 2% Arab. According to the study Population data for 12 Y-chromosome STR loci in a sample from El Salvador, the study revealed that the population of El  Salvador was closer to the European conglomerate (composed of European and South American general population samples from Brazil, Argentina, Colombia and Venezuela) than to the group of native and mestizo populations of Central and South America, which can be explained by the differences in the proportion of European contributions versus Amerindian in these population groups. Guatemala. The study "Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos" by PLoS Genetics found that the composition of Guatemala is 55% Amerindian, 36% European, and 9% African. Mexico. An autosomal DNA study by the "American Journal of Human Genetics" estimated that the average  admixture of Mexicans is approximately 65% European, 31% Amerindian, and 4% African. Higher Amerindian ancestry on the X chromosome was observed, consistent with predominantly European patrilineal and Native American matrilineal ancestry. A study by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN) reported that mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 10.03% African and 31.05% Asian. The African contribution ranges from 2.8 percent in Sonora to 11.13 percent in Veracruz. Eighty percent of the population was classified as mestizo (racially mixed to some degree). The study was conducted among volunteers from six states (Sonora, Zacatecas, Veracruz, Guanajuato, Oaxaca and Yucatan) and an  indigenous group, the Zapotecs. The same study found that Mexico's haplogroup was most similar to the European group with 81 percent of haplotypes shared, followed by the Asian haplogroup with 74 percent and the African haplogroup with 64 percent. The investigators also noted that the African admixture did not generally come from African slaves brought by Europeans to the Americas, but rather, it was already a part of the genetic admixture of the Iberian colonists. A study in Mexico City found that its mestizo population had the greatest variation in Latin America, with its mestizos being either largely European  or Amerindian rather than having a uniform admixture. The study's results are similar to those by INMEGEN in which the European admixture is 56.8 percent, followed by Asian (Native American) ancestry with 39.8 percent and an African contribution of 3.4 percent. Additional studies suggest a correlation between greater European admixture with a higher socioeconomic status, and greater Amerindian ancestry with a lower socioeconomic status. A study of low-income Mexicans found the mean admixture to be 0.590, 0.348 and 0.062 Amerindian, European and African respectively, while a study of Mexicans with an income higher than the mean found their  European admixture to be 82 percent. Peru. According to genetic research by the University of Brasilia, Peruvian genetic admixture consists of 73.0% Amerindian, 15.1% European, and 11.9% African ancestry. According to a 2015 DNA autosomal study, the composition of Peru is: 68.3% Native American, 26.0% European, 3.2% African and 2.5% Asian. Uruguay. A 2009 DNA study in the "American Journal of Human Biology" showed the genetic contribution to the genepool of Uruguay as a whole is primarily derived from Europe, with Native American ancestry ranging from 1 to 10 percent and African from 7 to 15 percent (depending on region ). A 2014 study, "in agreement with those obtained from a study using nDNA", put the average "for the whole country" (but which thus may vary region-wise) as 6% African and 10% Native American.