Pargana
Pargana (, ), , ) or parganah, also spelt pergunnah during the time of the Sultanate period, Mughal times and British Raj, is a former administrative unit of the Indian subcontinent, used primarily, but not exclusively, by the Muslim kingdoms. "Parganas" were introduced by the Delhi Sultanate. As a revenue unit, a pargana consists of several "mouzas", which are the smallest revenue units, consisting of one or more villages and the surrounding countryside. Under the reign of Sher Shah Suri, administration of parganas was strengthened by the addition of other officers, including a shiqdar (police chief), an amin or munsif (an arbitrator who  assessed and collected revenue) and a karkun (record keeper). Mughal era. In the 16th century the Mughal emperor Akbar organised the empire into "subahs" (roughly equivalent of state or province), which were further subdivided into sarkars (roughly the equivalent of districts), which were themselves organised into "parganas" (roughly the equivalent of district subdivisions such as tehsil). In the Mughal system, "parganas" served as the local administrative units of a "sarkar". Individual parganas observed common customs regarding land rights and responsibilities, which were known as the "pargana dastur", and each pargana had its own customs regarding rent, fees, wages, and weights  and measures, known as the "pargana nirikh". Pargana consisted of several tarafs, which in their turn consisted of several villages plus some uninhabited mountain and forest land. British Raj. As the British expanded into former Mughal provinces, starting with Bengal, they at first retained the "pargana" administration, but, under the Governorship of Charles Cornwallis, enacted the Permanent Settlement of 1793, which abolished the "pargana" system in favour of the "zamindari" system, in which "zamindars" were made the absolute owners of rural lands, and abolished the "pargana dastur" and "pargana nirikh". British administration consisted of districts, which were divided into tehsils  or taluks. "Parganas" remained important as a geographical term, persisting in land surveys, village identification and court decrees. Post independence. The "pargana" system persisted in several princely states, including Tonk and Gwalior. Parganas disappeared almost completely after the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, although the term lives on in place names, like the districts of North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas in India's West Bengal state.