Tag question
A tag question (UK English, question tag) is a construction in which an interrogative fragment is added to a declarative or an imperative clause. The resulting speech act comprises an assertion paired with a request for confirmation. For instance, the English tag question "You're John, aren't you?" consists of the declarative clause "You're John" and the interrogative tag "aren't you?" Uses. In most languages, tag questions are more common in spoken usage than in formal written usage. They can be an indicator of politeness, hedging, consensus seeking, emphasis and irony. They may suggest confidence  or lack of confidence; they may be confrontational, defensive or tentative. Although they have the grammatical form of a question, they may be rhetorical (not expecting an answer). In other cases, when they do expect a response, they may differ from straightforward questions in that they cue the listener as to what response is desired. In legal settings, tag questions can often be found in a leading question. According to a specialist children's lawyer at the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), children find it difficult to answer tag questions other than in accordance with  the expectation of the questioner using or tagging a question. Forms. Question tags are formed in several ways, and many languages give a choice of formation. In some languages the most common is a single word or fixed phrase, whereas in others it is formed by a regular grammatical construction. Single word forms. In many languages, the question tag is a simple positive or negative. Russian allows "да?" ("yes") whereas Spanish and Italian use "¿no?" and "no?" respectively. In Indonesian, sometimes "ya?" ("yes") is used but it is more common to say "kan?", which probably is a contraction of "bukan  (negation for nouns). Another common formation is comparable to the English correct?" or the informal form "right?", though more often realised as the word for "true" or "truth", in fact, such as in Polish "prawda?", Slovak "pravda?" or the particle "však?", or Spanish "¿verdad?", which in turn can be presented in a negative form ("not true?"), such as in the Russian "не правда ли?", German "nicht wahr?" Lithuanian "ar ne?", or Latin "nonne?" A plain conjunction may be used, such as the Czech and Slovak "že?" ("that"). Various other words occur in specific languages, such as German "oder?" ("or"), Slovak  či? ("or", colloquialism), and the Mandarin Chinese 吗 "ma" (literally "what" but never used in the way English uses that word). Another pattern is to combine affirmation and negation, as can be done in Chinese, for example as 對不對 "duì bù duì" ("Correct or not?"); or Vietnamese "đúng không? (Correct, no?)." Some languages have words whose only function is as a question tag. In Scots and certain dialects of English, "eh?" functions this way. French has "hein?", Southern German dialects have "gell?" (derived from a verb meaning "to be valid") and Brazilian Portuguese has "né?" (actually a colloquial contraction of  não é, literally "isn't it", while "é?", pronounced much like English "eh?", would have a different intended meaning, that of English "right?"), Hungarian uses "ugye?". Grammatically regular forms. In several languages, the tag question is built around the standard interrogative form. In English and the Celtic languages, this interrogative agrees with the verb in the main clause, whereas in other languages the structure has fossilised into a fixed form, such as the French "n'est-ce pas ?" (literally "isn't it?"). Grammatically productive tag forms. Grammatically productive tag forms are formed in the same way as simple questions, referring back  to the verb in the main clause and agreeing in time and person (where the language has such agreement). The tag may include a pronoun, such as in English, or may not, as is the case in Scottish Gaelic. If the rules of forming interrogatives require it, the verb in the tag may be an auxiliary, as in English. Punctuation. In most languages, a tag question is set off from the sentence by a comma(,). In Spanish, where the beginnings of questions are marked with an inverted question mark, it is only the tag, not the whole sentence, which is  placed within the question bracket: In English. English tag questions, when they have the grammatical form of a question, are atypically complex, because they vary according to at least three factors: the choice of auxiliary, the negation and the intonation pattern. This is unique among the Germanic languages, but the Celtic languages operate in a very similar way. For the theory that English has borrowed its system of tag questions from Brittonic, see Brittonicisms in English. Auxiliary. The English tag question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a pronoun. The auxiliary must agree with the tense, aspect and  modality of the verb in the preceding sentence. If the verb is in the present perfect, for example, the tag question uses "has" or "have"; if the verb is in a present progressive form, the tag is formed with "am, are, is"; if the verb is in a tense which does not normally use an auxiliary, like the present simple, the auxiliary is taken from the emphatic "do" form; and if the sentence has a modal auxiliary, this is echoed in the tag: A special case occurs when the main verb is "to be" in a simple tense. Here the  tag question repeats the main verb, not an auxiliary: Balanced and unbalanced tags. English question tags exist in both positive and negative forms. When there is no special emphasis, the rule of thumb often applies that a positive sentence has a negative tag and vice versa. This form may express confidence, or seek confirmation of the asker's opinion or belief. These are referred to as "balanced tag questions". "Unbalanced tag questions" feature a positive statement with a positive tag, or a negative statement with a negative tag; it has been estimated that in normal conversation, as many as 40–50 % of tags are unbalanced. Unbalanced tag questions may be used for ironic or confrontational effects: Unbalanced tags also occur when "shall" is used to ask for confirmation of a suggestion: Patterns of negation can show regional variations. In North East Scotland, for example, positive to positive is used when no special effect is desired: Note the following variations in the negation when the auxiliary is the "I" form of the copula: Intonation. English tag questions can have a rising or a falling intonation pattern. This can be contrasted with Polish, French or German, for example, where all tags rise, or  with the Celtic languages, where all fall. As a rule, the English rising pattern is used when soliciting information or motivating an action, that is, when some sort of response is required. Since normal English yes/no questions have rising patterns (e.g. "Are you coming?"), these tags make a grammatical statement into a real question: The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The statement itself ends with a falling pattern, and the tag sounds like an echo, strengthening the pattern. Most English tag questions have this falling pattern. Sometimes the rising tag goes with the positive to positive  pattern to create a confrontational effect: Sometimes the same words may have different patterns depending on the situation or implication. As an all-purpose tag the Multicultural London English set-phrase "innit" (for "isn't it") is only used with falling patterns: On the other hand, the adverbial tag questions ("alright? OK?" etc.) are almost always found with rising patterns. An occasional exception is "surely". Other forms. Besides the standard form based on auxiliary verbs, there are other forms specific to particular regions or dialects of English. These are generally invariant, regardless of verb, person or negativity. The tag "right ?" is common in a number of dialects across the UK and US, as well as in Indian English. It is an example of an invariable tag which is preferred in American English over traditional tags. The tags "isn't it?" and "no?" are used in Indian English. The tag "eh?" is of Scottish origin, and can be heard across much of Scotland, New Zealand, Canada and the North-Eastern United States. In Central Scotland (in and around Stirling and Falkirk), this exists in the form "eh no?" which is again invariant. The tag "or?" is used commonly in the North -Eastern United States and other regions to make offers less imposing. These questions could always logically be completed by stating the opposite of the offer, though this effect is understood intuitively by native speakers. For example: The tag "hey?" (of Afrikaans and Dutch origin) is used in South African English. In Celtic languages. Like English, the Celtic languages form tag questions by echoing the verb of the main sentence. The Goidelic languages, however, make little or no use of auxiliary verbs, so that it is generally the main verb itself which reappears in the tag. As in English, the tendency  is to have a negative tag after a positive sentence and vice versa, but unbalanced tags are also possible. Some examples from Scottish Gaelic: In Welsh, a special particle "on" is used to introduce tag questions, which are then followed by the inflected form of a verb. Unlike English and the Goidelic languages, Welsh prefers a positive tag after a positive statement, and negative after negative. With the auxiliary "bod", it is the inflected form of "bod" that is used: With inflected non-preterite forms, the inflected form of the verb is used: With preterite and perfect forms, the invariable  do (also the affirmative answer to these questions) is used: When a non-verbal element is being questioned, the question particle "ai" is used: In French. Question tags are not very common in French. The structure "n'est-ce pas?" (literally "isn't it?", more idiomatically glossed to English as "isn't it true?") is nowadays considered very formal or obsolete. Unlike in English, the question tag "n'est-ce pas?" can be used after any subject and verb. A more common and formal question tag consists in putting a "non?" ("no?") at the end of a positive sentence or a "si ?" ("yes? with a negative sentence") at the end of a negative sentence. This structure is also sometimes used by native French speakers with a basic level of English.