Nicrosaurus
Nicrosaurus (/nɛkroʊˈsɔrəs/) is an extinct genus of phytosaur reptile existing during the Late Triassic period. Although it looked like a crocodile (and probably lived like the more terrestrial crocodylomorphs), it was not closely related to these creatures, instead being an example of parallel evolution. The main difference between "Nicrosaurus" (and all other phytosaurs) and modern crocodiles is the position of the nostrils – "Nicrosaurus"'s nostrils, or external nares, were placed directly in front of the forehead, whereas in crocodiles, the nostrils are positioned on the end of the snout. A 2013 study has also found that illium of "Nicrosaurus  is quite distinctive from all other phytosaurs. The genus was named by German paleontologist, Dr. Eberhard Fraas, in 1866, possibly after the Neckar river of southwestern Germany, near which it was found. Description and paleobiology. Some distinguishing anatomical features of Nicrosaurus" are the external nares at the skull roof level, the dorsoventrally compressed and rounded posterior squamosal processes, the broad and heavy rostrum and a strong prenarial crest. "Nicrosaurus" may have been more terrestrial than other phytosaurs. Occurring in marginal-lacustrine or outrightly terrestrial settings, it bears longer limb bones, a straighter femur and a deeper pelvis than other phytosaurs . Combined with its unusually deep upper jaw and heterodont teeth, it was most likely a secondarily terrestrial predator, probably not at all dissimilar from terrestrial crocodilymorphs like sebecians. Teeth. Nicrosaurus dentition is highly heterodont, the tooth shapes varying from wide, laterally compressed blade teeth to cylindrical, recurved caniniform teeth. In terms of jaw morphology, a full prenarial crest is a distinctive anatomical feature for "Nicrosaurus kapffi". In both the upper and lower jaw, the dentition has five morphologically separated arrays of teeth: tip-of-snout set, premaxilla set, maxilla set, tip-of-mandible set, and dentary set. Moving posteriorly in  all of these sets, except the tip-of-the-snout and tip-of-mandible sets, tooth morphology starts out relatively simple and undifferentiated and gradually changes, resulting in a morphocline. The upper dentition is considered to be tripartite. The anteriormost teeth, or carinae, of the premaxilla set in "Nicrosaurus kapffi" are enlarged and strongly curved. These are usually the largest teeth of the upper jaw. Much of the other anterior teeth in this set, as well as in the maxilla, are difficult to distinguish from one another. The anteriormost teeth of the premaxilla are firmly anchored and labially vaulted. The  number of tooth positions is highly variable for the premaxilla and maxilla set. However, no studies indicate that there is a direct correlation between tooth count and skull size. Teeth rows usually consist of 40-45 members. The tripartite dentition, enlarged carinae,(incorrect link) and strong terminal members of the premaxilla suggest that "Nicrosaurus kapffi" (and many other phytosaurs) may be adapted to dismember medium to large-sized prey after killing such prey with a strong, quick blow. "Nicrosaurus" in general have massive snouts similar to extant crocodilians, suggesting they preyed on tetrapods instead of fish. Distinctive post-cranial features. All  derived phytosaurs have an ilium that is characterized by a blade that elongates posteriorly and an anterior process that is short in length. However, compared to all phytosaurs, the ilium of "Nicrosaurus kapffi" is dorso-ventrally elongated, similar to that of "Erythrosucus africanus." Because of the elongation, the acetabulum is also longer relative to other phytosaurs. Compared to "Leptosuchus" the angle between the pubis and ischium is also greater. In "Nicrosaurus", the proximal end the humerus is flattened. Semi-aquatic or terrestrial nature. Because of their resemblance to modern crocodiles, it was initially thought that phytosaurs were also semi-aquatic  animals. The slender jaws further suggested a diet containing fish. An earlier study explained that more massive "Nicrosaurus" could have also had a diet consisting of large land reptiles which came near waters or amphibians of streams and ponds. When it comes to phytosaurs, most inferences on ecology are in comparison with modern day crocodilians. However, genera within phytosaurs may also have had different ecological preferences. Such is the case for "Nicrosaurus" and "Mystriosuchus", the biggest distinguishing factor between the two being the shape of their snouts. The latter had a slender skull with bipartite dentition, suggesting a diet of  fish and small tetrapods, while the former had a massive skull with tripartite dentition, suggesting prey were larger animals. "Nicrosaurus" and "Mystriosuchus" have both been recovered in the first and second Stubensandstein in arkosic sandstones separated by floodplain mudstones and were both buried during flooding events in a freshwater river habitat. Both genera appeared at around the same time in central Europe. Additionally, because "Nicrosaurus" has also been found lacustrine sandstones, aerially exposed planes with breccia and reworked palaeosols, a terrestrial and swamp-inhabiting lifestyle seems probable. A more recent analysis on available post-cranial bones has provided results that  further support the idea of "Nicrosaurus" being primarily terrestrial. The illium and femur of "Nicrosaurus" are similar to those of Archosaurs in comparison to semi-aquatic Archosaurs, like today's crocodiles. The resemblance suggests "Nicrosaurus" could have had a more upright walking style that is often associated with terrestrial organisms. Diet. A study on phytosaur microwear patterns shows that "Nicrosaurus" plots with hard invertebrate consumers. Species Characters. The following are a list of characters for both species of "Nicrosaurus" following a phylogenetic analysis. "Nicrosaurus kapffi" (Meyer, 1860): SMNS 4378, 4379, 5726, 5727; BMNH 43743. "Nicrosaurus meyeri" (Hungerbühler and Hunt, 2000 ): SMNS 12598 (holotype), 4059; BMNH 42745. Discovery and environment. Species "Nicrosaurus kapffi" and the less commonly found "Nicrosaurus meyeri" occur in the Norian Stubensandstein of southwestern Germany, as well as from the Norian Arnstadt Formation. Since 1996, the collection for "Nicrosaurus kapffi" included five nearly complete skulls and four partial skulls. The Arnstadt Formation, or "Steinmergelkeuper", is primarily a lacustrine sedimentary succession of the Germanic Basin. The 100m thick Formation is divided into sediments of a playa lake system, cyclic sediments of freshwater to saline lake system, and sediments of a playa lake system with crevasse splay. Fossil discoveries  in Germany were found in dry floodplain environments or fluvial lacustrine indet., where the environment was known to be associated with either rivers or lakes or both. An isolated tooth found in a bed among fish scales in the middle part of Arnstadt Formation in 2002 was attributed to "Nicrosaurus". The rock in which the tooth and scales were found may suggest that a species of "Nicrosaurus" populated a swamp-like area that underwent periods of desiccation or fluctuations in salinity. Alternatively, the lone tooth may suggest that a scavenger fed on dead fish. If the lifestyle of "Nicrosaurus" is  limited to land and freshwater swamps it makes sense that most of fossil specimens are found around the Germanic Basin. Lithology. Specimen have been found in various bed lithology, including sandstone, marl, dolomite, breccia, and claystone. Classification. A 2002 phylogenetic analysis found that the genera "Pseudopalatus", "Mystriosuchus", "Redondasaurus" and "Nicrosaurus" are all under the clade Pseudopalatinae. Though, the analysis only contained one non-pseudopalatine phytosaur taxon. If "Mystriosuchus" and "Ebrachosuchus neukami" were to be sister taxa, the tree length would be 119. "Nicrosaurus" is considered the most basal taxon of the clade. Species inconsistency. Beyond the "Nicrosaurus kapffi" and "Nicrosaurus  meyeri", there are two other species mentioned in scientific literature: "Nicrosaurus gregorii" and "Nicrosaurus buceros". The remains of the latter two were found in North America, from the Chama basin of north-central New Mexico. Section::::"Nicrosaurus gregorii". When phytosaur remains were thought to be first found in North America scientists attempted to categorize them into major groups. However, at the time specimen were often referred to specific genera based on character similarities without giving much regard to the differences. Such was the case when Herbert E. Gregory referred "Rutiodon gregorii" to "Nicrosaurus". In the early 1960s, Gregory did not recognize  the differences among phytosaurs like "Machaeroprosopus", "Leptosuchus" and "Rutiodon" and attributed the variance to growth, sexual dimorphism or individual variance. Most of the species of "Machaeroprosopus" were assigned to "Rutiodon" except for "M. gregorii" which was assigned as "Phytosaurus gregorii" because of the attributes it shared with European phytosaurs. "Phytosaurus gregorii" was later assigned as "Nicrosaurus gregorii" because of observed similarities in skull characteristics. The Chinle Formation was defined first in 1917 by Herbert E. Gregory and many Norian-age vertebrae fossils were recovered from the deposit levels. Some of the skulls discovered in this region were said to be  incorrectly assigned to "Nicrosaurus" instead of "Rutiodon". Section::::"Nicrosaurus buceros". The first phytosaur taxon discovered in North America was believed to be from a skull of "Belodon buceros" in 1881 in the Chama basin, of north-central New Mexico. The species has also been attributed to other genera, including "Pseudopalatus", "Phytosaurus", "Machaeroprosopus", "Arribasuchus" and "Nicrosaurus." Some attributed the skull type to "Nicrosaurus" because of a few cranial characteristics, pertaining to the squamosal and supra-temporal fenestra. In comparison to "Nicrosaurus kapffi", it carried a more narrow snout and therefore was referred to as "Nicrosaurus buceros" by some scientists.