Ghetto riots (1964–1969)
The term ghetto riots, also termed ghetto rebellions, race riots, or negro riots refers to a series of summer uprisings across the United States in the 1960s, characterized by African American groups using violent tactics. The six days of unrest throughout New York City during the Harlem riot of 1964 is viewed as the first of clusters of riots, uncoordinated with each other, evidently unplanned, most often in cities during the summer months. The pattern caused 159 separate incidents of violence and unrest over the long, hot summer of 1967, came to a climax during the national  wave of King assassination riots in over 100 American cities in 1968, and relented in 1969. History. Background. Before the ghetto riots of the 1960s African American resistance to white supremacy was much more limited, including only small slave rebellions and armed defenses in the early 1900s. Most of these actions were defensive in nature rather than retaliatory, it was not until the Harlem riots of 1935 and 1943 that African Americans seemed to take initiative in violent conflicts. By the 1950s and 1960s significant changes had been made in the order of white supremacy that fostered conditions for open  rebellions. Recent urban decay caused by white flight from city centers also antagonized lower-class minority populations who had struggled to migrate to cities. Riots. The Harlem riot of 1964 is seen as the beginning of a wave of riots that would engulf New York City and begin to be seen in cities throughout the country until calming in 1968 with the last being the King assassination riots. These urban riots were unplanned and mostly attacked property of white owned businesses rather than people, before this most American riots involved brutal attacks against minorities. The riots resulted in over 150  deaths and over 20,000 arrests. Incidents include: The 1968 Miami riot grew out of an organized protest, in contrast to most of these previous incidents, so may not fall in the same category. Likewise, the Division Street riots in Chicago of June 1966 shares all the relevant characteristics of these others, expressing similar ethnic tensions and grievances, except the rioters were Puerto Rican, not African-American. Perhaps the last of the pattern was the July 1969 York race riot in Pennsylvania, where racial tensions broke out over several days, resulting in the fatal shooting of a rookie police officer and  the murder of a visiting black woman from South Carolina by a white gang; after renewed interest in both cases 30 years later, York's mayor, Charlie Robertson, was arrested and arraigned for his role in the white gang while campaigning for his third term, then ultimately found not guilty. In August 1969, federal officials considered the period of large-scale riots to be over. Kerner Commission. President Johnson appointed a commission on July 28, 1967, while rioting was still occurring in Detroit, to investigate the causes of the urban unrest. The commission's scope included the 164 disorders occurring  in the first nine months of 1967. The President had directed them, in simple words, to document what happened, find out why it happened, and find out how to prevent it. While acknowledging the incidents as "unusual, irregular, complex and unpredictable social processes," the commission was able to identify broad patterns and draw conclusions, the first of which was: The report identified police practices, unemployment and underemployment, and lack of adequate housing as the most significant grievances motivating the rage. Reactions. Conservative elements of American society regarded the riots as evidence for the need of law and order. Richard Nixon  made social order a prime issue in his campaign for president. The mayor of Jersey City (Thomas J. Whelan) instead saw the riots as an indicator that more social programs were needed for the city and in 1964 asked for federal funds to provide "new recreational, housing, educational and sanitary facilities for low‐income groups". Federal grants for "urban renewal and antipoverty efforts", as in New Haven, were also discussed in relation to the riots. In August 1968, over $4 million were offered by the Justice Department to the states in what was described as "the first Federal money designated  to prepare for and help avert rioting in the cities". In April 1969, John Lindsay asked to increase federal funds but as of November 1969 the $200 million promised to restore 20 cities had not yet come to fruition. Research. Cause of riots. Many rioters can be seen as disillusioned African Americans whose families may have moved to cities to find better living conditions but after generations remained stuck in urban ghettos with little economic mobility. Local troubles with access to decent housing and work along with other factors like police harassment made urban areas ripe for violence. Immediate  causes were often confrontations between African Americans and aggressive whites or police officers that drew a crowd and began to spiral into violence and chaos. In July 1963, demonstrations in Brooklyn for better working conditions in the construction industry had reportedly risked escalating to riots. Dynamics of riots. Rioters often acted collectively, destroying property they viewed as being owned by those exploiting them. Police officers often were seen as the greatest antagonists to rioters because their actions and racist language became symbols of the oppressive conditions faced by African Americans.