Toponymy
Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of "toponyms" (proper names of places, also known as place name or geographic name), their origins and meanings, use and typology. Toponym is the general term for a proper name of any geographical feature, and full scope of the term also includes proper names of all cosmographical features. In a more specific sense, the term "toponymy" refers to an inventory of toponyms, while the discipline researching such names is referred to as "toponymics" or "toponomastics". Toponymy is a branch of onomastics, the study of proper names of all kinds. A person who  studies toponymy is called "toponymist". Etymology. The term toponymy come from / , 'place', and / , 'name'. Tthe "Oxford English Dictionary" records "toponymy" (meaning "place name") first appearing in English in 1876. Since then, "toponym" has come to replace the term "place-name" in professional discourse among geographers. Toponymic typology. Toponyms can be divided in two principal groups: Various types of geographical toponyms (geonyms) include, in alphabetical order: Various types of cosmographical toponyms (cosmonyms) include: History. Probably the first toponymists were the storytellers and poets who explained the origin of specific place names as part of their tales; sometimes place-names served as  the basis for their etiological legends. The process of folk etymology usually took over, whereby a false meaning was extracted from a name based on its structure or sounds. Thus, for example, the toponym of Hellespont was explained by Greek poets as being named after Helle, daughter of Athamas, who drowned there as she crossed it with her brother Phrixus on a flying golden ram. The name, however, is probably derived from an older language, such as Pelasgian, which was unknown to those who explained its origin. In his "Names on the Globe", George R. Stewart theorizes that "Hellespont" originally  meant something like 'narrow Pontus' or 'entrance to Pontus', "Pontus" being an ancient name for the region around the Black Sea, and by extension, for the sea itself. Toponomastics. Place names provide the most useful geographical reference system in the world. Consistency and accuracy are essential in referring to a place to prevent confusion in everyday business and recreation. A toponymist, through well-established local principles and procedures developed in cooperation and consultation with the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN), applies the science of toponymy to establish officially recognized geographical names. A toponymist relies not only  on maps and local histories, but interviews with local residents to determine names with established local usage. The exact application of a toponym, its specific language, its pronunciation, and its origins and meaning are all important facts to be recorded during name surveys. Scholars have found that toponyms provide valuable insight into the historical geography of a particular region. In 1954, F. M. Powicke said of place-name study that it "uses, enriches and tests the discoveries of archaeology and history and the rules of the philologists." Toponyms not only illustrate ethnic settlement patterns, but they can also help identify  discrete periods of immigration. Toponymists are responsible for the active preservation of their region's culture through its toponymy. They typically ensure the ongoing development of a geographical names database and associated publications, for recording and disseminating authoritative hard-copy and digital toponymic data. This data may be disseminated in a wide variety of formats, including hard-copy topographic maps as well as digital formats such as geographic information systems and Google Maps. Issues. In 2002, the United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names acknowledged that while common, the practice of naming geographical places after living persons could  be problematic. Therefore, the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names recommends that it be avoided and that national authorities should set their own guidelines as to the time required after a person's death for the use of a commemorative name. In the same vein, writers Pinchevski and Torgovnik (2002) consider the naming of streets as a political act in which holders of the legitimate monopoly to name aspire to engrave their ideological views in the social space. Similarly, the revisionist practice of renaming streets, as both the celebration of triumph and the repudiation of the old regime  is another issue of toponymy. Also, in the context of Slavic nationalism, the name of Saint Petersburg was changed to the more Slavic sounding "Petrograd" from 1914 to 1924, then to "Leningrad" following the death of Vladimir Lenin and back to "Saint-Peterburg" in 1991 after the fall of the Soviet Union. After 1830, in the wake of the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of an independent Greek state, Turkish, Slavic and Italian place names were Hellenized, as an effort of "toponymic cleansing." This nationalization of place names can also manifest itself in a postcolonial context. In Canada , there have been initiatives in recent years "to restore traditional names to reflect the Indigenous culture wherever possible". Frictions sometimes arise between countries because of toponymy, as illustrated by the Macedonia naming dispute in which Greece has claimed the name "Macedonia", the Sea of Japan naming dispute between Japan and Korea, as well as the Persian Gulf naming dispute. On 20 September 1996 a note on the internet reflected a query by a Canadian surfer, who said as follows: ‘One producer of maps labeled the water body “Persian Gulf” on a 1977 map of Iran, and then “Arabian Gulf”, also  in 1977, in a map which focused on the Gulf States. I would gather that this is an indication of the “politics of maps”, but I would be interested to know if this was done to avoid upsetting users of the Iran map and users of the map showing Arab Gulf States’. This symbolizes a further aspect of the topic, namely the spilling over of the problem from the purely political to the economic sphere. Geographic names boards. A geographic names board is an official body established by a government to decide on official names for geographical areas and features . Most countries have such a body, which is commonly (but not always) known under this name. Also, in some countries (especially those organised on a federal basis), subdivisions such as individual states or provinces will have individual boards. Individual geographic names boards include: