Faʻamatai
Fa'amatai is the indigenous political ('chiefly') system of Samoa, central to the organization of Samoan society. It is the traditional indigenous form of governance in both Samoas, comprising American Samoa and the Independent State of Samoa. The term comprises the prefix "fa'a" (Samoan for "in the way of") and the word "matai" (family name or title). Of central importance in the system are the "matai", the holders of family chief titles, and their role in looking after their family. "Fa'amatai" is the key socio-political system of governance and way of life ("fa'a Samoa") in Samoan culture. Inherent in  the "fa'amatai" system is the welfare and well-being of the extended family ("'aiga") and the protection of family property, consisting most importantly of customary land. About 81% (567,000 acres), is under customary ownership, with the rest under the national government ("malo") as public lands with another 4% freehold. At the apex of this system are the four major title holders – Tupua Tamasese, Malietoa, Mata'afa, Tuimaleali'ifano - known as the Tama-a-Aiga ('sons of the families') that afford them leadership over the royal families of Samoa. All heads of state of Samoa have been one of the four title holders . In addition, these four paramount chiefs are often accorded pāpā titles - titles that indicate sovereignty or leadership over a designated territory or kinship network. These titles are Tui Atua, Tui A'ana, Gatoaitele and Vaetamasoalii. The Tui Atua is currently held by Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese Efi, former Prime Minister and Head of State of Samoa. The Gatoaitele title is currently held by Savea Sano Malifa, a respected journalist and owner of the "Samoa Observer" newspaper. There are no official holders of the other two pāpā titles. In the 49-seat Legislative Assembly of Samoa, all 47 Samoan members are also  matai, performing dual roles as chiefs and modern politicians, with the exception of the two seats reserved for non-Samoans. The 2006 census of Samoa identified 15.783 "matai" out of a total population of 180.741 (8,7%); 12.589 (79.8%) were male and 3.194 (20.2%) were female. Former system of government. Two great families comprise what may be termed the aristocracy of Samoa: "Sa Malietoa", and "Sa Tupua." For a great length of time, the title of "Tupu" (Sovereign) was confined to members of the latter since the reign of Queen Salamasina. On the death of the Safe-o-fafine, the last  king in the Sa Tupua line, the title remained in abeyance for a long time, as the line of succession was broken after Atua's defeat in war and the seat of power moved from Lufilufi to its new seat in Manono. The new malo was led by the Manono high chief Lei'ataua Lelologa, His son Tamafaiga, succeeded him and assumed the attributes of a god as well as those of a king. He was actually worshipped as a god and developed into a tyrant. In the hope of escaping from his tyranny, the people of A'ana conferred their title  of Tui A'ana upon him, but only to further smart under his oppressive rule. Whereas the Tonumaipe'a clan had earlier taken all the royal titles and left the districts to run their own affairs, the reverse happened in Manono's case. The Manono/Tonumaipe'a party ignored the royal titles but took the malo (executive power). This was a political move, as claiming the Tafa'ifa was irrelevant to the substance of power and would only validate his defeated foes' traditional authority to distribute patronage. And so for the first time for many generations, the dignity passed from the family of Fonoti  and thus from the line of the ancient Queen Salamasina. A'ana not only lost the prestige it had so long held in this connection but the royal residence no longer was situated in the province, the new king continuing to reside on Manono. As his tyranny increased, in like proportion increased the hatred of the people of A'ana, and at length they rose against him and he was killed in 1829. This was just before John Williams, whose name is a shining light in the annals of missionary enterprise, visited Samoa for the first time. A bloody war ensued and  A'ana's power was broken and the district laid waste. Governance. Samoa's chiefly system revolves around family and extended clans of kinship ("'aiga"), based on the culture's communal and extended family relationships. The term "'aiga" includes not only the immediate family (father, mother and children), but also the whole union of families of a clan and even those who although not related are subject to the family control. At the local level, much of the country's civil and criminal matters are dealt with by some 360 village chief councils, "Fono o Matai", according to traditional law, a  practice further strengthened by the 1990 Village Fono Law. Most Samoans live in villages consisting of groups of families with close ties and history. The influence of the "matai" is felt not only in the village but also in the district and even beyond. The active factor in the life of the village is the village council or "fono o matai" and its members are the "matai". The "fono of matai" is the executive and judicial authority of every village in Samoa. If a matter is of importance the assembly is held on the "malae", the open space in front  of the village. The speakers address the assembly and stand to do so. The listeners are comfortably seated on mats. Those not taking part in these assemblies are described as "tagatanu'u" (people of the village) and include untitled men, women and children. Democratic ideas do not prevail at these "fono"s and decisions are independent of majority or minority rule. The decision of one or more "matai sili" (senior "matai") is decisive. The remainder who are merely at the "fono" to listen, agree with the decisions given. It is permissible for the minor "matai" to discuss the matter with and endeavour  to try to influence the "matai sili" before the "fono" commences. Before the "fono" commences preliminary councils are held ("taupulega") by the different groups and at these councils the single family heads exchange opinions and endeavour to convince each other and to create harmony in order that when the actual "fono" eventuates everything will move smoothly. Some "matai" are permitted to speak at these "fono" without having any right to make a decision. The 2006 census of Samoa also revealed that 96% of the country's "matai" were actively involved in village activities as part of their "matai" responsibilities. The  4% 'not active' was explained as possibly due to the "matai" holding more than one title or living away from the village where their title belonged. Authority. The authority of the "matai" has some limits. They are called upon to discuss all important matters with everyone of significance belonging to the family union. If the matter is of minor importance and only of interest to the immediate village family, more distant relations may be omitted from discussion. "Matai" subject to a senior "matai" ("matai sili") are independent in family matters concerning their own single family unless they have a "tuaigoa  shared title name only, in which case they are not referred to at all in family matters and may be deprived of their names at the will of their superior at any time. Modern politics. The fa'amatai" system is entrenched in Samoan politics. From the country's independence in 1962, only "matai" could vote and stand as candidates in elections to parliament. In 1990, the voting system was changed by the Electoral Amendment Act which introduced universal suffrage and the right to vote for adults aged 21-years and over. However, the right to stand for elections remains with "matai , who are themselves selected by consensus of their families, including non-matai family members. Therefore, every Samoan Member of Parliament is also a matai", performing dual roles as a 'chief' as well as duties in the Samoan parliament. This applies to most Samoans in positions of public responsibility from the Prime Minister of Samoa to the country's Head of State, who is referred to as "O le Ao o le Malo" (the chieftain of the government). Colonial influences. As "matai" head their families and represent their villages, communities and districts, important high-ranking title-holders came to play significant  roles in colonial politics with the advent of western powers and rivalry in the 19th century. The colonial era saw Britain, Germany and the United States supporting different "matai" (such as Mata'afa Iosefo and the youthful Malietoa Tanumafili I) in order to gain political influence in Samoa. This led to the colonial powers bestowing the European title of king upon their own candidate during the tumultuous years of the late 19th century, leading to warring among competing high-ranking "matai" in different districts. The Samoan term "tupu", referring to paramount status over a particular region or the entire island group , has sometimes been translated incorrectly to the English language as "king" in the European sense. The relatively brief usage of the term "king" died out with the end of colonialism. In the early 20th century, "matai" leadership played a pivotal role in the pro-independence Mau movement which eventually led to Western Samoa's independence in 1962. Section::::"Matai" title. Each "matai" has a name () by and through which they exercise their rights in the family over which they preside. "Matai" names are for the most part very old ones and are handed down from generation to generation. "Matai" titles can  be bestowed on one person or numerous family members who are distinguished from each other by their Christian name. It is common for each "'aiga" to have a number of "matai" titles, but one particular title will be the most important and serve as the main "matai" title. The title of a family "matai" which is peculiar and particular to that family is the subject of tradition and is faithfully recorded by the family and passed on from generation to generation. It sometimes happens that new names are for some reason taken and the old ones discarded or passed on  to lesser or junior chiefs. In Samoan culture, the concept of serving and taking on the responsibility for the welfare of the family is integral to the "fa'amatai" system. Various members of the family are called upon in turn to support their "matai" in carrying out their role and responsibilities according to Samoan tradition, cultural obligations and duty. This often involves the family contributing money and important cultural items such as "'ie toga" (fine mats) as well as food which the "matai" presents on behalf of the "'aiga" to ensure the family's obligations are met in their village or  wider community. Men and women have equal rights to "matai" titles in Samoa, although the role of women in Samoan society means female "matai" comprise a relatively small percentage. Before the advent of European contact and influence, the authority ("pule") of the "matai" extended to life and limb but this power has been altered and absorbed by a Western-style modern government (referred to as the "malo") where the "matai"'s authority is confined and balanced against the national governance. Ali'i, Tulafale & Tulafale-alii. There are two different ranks within the Samoan chief system. There is the 'high' or 'sacred ' chief known as the Ali’i and 'orator' chief known as Tulafale. The system is found in every district throughout Samoa. In some places, there is also the Tulafale-alii, a chief of high rank who, owing to their status and antiquity, carry the dual functions of orator-chief. These are also referred to as 'matua' (elder), most notable of which are the Fuataga and Tafua of Aleipata, Moeono and 'Iuli of Falefa, Tofua'iofo'ia and Talo of Falealili, Te'o and Maugatai of Safata. In former times the term "matai" applied only to "tulafale", but over time the term has become applied  to "ali'i" generally. The wife of an "ali'i" is referred to as "faletua". The wife of a "tulafale" (orator status "matai") is referred to as "tausi". Central to Samoan culture is the recording of history and genealogy which was achieved through oral history before the introduction of a written language. Orator chiefs ("tulafale") and speakers ("failauga" – 'speech-maker') are terms used for Samoans holding the position of speakers or mouthpieces of chiefs and they are found in all villages. Important "matai" titles are also tied to certain orator "matai" titles. Orators serve the means of conveying the wishes of chiefs  to the people or speaking on behalf of the family, village or district on important occasions. The orator is the recorder of family histories and pedigree ("fa'alupega"), genealogies ("gafa") and events and is indispensable at public ceremonies. The power balance this system carries is often depicted in cultural and social settings. Ali’i are known to not to say much during these meetings as the Tulafale are the traditional mouthpiece tasked with interpreting the will of the Ali'i. In doing so, tulafale have over the centuries become a powerful group, able to utilise their speaking platform to wield considerable influence over  the aiga, the village and in their dealings with other aiga and districts. This led to the rise of the Tumua ma Pule institution, the influential group of orators from both Savaii and Upolu. The orators of Leulumoega and Lufilufi have wielded considerable power over the centuries as it is only through their consent that the royal ali'i title of Tui A'ana and Tui Atua titles could be bestowed. Men and women both have equal rights to the matai title. The Chiefs are responsible for their village/family, whenever needed, they must be there to support them. (Fa’alavelave) . Samoan "gafa  (pedigree, ancestors, descent) is central to family kinship and will usually commence from the person who first brought the name into prominence and caused it to be respected. It does not necessarily mean that the family commenced from the institution of a name or that the individual holding the title was the founder of the family. Former matai" of the family have by comparison become unimportant and their names have fallen into disuse or become uninfluential. Fine mats: "'Ie Toga". There are many Samoan public events at which the distribution of mats will take place. Many of these mats, particularly  the fine mats ("'ie toga"), are valued very highly both from a monetary point of view and also from a historical and sentimental viewpoint. The more important mats bear respected names. The most noteworthy occasions on which mats are presented are marriages, births and deaths and the bestowal of a chiefly title. Customary land. The "matai" of the family is the administrator and representative of the family property which includes customary land. Most of the population in Samoa, 65% overall, live with their families in villages on customary land. However, the 2006 Samoa census showed that 34 out of 48  political districts had more than 80% of households living on customary land with the lowest figures (25%) in the more densely concentrated urbanised area around the capital Apia. On the island of Savai'i, where there are fewer people and fewer signs of western material culture, 93% of the 43,142 population live on customary land. Looking after the collective family land is one of the most important responsibilities of Samoan families and their "matai". A "matai" may make their wishes known and bequeath certain property to others such as a married daughter, but they cannot transfer land rights beyond their  own. Under the management of one or more "matai" the lands are divided amongst the various families for their own use and are viewed by these family members as their unassailable rights. A Samoan proverb highlighting the importance of land in Samoa reads, "E le soifua umi le tagata fa'atau fanua" (The man who sells family land will not live to an old age – devils will bring about his early death). With most of the country's land under customary ownership, the position of the "matai" is significant in modern-day politics in Samoa in terms of the nation's  economic development, conservation, sustainability, tourism, national infrastructure and access to natural resources such as water, forestry, road access, agriculture and farming. An example in recent years is the "matai" from the village of Sili on the island of Savai'i turning down a government proposal to build a hydroelectric plant on village land because of environmental concerns. In contrast, the "matai" in Sasina have agreed with government support to an unprecedented 120-year lease of prime oceanfront land to an American company to build a tourism resort estimated to cost US$450–500 million. In conservation, the villages of Uafato in the  Va'a-o-Fonoti district at the east end of Upolu island and Falealupo at the west end of Savai'i have agreed to conservation covenants for their native forests. Much of the land under the government today was alienated or sold during colonialism and later came under the Samoa government when the colonial era ended. This includes large tracts of plantation land from the 19th century as well as later periods of colonial administration including German Samoa (1900–1914) followed by the New Zealand administration. This has resulted in ongoing court cases for land claims between "matai" and the government, such as  that of the village of Satapuala over land by Faleolo International Airport, disputes which directly impact upon the country's national infrastructure. Section::::"Matai" selection. In effect, every Samoan, men and women, is an heir to a "matai" title pertaining to their kinship and ancestry. However, "matai" titles are not automatically passed from a "matai" to their children or direct descendants but are bestowed upon those whom the extended family agree will best serve their needs while also ensuring that different branches of the family are represented. A recent example of this Samoan custom and law is the stripping of the  important Malietoa title from the son of the previous title holder, the late Head of State, Malietoa Tanumafili II (1913–2007). Following Malietoa Tanumafili II's death in 2007, one branch of the family bestowed the title upon his son Papali'i Fa'amausili Moli in the village of Malie. The other branches of the family filed petitions at the Land and Titles Court of Samoa claiming the bestowal invalid in breach of Samoan law. In June 2008, the court agreed and ruled the bestowal of the Malietoa title upon the son illegal, highlighting the unique nature of "matai" selection based on consensus , merit, custom and due process rather than automatic hereditary selection. A similar situation arose during the bestowal of the Tupua Tamasese title on its current holder. Having not secured the consent of the title's governing family, Sā Fenunuivao of Falefa and Salani, it would not be until their acquiescence in 1986 that eventually led to an agreement for Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese Efi to be bestowed with the title. Other cultural factors can also play a part in the complex decision making process including seniority in age (an important factor in Samoan society), leadership qualities, oratory and an individual 's ability to contribute to the family's overall circumstances and well-being. Title bestowal. "Matai" titles (, literally "formal name") are bestowed upon family members during a cultural ceremony called a "saofa'i" which occurs only after discussion and consensus within the family. The "saofa'i" is a solemn ceremony which marks the formal acceptance of a new "matai" by their family and village into the circle of chiefs and orators. It involves the gathering of chiefs and orators in a "fale tele" meeting house, the exchanging of oratory speeches, the reciting of genealogies and a kava ceremony followed by a feast  provided by the new "matai"'s family. Architecture of Samoa dictates seating positions inside the meeting house during the title bestowal including the position of those making the kava being situated at the rear. Once the ceremony is completed, the new "matai" is henceforth called by their new name. In New Zealand, more people born in Samoa than any other foreign country officially change their names with the Department of Internal Affairs and it is believed that many of these are adding "matai" titles. Non-Samoans. "Matai" titles are sometimes conferred upon non-Samoans as an honour by Samoan families  and their villages. An example is the title of Seiuli conferred in 1993 by Samoa's Head of State, Malietoa Tanumafili II upon Barry Curtis, at the time Mayor of Manukau, a New Zealand city with a large Samoan population. Other non-Samoan New Zealanders bestowed with "matai" titles include prime ministers Robert Muldoon, David Lange and Jim Bolger, politician Winston Peters and Auckland businessman Dick Hubbard who holds the title Galumalemana. In 1988, American ethnobotanist Paul Alan Cox received the legendary title Nafanua from the village of Falealupo, where Cox had lived for many years and later helped to  set up a covenant to protect the native rainforest. In 1978, the Governor-General of Fiji, Ratu Sir George Cakobau was bestowed the title Peseta by Matautu on Savai'i island during his visit to Tui Fiti's sacred ground. Ban Ki-moon was given the title "Prince Tupua Ban Ki-moon of Siupapa Saleapaga" on 2 September 2014 during the United Nations' Small Island Development Conference while serving as the Secretary General of the United Nations. Naming convention. A "matai" title is always first in naming convention as the most important name for a titled individual. When a person is  appointed a "matai", they retain their Christian name in addition to their new "matai" title. The "matai" title is appended to the beginning of their name so that their Christian name follows their new "matai" title. As one person may hold a number of different "matai" names from different branches of their genealogy, the new names are also added before their Christian name, with no set order in terms of general usage. An example is Mata'afa Faumuina Fiame Mulinu'u I whose first three names reveal individual high chief titles and thereby his genealogy and the different villages and families to  which he belonged; the Faumuina title from Lepea, the Fiame title from Lotofaga and the Mata'afa title, one of the paramount names in the country. As more than one family member can be bestowed the same "matai" title, each person's Christian name serves to distinguish them from each other. Dividing a family title so that it is shared among more than one family member is also agreed upon by consensus. The Samoans explain this by saying that a man has a "fasi igoa" – a piece of the title. "Usoali'i" refers to brother chiefs, those men in the family union  holding "matai" names. They may all enjoy the same rights or be under the control of one "matai" who is termed "sao", in which case the other chiefs are referred to as "tuaigoa". Women "matai". Of Samoa's total population of 192,126 (2016 census), 93,463 were female, comprising 48.6% of the population. In 2011, there were 1,766 female "matai", 10.5% of the 16,787 "matai" living in the country. A woman can hold a "matai" name and have the "pule" (authority) of the family but this does not often occur. Should she have both she will usually bestow her "matai" title  on one of her family, probably her husband, and retain the "pule". In 2017 New Zealand-based pacific Studies professor Tagaloatele Peggy Dunlop urged more women to put themselves forward. Prominent women "matai" in Samoa include scholar and historian Aiono Fanaafi Le Tagaloa ("matai" title Aiono), high chief and Prime Minister Fiame Naomi Mata'afa ("matai" title Fiame), former politician Gatoloaifaana Amataga Alesana-Gidlow ("matai" title Gatoloaifaana) and writer Letuimanu'asina Emma Kruse Va'ai ("matai" title Letuimanu'asina). With many Samoans also living overseas in other countries, other prominent Samoan female "matai" includes New Zealand former Member of Parliament Luamanuvao Winnie Laban ("matai  title Luamanuvao). Old age. Seniority in years and old age is a respected status in Samoan society where elders, whether familiars or complete strangers, are referred to as tamā" (father) or "tinā" (mother). In this cultural context, a retired "matai" usually enjoys the respect of their family and is referred to as the "faatonutonu folau", the steersperson of the boat. In this case they do not actually do the steering but their advice is listened to and their family profits from their ripe experience. Untitled men. The Samoan appellation for a male person who is not a "matai" is a  taule'ale'a. The real meaning of the word, which is derived from the word "le'ale'a" (immature), is a young man who has not reached maturity. It is nowadays applied to any male person who is not a "matai". In the past the term was sometimes used to indicate that any male person, even a "matai", was not an old man. In this sense, "taule'ale'a" signifies young or comparatively young, just as "toea'ina" is used to signify that a man is aged or elderly (a respectful status in Samoa) whether he be a "matai" or a "taule'ale'a". It is permissible for a  taule'ale'a (an untitled man) to change his name as often as he wishes. A chance remark or an outstanding incident will often be the determining factor in naming a "taule'ale'a". This can apply to everyone else, including females in Samoa, where a family member, especially a child, might be called a new name to commemorate an important occasion. Disputes resolution. Disputes over "matai" titles which cannot be resolved among family members within the wide extended 'aiga are dealt with by the Land and Titles Court of Samoa which consists of cultural and judicial experts appointed by the Judicial Services  Commission. The Land and Titles Court hears disputes over "matai" title succession as well as disagreements pertaining to customary land. The court derives from the Native Land and Titles Court put in place under the colonial German administration in 1901. Samoa's political stability is thought to be due in large part to the success of this court in hearing disputes.