Process calculus
In computer science, the process calculi (or process algebras) are a diverse family of related approaches for formally modelling concurrent systems. Process calculi provide a tool for the high-level description of interactions, communications, and synchronizations between a collection of independent agents or processes. They also provide algebraic laws that allow process descriptions to be manipulated and analyzed, and permit formal reasoning about equivalences between processes (e.g., using bisimulation). Leading examples of process calculi include CSP, CCS, ACP, and LOTOS. More recent additions to the family include the π-calculus, the ambient calculus, PEPA, the fusion calculus and  the join-calculus. Essential features. While the variety of existing process calculi is very large (including variants that incorporate stochastic behaviour, timing information, and specializations for studying molecular interactions), there are several features that all process calculi have in common: Mathematics of processes. To define a process calculus, one starts with a set of "names" (or "channels") whose purpose is to provide means of communication. In many implementations, channels have rich internal structure to improve efficiency, but this is abstracted away in most theoretic models. In addition to names, one needs a means to form new processes from old ones . The basic operators, always present in some form or other, allow: Parallel composition. Parallel composition of two processes formula_1 and formula_2, usually written formula_3, is the key primitive distinguishing the process calculi from sequential models of computation. Parallel composition allows computation in formula_1 and formula_2 to proceed simultaneously and independently. But it also allows interaction, that is synchronisation and flow of information from formula_1 to formula_2 (or vice versa) on a channel shared by both. Crucially, an agent or process can be connected to more than one channel at a time. Channels may be synchronous or asynchronous. In the case  of a synchronous channel, the agent sending a message waits until another agent has received the message. Asynchronous channels do not require any such synchronization. In some process calculi (notably the π-calculus) channels themselves can be sent in messages through (other) channels, allowing the topology of process interconnections to change. Some process calculi also allow channels to be "created" during the execution of a computation. Communication. Interaction can be (but isn't always) a "directed" flow of information. That is, input and output can be distinguished as dual interaction primitives. Process calculi that make such distinctions typically define an  input operator ("e.g." formula_8) and an output operator ("e.g." formula_9), both of which name an interaction point (here formula_10) that is used to synchronise with a dual interaction primitive. Should information be exchanged, it will flow from the outputting to the inputting process. The output primitive will specify the data to be sent. In formula_9, this data is formula_12. Similarly, if an input expects to receive data, one or more bound variables will act as place-holders to be substituted by data, when it arrives. In formula_8, formula_14 plays that role. The choice of the kind of data that can  be exchanged in an interaction is one of the key features that distinguishes different process calculi. Sequential composition. Sometimes interactions must be temporally ordered. For example, it might be desirable to specify algorithms such as: "first receive some data on formula_10 and then send that data on formula_16". "Sequential composition" can be used for such purposes. It is well known from other models of computation. In process calculi, the sequentialisation operator is usually integrated with input or output, or both. For example, the process formula_17 will wait for an input on formula_10. Only when this input has occurred will the  process formula_1 be activated, with the received data through formula_10 substituted for identifier formula_21. Reduction semantics. The key operational reduction rule, containing the computational essence of process calculi, can be given solely in terms of parallel composition, sequentialization, input, and output. The details of this reduction vary among the calculi, but the essence remains roughly the same. The reduction rule is: The interpretation to this reduction rule is: The class of processes that formula_1 is allowed to range over as the continuation of the output operation substantially influences the properties of the calculus. Hiding. Processes do not limit the number  of connections that can be made at a given interaction point. But interaction points allow interference (i.e. interaction). For the synthesis of compact, minimal and compositional systems, the ability to restrict interference is crucial. "Hiding" operations allow control of the connections made between interaction points when composing agents in parallel. Hiding can be denoted in a variety of ways. For example, in the π-calculus the hiding of a name formula_10 in formula_1 can be expressed as formula_39, while in CSP it might be written as formula_40. Recursion and replication. The operations presented so far describe only finite interaction and  are consequently insufficient for full computability, which includes non-terminating behaviour. "Recursion" and "replication" are operations that allow finite descriptions of infinite behaviour. Recursion is well known from the sequential world. Replication formula_41 can be understood as abbreviating the parallel composition of a countably infinite number of formula_1 processes: Null process. Process calculi generally also include a "null process" (variously denoted as formula_44, formula_45, formula_46, formula_47, or some other appropriate symbol) which has no interaction points. It is utterly inactive and its sole purpose is to act as the inductive anchor on top of which more interesting processes can be  generated. Discrete and continuous process algebra. Process algebra has been studied for discrete time and continuous time (real time or dense time). History. In the first half of the 20th century, various formalisms were proposed to capture the informal concept of a "computable function", with μ-recursive functions, Turing machines and the lambda calculus possibly being the best-known examples today. The surprising fact that they are essentially equivalent, in the sense that they are all encodable into each other, supports the Church-Turing thesis. Another shared feature is more rarely commented on: they all are most readily understood as  models of "sequential" computation. The subsequent consolidation of computer science required a more subtle formulation of the notion of computation, in particular explicit representations of concurrency and communication. Models of concurrency such as the process calculi, Petri nets in 1962, and the actor model in 1973 emerged from this line of inquiry. Research on process calculi began in earnest with Robin Milner's seminal work on the Calculus of Communicating Systems (CCS) during the period from 1973 to 1980. C.A.R. Hoare's Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP) first appeared in 1978, and was subsequently developed into a full-fledged process calculus  during the early 1980s. There was much cross-fertilization of ideas between CCS and CSP as they developed. In 1982 Jan Bergstra and Jan Willem Klop began work on what came to be known as the Algebra of Communicating Processes (ACP), and introduced the term "process algebra" to describe their work. CCS, CSP, and ACP constitute the three major branches of the process calculi family: the majority of the other process calculi can trace their roots to one of these three calculi. Current research. Various process calculi have been studied and not all of them fit the paradigm sketched here . The most prominent example may be the ambient calculus. This is to be expected as process calculi are an active field of study. Currently research on process calculi focuses on the following problems. Software implementations. The ideas behind process algebra have given rise to several tools including: Relationship to other models of concurrency. The history monoid is the free object that is generically able to represent the histories of individual communicating processes. A process calculus is then a formal language imposed on a history monoid in a consistent fashion. That is, a history monoid can only record a sequence of  events, with synchronization, but does not specify the allowed state transitions. Thus, a process calculus is to a history monoid what a formal language is to a free monoid (a formal language is a subset of the set of all possible finite-length strings of an alphabet generated by the Kleene star). The use of channels for communication is one of the features distinguishing the process calculi from other models of concurrency, such as Petri nets and the actor model (see Actor model and process calculi). One of the fundamental motivations for including channels in the process calculi was to  enable certain algebraic techniques, thereby making it easier to reason about processes algebraically.