Japanese lacquerware
The characteristic of Japanese lacquerware is the diversity of lacquerware using a decoration technique called in which metal powder is sprinkled to attach to lacquer. The invention of various techniques in Japanese history expanded artistic expression, and various tools and works of art such as are highly decorative. A number of terms are used in Japanese to refer to lacquerware. "Shikki" (漆器) means "lacquer ware" in the most literal sense, while "nurimono" (塗物) means "coated things", and "urushi-nuri" (漆塗) means "lacquer coating." The terms related to lacquer or lacquerware such as "Japanning", "Urushiol" and ""maque"" which means  lacquer in Mexican Spanish, are derived from Japanese lacquerware. History. Jōmon－Edo period. It has been confirmed that the lacquer tree existed in Japan from 12,600 years ago in the incipient Jōmon period. This was confirmed by radioactive carbon dating of the lacquer tree found at the Torihama shell mound, and is the oldest lacquer tree in the world found as of 2011. Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the Jōmon period. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima "B" Excavation Site in Hokkaido. The ornaments woven with lacquered red thread were discovered  in a pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period. Also, at Kakinoshima "A" Excavation Site, earthenware with a spout painted with vermilion lacquer, which was made 3200 years ago, was found almost completely intact. Lacquering technology may have been invented by the Jōmon. They learned to refine "urushi" (poison oak sap) – the process taking several months. Iron oxide (colcothar) and cinnabar (mercury sulfide) were used for producing red lacquer. Lacquer was used both on pottery, and on different types of wooden items. In some cases, burial clothes for the dead were also lacquered. Many lacquered  objects have turned up during the Early Jōmon period; this indicates that this was an established part of Jōmon culture. Experts are divided on whether Jōmon lacquer was derived from Chinese techniques, or invented independently. For example, Mark Hudson believes that “Jomon lacquer technology was developed independently in Japan rather than being introduced from China as once believed”. One of the masterpieces of ancient Japanese lacquer objects is the Tamamushi Shrine from middle of the seventh century AD. The shrine is made of lacquered "hinoki" or Japanese cypress and camphor wood, both native species. While commonly referred to as "urushi , since the Meiji period some scholars have argued instead that the paintings employ the technique known as mitsuda-e", an early type of oil painting, using perilla ("shiso") oil with litharge as a desiccant. Many traditional crafts and industrial arts produced throughout Japanese history were initially influenced by China, and afterward experienced various native stylistic influences and innovations over the centuries. In the Heian period (794-1185), various "maki-e" techniques characteristic of Japanese lacquerware were developed. While the method of drawing designs with a brush by dissolving gold powder in lacquer is a common technique in other countries, the  method of drawing designs with lacquer and then sprinkling gold, silver, or copper powder of various sizes and shapes on top to polish them was developed in Japan. This made it possible to make the gold and silver of lacquerware brighter than before. , a kind of , was developed and completed in this period. And was developed in the latter half of this period. In the Kamakura period (1185–1333), carved lacquer from the Song Dynasty of China was imported to Japan. However, many Japanese lacquer craftsmen did not adopt the Chinese method of depositing lacquer and then carving it; instead, they  created Kamakurabori, a method of carving wood and then coating lacquer. During this period, was completed and was newly developed. In the Muromachi period (1336–1573), , the most complicated of the typical techniques, was developed, as well as new techniques using grinding stones and clay powders. Japanese lacquerware was abundantly exported to neighboring East Asia, Southeast Asia and even India. Lacquer ( particularly Japanese ) was known at Indian courts and featured among the gifts offered by Europeans to local rulers. Japanese lacquer was well known to Sir Thomas Roe , for example , as a suitable type of gift to the emperor Jahangir , and  he notes in 1616 that rarities from China and Japan were highly desirable in India. In China, the Ming and Qing rulers generally described Japanese lacquerwares as " foreign lacquer " ( yangqi ). Yang Ming, and famous lacquer man Zhejiang, made annotations for A Record of Decoration with Lacquer, ... People of the Ming Dynasty once recorded: “The decoration art with lacquer coated with gold originated (maki-e) from Japan". Yang in the reign of Xuande of the Ming dynasty made a trip to Japan to study Japanese techniques , and a Japanese visited a Chinese imperial workshop in Beijing during the Ming dynasty. It  is well documented that the Yongzheng Emperor had a formidable interest in Japanese lacquer, "yangqi", and this was reflected in many of the works produced in the Imperial workshops during his reign. In the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568-1600) also made its way into Colonial Mexico (Manila Galleons) and Europe by Nanban trade. Japanese lacquerware attracted European aristocrats and missionaries from Europe, and western style chests and church furniture were exported in response to their requests. In this period, became very popular because of mass production. The Edo period (1603–1868) saw an increase in the focused cultivation of lacquer trees  and the development of the techniques used. In the 18th century colored lacquers came into wider use. With the development of economy and culture, the artistic quality of lacquered furniture has improved. Hon'ami Kōetsu and Ogata Kōrin brought the designs of the Rinpa school of painting into lacquerware. After the middle of the Edo period, "Inro" became popular as men's accessories, and wealthy merchants of the chōnin class and samurai class collected "inro" of high aesthetic value, precisely designed with lacquer. Marie Antoinette and Maria Theresa are known collectors of Japanese lacquerware and their collections are now often exhibited  in the Louvre and the Palace of Versailles. During this period, due to the development of the economy, , an advanced technique, became popular. The Meiji era. Early nineteenth-century economic hardship decreased the demand for gold- or silver-decorated lacquerwares. The Meiji era saw a renewed interest in lacquer as artists developed new designs and experimented with new textures and finishes. Foremost among these was Shibata Zeshin, who has been called "Japan's greatest lacquerer". The appeal of his highly original style was in the choice of motifs and subject matter rather than embedded gold and silver. He placed lacquer  panels in frames, imitating Western oil paintings. Other notable lacquer artists of the 19th century include Nakayama Komin and Shirayama Shosai, both of whom, in contrast with Zeshin, maintained a classical style that owed a lot to Japanese and Chinese landscape art. "Maki-e" was the most common technique for quality lacquerware in this period. Twentieth century onwards. After the Meiji era, a new generation of artists further changed the decorative language, depicting plants in a stylised way without naturalistic settings. In recent decades, there has been effort made by the Japanese government to preserve the art of making lacquerware . Through the process of designating important craftsmen such as Gonroku Matsuda (松田権六) and Kazumi Murose (室瀬和美) as Living National Treasure as well the government's effort to encourage the development of new Urushi workshop, the art is gradually establishing itself once again. The best lacquer technique from the end of the Edo period to the Meiji period, especially the technique, was almost lost in the westernization of Japanese lifestyle. However, in 1985 set up his own studio called and succeeded in recreating it. His lacquer works are collected in the Victoria and Albert Museum and the 21st Century Museum of  Contemporary Art, Kanazawa, and are an object of collection for the world's wealthy. In 2020, the Crafts Gallery of the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, which collects works made by Living National Treasures, moved Kanazawa, Ishikawa Prefecture. This is due to the Japanese government's policy of local revitalization. Kanazawa, which flourished under the Maeda clan in the Edo period, is a city with a thriving traditional industry. Techniques and processes. As in other countries where lacquerware has traditionally been produced, the process is fundamentally quite basic. An object is formed from wood, sometimes leather, paper, or basketry . Lacquer is applied to seal and protect the object, and then decoration is added. Generally, three coats (undercoat, middle-coat, and final coat) are used, the final coat sometimes being clear rather than black lacquer, in order to allow decorations to show through. Alongside the red and black lacquers, it is common to see the use of inlay, often seashells or similar materials, as well as mica or other materials. The application of gold powder is known as "maki-e", and is a very common decorative element. A few examples of traditional techniques follow: Regional forms. As with most traditional  arts, variations emerged over time as individual centers of production developed their own unique techniques and styles. National Treasures. The government has registered a number of ancient items as National Treasures. Many of them are Buddhist items, dating from the Heian period. See List of National Treasures of Japan (crafts-others). Collections. The Tokugawa Art Museum in Nagoya City, Japan has a lacquer collection including the Edo period maki-e bridal trousseau that was designated a National Treasure. Today, Japanese lacquerware is sought by collectors and museums around the world. Modern collections of Japanese lacquerware outside Japan include the Nasser  D. Khalili Collection of Japanese Art which includes works by Shitaba Zeshin and other notable artists. Nasser Khalili has run exhibitions focused on Shibata Zeshin's work in four countries. The Charles A. Greenfield Collection in the United States covers the period from 1600 to 1900. Marie Antoinette's collection of domestic lacquer is split between the Louvre, the Guimet Museum, and the Palace of Versailles. The V&A Museum in London has a collection of mainly export lacquerware totalling around 2,500 pieces. Artisans. Amongst those lacquer artists that have been named as Living National Treasures are Kazumi Murose (室瀬和美), Kōichi  Nakano (中野孝一), Fumio Mae (前史雄), Masami Isoi (磯井正美), Hitoshi Ōta (太田儔), Yoshito Yamashita (山下義人), Isao Ōnishi (大西勲), Kunie Komori (小森邦衞), Kiichirō Masumura (増村紀一郎), and Shōsai Kitamura (北村昭斎). Past Living National Treasures were Shōzan Takano (高野松山), Gonroku Matsuda (松田権六), Naoji Terai (寺井直次), Yoshikuni Taguchi (田口善国), Shōgyo Ōba (大場松魚), Otomaru Kōdō (音丸耕堂), Taihō Mae (前大峰), Joshin Isoi (磯井如真), Yūsai Akaji (赤地友哉), Mashiki Masumura (増村益城), and Keishirō Shioda (塩多慶四郎). Okada Akito (岡田章人作, 1910–1968) was exhibited regularly at the "Nitten" exhibition after 1947, and he served as a lacquer-restoration master for the Imperial Household collections.