Irish syntax
Irish syntax is rather different from that of most Indo-European languages, especially because of its VSO word order. Normal word order. The normal word order in an Irish sentence is: Only the verb and subject are obligatory; all other parts are optional (unless the primary or finite verb is transitive, in which case a direct object is required). In synthetic verb forms, the verb and subject are united in a single word, so that even one-word sentences are possible, e.g. "I understand." An example sentence: Questions and answers. Irish has no words for "yes" and "no . The answer to a question contains a repetition (the same as in Latin) of the verb, either with or without a negative particle. For analytic forms, only the verb is given and the subject is not repeated. If a verb has different dependent and independent forms, the dependent form follows the interrogative or negative particle. The independent form is used where there is no particle. Commands. In a command the imperative mood is used, and no subject is given. To express a negative command, the particle is used. This particle, which can be roughly translated don't", causes neither eclipsis  nor lenition, and attaches "h" to a following vowel. Syntax of the verbal noun. A progressive aspect can be formed by connecting the verbal noun to the existential verb with the progressive particle . The object of a verbal noun is in the genitive, if it is definite. If a nonfinite clause forms the complement of the verb, the verbal noun stands alone (without a preposition) in the clause. The direct object of a verbal noun complement precedes the verbal noun; the leniting particle "to" is placed between them. Other complements follow. Object pronouns. Generally, an object pronoun or a conjugated  preposition stands at the end of a sentence in Irish. Compare this sentence: with the two following sentences: Passive. Irish commonly uses the impersonal form (also called the autonomous form) instead of the passive voice. In the perfect, the passive voice is formed by using the passive participle with the existential verb. Stative verbs. Some verbs describing the state or condition of a person form a progressive present with the existential verb plus 'in (my, your, his etc.)' plus the verbal noun. Forms meaning "to be". Irish, like Spanish and other languages, has two forms that can express the English  verb "to be". The two forms perform different grammatical functions. Existential verb. The existential verb is . It is an irregular verb; see Irish verbs for its conjugation. Existence, condition or location. This verb expresses the absolute existence of something, its condition, or its location. When accompanied by the adverb "there", it means "exist" or "there is/are". Otherwise, the verb is complemented by an adjective, an adverb or a prepositional phrase. Definitions. A noun phrase alone cannot form the predicate of the existential verb. Instead, the noun complement is preceded by a form meaning "in my, in your, in  his", etc. The copula. The Irish copula is not a verb but a particle, used to express a definition or identification. It may be complemented by a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, or a topicalized phrase. Because it is not a verb, it does not inflect for person or number, and pronouns appear in the disjunctive form. The copula, which has the realis form , is used for identification and definition: Definition: X is a Y. Here, the word order is "Is-Y-(pronoun)-X". X is a definite noun or a pronoun. Identification: X is the Y. Here the word order is  Is-pronoun-X-Y, or "Is-pronoun-Y-X". There must always be a pronoun between a definite noun and the copula. It would be wrong to say *"Is Seán an múinteoir", which would mean "The teacher is a Seán". To identify a first or second person pronoun with a definite noun, it is usual to use the longer form of the personal pronoun, which comes immediately after the copula: The long form of the personal pronoun is very emphatic and stressed and often ejects the copula entirely. Thus, in the previous four examples, it is possible to leave out  the copula, which will then be understood: If a third-person pronoun with a definite noun is identified, the same construction may be used: However, in the third person, that is perceived to be much more emphatic than in the first and second persons. The usual way to say "He is the teacher" is in which the definite noun is "flanked" by two personal pronouns agreeing with it in gender and number. When saying "this is", or "that is", and are used, in which case is usually dropped: One can also add "that is in him/her/it", especially when  an adjective is used if one wants to emphasise the quality: That sometimes appears in Hiberno-English, translated literally as "that is in it" or as "so it is". The present tense of the copula can be used for the future: The past tense of the copula can be used for the conditional: The forms and are not used after preverbal particles. If the predicate is definite, the copula is followed by a disjunctive personal pronoun, which may be repeated at the end of the sentence. If the predicate is indefinite, it follows the copula directly, with the disjunctive pronoun  and subject coming at the end. The copula can also be used to stress an adjective, as in the following instance: Topicalization. Topicalization in Irish is formed by clefting: by fronting the topicalized element as the predicate of the copula, while the rest of the sentence becomes a relative clause. Compare "I said it" with ""I" said it." Other uses for the copula. There are other set idiomatic phrases using the copula, as seen in the following examples. Here the predicate consists mostly of either a prepositional phrase or an adjective. There are also the following constructions: Answering questions with  copula. Since the copula cannot stand alone, the answer must contain either a part of the predicate or a pronoun, both of which follow the copula. Omission of. In all dialects, the copula may be omitted if the predicate is a noun. ( cannot be deleted.) If is omitted, the following preceding the noun is omitted as well. Comparison of the existential verb and the copula. Both the existential verb and the copula may take a nominal predicate, but the two constructions have slightly different meanings: sounds more permanent: it represents something absolute about Seán; it is a permanent  characteristic of Seán that he is a doctor. That is known as an individual-level predicate. In the sentence , one says rather that Seán performs the job of a doctor, he is a doctor at the moment, or he has become a doctor. That is known as a stage-level predicate. Subordination. Most complementizers (subordinating conjunctions) in Irish cause eclipsis and require the dependent form of irregular verbs. The word order in an Irish subordinate clause is the same as in a main clause. The types of subordination discussed here are: complementation, relative clauses, and wh-questions (which are formed  as a kind of relative clause in Irish). Complementation. Syntactic complementation. The subordinate clause is a part of the main clause in a purely syntactic complementation. In Irish it is introduced by "that" in the positive and "that... not" in the negative. Other examples of complex sentences using complementizers: Conditional complementation. A conditional clause gives the condition under which something will happen. In Irish there are two kinds of conditional clauses, depending on the plausibility of the condition. The particle introduces a conditional clause that is plausible, also called a "realis condition". causes lenition and takes the independent form of  irregular verbs. Its negated form is and causes eclipsis. Preceding the preterite it is and causes lenition. If the condition of the clause is hypothetical, also called an "irrealis condition" or "counterfactual conditional", the word is used, which causes eclipsis and takes the dependent form of irregular verbs. The negated equivalent is either or , meaning roughly "if it were not the case that...". The verb in both clauses is in the conditional. Other examples of conditionals are: Relative clauses. Direct relative. There are two kinds of relative clauses in Irish: direct and indirect. Direct relative clauses begin with the leniting  relativizer and the independent form of an irregular verb is used. The direct relative is used when the relative pronoun is the subject or direct object of its clause. The direct relative is also used in topicalizations, e.g.: The direct relative is also used after the word "time": Indirect relative. Indirect relative clauses begin with the eclipsing relativizer (in the preterite with leniting ); the dependent form of an irregular verb is used. The indirect relative is used to signify a genitive or the object of a preposition. In these cases, there is a resumptive pronoun in the relative clause. The  negative form of a relative clause, direct or indirect, is formed with the eclipsing relativizer , or, before the preterite, with the leniting relativizer . Sometimes a direct relative clause can be ambiguous in meaning, leaving unclear if the relative is accusative or nominative: If the accusative reading is intended, one could use an indirect relative with a resumptive pronoun: Wh-questions. A "wh"-question begins with a word such as "who, what, how, when, where, why" etc. In Irish, such questions are constructed as relative clauses, in that they can be constructed as either direct or indirect. Direct relative wh-questions. Questions  with "who, what, how many, which, when" are constructed as direct relative clauses. Indirect relative wh-questions. Questions with prepositions (i.e. "on what?, with whom?") and questions with "why?" and "where?" are constructed as indirect relative clauses. Clauses introduced by "how". There are two words for "how" in Irish: the word takes the direct relative clause, the phrase takes the indirect. Complementary subordinate clauses in the form of a relative clause. Some complements in Irish take the form of a relative, in that they end in the relative particle ; both direct and indirect relative are found.