Multiset
In mathematics, a multiset (or bag, or mset) is a modification of the concept of a set that, unlike a set, allows for multiple instances for each of its elements. The number of instances given for each element is called the multiplicity of that element in the multiset. As a consequence, an infinite number of multisets exist which contain only elements and , but vary in the multiplicities of their elements: These objects are all different, when viewed as multisets, although they are the same set, since they all consist of the same elements. As with sets, and in contrast  to tuples, order does not matter in discriminating multisets, so and denote the same multiset. To distinguish between sets and multisets, a notation that incorporates square brackets is sometimes used: the multiset can be denoted as . The cardinality of a multiset is constructed by summing up the multiplicities of all its elements. For example, in the multiset the multiplicities of the members , , and are respectively 2, 3, and 1, and therefore the cardinality of this multiset is 6. Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn coined the word "multiset" in the 1970s, according to Donald Knuth. However, the use of the concept of  multisets predates the coinage of the word "multiset" by many centuries. Knuth himself attributes the first study of multisets to the Indian mathematician Bhāskarāchārya, who described permutations of multisets around 1150. Other names have been proposed or used for this concept, including "list", "bunch", "bag", "heap", "sample", "weighted set", "collection", and "suite". History. Wayne Blizard traced multisets back to the very origin of numbers, arguing that "in ancient times, the number "n" was often represented by a collection of "n" strokes, tally marks, or units." These and similar collections of objects are multisets, because strokes, tally marks, or units are  considered indistinguishable. This shows that people implicitly used multisets even before mathematics emerged. Practical needs for this structure have caused multisets to be rediscovered several times, appearing in literature under different names. For instance, they were important in early AI languages, such as QA4, where they were referred to as "bags," a term attributed to Peter Deutsch. A multiset has been also called an aggregate, heap, bunch, sample, weighted set, occurrence set, and fireset (finitely repeated element set). Although multisets were used implicitly from ancient times, their explicit exploration happened much later. The first known study of multisets is attributed  to the Indian mathematician Bhāskarāchārya circa 1150, who described permutations of multisets. The work of Marius Nizolius (1498–1576) contains another early reference to the concept of multisets. Athanasius Kircher found the number of multiset permutations when one element can be repeated. Jean Prestet published a general rule for multiset permutations in 1675. John Wallis explained this rule in more detail in 1685. Multisets appeared explicitly in the work of Richard Dedekind. Other mathematicians formalized multisets and began to study them as precise mathematical structures in the 20th century. For example, Whitney (1933) described "generalized sets" ("sets" whose characteristic functions may  take any integer value - positive, negative or zero). Monro (1987) investigated the category Mul of multisets and their morphisms, defining a "multiset" as a set with an equivalence relation between elements "of the same "sort"", and a "morphism" between multisets as a function which respects "sorts". He also introduced a "multinumber": a function "f"("x") from a multiset to the natural numbers, giving the "multiplicity" of element "x" in the multiset. Monro argued that the concepts of multiset and multinumber are often mixed indiscriminately, though both are useful. Examples. One of the simplest and most natural examples is the multiset of  prime factors of a natural number . Here the underlying set of elements is the set of prime factors of . For example, the number 120 has the prime factorization which gives the multiset . A related example is the multiset of solutions of an algebraic equation. A quadratic equation, for example, has two solutions. However, in some cases they are both the same number. Thus the multiset of solutions of the equation could be , or it could be . In the latter case it has a solution of multiplicity 2. More generally, the fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that the complex solutions of  a polynomial equation of degree always form a multiset of cardinality . A special case of the above are the eigenvalues of a matrix, whose multiplicity is usually defined as their multiplicity as roots of the characteristic polynomial. However two other multiplicities are naturally defined for eigenvalues, their multiplicities as roots of the minimal polynomial, and the geometric multiplicity, which is defined as the dimension of the kernel of (where is an eigenvalue of the matrix ). These three multiplicities define three multisets of eigenvalues, which may be all different: Let be a matrix in Jordan normal form that has a single  eigenvalue. Its multiplicity is , its multiplicity as a root of the minimal polynomial is the size of the largest Jordan block, and its geometric multiplicity is the number of Jordan blocks. Definition. A multiset may be formally defined as a 2-tuple where is the "underlying set" of the multiset, formed from its distinct elements, and formula_2 is a function from to the set of the positive integers, giving the "multiplicity", that is, the number of occurrences, of the element in the multiset as the number . Representing the function by its graph (the set of ordered pairs formula_3) allows for  writing the multiset as , and the multiset as . This notation is however not commonly used and more compact notations are employed. If formula_4 is a finite set, the multiset is often represented as where upper indices equal to 1 are omitted. For example, the multiset may be written formula_7 or formula_8 If the elements of the multiset are numbers, a confusion is possible with ordinary arithmetic operations, those normally can be excluded from the context. On the other hand, the latter notation is coherent with the fact that the prime factorization of a positive integer is a uniquely defined multiset , as asserted by the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. Also, a monomial is a multiset of indeterminates; for example, the monomial "x""y" corresponds to the multiset . A multiset corresponds to an ordinary set if the multiplicity of every element is one (as opposed to some larger positive integer). An indexed family, , where varies over some index-set "I", may define a multiset, sometimes written . In this view the underlying set of the multiset is given by the image of the family, and the multiplicity of any element is the number of index values such that formula_9. In this article the multiplicities  are considered to be finite, i.e. no element occurs infinitely many times in the family: even in an infinite multiset, the multiplicities are finite numbers. It is possible to extend the definition of a multiset by allowing multiplicities of individual elements to be infinite cardinals instead of positive integers, but not all properties carry over to this generalization. Basic properties and operations. Elements of a multiset are generally taken in a fixed set , sometimes called a "universe", which is often the set of natural numbers. An element of that does not belong to a given multiset is said to have  a multiplicity 0 in this multiset. This extends the multiplicity function of the multiset to a function from to the set formula_10 of nonnegative integers. This defines a one-to-one correspondence between these functions and the multisets that have their elements in . This extended multiplicity function is commonly called simply the multiplicity function, and suffices for defining multisets when the universe containing the elements has been fixed. This multiplicity function is a generalization of the indicator function of a subset, and shares some properties with it. The support of a multiset formula_11 in a universe is the underlying set  of the multiset. Using the multiplicity function formula_12, it is characterized as A multiset is "finite" if its support is finite, or, equivalently, if its cardinality is finite. The "empty multiset" is the unique multiset with an empty support (underlying set), and thus a cardinality 0. The usual operations of sets may be extended to multisets by using the multiplicity function, in a similar way as using the indicator function for subsets. In the following, and are multisets in a given universe , with multiplicity functions formula_15 and formula_16 Two multisets are "disjoint" if their supports are disjoint sets. This is  equivalent to saying that their intersection is the empty multiset or that their sum equals their union. There is an inclusion–exclusion principle for finite multisets (similar to the one for sets), stating that a finite union of finite multisets is the difference of two sums of multisets: in the first sum we consider all possible intersections of an odd number of the given multisets, while in the second sum we consider all possible intersections of an even number of the given multisets. Counting multisets. The number of multisets of cardinality , with elements taken from a finite set of cardinality  , is called the multiset coefficient or multiset number. This number is written by some authors as formula_22, a notation that is meant to resemble that of binomial coefficients; it is used for instance in (Stanley, 1997), and could be pronounced " multichoose " to resemble " choose " for formula_23. Like the binomial distribution that involves binomial coefficients, there is a negative binomial distribution in which the multiset coefficients occur. Multiset coefficients should not be confused with the unrelated multinomial coefficients that occur in the multinomial theorem. The value of multiset coefficients can be given explicitly as where the second expression is as a  binomial coefficient; many authors in fact avoid separate notation and just write binomial coefficients. So, the number of such multisets is the same as the number of subsets of cardinality in a set of cardinality . The analogy with binomial coefficients can be stressed by writing the numerator in the above expression as a rising factorial power to match the expression of binomial coefficients using a falling factorial power: either of which is well defined even if we allow to be an arbitrary complex number. There are for example 4 multisets of cardinality 3 with elements taken from the set of  cardinality 2 (, ), namely , , , . There are also 4 "subsets" of cardinality 3 in the set of cardinality 4 (), namely , , , . One simple way to prove the equality of multiset coefficients and binomial coefficients given above, involves representing multisets in the following way. First, consider the notation for multisets that would represent (6 s, 2 s, 3 s, 7 s) in this form: This is a multiset of cardinality = 18 made of elements of a set of cardinality = 4. The number of characters including both dots and vertical lines used in this notation is 18 + 4 − 1. The number  of vertical lines is 4 − 1. The number of multisets of cardinality 18 is then the number of ways to arrange the 4 − 1 vertical lines among the 18 + 4 − 1 characters, and is thus the number of subsets of cardinality 4 − 1 in a set of cardinality 18 + 4 − 1. Equivalently, it is the number of ways to arrange the 18 dots among the 18 + 4 − 1 characters, which is the number of subsets of cardinality 18 of a set of cardinality 18 + 4 − 1. This is thus  is the value of the multiset coefficient and its equivalencies: From the relation between binomial coefficients and multiset coefficients, it follows that the number of multisets of cardinality in a set of cardinality can be written Additionally, Recurrence relation. A recurrence relation for multiset coefficients may be given as with The above recurrence may be interpreted as follows. Let  := formula_36 be the source set. There is always exactly one (empty) multiset of size 0, and if there are no larger multisets, which gives the initial conditions. Now, consider the case in which . A multiset of cardinality with elements from  might or might not contain any instance of the final element . If it does appear, then by removing once, one is left with a multiset of cardinality of elements from , and every such multiset can arise, which gives a total of If does not appear, then our original multiset is equal to a multiset of cardinality with elements from , of which there are Thus, Generating series. The generating function of the multiset coefficients is very simple, being As multisets are in one-to-one correspondence with monomials, formula_41 is also the number of monomials of degree in indeterminates. Thus, the  above series is also the Hilbert series of the polynomial ring formula_42 As formula_41 is a polynomial in , it and the generating function are well defined for any complex value of . Generalization and connection to the negative binomial series. The multiplicative formula allows the definition of multiset coefficients to be extended by replacing "n" by an arbitrary number "α" (negative, real, complex): With this definition one has a generalization of the negative binomial formula (with one of the variables set to 1), which justifies calling the formula_45 negative binomial coefficients: This Taylor series formula is valid for all complex numbers  α and "X" with  < 1. It can also be interpreted as an identity of formal power series in "X", where it actually can serve as definition of arbitrary powers of series with constant coefficient equal to 1; the point is that with this definition all identities hold that one expects for exponentiation, notably and formulas such as these can be used to prove identities for the multiset coefficients. If "α" is a nonpositive integer "n", then all terms with "k" > −"n" are zero, and the infinite series becomes a finite sum. However, for other values of "α", including  positive integers and rational numbers, the series is infinite. Applications. Multisets have various applications. They are becoming fundamental in combinatorics. Multisets have become an important tool in the theory of relational databases, which often uses the synonym "bag". For instance, multisets are often used to implement relations in database systems. In particular, a table (without a primary key) works as a multiset, because it can have multiple identical records. Similarly, SQL operates on multisets and return identical records. For instance, consider "SELECT name from Student". In the case that there are multiple records with name "sara" in the student table , all of them are shown. That means the result set of SQL is a multiset. If it was a set, the repetitive records in the result set were eliminated. Another application of multiset is in modeling multigraphs. In multigraphs there can be multiple edges between any two given vertices. As such, the entity that shows edges is a multiset, and not a set. There are also other applications. For instance, Richard Rado used multisets as a device to investigate the properties of families of sets. He wrote, "The notion of a set takes no account of multiple occurrence of any  one of its members, and yet it is just this kind of information which is frequently of importance. We need only think of the set of roots of a polynomial "f"("x") or the spectrum of a linear operator." Generalizations. Different generalizations of multisets have been introduced, studied and applied to solving problems.