Hmong people
The Hmong/Mong people (RPA: "Hmoob", Nyiakeng Puachue: , Pahawh Hmong: , ) are indigenous people that mainly live in Southwest China (Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Chongqing, and Guangxi), Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. They have been members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) since 2007. In China they are classified as a subgroup of the Miao people. During the First and Second Indochina Wars, France and the United States intervened in the Laotian Civil War by recruiting thousands of Hmong people to fight against forces from North and South Vietnam which were stationed in Laos in accordance with their  mission to support the communist Pathet Lao insurgents. The CIA operation is known as the Secret War. Etymology. China. According to the book ShiJi, "under the Five Emperors Biographies, stated that Zhuanxu was a descendant (grandson) of Huangdi. SiMa Qian's writing suggested that Xia had a cultural struggle between matriarchal and patriarchal culture which implies that Mong Guo kingdoms or Jiuli were a matriarchal societies. Under Zhuanxu Biography, he led the people into modern shandong where he made contributions to a unified calendar, astrology, and religious reforms. He supported a patriarchal society. The above points out that Zhuanxu promoted  a religion based on the spirits and God which sounds like Shaman. According to the sun and the moon, it was the Mong Nation (盟国). The Mong character 盟 was represented by the sun (日) [lub hnub], the moon (月) [lub hli], and the min (皿) [memtoj; meemtoj]). Min ("Meen" [toj]) a base of mountain or a vessel. Later this character 盟 became used for the meaning of "united nation" because "Mong" originally formed by uniting among different clans (or states) of the Yellow River Basin. The people of Zhuanxu were known to self-reference as Mong Shi (盟氏, 蒙氏  Moob Shib)". Based on this, the (H)Mong were known to be a group or tribe who believed in God and worshiped the Spiritual World. Or in other words, the word (H)Mong probably reference to both Blue (Hmong: Xiav) as the sky and Black (Hmong: Dub) as the Spiritual World, similarly to their traditional cloth, which they've worn for hundreds of thousands of years, since the beginning of time. In the book, Mong: China History and Heritage Preservation, Cha stated that "Mong continued to believe and worship the universe known as NTu (天) which it is mostly translated into 'God '. It was previously covered that the solar system which includes the sun, the moon, and the mound (earth/vessel) are symbolic totems to the Mong in representing their Mong name and society. Mong take pride in those icons which they perceive them to be sacred as if they are worshiping them. Such practices existed very early and it is still a part of the Mong culture" (Cha, 336). In another chapter, Cha also stated in his research that "The Mong name under their language has to do with the universe (cosmos) of this universe which is represented by the sun , the moon, and the earth (盟) as a unity. It has to do with NTu (天), the creator of the universe, which Mong continued to worship and speak of" (Cha, 436). In the Hmong language, the word "Hmoob or Moob" refers to "Me nyuam ("Kids or Children") [muag ("to have")] hmoov ("Luck, Fortune, Powder or Ashes") [ntuj ("Sky or God" - Creator of the Universe)]." Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia, Hmong people are referred to by other names, including: ; Lao: ແມ້ວ (Maew, can be pronounced to mean "cat", and also sounds of cats) or ມົ້ງ (Mong); Thai: แม้ว (Maew, can be  pronounced to mean "cat", and also sounds of cats) or ม้ง (Mong); ("mun lu-myo"). The Hmong fought against central governments for thousands of years while having a reputation of being hospitable and friendly reputation to the French colonizers. Therefore, in Indochina, the French left them alone to make friends with them, all the more than they also are ferocious warriors. Famous general Salan wrote about them: "I have known them well. It is better to have them for you than against you". The Hmong allied with the French against the Communists during the whole Indochina War and with the  Americans during the whole Vietnam War, hoping to resist communist Viêt Minh control. The present Vietnamese Government now leaves the Hmong some administrative autonomy. During the Secret War, in the early 1960s through 1970s the word "Miao or Meo (meaning "cats", "barbarians", and even "Sons of the Soil")" was used until it was changed by General Vang Pao and Dr. Yang Dao to "Hmong", with an added "H" in front of the word "Mong." During that time, Dr. Yang Dao, unknowingly defined and cited the word 'Hmong' to mean "Free Men". This assertion was originally put forth by Yang Dao , a Hmong scholar who felt that framing the etymology of the word "Hmong" as meaning "free" would be beneficial to the Hmong themselves. Origins. Myths and Legends. According to H'Mong perspectives and claims, their ancestors' history was incorporated into H'Mong customs such as funeral ritual, religion, and ancestral worship. H'Mong ancestors told their descendants from generation to generation that their ancestors came from the north (possibly northern present-day China). "Places that H'Mong elders spoke of were "NtujTxag TebTsauv NtujQhua TebNkig", "Roob Tuag No", "YaajCeeb", "TeebCeeb", "YeebTeb", "YaajTeb", "CeebTsheej", "Peb CeebTsheej", "Shau CeebTsheej", "ShauCeeb", "NajCeeb", "LongCeeb", "ShauNDuj", "SauNam NDuj", "Mong  NDaisNDuj", "YaajShaab", "MosLoob", "DLaisNDuj (NDaisNtuj)", "NamNDuj", "MivNDuj", "NDuj Qaab Teb", "DlejDlub", "DlejDlaag", "Dlej Dlawb", "MoojShaab", "Moob NDaiRooj", "HejLoojCaab", "HoujNaaj", "CaabNaaj", "TshaavDaab", "Ntuj Cuab Xyaab", "TuamTshoj", "ShovTshoj", "CaabPeg", "CaabNaaj", and so on" (Cha, 2). According to westerners' studies, "they interpreted Mong's DùkhuoDēighi DùcaDēizhao to be the North Pole because it has sunlight for half of the year and darkness for the other half. However, this is incorrect. DùkhuoDēighi means "summer desert land", and DùcaDēizhao means "winter dusty storm" or the darkness of winter. Dēighi ("tebnkig") means desert land or dried land, and Dēizhao ("tebtsaus") has the connotation for dusty wind  that creates a dark environment" (Cha, 13). Another speculation is from the Show the Way Ritual, which elaborated of Yindei and Yandei ("Yeeb Teb" & "Yaaj Teb" 殷地 & 燕地) or "Yin Jing and Yan Jing" (殷地 & 燕地) as other ancestral places. Another version from H'Mong's Show the Way Ritual also indicates of their main leaders whom are known as Yuan Yan and Yuan Zhang (Yawg Yaaj and Yawg Tsaab). This means that Yan and Zhang were the great ancestors who started the H'Mong civilization. Furthermore, H'Mong elders also mentioned a place that their ancestors passed through before they reached central  China (Shuo Dei; "Shuav Teb") were the snowy mountains of Zhong DuoNo ("Roob Tuag No"). The terms Zhong DuoNo means "Deadly Freezing Mountains." According to Cha, "During the time their ancestors immigrated to DlèiDlangDei (DlejDlaag Teb), the land of the Yellow River, their crossed snowy mountains. DlèiDlang was Mong's country and home where they had HuāDai and ZhǒngFǘ (emperors and government; 皇帝 & 政府) for a very long time" (Cha, 14). Mong also have folktales and stories which talked about Mong coming from BeiDu (the Upper World) into this world. Stories includes: "Lord's Seven Princesses" ("HuabTais Xyaa Leej Ntxhais ) legendary story that sopke about princesses coming down from ShauDu (ShauNDuj"); the story of Nu ShiLong ("Nuj ShisLoob"); "Nkauj Ntsuab" and "Nraug Nas (or Naab)", and Shiyi ("ShivYig"). Genetic Origins. A recent DNA research in Thailand found that Hmong paternal lineage is quite different from those lu Mien and other Southeast Asian tribes. The Hmong-Mien and Sino-Tibetan speaking people are known as hill tribes in Thailand; they were the subject of the first studies to show an impact of patrilocality vs. matrilocality on patterns of mitochondrial (mt) DNA vs. male-specific portion of the Y chromosome (MSY) variation . According to linguist Martha Ratliff, there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied some of the same areas of southern China for over 8,000 years. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong–Mien–speaking populations supports the southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although it has been shown that Hmong-speaking populations had comparatively more contact with northern East Asians than had the Mien. Homeland. The most likely homeland of the Hmong–Mien languages is in Southern China between the Yangtze and Mekong rivers, but speakers of these languages may have migrated from Central China  either as part of the Han Chinese expansion or as a result of exile from an original homeland by Han Chinese. Migration of people speaking these languages from South China to Southeast Asia took place ca. 1600–1700 CE. Ancient DNA evidence suggests that the ancestors of the speakers of the Hmong–Mien languages were a population genetically distinct from that of the Tai–Kadai and Austronesian language source populations at a location on the Yangtze River. Recent Y-DNA phylogeny evidence supports the proposition that people who speak the Hmong–Mien languages are descended from a population that is distantly  related to those who now speaks the Mon-Khmer languages. The time of Proto-Hmong-Mien has been estimated to be about 2500 BP (500 BC) by Sagart, Blench, and Sanchez-Mazas using traditional methods employing many lines of evidence, and about 4243 BP by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP), an experimental algorithm for automatic generation of phonologically based phylogenies. History. In China. Early History. According to historical records, ancient civilization at the Yellow River Basin was based on the fable of Yandi, Huangdi, and Chiyou. They all fought each other in warfare, and in the end, both northern  groups (Yandi and Huangdi tribes) ousted the southern group (Chiyou tribe). Based on legends and stories, this historical period led up until the Xia Dynasty. Legends says that the confrontations between Yandi, Huangdi, and Chiyou was originally portaited as conflicts between herders and farmers in modern Hebei province. Both groups of people were dissimilar in terms of cultures, languages, and customs. Recent excavation of Licheng and writing such from Sim Qian states that "Chiyou family name was Jiang and his ruling was after Yandi" made scholars and historians to claim that Chiyou was the leader of the nine Yi tribes . Nine Yi tribes were the nine Li (Jiuli). They over threw Yandi from Licheng or Chiyou, the general who took power from the King Yandi. According to legend and past historical writings, Jiuli (also known as Jiu Yi), meaning Nine Yi tribes. The Nine Li clans were known as Quǎn Yi, Yú Yi, Fāng Yi, Huáng Yi, Bái Yi, Chì Yi, Xuán Yi, Fēng Yi, and Yáng Yi (畎夷, 于夷, 方夷, 黄夷, 白夷, 赤夷, 玄夷, 风 夷, 阳夷). They entered the Central Plain from the coastal water regions and into the Yellow River Basin. That's when they formed the  Nine Li group. The term Li means large number (multitude) or black, which means the word Jiuli is likely referring to the nine black tribes. Based on recorded documents found, Yandi, Huangdi, and Chiyou are all fabled names given to the leaders of the three main groups. Yandi (炎帝 / Yaajtim) was the virtue of fire, Huangdi (皇帝 / HuanjTim; FaajTim) was the Yellow King because he was considered as the first ruler of early "civilized" people of the Yellow River Basin, and as for Chiyou (蚩尤 / Ntxig Nyoog), he was known as a "ferocious beast." The term Chiyou was derived from  the "Red Cloud" known as Jìn Yún. In connection to this, Mong folklore and philosophy of "Huanjtim Huantij and Ntxig Nyoog." As stated by Mong folktale, once "Fajjtim HuabTais" defeated the beast, Mong people came down from the Upper World to live in this world (referred to as Lower World). Within Mong transliterations, Huanmtij (皇帝 / Huangdi) and Huabtais (Huadai) simply means lord or emperor. This battles took place in Northern Hebei under ZhuoLu County (涿鹿县). Zhuolu County is located about 150 kilometers northwest from present-day Beijing. Acoording to customs, the ancient rulers (emperors) were known to garb themselves in  yellow as a representation of the Sun and power to which there is only one sun to this Solar System. The "Yellow King" was defined into Gong Sun (公孙车干辕) deriving from SiMa Qian's writing about one of the Yellow King's descendants. "Yellow King who, Shaodian's son, surnamed Gong Sung, name Xuan Yuan, living at Xuan Yuan Hill." ["黄帝者，少典之子，姓公孙，名轩辕，黄帝居于轩辕之丘"] From that writing, the Yellow King is presently referred to as the Sun Yuan ("Koob Seev Yawg" or "Yawg Koob Seev"). Many battles took places between Huangdi and Chiyou. A Record of Chuxue and others similar writings stated that  the book Gui Cang (归藏) recorded that Chiyou came out from Zi Yang Water. He had eight fingers (arms), eight toes (legs) with an (strange) alien head. His head was like iron bronze and was invulnerable. Under many battles, Huangdi finally killed Chiyou at Yu Qingqiu. After Chiyou's death, and due to the magical powers of the devil, his body was dismembered into several pieces and taken to different parts of ZhuoLu. The separation and burial of his body in different places were so that he could not turn into a beast again. The Battle of ZhuoLu was the  crushing end to Jiuli's civilization as they fled the Yellow River Basin. This had displaced the majority of the Jiuli tribes into the Huai River. The southern regions of the Yellow River were known as San Miao, and their central location was the Jiangsu and Anhui Basin. San Miao regions include modern areas of Anhui, Jiangsu, Hubei, Jiangxi, Hunan, Sichuan, Chonqing, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Guilin (Zǒng ZhǔBiān, p. 50). Capitals of the San Miao Kingdom were unknown, but what's known is that they weren't the northerns during Xia, Shang, and Zhou eras. Their ancestor was Chiyou. Vietnam . The Hmong or Miao began to migrate to Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) in 19th century, where they struggled to establish their community on the high mountains. They recognized the Tai-speaking overlords of valleys, who were vassals of the Vietnamese court in Hue. The Hue court of Tu Duc at the time was facing crisis after crisis, unable to retake control of Tonkin and the border regions, which the Taiping rebellion and other Chinese rebels spillover to Vietnam had pushed it into anarchy. In here, Hmong communities humbly thrived on either sides of the Red River, harmonizing among other ethnic groups , and they were largely ignored by all factions. During the colonization of 'Tonkin' (North Vietnam) between 1883 and 1954, a number of Hmong decided to join the Vietnamese Nationalists and Communists, while many Christianized Hmong sided with the French. After the Viet Minh victory, numerous pro-French Hmong had to fall back to Laos and South Vietnam. Laos. After decades of distant relations with the Lao kingdoms, closer relations between the French military and some Hmong on the Xieng Khouang plateau were set up after World War II. There, a particular rivalry between members of the Lo and Ly clans  developed into open enmity, also affecting those connected with them by kinship. Clan leaders took opposite sides and as a consequence, several thousand Hmong participated in the fighting against the Pathet Lao Communists, while perhaps as many were enrolled in the People's Liberation Army. In Laos, numerous Hmong also genuinely tried to avoid getting involved in the conflict in spite of the extremely difficult material conditions under which they lived during wartime. The U.S. and the Laotian Civil War. In the early 1960s, partially as a result of the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency 's (CIA) Special Activities Division began to recruit, train and lead the indigenous Hmong people in Laos to fight against North Vietnamese Army divisions invading Laos during the Vietnam War. This "Secret Army" was organized into various mobile regiments and divisions, including various Special Guerrilla Units, all of whom were led by General Vang Pao. An estimated sixty-percent (60%) of Hmong men in Laos joined up. While Hmong soldiers were known to assist the North Vietnamese in many situations, Hmong soldiers were also recognized for serving in combat against the NVA and the Pathet Lao, helping block Hanoi's  Ho Chi Minh trail inside Laos and rescuing downed American pilots. Though their role was generally kept secret in the early stages of the conflict, they made great sacrifices to help the U.S. Thousands of economic and political refugees have resettled in Western countries in two separate waves. The first wave resettled in the late 1970s, mostly in the United States, after the North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao takeovers of the pro-US governments in South Vietnam and Laos respectively. The Lao Veterans of America, and Lao Veterans of America Institute, helped to assist in the resettlement of many Laotian  and Hmong refugees and asylum seekers in the United States, especially former Hmong veterans and their family members who served in the "U.S. Secret Army" in Laos during the Vietnam War. Hmong Lao resistance. For many years, the Neo Hom resistance and political movement played a key role in resistance to the Vietnam People's Army in Laos following the U.S. withdrawal in 1975. Vang Pao played a significant role in this movement. Additionally, a spiritual leader Zong Zoua Her, as well as other Hmong leaders, including Pa Kao Her or Pa Khao Her, rallied some of their followers in  an additional factionalized guerrilla resistance movement called ChaoFa (RPA: Cob Fab, Pahawh Hmong: ). These events led to the yellow rain controversy when the United States accused the Soviet Union of supplying and using chemical weapons in this conflict. Small groups of Hmong people, many of the second or third generation descendants of former CIA soldiers, remain internally displaced in remote parts of Laos, in fear of government reprisals. Faced with continuing military operations against them by the government and a scarcity of food, some groups have begun coming out of hiding, while others have sought asylum in Thailand and other  countries. Hmong in Laos, in particularly, developed a stronger and deeper anti-Vietnamese sentiment than their Vietnamese Hmong cousins, due to historic persecution perpetrated by the Vietnamese against them. Controversy over repatriation. In June 1991, after talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to the repatriation of over 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including tens of thousands of Hmong people. Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily. Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos  voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, coercive measures and forced repatriation was used to send thousands of Hmong back from whence they had fled. Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities. In the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s, The Center for Public Policy Analysis, a non-governmental public policy research organization, and its Executive Director, Philip Smith, played a key role in raising awareness in the U.S. Congress and policy-making circles in Washington, D.C. about the plight of the Hmong and  Laotian refugees in Thailand and Laos. The CPPA, backed by a bipartisan coalition of members of the U.S. Congress and human rights organizations, conducted numerous research missions to the Hmong and Laotian refugee camps along the Mekong River in Thailand, as well as the Buddhist temple of Wat Tham Krabok. Amnesty International, the Lao Veterans of America, Inc., the United League for Democracy in Laos, Inc., Lao Human Rights Council, Inc. (led by Dr. Pobzeb Vang Vang Pobzeb, and later Vaughn Vang) and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and human rights organizations joined the opposition to forced repatriation. Although some  accusations of forced repatriation were denied, thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996, as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure, the U.S. agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process. Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok, a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees were already living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, but the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and  the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin. In 2003, following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the U.S., in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees. Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the U.S., fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century. In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of  Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun. The European Union, UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation. Alleged plot to overthrow the government of Laos. On 4 June 2007, as part of an investigation labeled Operation Tarnished Eagle, U.S. federal courts ordered warrants issued for the arrest of Vang Pao and nine others for plotting to overthrow the government of Laos in violation of the federal Neutrality Acts and for multiple weapons charges. The federal charges alleged that members of the group inspected weapons, including AK-47s, smoke grenades, and Stinger  missiles, with the intent of purchasing them and smuggling them into Thailand in June 2007, where they were intended to be used by Hmong resistance forces in Laos. The one non-Hmong person of the nine arrested, Harrison Jack, a 1968 West Point graduate and retired Army infantry officer, allegedly attempted to recruit Special Operations veterans to act as mercenaries. To obtain the weapons, Jack allegedly met unknowingly with undercover U.S. federal agents posing as weapons dealers, prompting the warrants, part of a long-running investigation into the activities of the U.S.-based Hmong leadership and its supporters. On 15 June , the defendants were indicted by a grand jury and a warrant was also issued for the arrest of an 11th man allegedly involved in the plot. Simultaneous raids of the defendants' homes and work locations, involving over 200 federal, state and local law enforcement officials, were conducted in approximately 15 cities in Central and Southern California in the US. Multiple protest rallies in support of the suspects, designed to raise awareness of the treatment of Hmong peoples in the jungles of Laos, took place in California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Alaska, and several of Vang Pao's high-level supporters in the  U.S. criticized the California court that issued the arrest warrants, arguing that Vang was a historically important American ally and a valued leader of U.S. and foreign-based Hmong. However, calls for then Californian Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and then President George W. Bush to pardon the defendants were not answered, presumably pending a conclusion of the large and then still-ongoing federal investigation. On 18 September 2009, the US federal government dropped all charges against Vang Pao, announcing in a release that the federal government was permitted to consider "the probable sentence or other consequences if the person is  convicted." On 10 January 2011, after Vang Pao's death, the federal government dropped all charges against the remaining defendants saying, "Based on the totality of the circumstances in the case, the government believes, as a discretionary matter, that continued prosecution of defendants is no longer warranted," according to court documents. Thailand. The presence of Hmong settlements in Thailand is documented from the end of the 19th century on. Initially, the Siamese paid little attention to them. But in the early 1950s, the state suddenly took a number of initiatives aimed at establishing links. Decolonization and nationalism were gaining momentum  in the Peninsula and wars of independence were raging. Armed opposition to the state in northern Thailand, triggered by outside influence, started in 1967 while again many Hmong refused to take sides in the conflict. Communist guerrilla warfare stopped by 1982 as a result of an international concurrence of events that rendered it pointless. Priority has since been given by the Thai state to sedentarizing the mountain population, introducing commercially viable agricultural techniques and national education, with the aim of integrating these non-Tai animists within the national identity. In the United States. Many Hmong refugees resettled in the United  States after the Vietnam War. Beginning in December 1975, the first Hmong refugees arrived in the U.S., mainly from refugee camps in Thailand; however, only 3,466 were granted asylum at that time under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975. In May 1976, another 11,000 were allowed to enter the United States, and by 1978 some 30,000 Hmong people had immigrated. This first wave was made up predominantly of men directly associated with General Vang Pao's secret army. It was not until the passage of the Refugee Act of 1980 that families were able to enter the  U.S., becoming the second wave of Hmong immigrants. Hmong families scattered across all 50 states but most found their way to each other, building large communities in California, Minnesota and Wisconsin. Culture. Hmong people have their own terms for their subcultural divisions. "Hmong Der" (Hmoob Dawb), and "Hmong Leng" (Hmoob Leeg) are the terms for two of the largest groups in the United States and Southeast Asia. These subgroups are also known as the White Hmong, and Blue or Green Hmong, respectively. These names originate from the color and designs of women's dresses in each respective group, with the  White Hmong distinguished by the white dresses women wear on special occasions, and the Blue/Green Hmong by the blue batiked dresses that the women wear. The name and pronunciation "Hmong" is exclusively used by the White Hmong to refer to themselves, and many dictionaries use only the White Hmong dialect. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet, developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written "Hmoob Dawb" (White Hmong) and "Hmoob Leeg" (Green Hmong). The final consonants indicate with which of the eight lexical tones the word is pronounced. White Hmong and Green Hmong speak mutually intelligible dialects of  the Hmong language, with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. One of the most characteristic differences is the use of the voiceless /m̥/ in White Hmong, indicated by a preceding "H" in Romanized Popular Alphabet. Voiceless nasals are not found in the Green Hmong dialect. Hmong groups are often named after the dominant colors or patterns of their traditional clothing, style of head-dress, or the provinces from which they come. Vietnam and Laos. The Hmong groups in Vietnam and Laos, from the 18th century to the present day, are known as Black Hmong ("Hmoob Dub"), Striped Hmong ("Hmoob Txaij ), White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb"), Hmong Leng ("Hmoob Leeg") and Green Hmong ("Hmoob Ntsuab"). In other places in Asia, groups are also known as Black Hmong ("Hmoob Dub" or "Hmong Dou"), Striped Hmong ("Hmoob Txaij" or "Hmoob Quas Npab"), Hmong Shi, Hmong Pe, Hmong Pua, and Hmong Xau, Hmong Xanh (Green Hmong), Hmong Do (Red Hmong), Na Mieo and various other subgroups. These include the Flower Hmong or the Variegated Hmong ("Hmong Lenh" or "Hmong Hoa"), so named because of their bright, colorful embroidery work (called "pa ndau" or "paj ntaub", literally "flower cloth"). Hmong/Mong controversy. When Western authors first  came in contact with Hmong people in the 18th century, they referred to them by writing ethnonyms which were previously assigned to them by the Chinese (i.e., Miao, or variants). This practice continued into the 20th century. Even ethnographers studying the Hmong people in Southeast Asia often referred to them as Meo, a corruption of Miao applied by Thai and Lao people to the Hmong. Although "Meo" was an official term, it was often used as an insult against the Hmong people, and it is considered to be derogatory. The issue came to a head during the passage of California  State Assembly Bill (AB) 78, in the 2003–2004 season. Introduced by Doua Vu and Assembly Member Sarah Reyes, District 31 (Fresno), the bill encouraged changes in secondary education curriculum to include information about the Secret War and the role of Hmong people in the war. Furthermore, the bill called for the use of oral histories and first-hand accounts by Hmong people who had participated in the war and were caught up in its aftermath. Originally, the language of the bill mentioned only "Hmong" people, intending to include the entire community. Several Mong Leng activists, led by Dr. Paoze Thao  (Professor of Linguistics and Education at California State University, Monterey Bay), drew attention to the problems associated with omitting "Mong" from the language of the bill. They noted that despite nearly equal numbers of Hmong Der and Mong Leng in the United States, resources are disproportionately allocated to the Hmong Der community. This not only includes scholarly research, it also includes the translation of materials, including the curriculum proposed by the bill. Despite these arguments, "Mong" was not added to the bill. In the version of the bill which was passed by the assembly, "Hmong" was replaced by "Southeast Asians ," a broader and more inclusive term. Dr. Paoze Thao and some others strongly feel that "Hmong" can only be used in reference to Hmong Der people because it does not include "Mong" Leng people. He feels that the use of "Hmong" in reference to both groups perpetuates the marginalization of the Mong Leng language and culture. Thus, he advocates the use of "Hmong" and "Mong" in reference to the entire ethnic group. Other scholars, including anthropologist Dr. Gary Yia Lee (a Hmong Der person), suggests that for the past 30 years, "Hmong" has been used in reference to the entire  community and as a result, the inclusion of Mong Leng people is understandable. Some argue that such distinctions create unnecessary divisions within the global community and they also argue that the use of these same distinctions will only confuse non-Hmong and Mong people who are both trying to learn more about Hmong and Mong history and culture. As a compromise alternative, multiple iterations of "Hmong" have been proposed. A Hmong theologian, Rev. Dr. Paul Joseph T. Khamdy Yang has proposed the use of the term "HMong" in reference to the "Hmong" and the "Mong" communities by capitalizing the H  and the M. The ethnologist Jacques Lemoine has also begun to use the term (H)mong in reference to the entirety of the Hmong and Mong communities. Hmong and Miao. Some non-Chinese Hmong advocate for the term 'Hmong' to be used not only to designate their dialect group They generally claim that the word "Miao" or "Meo" is a derogatory term, with connotations of barbarism, that probably should not be used at all. The term was later adopted by Tai-speaking groups in Southeast Asia where it took on especially insulting associations for Hmong people despite its official status. In  modern China, the term "Miao" does not carry these negative associations and people of the various sub-groups that constitute this officially recognized nationality freely identify themselves as Miao or Chinese, typically reserving more specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication. During the struggle for political recognition after 1949, it was members of these ethnic minorities who campaigned for identification under the umbrella term "Miao"taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression. Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong emigration, led to the development of a global Hmong  identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China with no previous ethnic affiliation. Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly made over the Internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including some Hmong people accepting the designation "Miao" after visiting China and some nationalist non-Hmong Miao peoples identifying as Hmong. Such realignments of identity, while largely the concern of economically elite community leaders reflects a trend towards the interchangeability of the terms "Hmong" and "Miao." Diaspora. Roughly 95% of the Hmong live in Asia. Linguistic data show that the Hmong of the Peninsula stem from the Miao  of southern China as one among a set of ethnic groups belonging to the Hmong–Mien language family. Linguistically and culturally speaking, the Hmong and the other sub-groups of the Miao have little in common. Vietnam, where their presence is attested from the late 18th century onwards and characterized with both assimilation, cooperation and hostility, is likely to be the first Indochinese country into which the Hmong migrated. At the 2019 national census, there were 1,393,547 Hmong living in Vietnam, the vast majority of them in the north of the country. The traditional trade in coffin wood with China  and cultivation of the opium poppy – not prohibited in Vietnam until 1993 – long guaranteed a regular cash income. Today, converting to cash cropping is the main economic activity. As in China and Laos, Hmong participate to a certain degree in local and regional administration. In the late 1990s, several thousands of Hmong started moving to the Central Highlands and some crossed the border into Cambodia, constituting the first attested presence of Hmong settlers in that country. In 2015, the Hmong in Laos numbered 595,028. Hmong settlement there is nearly as ancient as in Vietnam. After the 1975 Communist victory, thousands  of Hmong from Laos had to seek refuge abroad (see Laos below). Approximately 30 percent of the Hmong left, although the only concrete figure we have is that of 116,000 Hmong from Laos and Vietnam together seeking refuge in Thailand up to 1990. In 2002 the Hmong in Thailand numbered 151,080. Myanmar most likely includes a modest number of Hmong (perhaps around 2,500) but no reliable census has been conducted there recently. As result of refugee movements in the wake of the Indochina Wars (1946–1975), in particular, in Laos, the largest Hmong community to settle outside Asia went to the  United States where approximately 100,000 individuals had already arrived by 1990. By the same date, 10,000 Hmong had migrated to France, including 1,400 in French Guiana, Canada admitted 900 individuals, while another 360 went to Australia, 260 to China, and 250 to Argentina. Over the following years and until the definitive closure of the last refugee camps in Thailand in 1998, additional numbers of Hmong have left Asia, but the definitive figures are still to be produced. Approximately 5% of the Hmong population currently lives outside of Asia, with the United States home to the largest Hmong diaspora community. The  2008 Census counted 171,316 people solely of Hmong ancestry, and 221,948 persons of at least partial Hmong ancestry. Other countries with significant populations include: The Hmong population within the United States is centered in the Upper Midwest (Wisconsin, Minnesota) and California. Vietnam. Hmong people in Vietnam have been perceived differently by various modern political organizations and in different historical periods. Since the Hmong are an ethnic minority in Vietnam, their loyalty toward the Vietnamese state has been frequently questioned by the state. However, many Hmong in Vietnam are fiercely loyal to the Vietnamese state, regardless of the current ideologies of  the government with the Hmong in Laos and Cambodia most supportive of active resistance. These tend to be Hmong Christians that have been targeted by all three Indochinese governments. The Hmong in Vietnam also receive cultural and political promotion from the government which led to the Vietnamese Hmong further diverging from the Laotian Hmong, as the latter are strongly anti-Vietnamese due to the Secret War and Communism. Laos. There are 595,028 Hmong people in Laos. They mainly live in northern regions of Laos. Thailand. The Hmong presence in Thailand dates back, according to most authors, to the turn of  the 20th century when families migrated from China through Laos and Burma. A relatively small population, they still settled dozens of villages and hamlets throughout the northern provinces. The Hmong were then registered by the state as the Meo hill tribe. Then, more Hmong migrated from Laos to Thailand following the victory of the Pathet Lao in 1975. While some ended up in refugee camps, others settled in mountainous areas among more ancient Hill Tribes. Americas. Many Hmong refugees resettled in the United States after the Vietnam War. Beginning in December 1975, the first Hmong refugees arrived in the U.S. , mainly from refugee camps in Thailand; however, only 3,466 were granted asylum at that time under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975. In May 1976, another 11,000 were allowed to enter the United States, and by 1978 some 30,000 Hmong people had immigrated. This first wave was made up predominantly of men directly associated with General Vang Pao's secret army. It was not until the passage of the Refugee Act of 1980 that families were able to enter the U.S., becoming the second wave of Hmong immigrants. Hmong families scattered across all 50 states but most  found their way to each other, building large communities in California, Minnesota and Wisconsin. As of the 2010 census, 260,073 Hmong people reside in the United States the majority of whom live in California (91,224), Minnesota (66,181), and Wisconsin (49,240), an increase from 186,310 in 2000. Of them, 247,595 or 95.2% are Hmong alone, and the remaining 12,478 are mixed Hmong with some other ethnicity or race. The vast majority of part-Hmong are under 10 years old. In terms of cities and towns, the largest Hmong-American community is in St. Paul (29,662), followed by Fresno (24,328), Sacramento (16,676 ), Milwaukee (10,245), and Minneapolis (7,512). There are smaller Hmong communities scattered across the United States, including those in Minnesota (Rochester, Mankato, Duluth) Michigan (Detroit and Warren); Anchorage, Alaska; Denver, Colorado; Portland, Oregon; Washington; North Carolina (Charlotte, Morganton); South Carolina (Spartanburg); Georgia (Auburn, Duluth, Monroe, Atlanta, and Winder); Florida (Tampa Bay); Wisconsin (Madison, Eau Claire, Appleton, Green Bay, Milwaukee, Oshkosh, La Crosse, Sheboygan, Manitowoc, and Wausau); Aurora, Illinois; Kansas City, Kansas; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Missoula, Montana; Des Moines, Iowa; Springfield, Missouri; Arkansas, Fitchburg, Massachusetts, and Providence, Rhode Island. Sunisa "Suni" Lee of Saint Paul, Minnesota is a notable Hmong-American; she is  a three time Olympic medalist in artistic gymnastics. In the 2020 Summer Olympics, Lee won silver in the women's artistic team all-around, followed by gold in the women's artistic individual all-around and bronze in the women's uneven bars. With these results, Sunisa made history as both the first Hmong-American to compete in the Olympics in any sport and the first Hmong-American to win an Olympic medal. Canada's small Hmong population is mostly concentrated within the province of Ontario. Kitchener, Ontario has 515 residents of Hmong descent, and has a Hmong church. There  is also a small community of several thousand Hmong who migrated to French Guiana in the late 1970s and early 1980s, that can be mainly found in the Hmong villages of Javouhey (1200 individuals) and Cacao (950 individuals). Religious persecution. Some Laos- and Vietnam-based Hmong Animists and Christians, including Protestant and Catholic believers, have been subjected to military attacks, police arrest, imprisonment, forced disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and torture on anti-religious grounds. One example is the deportation of Zoua Yang and her 27 children from Thailand on 19 December 2005, after the group was arrested attending a Christian church  in Ban Kho Noi, Phetchabun Province, Thailand. Upon return to Laos, Ms. Yang and her children were detained, after which the whereabouts of much of the family are still unknown. Another example, which occurred in 2013, involved a Hmong Christian pastor, Vam Ngaij Vaj (Va Ngai Vang), who was beaten to death by Vietnamese police and security forces. In February 2014, in Hanoi, Vietnamese government officials refused to allow medical treatment for a Hmong Christian leader, Duong Van Minh, who was suffering from a serious kidney illness. In 2011, Vietnam People's Army troops were used to crush a peaceful  demonstration by Hmong Catholic, Protestant and Evangelical Christian believers who gathered in Dien Bien Province and the Dien Bien Phu area of northwestern Vietnam, according to Philip Smith of the Center for Public Policy Analysis, independent journalists and others. The U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom has documented official and ongoing religious persecution, religious freedom violations against the Laotian and Hmong people in both Laos and Vietnam by the governments. In April 2011, the Center for Public Policy Analysis also researched and documented cases of Hmong Christians being attacked and summarily executed, including four Lao Hmong Christians. Hmong people The