Manam language
Manam is a Kairiru–Manam language spoken mainly on the volcanic Manam Island, northeast of New Guinea. Phonology. Allophony. Some vowels become glides in diphthongs, e.g. , > and , > . and are 'weaker' than and , so that the syllable becomes and not According to Turner, is more and more often realized as , while some older speakers have . Syllable structure. The Manam syllable is (C)(V)V(V)(C), the only exception is a syllabic . There are some phonotactic restrictions on the prevalent syllable structure. E.g. V cannot be , whereas V "must" be as long as it's not the syllable's sole  vowel. C can be any consonant, whereas C must be a nasal consonant. Stress. Stress is phonemic: 'palm tree', 'seagull'. The stress falls on one of the three last syllables of a word, and stressing the penult syllable is the most common: 'child', 'work'. If the last syllable ends in a nasal consonant, it will be stressed instead: 'your child'. Some inflections and affixes do not alter the stress of the root word: 'he learned' ("i-" is a 3rd person prefix), 'in the bush' ("-lo" is a locative suffix). In the orthography, stressed vowels can be underlined in order to  avoid ambiguities. Ie. 'palm tree', 'seagull'. Syntax. Word order. The basic, unmarked word order in Manam is SOV: Predicator. Lichtenberk defines the predicator as the primary element within a clause. The predicator of a Manam clause can be realised in a variety of different ways, such as verb phrases Ex. (1), noun phrases Ex. (2), postpositional phrases Ex. (3), numbers Ex. (4), etc. Ex. (1): verb phrase predicator Ex. (2): noun phrase predicator Ex. (3): postpositional phrase predicator Ex. (4): numeral predicator Negation. Negation in Manam is primarily expressed using one of two negative markers: "moaʔi" and "tago". "moaʔi" is  used exclusively in direct speech prohibitions; whilst "tago" is used for all other cases. Scope of negation. The use of "tago" is primarily categorised by its scope of negation, which further indicates the focus of the clause. The spectrum of scope runs from negating one or more elements within a single clause, to negating an entire clause. The concept of scope of negation can be demonstrated in English: ‘"I did not go to the party"’ is an example of a broad scope of negation, i.e. the verb phrase (VP) is negated, therefore act of going to the party is negated ; ‘"not one person went to the party"’ is an example of a narrow scope of negation, i.e. the subject is negated, not the act of going to the party. Broad scope. A broad scope of negation is expressed in Manam by negating the predicator—this is done so by placing the negative marker "tago" before the predicator, as demonstrated in the following examples: Ex. (5): broad scope negation–1 element Ex. (6): broad scope negation–2 elements Ex. (7): broad scope negation–3 elements Additionally, the negative marker "tago" can also function as a predicator of existential and possessive clauses. Compare the following  examples: Ex. (8): negative existential sentence Ex. (9): negative possessive sentence Narrow scope. As a general rule, Manam primarily expresses narrow scope negation by placing "tago" before the element which is being negated i.e. the object of focused negation within the clause. Ex. (10): narrow scope negation In example (10), it is not the act of coming that is being negated, rather the negation is narrowly focused in negating the presence of the brother. Ex. (11): narrow scope negation Similarly, in example (11), it is not the act of calling one's name that is being negated, rather the negation  focuses the fact that someone was called, but by some other name that was not their own. Negative quantifiers. Additionally, the negative marker "tago" can be used in conjunction with the quantifiers "teʔe" ‘one’ and "alu" ‘some’ to produce the negative expressions, "tago teʔe" ‘no; not any’ and "tago alu" ‘no; not any’. These expressions function as attributes within the noun phrases that they modify, as seen in the following examples (NP are enclosed within brackets): Ex. (12): negation using "tago teʔe" Ex. (13): negation using "tago teʔe" More specifically, "tago alu" is used to modify noun phrases whose head  are mass nouns; "tago teʔe"comparatively modifies count nouns. Compare the following two examples: Ex. (14): negative quantifier mass noun"" Ex. (15): negative quantifier count noun Intensified negation. Negation in Manam can be intensified by appending the buffer element "–na" and the intensifier suffix "–tina" to "tago", as seen in the following example: Ex. (16): intensifier suffix The buffer element "–na", however, is not included when "tago" acts as the predicator of a clause, as seen in the following example: Ex. (17): intensified predicator Additionally, negation in Manam can be intensified using "sesu" ‘little’, as seen in the following example: Ex . (18): intensifier "sesu" Moreover, "sesu" ‘little’ can be used in conjunction with "–tina" within the same clause, as seen in the following example: Ex. (19): intensifier "sesu" + suffix "–tina" Furthermore, the suffix "–tina" may be appended to the prohibitive marker "moaʔi" (with the presence of the buffer "–na"), as seen in the following example: Ex. (20): suffix "–tina" + prohibitive marker "moaʔi" Prohibitions. Manam expresses prohibitions in two basic ways: using finite verbs—defined as verb (phrase) forms that can occur on their own in a main clause; using gerunds and verbal nouns. Lichtenberk defines gerunds as verb nuclei  used to indicate ‘non-specific’ events, whereas verbal nouns are used to indicate ‘specific’ events. Compare the following examples: Ex. (21): gerund Ex. (22): verbal noun Prohibitive constructions with finite verbs. The basic structure of prohibitive constructions using finite verbs is "moaʔi" followed by a verb with a realis subject/mood prefix, as seen in the following examples: Ex. (23): prohibitive construction finite verb Ex. (24): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ subject NP Ex. (25): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ direct object NP Sometimes, however—the subject or direct object NP may occur between "moaʔi" and the verb, as in  the following example: Ex. (26): prohibitive construction finite verb Prohibitive constructions with gerunds and verbal nouns. Prohibitive constructions using gerunds or verbal nouns are formed by placing the prohibitive/negative marker "moaʔi" after the gerund or verbal noun, demonstrated in the following example: Ex. (27): prohibitive construction using gerund/verbal noun The distinction between using a gerund or a verbal noun is determined by whether the source verb is transitive (verbal noun) or intransitive (gerund). Additionally, the form "raʔania" ‘never mind’ may also be used in forming prohibitive constructions using gerunds and verbal nouns. The location of "raʔania" within the  clause is more dynamic than the prohibitive/negative marker "moaʔi", as "raʔania" may occur both following or preceding the verbal noun or gerund. Compare the following two examples: Ex. (28): prohibitive construction using "raʔania" (following) Ex. (29): prohibitive construction using "raʔania" (preceding) Indirect prohibitive constructions. The negative marker "tago" is used when expressing prohibitions in indirect speech—its behaviour is identical as in its regular usage: "tago" is placed before the element which is being negated, as seen in the following example: Ex. (30): indirect prohibitive construction Morphology. Number. Manam has an unusual, though regionally common, four-way distinction between  singular, dual, paucal, and plural number. Singular and plural are marked on the verb and sometimes on the adjective, but not on the noun. Reduplication. Reduplication can be either leftward (sa-salaga") or rightward ("salaga-laga). There is no point in distinguishing 'partial' and 'total' reduplication, since at most two syllables are reduplicated. Nouns. Rightwards reduplicated nouns can either take on a meaning related to the original word, or function as an agentive marker: Adjectives. Here are two examples of how number can be marked on the adjective through the different kinds of reduplication: Rightward reduplication (singular) Leftward reduplication (plural ) The verb. The verb always marks the subject and the mood; these are fused together. Optional suffixes includes such things as object, direction, aspectual markers, benefactive and various kinds of intensifiers and quantifiers. Here's a schematical overview of the Manam verb: Subject marking. The marking of subject is obligatory. In addition to expressing number and person, the pronouns have fused with the mood markers (see below) called realis and irrealis. Mood. The realis mood () is used for actual events of the past or present, i.e. things that are certain to have happened, things that are "real". Accordingly, the irrealis  () mood describes anticipated events in the future, or events that the speaker "wishes" were real. Manner prefixes. Manner prefixes are found between the subject/mood marker and the verb root. The manner prefixes describe in what manner the verb action was done, such as 'biting', 'cutting', 'throwing' etc. Transitivization. There are three different morphologically overt methods for turning intransitive verbs into transitive ones: These methods can be combined. Optional suffixes. The object suffixes are also optional, but rather common. Here are a few examples of some of the more unusual suffix types: Direction Spreading Intensifying Benefactive Adjectives. Most adjectives are  derived by reduplication from a verb or a noun. As seen above, some reduplicated adjectives have a number distinction, but some others don't, e.g. "siki-siki" 'small' (singular and plural). Some adjectives use the possessive pronouns to mark person and number, e.g. "kapisa-Ø" 'selfish' (singular) and "kapisa-di" 'selfish' (plural). Possession. As in many other Austronesian languages, Manam expresses different degrees of possession. In addition to the most common differentiation between alienable and inalienable possession, Manam uses a particular morphological processes to describe belongings that are "edible" or associated with eating. Inalienable possession. In this class, we find  'belongings' that are involuntary, such as body parts, family members and different kinds of necessary 'parts of a whole'. This class is characterized by simply a possessive suffix attached to the word in question: Edible possession. In this class, we find things that are edible and 'used to obtain, prepare or store food'. This class is characterized by the word "kana", which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached: Alienable possession. In this class, we find belongings that are voluntary; things that we can cease to own, unlike body parts or family. This  class is characterized by the word "ne", which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached: Cross-class possession. One fascinating thing is that the same word can occur in all three possession classes, and then of course its meaning will differ. Here are two examples: Demonstratives. Manam has two kinds of demonstratives. This two-way system distinguishes between proximal demonstratives, which indicate proximity to a speaker, and distal demonstratives, which indicate distance from a speaker. Both demonstratives occur after the noun phrase. They are formed from the demonstrative marker "ŋa", followed by either  the proximal suffix "-e" or the distal marker "-ra", followed by either the 3rd person singular marker "-ø" or the 3rd person plural marker "-di" as shown in the table below: Data from WALS suggests that both the Austronesian and Papuan languages which are geographically close to the Manam language community show an approximately even distribution of two-way and three-way distinction systems for demonstratives. In fact, despite Ross's observation that "Schouten family members are … much more closely related to each other than to any other members of the [North New Guinea] Linkage", Kairiru, which like Manam is  a member of the Schouten family, shows a three-way distinction in its demonstratives. Interestingly, the reconstructed proto language Proto-Oceanic (POc), from which the Schouten family is descended, was determined to have a three-way distinction system. POc's system is believed to have included an additional demonstrative compared to Manam, the medial demonstrative which indicates an intermediate distance, or proximity to the listener rather than the speaker. However, Manam does show the same noun-demonstrative word order which was reconstructed for POc. In Manam, the proximal form is often contracted from "ŋa-e-" to "ŋe"-. It can also  be cliticised to a proceeding word when it is not followed by a suffix. Because the 3sg adnominal suffix has a zero form, "ŋe-" can be cliticised for this construction. This means that Examples (1), (2), and (3) are all acceptable ways to construct ‘"this woman"’, while example (4) but not Example (5) is an acceptable construction of ‘"these women"’. It is also acceptable to remove the head noun, for instance in the comparative construction in Example (6). Selective forms of proximal demonstratives. A selective form can be derived from the proximal demonstrative (but not the distal demonstrative). It is  formed by adding the suffix "-ni" after the proximal marker and before the adnominal suffix, as per Example (7) below, and indicates selection out of a set or group of options. The selective suffix is optional and is used when it is necessary to express selection explicitly. If not, the basic demonstrative can be used. Anaphoric usage. Previous examples of the use of the demonstrative in Manam have been exophoric, referring to the world outside of the text. However, they can also be used anaphorically, to reference something previously brought up by a speaker. Although Example (8) below demonstrates that  both the proximal and the distal demonstrative can be used anaphorically, the proximal demonstrative is used much more commonly than the distal in this manner. Usage of the proximal demonstrative as a resumptive pro-form. A second anaphoric use of the proximal demonstrative in Manam is as a resumptive pro-form. In this situation, the proximal demonstrative is used to sum up or resume discussing a topic that has already been spoken about. It can be used in reference to a topic discussed within the same sentence, or in an earlier sentence. When it is used to reference a topic  within one sentence, the resumptive pro-form will immediately follow it's antecedent as in Example (9). When the proximal demonstrative is acting as a resumptive pro-form, it usually takes the from "ŋe" or "-ŋe" rather than "ŋa-e". The singular form is also more common than the plural form. This can be seen in Example (10) where the singular form is used despite the pro-from referring to a group of items. The resumptive pro-form can be used to reference a clause in order to indicate the time of a second clause, demonstrated by Example (11). It  is also commonly used when a noun phrase is modified by a relative clause, as can be seen in Example (12). It is also often used when a sentence is thematised, and can function similarly to a theme-marker even though it does not meet the requirements to be considered a thematiser. In Example (13) below, '"ziràpu n-m"' ("'your mattress"') is the theme. Directional System and Spatial Deixis. Manam, like most Oceanic languages, primarily uses an absolute reference directional system, even on a local scale, (as opposed to many European languages which primarily use relative reference systems). This system  is oriented on a land-sea axis. However, Manam's system is unique because it has taken on a circular nature, becoming intrinsically linked to the geography of the island which is almost perfectly circular. Below are the directional terms associated in Manam: This directional system has only been attested in three languages: Manam, Boumaa Fijian, and Makian Taba. The suffix -lo can be added to any of these terms to indicate movement towards that direction, as in Example (3). No suffix is needed to indicate movement away from a direction – this is inferred from the context of the sentence  (contrast Examples (1) and (2) with Example (3)). Spacial Deixis. Spatial deixis describes how speakers can ‘point out’ the location of an object in relationship to their own position"." Manam has two main spatial deictical terms.  These are "ma?a" (‘"here"’) and "ma?a-ra" (‘"there"’). "Ma?a-ra" is constructed by suffixing the distal marker "-ra" to "ma?a". These two terms are used regardless of which direction the speaker is indicating. If it is necessary to specify direction, this can be done by adding the directional term after the deictical term, as is done in Example (4). Manam has three additional spatial  deixis, which are used to specify spatial relationships in a specific direction. These terms refer to the land-sea directional system described above, and are listed below: Interestingly, unlike Manam’s two-way distinction for demonstratives, these directional spatial deictical terms show the same three-way distinction that was reconstructed for Proto-Oceanic (POc).  To indicate an intermediate distance, the distal suffix "-ra" can be added to each directional spacial deictic. If the object described is so far away as to be out of sight, the spatial dialectical term can be combined with a directional term to indicate extreme distance . This is illustrated in the table below: Similar to directional terms, to indicate movement towards the most distant directional spatial dialectical terms, the suffix -lo is added as in Example (5). For the less distant terms, no affix is needed, illustrated by Example (6).