Nancy Chodorow
Nancy Julia Chodorow (born January 20, 1944) is an American sociologist and professor. She can be categorized as a Humanistic psychoanalytic sociologist and Psychoanalytic feminist. Throughout her career, she has been influenced by psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud and Karen Horney, as well as feminist theorists Beatrice Whiting and Phillip Slater. She is a member of the International Psychoanalytical Association, and is a frequent speaker at their congress meetings. She began her career as a professor of Women's studies at Wellesley College in 1973. In 1974, she moved California where she taught at the University of California, Santa Cruz  until 1986. She then went on to spend many years as a professor in the departments of sociology and clinical psychology at the University of California, Berkeley until she resigned in 1986. Later, she began her career teaching psychiatry at Harvard Medical School/Cambridge Health Alliance. Chodorow is often described as a leader in feminist thought, especially in the realms of psychoanalysis and psychology. Chodorow has written a number of influential books in contemporary feminist writing, including "The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender" (1978); "Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory" (1989); "Femininities, Masculinities, Sexualities: Freud and Beyond" (1994 ); and "The Power of Feelings: Personal Meaning in Psychoanalysis, Gender, and Culture" (1999). In 1995, Chodorow was awarded the Guggenheim Fellowship for Social Sciences. In 1996, "The Reproduction of Mothering" was chosen by "Contemporary Sociology" as one of the ten most influential books of the past 25 years. Biography. Personal life. Dr. Chodorow was born on January 20, 1944, in New York, New York to a Jewish family. Her parents were Marvin Chodorow and Leah (Turitz) Chodorow. Her father was a professor of applied physics. Her mother was a community activist who helped establish the Stanford Village Nursery School and  served as its first parents board president. In 1977, Chodorow married Michael Reich, a professor of economics. They had two children, Rachel and Gabriel. In 1996, they separated. Education. Chodorow graduated from Radcliffe College in 1966. Where she studied under Beatrice and W.M. Whiting. Chodorow's work focused on personality and cultural anthropology now classified as pre-feminist work. She focused on the study of personality through a Freudian lens. In 1975, she received her Ph.D. in sociology from Brandeis University. Under the instruction of Philip Slater, Chodorow was influenced to focus her studies on the unconscious phenomena of psychoanalysis . Following her Ph.D., Chodorow received clinical training at the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute from 1985 to 1993. Influences. Sigmund Freud. Chodorow's most profound influence stems from Freudian psychoanalysis. She critiques Freudian analysis with a feminist perspective to understand the mother-child relationship. Chodorow uses the Freudian model of female development to reveal that a girl's gender development is related to how close the daughter is with her mother. Therefore, the girl is pursuing a privilege that a boy has already achieved. The boy has already received this attention, because he is more valued by the mother, as an  object since he is a source of her own Oedipal gratification. However, the boy has both the need and the ability to detach himself from his mother. The female solves her inner conflict by converting her envy of male privilege into heterosexual desire. Using Freudian psychoanalytic theory, Chodorow explains that the Oedipus complex symbolically separates the male child from his mother, but young girls continue to identify with their mother and do not separate from them. Chodorow notes that Freud's theory of the Oedipal conflict and the Oedipal revolution is due to chance; the father must be in the  right place at the right time. Chodorow's analysis led to the hypothesis that a female's desire for men is a direct result of her strong desire for her mother. Additionally, Chodorow uses Sigmund Freud's theory to explain that the differences between men and women are largely due to capitalism and the absent father. Chodorow acknowledges the ways in which the economy changed in 2003, and the psychological impact this had on both sexes in regards to shared parenting. The development of shared parenting has challenged the traditional mothering role, resulting in a paradigm where mother and children  have insufficient time for each other. Chodorow also argues that Freudian theory suppresses women. Nonetheless, the theory provides grounds for how people become gendered, how femininity and masculinity develop, and how sexism via sexual inequality is reproduced. Furthermore, Freud explains how nature becomes culture resulting in a second nature. Chodorow argues that this explains that the formation and organization of gender occur, not only through social institutions but also through transformations in the consciousness and the psyche. Chodorow draws on Freud's idea of intrapsychic structures to understand the developmental differences between girls and boys. Freud explains that there are  three parts to an individual: the id, the ego, and the super-ego. These parts produce rigid boundaries in the internal workings of our brains and impact our interactions in society. Chodorow uses this intrapsychic structure to explain that the internal workings of males and females are structurally different. Therefore, developmental differences are not inherent, rather these differences are produced through socialization. Karen Horney. Chodorow also draws influence from Karen Horney, a 20th-century psychoanalyst who challenged Freudian ideas, ultimately leading to the foundation of feminist psychology. Horney argued against Freud's idea that females are defective or limited , and rather argued that women possess positive feminine qualities and self valuation. Philip Slater. Nancy Chodorow studied under the sociologist Philip Slater while she was earning her Ph.D. at Brandeis University in 1975. Slater was her academic advisor while working to complete her Ph.D. Slater encouraged her to study unconscious phenomena in order to deepen her understanding of personality. Chodorow refers to Slater's book, "Glory of Hera" (1968), as one of the most influential books in regards to a man's immense fear of women and its manifestation in culture. Concepts. The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology  of Gender (1978). Chodorow views mothering as a dual structure, where motherhood is partly fixed by childhood experience and the social structure of kinship. She explains that the process of a woman becoming a mother goes beyond biology and instinct alone. Chodorow argues that "mothering" is built into the female personality because we are mothered by women. She then goes in to talk about how mothering is socially constructed, therefore it needs explanation. Chodorow argues in her book, "The Reproduction of Mothering" (1978; 2nd ed., 1999), that gender differences are comprised from formations of the Oedipal complex. Although both male  and female children experience closeness with their mother, their experiences are different because females want to gain and derive gratification and that is something that is absent in males. Chodorow's four main ideas throughout her book are; what personality traits are specific to women, how does the pattern of male dominance might be understood and changed, how most women think of themselves as heterosexual, and why women have the urge to mother. In her book, she states, "Women have always cared for children, usually as mothers in families and occasionally as workers in child care centers as paid and  slave domestics." Women's mothering is one of the most common elements of the sexual division of labor. Women have been subjected to having the sole responsibility of caring for a child and being the primary caretaker of the child. Women seek to mother the children and receive gratification from them which leads to women being in the domestic sphere and men being in the public sphere. One skepticism of her assertion is that this could lead some people to believe that women are not psychologically suited to work in the public sphere. She begins with Freud's assertion that  the individual is born bisexual and that the child's mother is its first sexual object. Chodorow, drawing on the work of Karen Horney and Melanie Klein, notes that the child forms its ego in reaction to the dominating figure of the mother. The male child forms this sense of independent agency easily, identifying with the agency and freedom of the father, and emulating his possessive interest in the mother/wife. This task is not as simple for the female child. The mother identifies with her more strongly, and the daughter attempts to make the father her new love object . The female child is then is stymied in her ego formation by the intense bond with the mother. Where male children typically experience love as a dyadic relationship, daughters are caught in a libidinal triangle where the ego is pulled between love for the father, the love of the mother, and concern and worry over the relationship of the father to the mother. The strong bond between the mother and the infant, not only shapes her identity but allows the child to acknowledge that the father is a separate being. Except, in circumstances where the father provides a similar form  of primary care as the mother. This separation of the father and child can result in the child developing an ambivalence with the father. Therefore, the child is confused by the failure to recognize the mother's separateness. Consequently, children are more obedient to their father, but not because he is considered the authority figure or because of his strictness, but rather because of the child's initial relationship to the father. Nancy Chodorow and The Reproduction of Mothering Forty Years (2021). This work was so influential that in 2021, forty years after its initial release, Chodorow is revisiting it  in "Nancy Chodorow and The Reproduction of Mothering Forty Years". In the book, she says "The mother is the early caregiver and primary source of identification for all children... A daughter continues to identify with the mother." Chodorow explains that the strong bond between mother and daughter inhibits the daughter from forming her own identity. The first bonding beings in infancy with the mother. This initial bond is true for both sexes, except, boys breakaway at an early age to identify with their fathers. Thus, maintaining the mother-daughter relationship and identity. Gender personality. For Chodorow, the contrast between the  dyadic and triadic first love experiences explains the social construction of gender roles. This is through the universal degradation of women in culture, cross-cultural patterns in male behavior, and marital strain in Western society after Second Wave feminism. In marriage, the woman takes less of an interest in sex and more in the children. Her ambivalence towards sex eventually drives the male away. She devotes her energies to the children once she does reach sexual maturity. Chodorow examines the psychological development of adult females and males. Chodorow argues that the psyches of men and women are structured differently because  of dissimilar childhood experiences. The justification for why women tend to be more empathic is because women's ego boundaries are less fixed. Chodorow hypothesizes that if women are perceived by society as primarily and exclusively as mothers, then any liberation of women will continue to be experienced as traumatic by society. Chodorow argues that masculinity is learned in the absence of an ongoing personal relationship with the father and without an available masculine role model, boys are taught more consciously how to be masculine. Boys' development of masculinity is used as a tool that would be used against them  by the father. Therefore, masculine identity is due to gender role development. On the other hand, femininity is less consciously instilled in girls rather it is embedded in the ongoing relationship to the mother. Thus, female identification is predominantly parental. She says, “According to psychoanalytic theory, personality is a result of a boy’s or girl’s social- relational experiences from earliest infancy. Personality development is not the result of conscious parental intention. The nature and quality of the social relationships that a child experiences are appropriated, internalized, and organized by her or him and come to constitute her or  his personality”. She says, “Masculinity is defined as much negatively as positively.” Chodorow argues that the production of feminine identification is a rational process. In comparison, the production of male identification is defined by rejection rather than acceptance. The Power of Feelings: Personal Meaning in Psychoanalysis, Gender; and Culture (1999). Published in 1999, this work by Chodorow addresses three key controversies: 1) The relation between culture and the constitution of individual identity, 2) The role of unconscious fantasy in conferring meaning on experience and 3) The epistemology of psychoanalytic theories of development and clinical interpretations of individual lives. The book  is divided into four separate sections: Psychoanalysis, gender, culture and a conclusion section that ties everything together. The conclusion puts together the goal for psychoanalysis which is, to gain coherence and continuity you must come to terms with the psychic reality that one has. Throughout the book, she pleads her case in depth psychology and psychoanalytic interpretation as this is the only way that one will be able to come to full terms with themselves and their gender identity. Chodorow utilizes a “both- and” stance throughout her work in an effort to combine elements of several different theoretical approaches, although  most of her work focuses on psychoanalysis and feminist theory. When looking at these two theories she does address the shortcomings of them especially when looking at the psychology of gender. Chodorow argues that each person’s gender identity is developed through a combination of both personal and cultural meaning. She argues that “an individual, personal creation and a projective emotional and fantasy animation of cultural categories create the meaning of gender and gender identity for any individual.” Each person's gender identity is a fusion of personal and cultural meaning. Her main criticism of feminist theory is the tendency  to define difference politically rather than at the individual level. She also states that gender theories do not take into account or consider the individual, personal, emotional aspects of gender and without these, the full meaning of gender cannot be captured. Her criticism with psychoanalytic thinking when looking at gender is that it collapses and does not account for individuality and differences and turns gender into a universality and similarity. She says that it also turns emotions into clinical observations and developmental tasks instead of looking at them in terms of real and personal emotions. She does recognize psychoanalysis  as being one of the grand theories of the human mind as well as human fulfillment. The title of this book “The Power of Feelings: Personal Meaning in Psychoanalysis, Gender, and Culture”  is a major tip off that Chodorow views emotions and feelings as being very powerful. Chodorow thinks that we can learn a lot about a person by examining and looking at one's emotions. This work by Chodorow gives a solid foundation and understanding into her beliefs on gender studies, feminist theory and psychoanlysis. Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (1991). In her book, "Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (1991)", Chodorow  expands on the finding that a man's suppression and denial of his need for love, often leads to an inability to tolerate others who can express their desire for love. Women, on the other hand, have not suppressed these needs and thus may be willing to deal with their lover or husband being somewhat emotionally unresponsive, in exchange for some amount of caring and love. Since this desire for love cannot be silenced through repression, men will simultaneously protect themselves against the threat of invasion by women, while still being in a heterosexual relationship. Chodorow suggests that if  the father figure could become more visible and participatory in family life, then the emotional ambiguities in both sexes would be rectified. Chodorow further synthesizes the female closeness with the mother quiets the sex drive toward men, because their inner emotional lives are far more satisfied. On the other hand, she suggests that the intense sex drive of men is a result of repression, and thus men fall in love much more romantically. She argues that this idea may be the basis for male aggression toward women. Additionally, Chodorow focuses on the ways in which society values women for "being ," but men for "action." More specifically, women are often viewed as objects, but men are rather viewed as subjects. She suggests that this idea has deeper implications, as women tend to be very relationship-oriented. Chodorow ties this idea back to Freudian theory by arguing that men pay a price for the rushed detachment from their mother, and the resulting repression of their feminine selves. Chodorow continues expanding her ideas by explaining the separation and individuation a child faces with their mother. As an infant, a child depends and grows a stronger attachment upon whoever nurses and carries her or  him. The child is developing a relationship with their mother emotionally and physically through the mother's body as she or he is being carried. Nancy explains in her book the concept of separation and individuation that children face with their mother as they grow into adults. As women mothers they take the character traits they developed as young adults and how they were raised by their mothers and incorporate them into their parenting skills. “A Woman identifies with her own mother and, through identification with her child, she (re)experiences herself as a cared- for the child. The particular nature  of this double identification for the individual mother is closely bound up with her relationship to her own mother”. As mothers women tend to follow ways of how they were raised and use the same mother-child history she had with her own mother. The Psychoanalytic Ear and the Sociological Eye: Toward an American Independent Tradition (2019). Dr. Nancy Chodorow explores her evolution from a sociologist and feminist scholar to a highly renowned psychoanalyst with her release of: “The Psychoanalytic Ear and the Sociological Eye: Toward an American Independent Tradition." Her publishers at Routledge CRC Press described one of her  most recent works as: “A project which brings together her two professional identities, psychoanalyst and sociologist, as she also brings together and moves beyond two traditions within American psychoanalysis, naming for the first time an American independent tradition. The book's chapters move inward, toward fine-tuned discussions of the theory and epistemology of the American independent tradition, which Chodorow locates originally in the writings of Erik Erikson and Hans Loewald, and outward toward what Chodorow sees as a missing but necessary connection between psychoanalysis, the social sciences, and the social world.” Key Concepts. In the "Psychoanalytic Ear and the  Sociological Eye," Dr. Chodorow's primary focus is on the relationship between social relationships and individuality. Sociology and psychoanalysis, she says, have both been impoverished by not exploring the links and tensions between them. She finds parallels within psychoanalysis itself, where some analysts stress relationships as primary, while others emphasise the individual psyche. Chodorow’s twin peaks in this landscape are Erik Erikson and Hans Loewald. Setting these in dialogue with each other, Chodorow reflects her own cultural and psychoanalytic journeyings. Her discussion of Erikson’s and Loewald’s ideas, and of what others have done with them, amounts to  a history of American psychoanalysis. It is an extraordinary survey. It also extends well beyond America, to include the British Independent Group and other aspects of European psychoanalysis. Chodorow’s call for a fresh relationship between psychoanalysis and sociology, anthropology and psychology, and between clinical practice and the university, opens new horizons in many directions. Critical responses. Chodorow has received some criticism by sociologists for lacking empirical evidence and for her individualistic approach to social theory. Other sociologists argue that she lacks emphasis on the impact of social reality in her theories, and does not understand the idea of social  determinism. Conversely, Lacanian psychoanalytic feminists argue that she is too empirical and socially deterministic. They further argue against her view of the unconscious as a sociological phenomena rather than an indisputable level of analysis.