Antiproton
The antiproton, , (pronounced "p-bar") is the antiparticle of the proton. Antiprotons are stable, but they are typically short-lived, since any collision with a proton will cause both particles to be annihilated in a burst of energy. The existence of the antiproton with −1 electric charge, opposite to the +1 electric charge of the proton, was predicted by Paul Dirac in his 1933 Nobel Prize lecture. Dirac received the Nobel Prize for his 1928 publication of his Dirac equation that predicted the existence of positive and negative solutions to Einstein's energy equation (formula_1) and the existence of  the positron, the antimatter analog of the electron, with opposite charge and spin. The antiproton was first experimentally confirmed in 1955 at the Bevatron particle accelerator by University of California, Berkeley physicists Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain, for which they were awarded the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physics. In terms of valence quarks, an antiproton consists of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark (). The properties of the antiproton that have been measured all match the corresponding properties of the proton, with the exception that the antiproton has electric charge and magnetic moment that are the opposites of those in  the proton, which is to be expected from the antimatter equivalent of a proton. The questions of how matter is different from antimatter, and the relevance of antimatter in explaining how our universe survived the Big Bang, remain open problems—open, in part, due to the relative scarcity of antimatter in today's universe. Occurrence in nature. Antiprotons have been detected in cosmic rays beginning in 1979, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray protons with  atomic nuclei in the interstellar medium, via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: The secondary antiprotons () then propagate through the galaxy, confined by the galactic magnetic fields. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium, and antiprotons can also be lost by "leaking out" of the galaxy. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions. These experimental measurements set upper limits on the number of antiprotons that could be produced in exotic ways, such as from annihilation  of supersymmetric dark matter particles in the galaxy or from the Hawking radiation caused by the evaporation of primordial black holes. This also provides a lower limit on the antiproton lifetime of about 1–10 million years. Since the galactic storage time of antiprotons is about 10 million years, an intrinsic decay lifetime would modify the galactic residence time and distort the spectrum of cosmic ray antiprotons. This is significantly more stringent than the best laboratory measurements of the antiproton lifetime: The magnitude of properties of the antiproton are predicted by CPT symmetry to be exactly related to those of the  proton. In particular, CPT symmetry predicts the mass and lifetime of the antiproton to be the same as those of the proton, and the electric charge and magnetic moment of the antiproton to be opposite in sign and equal in magnitude to those of the proton. CPT symmetry is a basic consequence of quantum field theory and no violations of it have ever been detected. Modern experiments and applications. Production. Antiprotons were routinely produced at Fermilab for collider physics operations in the Tevatron, where they were collided with protons. The use of antiprotons allows for a higher average energy of  collisions between quarks and antiquarks than would be possible in proton-proton collisions. This is because the valence quarks in the proton, and the valence antiquarks in the antiproton, tend to carry the largest fraction of the proton or antiproton's momentum. Formation of antiprotons requires energy equivalent to a temperature of 10 trillion K (10 K), and this does not tend to happen naturally. However, at CERN, protons are accelerated in the Proton Synchrotron to an energy of 26 GeV and then smashed into an iridium rod. The protons bounce off the iridium nuclei with enough energy for matter  to be created. A range of particles and antiparticles are formed, and the antiprotons are separated off using magnets in vacuum. Measurements. In July 2011, the ASACUSA experiment at CERN determined the mass of the antiproton to be times that of the electron. This is the same as the mass of a proton, within the level of certainty of the experiment. In October 2017, scientists working on the BASE experiment at CERN reported a measurement of the antiproton magnetic moment to a precision of 1.5 parts per billion. It is consistent with the most precise measurement of the proton magnetic  moment (also made by BASE in 2014), which supports the hypothesis of CPT symmetry. This measurement represents the first time that a property of antimatter is known more precisely than the equivalent property in matter. In January 2022, by comparing the charge-to-mass ratios between antiproton and negatively charged hydrogen ion, the BASE experiment has determined the antiproton's charge-to-mass ratio is identical to proton's, down to 16 parts per trillion. Possible applications. Antiprotons have been shown within laboratory experiments to have the potential to treat certain cancers, in a similar method currently used for ion  (proton) therapy. The primary difference between antiproton therapy and proton therapy is that following ion energy deposition the antiproton annihilates, depositing additional energy in the cancerous region.