Middle English phonology
Middle English phonology is necessarily somewhat speculative, since it is preserved only as a written language. Nevertheless, there is a very large text corpus of Middle English. The dialects of Middle English vary greatly over both time and place, and in contrast with Old English and Modern English, spelling was usually phonetic rather than conventional. Words were generally spelled according to how they sounded to the person writing a text, rather than according to a formalised system that might not accurately represent the way the writer's dialect was pronounced, as Modern English is today. The Middle  English speech of the city of London in the late 14th century (essentially, the speech of Geoffrey Chaucer) is used as the standard Middle English dialect in teaching and when specifying "the" grammar or phonology of Middle English. It is this form that is described below, unless otherwise indicated. In the rest of the article, abbreviations are used as follows: Sound inventory. The surface sounds of Chaucerian Middle English (whether allophones or phonemes) are shown in the tables below. Consonant allophones. The sounds marked in parentheses in the table above are allophones: Voiced fricatives. In Old English, , , were allophones of  , , , respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants. That led to many alternations: "hūs" ('house') vs. "hūses" ('of a house') ; "wīf" ('woman') vs. "wīfes" ('of a woman') . In Middle English, voiced allophones become phonemes, and they are solidly established in Modern English as separate phonemes by several sources: The status of the sources in Chaucer's Middle English is as follows: The strongest distinction was between and because of the large number of borrowings from Old French. It is also the only distinction that is consistently indicated in spelling, as and respectively. sometimes appears as , especially in borrowings from Greek and  sometimes as . Both and are spelled . Vowels. Monophthongs. Middle English had a distinction between close-mid and open-mid long vowels but no corresponding distinction in short vowels. Although the behavior of open syllable lengthening seems to indicate that the short vowels were open-mid in quality, according to Lass, they were close-mid. (There is some direct documentary evidence: in early texts, open-mid was spelled , but both and were spelled .) Later, the short vowels were in fact lowered to become open-mid vowels, as is shown by their values in Modern English. The front rounded vowels existed in  the southwest dialects of Middle English, which developed from the standard Late West Saxon dialect of Old English, but not in the standard Middle English dialect of London. The close vowels and are direct descendants of the corresponding Old English vowels and were indicated as . (In the standard dialect of Middle English, the sounds became and ; in Kentish, they became and .) may have existed in learned speech in loanwords from Old French, also spelled , but, as it merged with , becoming in Modern English, rather than , it can be assumed that was the vernacular pronunciation that was used in French-derived  words. The mid-front rounded vowels likewise had existed in the southwest dialects but not in the standard Middle English dialect of London. They were indicated as . Sometime in the 13th century, they became unrounded and merged with the normal front mid vowels. They derived from the Old English diphthongs and . There is no direct evidence that there was ever a distinction between open-mid and close-mid , but it can be assumed because of the corresponding distinction in the unrounded mid front vowels. would have derived directly from Old English , and derived from the open syllable lengthening of short  , from the Old English short diphthong . The quality of the short open vowel is unclear. Early in Middle English, it presumably was central since it represented the coalescence of the Old English vowels and , and at the time of Middle English breaking, it could not have been a front vowel since rather than was introduced after it. During the Early Modern English period, it was fronted, in most environments, to in southern England, and it and even closer values are found in the contemporary speech of southern England, North America and the southern hemisphere: it remains in much of Northern  England, Scotland and the Caribbean. Meanwhile, the long open vowel, which developed later because of open syllable lengthening, was . It was gradually fronted, to successively , and , in the 16th and the 17th centuries. Diphthongs. The Old English sequences , produced late Middle English , apparently after passing through early Middle English : OE "grōwan" ('grow') > LME . However, early Middle English produced by Middle English breaking became late Middle English : OE "tōh" (tough') > EME > LME . Apparently, early became before the occurrence of Middle English breaking, which generated new occurrences of , which later became . All of the above diphthongs came about within  the Middle English era. Old English had a number of diphthongs, but all of them had been reduced to monophthongs in the transition to Middle English. Middle English diphthongs came about by various processes and at various time periods. Diphthongs tended to change their quality over time. The changes above occurred mostly between early and late Middle English. Early Middle English had a distinction between open-mid and close-mid diphthongs, and all of the close-mid diphthongs had been eliminated by late Middle English. The following processes produced the above diphthongs: Phonological processes. The following sections describe the major  phonological processes occurring between written Late West Saxon (the standard written form of Old English) and the end of Middle English, conventionally dated to around 1500 AD. Homorganic lengthening. Late in Old English, vowels were lengthened before certain clusters: , , , , . Later on, the vowels in many of these words were shortened again, giving the appearance that no lengthening happened; but evidence from the Ormulum indicates otherwise. For details see Phonological history of Old English: Vowel lengthening. Stressed vowel changes. Late West Saxon (the standard written form of Old English) included matched pairs of short and long vowels, including seven pairs of  pure vowels (monophthongs), , and two pairs of height-harmonic diphthongs, and . Two additional pairs of diphthongs, and , existed in earlier Old English but had been reduced to and , respectively, by late Old English times. In the transition to Middle English, this system underwent major changes, eliminating the diphthongs and leaving only one pair of low vowels, but with a vowel distinction appearing in the long mid vowels: This left an asymmetric system consisting of five short vowels and six long vowels , with additional front-rounded vowels in the southwest area. Some symmetry was restored by open syllable lengthening, which restored  a long low vowel . Reduction and loss of unstressed vowels. Unstressed vowels were gradually confused in late Old English, although the spelling lagged behind, due to the existence of a standardized spelling system. By early Middle English, all unstressed vowels were spelt , probably representing . Also in late Old English, final unstressed became ; during the Middle English period, this final was dropped when it was part of an inflectional syllable (but remained when part of the root, e.g. "seven", or in derivational endings, e.g. "written"). Around Chaucer's time, final was dropped; judging from inflectional evidence, this occurred first when the  following word began with a vowel. A century or so later, unstressed also dropped in the plural and genitive ending "-es" (spelled "-s" in Modern English) and the past ending "-ed". These changes steadily effaced most inflectional endings, e.g.: In the last two examples, the stressed vowel was affected by open-syllable lengthening. Vocalization of and development of new diphthongs. The sound , which had been a post-vocalic allophone of , became vocalized to . This occurred around the year 1200. A new set of diphthongs developed from combinations of vowel+ (either from or from pre-existing ) or vowel+ (from pre-existing  ), and also due to borrowing from French – see Diphthongs above. Breaking. During the 12th or 13th centuries, a vowel was inserted between a front vowel and a following (pronounced in this context), and a vowel was inserted between a back vowel and a following (pronounced in this context). Short was treated as a back vowel in this process (the long equivalent did not occur in the relevant context). See H-loss, below. Open-syllable lengthening. Around the 13th century, short vowels were lengthened in an open syllable (i.e. when followed by a single consonant that in turn is followed by  another vowel). In addition, non-low vowels were lowered: > , > , > , > . This accounts, for example, for the vowel difference between "staff" and the alternative plural "staves" (Middle English "staf" vs. "stāves", with open-syllable lengthening in the latter word). This process was restricted in the following ways: The effects of open-syllable lengthening and trisyllabic laxing often led to differences in the stem vowel between singular and plural/genitive. Generally these differences were regularized by analogy in one direction or another, but not in a consistent way: Trisyllabic laxing. In late Old English, vowels were shortened before clusters  of two consonants when two or more syllables followed. Later in Middle English this process was expanded, and applied to all vowels when two or more syllables followed. This led to the Modern English variations between "divine" vs. "divinity", "school" vs. "scholarly", "grateful" vs. "gratitude", etc. In some cases, later changes have led to apparently anomalous results, e.g. "south" vs. "southern" with only two syllables (but at the time that trisyllabic laxing applied). This change is still fairly productive in Modern English. Pre-cluster shortening. In late Old English, vowels were shortened before clusters of three consonants: As shown by  ghastly, this shortening occurred before the raising of OE to EME , which occurred in the transition to Middle English. Later in Middle English, vowels were shortened before clusters of two consonants, except before and in some cases where homorganic lengthening applied. Examples: Reduction of double consonants. Double (geminated) consonants were reduced to single ones. This took place after open syllable lengthening; the syllable before a geminate was a closed syllable, hence vowels were not lengthened before (originally) doubled consonants. The loss of gemination may have been stimulated by its small functional load—by this time there were few minimal pairs  of words distinguished solely by the single vs. double consonant contrast. H-loss. The phoneme , when it occurred in the syllable coda, is believed to have had two allophones: the voiceless palatal fricative , occurring after front vowels, and the voiceless velar fricative , occurring after back vowels. The usual spelling in both cases was , which is retained today in words like "night" and "taught". These sounds were lost during the later Middle English and Early Modern English eras. The timing of this process was dependent on dialect; the fricatives were still pronounced in some educated speech in the 16th century, but  they had disappeared by the late 17th. Loss of the fricatives was accompanied by some compensatory lengthening or diphthongization of preceding vowels. In some cases, the velar fricative developed into ; as such the preceding vowel was shortened, and the of a diphthong was absorbed. However, the palatal fricative in no instances became . Some possible developments are illustrated below: This variable outcome, along with other variable changes and the ambiguity of the Middle English spelling (either or in Early Middle English) accounts for the numerous pronunciations of Modern English words in "-ough-" (e.g. "though", "through", "bough", "rough", "trough", "thought", with "-ough-  pronounced respectively). The modern phoneme most commonly appears today in the typically Scottish word loch" and in names such as "Buchan". Here the is usual in Scotland, although the alternative is becoming more common among some younger speakers. The same is true in Wales, in names such as "Loughor". English speakers from elsewhere may replace the in such cases with , but some use in imitation of the local pronunciations (as they may in certain foreign words such as "Bach", "Kharkiv", "Sakhalin", "chutzpah", etc.). Great Vowel Shift. The Great Vowel Shift was a fundamental change in late Middle English (post-Chaucer ) and Early Modern English that affected the pronunciation of all of the long vowels. The high vowels and were diphthongized, ultimately producing the modern diphthongs and , and all other vowels were raised. Diphthong loss. Although not normally considered a part of the Great Vowel Shift, during the same time period most of the pre-existing Middle English diphthongs were monophthongized: The remaining diphthongs developed as follows: Vowel equivalents from Old English to Modern English. For a detailed description of the changes between Old English and Middle/Modern English, see the article on the phonological history of English. A summary of  the main vowel changes is presented below. The spelling of Modern English largely reflects Middle English pronunciation. Monophthongs. This table presents the general developments. Many exceptional outcomes occurred in particular environments: vowels were often lengthened in late Old English before , , ; vowels changed in complex ways before , throughout the history of English etc. Vowels were diphthongized in Middle English before , and new diphthongs arose in Middle English by the combination of vowels with Old English "w", "g" > , and "ġ" ; for more information, see the section below. The only conditional development considered in detail below is Middle English open-syllable lengthening . In the column on modern spelling, "CV" means a sequence of a single consonant followed by a vowel. The Modern English vowel usually spelled "au" (British , American ) does not appear in the above chart. Its main source is late Middle English < early and , which come from various sources: Old English "aw" and "ag" ("claw" < "clawu", "law" < "lagu"); diphthongization before ("sought" < "sōhte", "taught" < "tāhte", "daughter" < "dohtor"); borrowings from Latin and French ("fawn" < Old French "faune", "Paul" < Latin "Paulus"). Other sources are Early Modern English lengthening of before ("salt", "all"); occasional shortening and later  re-lengthening of Middle English ("broad" < < "brād"); and in American English, lengthening of short "o" before unvoiced fricatives and voiced velars ("dog", "long", "off", "cross", "moth", all with in American English, at least in dialects that still maintain the difference between and ). As mentioned above, Modern English is derived from the Middle English of London, which is derived largely from Anglian Old English, with some admixture of West Saxon and Kentish. One of the most noticeable differences among the dialects is the handling of original Old English . By the time of the written Old English documents, the Old  English of Kent had already unrounded to , and the late Old English of Anglia unrounded to . In the West Saxon area, remained as such well into Middle English times and was written "u" in Middle English documents from the area. Some words with the sound were borrowed into London Middle English, where the unfamiliar was substituted with : Some apparent instances of modern "e" for Old English "y" are actually regular developments, particularly if the "y" is a development of earlier (West Saxon) "ie" from i-mutation of "ea", as the normal i-mutation of "ea" in Anglian is "e"; for  example, "stern" < < , "steel" < "stȳle" < (cf. Old Saxon "stehli"). Also, some apparent instances of modern "u" for Old English "y" may actually be from the influence of a related form with unmutated "u": "sundry" < "syndriġ", influenced by "sundor" "apart, differently" (compare "to sunder" and "asunder").