Walker-Hooper Site
The Walker-Hooper Site (47-GL-65) is a multicomponent prehistoric site complex located on the Grand River in the Upper Fox River drainage area in Green Lake County, Wisconsin. It consisted of at least 2 village sites and several mound groups (all of which are destroyed today). It was excavated by S.A. Barrett under the auspices of the Milwaukee Public Museum in 1921 and again in 1967 by Guy Gibbon of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. The major component of the site is an Upper Mississippian Oneota palisaded village. Other components were also present, mainly Late Woodland  but also including Archaic, Early Woodland and Middle Woodland. Site Environment. The site is located in the Carolinian Biotic Province as defined by Cleland. The environment of the immediate site surroundings included prairie, oak-hickory forest and marshland. Summary of 1921 Excavations. The 1921 excavations focused on the burial mounds present on the site. There were at least 6 groups of mounds, and a total of 38 burials were recovered. Mound 1 of Mound Group 4 was interesting in that it was shaped in the form of a bear effigy. Of the 38 burials, 23 were flexed, 8 were extended  and 7 were indeterminate due to poor preservation or disturbance. The adults were almost all flexed, while the extended burials were generally infant or child burials. Grave goods were present in some burials, including pottery vessels and other artifacts. Some burials contained charcoal, implying a fire was built as part of the burial ceremony. In addition, several “camp sites” and refuse pits were excavated, which contained animal bone, pot sherds, shell fragments and stone and bone tools and fragments. The following artifacts were recovered from the 1921 excavations: Some of these artifacts are illustrated and discussed further below. Summary of  1967 Excavations. The 1967 excavations yielded 2 rows of post molds interpreted as palisades; 2 oval-shaped houses; sheet middens; and 66 cache and refuse pits containing cultural debris such as pot sherds, lithic debitage and animal bone. The houses measured 35 x 10 feet and 20 x 11 feet. Similar houses at the Huber Phase sites of Anker and Oak Forest in the Chicago area measured from 25–55 feet wide by 12–15 feet wide. The cache and refuse pits were located both within and outside the structures, although the ones outside structures tended to be larger. The following artifacts  were recovered from the 1967 excavations: Some of these artifacts are illustrated and discussed further below. Results of Data Analysis. Animal Remains. Animal remains were only reported from the 1967 excavations. The major species were deer and fish (especially freshwater drum, bass and northern pike. Some of the other species present were mussels, beaver, elk, dog, bear, otter, duck and common loon. These remains were not modified into tools like the bone tools described elsewhere in this article, and may be considered food remains or, in the case of the dog and bear, possibly the remains of ceremonial activities. Dog  sacrifice and dog meat consumption was observed to have ceremonial and religious implications in early Native American tribes. Bear worship and ceremonialism has also been recorded in the ethnological record. Many of the bones were deliberately smashed, implying they were extracting marrow or bone grease. Significantly, the estimated pounds of meat of the fish bones recovered indicate that fish provided an equal portion of the diet compared to the mammal bone, which means the inhabitants were heavily reliant on aquatic resources. Despite a close proximity to prairie habitat, there were no bison remains recovered from the site. It has been  suggested that bison did not range east of the Mississippi River until after A.D. 1600. Plant Remains. Plant remains were only reported from the 1967 excavations. Maize cobs and kernels, and hickory nut shell, were the most abundant. Present in trace amounts were beans, squash, acorn and hazelnut. The hickory nut shell was smashed into small pieces which implies that the inhabitants were smashing the nuts, boiling in water and skimming the oil off the top. Artifacts. Pottery Artifacts. Archaeologists often find pottery to be a very useful tool in analyzing a prehistoric culture. It is usually very plentiful at  a site and the details of manufacture and decoration are very sensitive indicators of time, space and culture. The 1921 excavations yielded several complete vessels associated with burials. However, these were not analyzed or assigned to a formal typology. During the 1967 excavations, no whole or reconstructable vessels were recovered from the site, so the analysis was based upon examination of rim and body sherds. Due to the large number of very small sherds, an effort was made to convert a raw sherd count into an estimated minimum number of vessels present. This provided a more accurate estimate of the  relative proportions of pottery types represented. The 1967 pottery was assigned to formal types. Several pottery types from different time periods were present. Some of them are listed below: Other Artifacts. The non-pottery artifacts found at an archaeological site can provide useful cultural context as well as a glimpse into the domestic tasks performed at a site; ceremonial or religious activities; recreational activities; and clothing or personal adornment. Some of the most prominent and diagnostic non-pottery artifacts are presented here in more detail: Grand River Focus. The Walker-Hooper site is the type site of the Grand River  Focus of the Oneota Aspect, based primarily on details of the pottery. In particular, the Grand River Focus pottery tends to have more plain undecorated vessels (other than lip decoration) and handles are very rare. Punctate decoration is also particularly rare. Besides the pottery, Grand River sites are also more often associated with burial mounds. Along with the Koshkonong and Green Bay Foci, the Grand River Focus is considered part of the Developmental Horizon of the Oneota Aspect, dating to approximately A.D. 1000-1300. The radiocarbon dates obtained from the Walker-Hooper site accordingly range from A.D. 1200-1240. The  site is thought to have been occupied during a relatively short interval. Based upon the animal and plant remains, it is thought to have been a summer seasonal agricultural village.