The Imitation of Christ
The Imitation of Christ, by Thomas à Kempis, is a Christian devotional book first composed in Medieval Latin as "De Imitatione Christi" ( 1418–1427). The devotional text is divided into four books of detailed spiritual instructions: (i) "Helpful Counsels of the Spiritual Life", (ii) "Directives for the Interior Life", (iii) "On Interior Consolation", and (iv) "On the Blessed Sacrament". The devotional approach of "The Imitation of Christ" emphasises the interior life and withdrawal from the mundanities of the world, as opposed to the active imitation of Christ practised by other friars. The devotions of the books emphasise  devotion to the Eucharist as the key element of spiritual life. "The Imitation of Christ" is a handbook for the spiritual life arising from the Devotio Moderna movement, which Thomas followed. The "Imitation" is perhaps the most widely read Christian devotional work after the Bible, and is regarded as a devotional and religious classic. Its popularity was immediate, and it was printed 745 times before 1650. Apart from the Bible, no book had been translated into more languages than the "Imitation of Christ" at the time. Background and history. Background. The ideal of the imitation of Christ has been an  important element of Christian theology, ethics and spirituality. References to this concept and its practice are found in the earliest Christian documents, such as the Pauline Epistles. Saint Augustine viewed the imitation of Christ as the fundamental purpose of Christian life, and as a remedy for the imitation of the sins of Adam. Saint Francis of Assisi believed in the physical as well as the spiritual imitation of Christ, and advocated a path of poverty and preaching like Jesus who was poor at birth in the manger and died naked on the cross. The theme of imitation of Christ existed  in all phases of Byzantine theology, and in the 14th-century book "Life in Christ" Nicholas Cabasilas viewed "living one's own personal life" in Christ as the fundamental Christian virtue. Against this backdrop, the Devotio Moderna movement was started by Geert Groote who was highly dissatisfied with the state of the Church and what he perceived as the gradual loss of monastic traditions and the lack of moral values among the clergy. The initial focus of Devotio Moderna was the rediscovery of genuine pious practices and conversion and re-conversion of the lukewarm clergy. The "Imitation" was written within  the Devotio Moderna community, as it was flourishing in Northern Europe, but grew far beyond that movement which came to an end with the Protestant Reformation. Between the "Summa Theologica" of St Thomas Aquinas, Doctor of the Church, and the emotionally inspiring "Imitatio Christi", was published "The scale of perfection", a book of Ascetical theology ascribed to the Augustinian mystic Walter Hilton (1340–1396), who seems to have been "the pastoral heir of St Gilbert". History. The book was written anonymously in Latin in the Netherlands c. 1418–1427 and Thomas à Kempis is generally accepted as the author. Several sources of  authority, including members of his own order, name Kempis as the author, and various contemporary manuscripts, including one autograph codex, bear his name. Joseph N. Tylenda, S.J., writes that the book's anonymous composition is "not surprising" since the author writes in the "Imitation" that one should "love to be unknown" (Book 1, Ch. 2). Regarding the anonymity of the work, William C. Creasy also notes that the author of the "Imitation" wrote, "Do not let the writer's authority or learning influence you, be it little or great, but let the love of pure truth attract you to read . Do not ask, 'Who said this?' but pay attention to what is said" (Book 1, Ch. 5). By 1471, the manuscripts of the book were so frequently hand-copied and passed across monasteries, that there are around 750 extant manuscripts of the "Imitation". Thomas à Kempis's 1441 autograph manuscript of the book is available at the Bibliothèque Royale in Brussels. The first printed edition appeared in Augsburg c. 1471–2. By the end of the 15th century, the book had more than 100 printed editions and translations in Italian (1480), Catalan (1482), German (1486), French (1488), Low German (1489), Spanish  (1490), Portuguese and Dutch (1496). The book received an enthusiastic response from the very early days, as characterized by the statement of George Pirkhamer, the prior of Nuremberg, regarding the 1494 edition: "Nothing more holy, nothing more honorable, nothing more religious, nothing in fine more profitable for the Christian commonwealth can you ever do than to make known these works of Thomas à Kempis." The number of counted editions exceeds 2,000; 1,000 different editions are preserved in the British Museum; 770 in Biblioteca de Catalunya; the Bullingen collection, donated to the city of Cologne in 1838, contained at the time  400 different editions. De Backer enumerates 545 Latin and about 900 French editions. A critical edition was published in 1982. A new translation from the original Latin text into English by William Creasy was published in 2015. Teachings. "The Imitation of Christ" is divided into four books which provide detailed spiritual instructions. Book One. Book One of the "Imitation" is titled "Helpful Counsels of the Spiritual Life". "The Imitation" derives its title from the first chapter of Book I, "The Imitation of Christ and contempt for the vanities of the world" (Latin: "De Imitatione Christi et contemptu omnium vanitatum mundi ). The Imitation" is sometimes referred to as "Following of the Christ", which comes from the opening words of the first chapter—"Whoever follows Me will not walk into darkness." Book One deals with the withdrawal of the outward life—so far as positive duty allows and emphasizes an interior life by renouncing all that is vain and illusory, resisting temptations and distractions of life, giving up the pride of learning and to be humble, forsaking the disputations of theologians and patiently enduring the world's contempt and contradiction. Kempis stresses the importance of solitude and silence, "how undisturbed a conscience we  would have if we never went searching after ephemeral joys nor concerned ourselves with affairs of the world..." Kempis writes that the "World and all its allurements pass away" and following sensual desires leads to a "dissipated conscience" and a "distracted heart" (Chap. 20). Kempis writes that one should meditate on death and "live as becomes a pilgrim and a stranger on earth...for this earth of ours is no lasting city" (Chap. 23). On the Day of Judgement, Kempis writes that a good and pure conscience will give more joy than all the philosophy one has ever learned, fervent  prayer will bring more happiness than a "multi-course banquet", the silence will be more "exhilarating" than long tales, holy deeds will be of greater value than nice-sounding words (Chap. 24). Kempis writes one must remain faithful and fervent to God, and keep good hope of attaining victory and salvation, but avoid overconfidence. Kempis gives the example of an anxious man who, oscillating between fear and hope and with grief went to the altar and said: "Oh, if only I knew that I shall persevere to the end." Immediately he heard the divine answer, "What if you knew this ? What would you do? Do now what you would do then, and you will be very safe." After this the man gave himself to God's will, and his anxiety and fear of future disappeared (Chap. 25). Book Two. Book Two of the "Imitation" is "Directives for the Interior Life". The book continues the theme of Book One, and contains instructions concerning "inward peace, purity of heart, a good conscience—for moderating our longings and desires, for patience, for submission to the will of God, for the love of Jesus, for enduring the loss of comfort, and for taking up  the Cross." Kempis writes that if we have a clear conscience God will defend us, and whomever God chooses to help no man's malice can harm. Kempis writes that when a man humbles himself, "God protects and defends him...God favors the humble man... and after he has been brought low raises him up to glory" (Chap. 2). Kempis stresses the importance of a good conscience—"The man whose conscience is pure easily finds peace and contentment ... Men only see your face, but it is God who sees your heart. Men judge according to external deeds, but only God can  weigh the motives behind them" (Chap. 6). Kempis writes we must place our faith in Jesus rather than in men and "...Do not trust nor lean on a reed that is shaken ...All flesh is grass, and all its glory shall fade like the flower in the field" (Chap. 7). Kempis writes that false sense of freedom and overconfidence are obstacles for spiritual life. Kempis writes that "Grace will always be given to the truly grateful, and what is given to the humble is taken away from the proud" (Chap. 10). Kempis writes that we must not attribute any good  to ourselves but attribute everything to God. Kempis asks us to be grateful for "every little gift" and we will be worthy to receive greater ones, to consider the least gift as great and the most common as something special. Kempis writes that if we consider the dignity of the giver, no gift will seem unimportant or small (Chap. 10). In the last chapter, "The Royal Road of the Cross", Kempis writes that if we carry the cross willingly, it will lead us to our desired goal, but on the other hand if we carry our cross grudgingly, then we  turn it into a heavy burden and if we should throw off one cross, we will surely find another, which is perhaps heavier. Kempis writes that by ourselves we cannot bear the cross, but if we put our trust in the Lord, He will send us strength from heaven (Chap. 12). Book Three. Book Three, entitled "On Interior Consolation", is the longest among the four books. This book is in the form of a dialogue between Jesus and the disciple. Jesus says that very few turn to God and spirituality, since they are more eager to listen to the  world and desires of their flesh than to God. Jesus says that the world promises things that are passing and of little value, which are served with great enthusiasm; while He promises things that are most excellent and eternal and men's hearts remain indifferent (Chap. 3). Jesus says that the "man who trusts in Me I never send away empty. When I make a promise I keep it, and I fulfill whatever I have pledged—if only you remain faithful...unto the end" (Chap. 3). Jesus says that spiritual progress and perfection consists in offering oneself to the divine  will and not seeking oneself in "anything either small or great, in time or in eternity" (Chap. 25). Jesus says not be anxious about future—"Do not let your heart be troubled and do not be afraid." Jesus advises the disciple that all is not lost when the result is not as planned, when one thinks he is farthest from Jesus, it is then that Jesus is nearest, when one thinks that all is lost, it is then that victory is close at hand. Jesus says not to react to a difficulty as if there were no hope of being freed  from it (Chap. 30). Joseph Tylenda summarizes the central theme of the third book with the teaching in Chapter 56, "My son, to the degree that you can leave yourself behind, to that degree will you be able to enter into Me. Just as desiring nothing outside you produces internal peace within you, so the internal renunciation of yourself unites you to God." Jesus gives his important teaching, "Follow Me...I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life. Without the Way, there is no going; without the Truth, there is no knowing; without Life, there is no living. I  am the Way you are to follow; I am the Truth you are to believe; I am the Life you are to hope for" (Chap. 56). Book Four. Book Four of the "Imitation", "On the Blessed Sacrament", is also in the form of a dialogue between Jesus and the disciple. Kempis writes that in this Sacrament spiritual grace is conferred, the soul's strength is replenished, and the recipient's mind is fortified and strength is given to the body debilitated by sin (Chap. 1). Jesus says that the sooner one resigns wholeheartedly to God, and no longer seeks anything  according to one's own will or pleasure, but totally places all in God's hands, the sooner will one be united with God and be at peace. Jesus continues, "Nothing will make you happier or please you as much as being obedient to the divine will" (Chap. 15). Jesus also delivers his "changeless teaching" — "Unless you renounce all that you have, you cannot be my disciple" (Chap. 8). To receive the Sacrament, Jesus says "make clean the mansions of your heart. Shut out the whole world and all its sinful din and sit as a solitary sparrow on  a housetop and, in the bitterness of your soul, meditate on your transgressions" (Chap. 12). Jesus says that there is no offering more worthy, no satisfaction greater, for the washing away of sins than to offer oneself purely and completely to God at the time the Body of Christ is offered in the Mass and in Communion (Chap. 7). Influence. "The Imitation of Christ" is regarded as the most important devotional work in Catholic Christianity and is the most widely read devotional work next to the Bible. Apart from the Bible no Christian book has been translated into more languages  than the "Imitation of Christ". The book was admired by the following individuals: Saint Thomas More, Chancellor of England and renowned humanist who was executed by King Henry VIII of England; Saint Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, Erasmus of Rotterdam; and twentieth-century American Catholic author and monk Thomas Merton. It also has been admired by many others, both Catholic and Protestant. The Jesuits give it an official place among their "exercises". Kempis' "Imitatio Christi" was in close parentage with Ignatius of Loyola of the "Devotio moderna" movement, and also it was affirmed and practiced by  St. Francis de Sales, profoundly influencing his "Introduction to the Devout Life". John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist movement, listed "The Imitation" among the works that influenced him at his conversion. General Gordon carried it with him to the battlefield. José Rizal, the Philippine polymath and national hero, reportedly read the book whilst incarcerated within Fort Santiago in Intramuros, Manila, shortly before the Spanish colonial government executed him by firing squad for sedition on 30 December 1896. Swami Vivekananda, the 19th-century Hindu philosopher and founder of Vedanta Society, drew a number of parallels between the teachings of the  Imitation and the "Bhagavad Gita". Vivekananda wrote a and a of the "Imitation" in 1899. Vivekananda would always carry a copy of the "Bhagavad Gita" and the "Imitation". Spiritual writer Eknath Easwaran compared the teachings of the "Imitation" with the Upanishads. "The Imitation of Christ" was an early influence on the spirituality of Saint Thérèse of Lisieux, who used it in her prayer life, distilled its message and used it in her own writings which then influenced Catholic spirituality as a whole. Thérèse was so attached to the book and read it so many times that she could quote passages  from it from memory in her teens. The theologian Shailer Mathews wrote that the "Imitation" presents an accurate description of the Christ of the Gospels, and gives an unbiased reading of the words of Jesus. He also wrote "For centuries men have found in it inspiration to sacrifice and humility, and to severest self-examination...He who has never come under its influence has missed something that would have made him more humble and more ambitious for purity of life." The Spanish crypto-Muslim writer known as the Young Man of Arévalo included adaptations of many passages from the "Imitation  in his Islamic devotional work Summary of the Account and Spiritual Exercise". He replaced specific Christian contexts and features with Islamic ones, while keeping the spiritual and moral meaning intact. The adaptation of Christian devotional literature in his Islamic work was likely the result of his being obligated to attend missionary sermons (after forced conversions of Muslims in Spain), and a lack of access to actual Islamic literature. Criticisms. The theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar wrote: René Girard wrote: "Neither does Jesus propose an ascetic rule of life in the sense of Thomas à Kempis and his celebrated Imitation of  Christ, as admirable as that work may be". Friedrich Nietzsche stated that this was "one of those books which I cannot hold in my hand without a physiological reaction: it exudes a perfume of the Eternal-Feminine which is strictly for Frenchmen – or Wagnerians".