Russian Empire involvement in the Persian Constitutional Revolution
Russian Empire involvement in the Persian Constitutional Revolution (; ) was to support the authoritarian faction led by Mohammad Ali Shah to defeat the constitutionalists. Until April 20, 1909, when the Russian army under Major General I. Snarsky occupied Tabriz to protect the Russian consuls, the Russian Empire indirectly supported Mohammad Ali Shah and the authoritarian faction. Support from the Russian Empire included sending weapons, lending money to Colonel Liakhov, the commander of the Cossack Brigade, and a large-scale propaganda machine against the constitutionalist leaders. During the one-year siege of Tabriz, Russia  had repeatedly expressed concern about the security of its consoles. In correspondence between Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky and Prime Minister Hossein-Qoli Nezam al-Saltaneh Mafi, the issue of the Russian military invasion of Tabriz and its conquest was repeatedly raised. After that, for two years, the Russian army tried to occupy areas around the Caspian Sea. The Russians conquered the cities of Astara and Bandar Anzali, and even after Muhammad Ali Shah was deposed, Russian commanders tried to restore his monarchy in a failed campaign. However, Russian influence remained in the Qajar court and bureaucracy, threatening the Ottoman Empire , which led to the Persian campaign in World War I. Background. During the period 1905-1911, the Constitutional Revolution took place in Persia. As a result of the protest of the aristocracy, clergy and intellectuals, Mozafereddin Shah was forced to adopt a constitution in October 1906 and create a Majlis. In 1907, Anglo-Russian Convention was concluded on the division of Iran into spheres of influence, according to which Iran was divided into three parts: Northern Iran (Russian), Central (neutral and open to Germany), Southern (England). The Constitutional Revolution was a major problem for the Convention, so the British and  Russian governments agreed to form an authoritarian state and overthrow the constitutionalists. In January 1907, after the death of his father, Mohammad Ali Shah came to the throne. On accession to the throne, he promised to abide by the constitution given by his father in 1906, which, however, he did not. On June 24, 1908, Muhammad Ali made a coup, with the help of the Persian Cossack brigade, dispersed the Mejlis. Meanwhile, the Russian Empire's first indirect cooperation with Mohammad Ali Shah sent letters to Colonel Liakhov, commander of the Cossack Brigade, to the Russian Embassy in Tehran for  a loan and to the Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasus to request troops. In February 1909, the Shahsevan nomads began to plunder in the vicinity of the city of Ardabil, residents of villages who were Russian subjects. The Russian embassy in Iran accused the move and called on the Iranian government to investigate. At the same time, General Yudenich crossed the Iranian-Russian border arbitrarily and occupied Ardabil. He said this was to protect the Russian people and suppress tribal insurgents. This was Russia's first serious move in the Constitutional Revolution. Occupation of Tabriz, 1909-1911. On April  20, 1909, after many efforts by both the government and the correspondence of Izvolski and Nezam al-Saltaneh Mafi; a secret directive in No. 1124 was sent to the governor in the Caucasus and the commander of the troops of the Caucasus Military District, Adjutant general Illarion Vorontsov-Dashkov. This was a secret order to occupy Tabriz. The purpose of this occupation was to protect the lives of Russian citizens. However, correspondence remains between Mohammad Ali Shah and the Russian ambassador to Iran, Stanislav Poklevsky-Kozell, in which Mohammad Ali Shah requests military intervention from Russia. Soon, two battalions of  the 1st Caucasian Rifle Brigade, four hundred horseback hundreds of Kuban Cossacks, a sapper company and three artillery eight-gun batteries were sent to Persia. This detachment was commanded by the head of the 1st Caucasian Rifle Brigade, Major General I. Snarsky. The instructions given to him indicated: “All communications of the military commanders in the cities occupied by Russian troops with the local Persian authorities and with the population should be carried out through the diplomatic agents of the Russian Imperial Government; joint presence of Russian troops in settlements and movement along the roads protected by Russian troops of  any armed detachments and parties whose activities were of a predatory nature is not allowed ... The decision on the use of weapons in business depends solely on the military command ... be enforced irrevocably and with full vigor. " In Tabriz, on the first day of the Russian offensive, the people of Tabriz defended the city and fought against them. However, the Russian military forces were able to inflict heavy casualties on the inhabitants of the city due to the lack of military experience and the lack of leadership of the Tabriz unit. The next day the war resumed, but in the  evening of that day the two sides agreed to a ceasefire, until now, despite the heavy casualties, the defenders of Tabriz had still maintained their defensive position and that of the city. At this time, the Russians cut off the connection of Tabriz telegraph lines. On the third day of the battle, with the arrival of the new Russian forces, the resistance of the defenders of Tabriz was broken and Tabriz was occupied by the Russian forces. After the occupation, the Russians took revenge on the city's defenders and libertarians. Meanwhile, a large number of people in the city  were killed by the Russians and their agents. Although the government of Ahmad Moshir al-Saltaneh, new prime minister accused the Russians, Mohammad Ali Shah invited General Vorontsov-Dashkov to Tehran a few days later to present him Order of the Lion and the Sun; However, the ceremony was not held due to strong opposition from the Prime Minister and a number of princes. At this time, Sattar Khan and Baqir Khan, with the help of the constitutionalists, took refuge in the Ottoman consulate in Tabriz. With the exception of the defenders of the city, who were purged by the  authoritarians and later by Russian forces, most Kurdish tribal forces put pressure on the Russians. The Kurds only attacked Russian convoys to prevent them from delivering food to Russian forces, and helpd some constitutionalist leaders to secretly escape from Tabriz. They killed Russian soldiers and wrote patriotic slogans on their bodies. The situation was difficult for the Russians. That is why Major General Snarsky wrote a letter to Adjutant general Vorontsov-Dashkov requesting full authority to defeat and eliminate all the invading Kurds. Adjutant general Vorontsov-Dashkov also gave him full authority. The Russian forces set up a large propaganda  organization that called the Kurds bandits and constantly punished the prisoners in public so that the Tabriz constitutionalists would not be encouraged to resist. Ultimatum and invasion to Iran. On July 16, 1909, Mohammad Ali Shah was deposed by the constitutionalists after the Triumph of Tehran. He sought refuge in the Russian embassy to save his life, after which he fled to Russia. The Russian Empire at this time was still occupying Tabriz and refused to descend from its positions. On November 21, 1911, about 17 days after the extension of the Second National Assembly, which had been closed in  1908 by the bombardment by Colonel Liakhov, the Russian government issued a stern ultimatum to Iran: And gave the Iranian government 48 hours to receive a satisfactory response, otherwise it would attack Iran. Abolqasem Naser ol-Molk, Regent of Ahmad Shah, dissolved parliament and agreed to ultimatum. However, the Russian army launched an attack on Iran. The introduction of troops was carried out in three operational directions - from Julfa, Astara and Anzeli - to Tehran. The immediate operational command of the Russian troops in Persia was carried out by the quartermaster general of the headquarters of the Caucasian Military District, Major  General Nikolai Yudenich. The contingent of Russian troops included: the 14th Georgian and 16th Mingrelian grenadier regiments of the Caucasian grenadier division, regiments from the 21st, 39th and 52nd infantry divisions (81st Apsheron, 84th Shirvan, 156th Elizavetpolsky, 205th Shemakhinsky, 206th Salyansky and 207th Novobayazetsky) with artillery and machine guns. The transportation of troops by sea, their landing in the port of Anzali and its fire cover was carried out by the Caspian military flotilla. Communication support was provided by the 2nd Caucasian Railway Battalion and the Caucasian Automobile Team. The railway battalion began construction of the Julfa-Tehran railway line . The arrangement of the temporary headquarters was carried out by the 1st Caucasian Sapper Battalion. Communication was provided by the Caucasian spark company. Meanwhile, Armenian Dashnaks, led by Yeprem Khan, fought alongside Iranian forces against Russian forces along all lines. Some of Yeprem Khan's best men, such as Petros Khan Melik Anderasian, were executed by the Russians. Violence in Mashhad. When the people of Mashhad learned of the ultimatum, they staged a major uprising against Russia and its interventionist measures. Markets and schools were closed and the city closed. People marched in the streets and markets with flags and  banners, and demonstrations took place against the Russians. A large group of people went to the Goharshad Mosque and gathered there against the Russians. one of the city's famous preachers, went to the pulpit near sunset and read the ultimatum to the people. In addition, journalists, including Mirzadeh Eshghi, sent a telegram to the Khorasan Provincial Council ordering a boycott of Russian goods. Several cloth sellers symbolically tore their Russian linen cloths and threw them into the fire. Sugar, tea and Russian linen fabrics were banned by the people of Mashhad. The growing opposition and rallies against the Russians  worried the Russian consul, so he asked the Russian government for help in controlling and suppressing the popular protests. Following this request, the Russian army entered Mashhad with artillery and complete equipment. Although Russian troops had entered Mashhad extensively, they needed a strong pretext for serious action against the militants and the constitutionalists. Khorasan province, especially Mashhad, had many problems during the constitutional revolution, including economic, political and security problems. Roads were very unsafe, offices were chaotic, and the general situation was chaotic, and the fledgling government could not solve such problems. In such a situation, Russia, which itself played  a role in creating such a situation, thought of taking advantage of the turbulent situation in Khorasan and fueled a rift between the constitutionalist faction and loyalists to Mohammad Ali Shah (former authoritarians) of the city. The Russians then strengthened the authoritarian faction and supported a number of anti-constitutional rebels. The incitement of the constitutional opposition, and the support of the Russians for them, caused a riot in Mashhad and provided the Russians with the necessary excuse for military intervention, which the Russians had been waiting for all this time. Among the authoritarians in Mashhad who fought against the  constitutionalists of that city was Nayeb Ali Akbar Noghani, who had set up an anti-constitutional center in the Noghan neighborhood by setting up a tent. The people of Noghan neighborhood, who opposed his anti-reform measures, tried to kill him. Naib Ali Akbar, when he learned of the people's intentions, fled Noghan at night and took refuge in the Arg neighborhood of Mashhad, which was supported by government soldiers, and continued his activities against the constitutionalists in this neighborhood. In order to weaken the constitutional centers in Mashhad and strengthen the opponents of the constitution, the Russians, by  gathering insurgents and opponents of the constitution, launched a large-scale anti-constitutional uprising in this city. Akbar Boland Tehrani, Yousef Khan Herati, Talib al-Haq Yazdi, and Mohammad Qurayshabadi were among the insurgents who were affiliated with the Russians. in 1911, With the help of the Russians, a group of opponents of the constitution gathered in Mashhad and revolted against the constitution. Dabizha, the Russian consul, set up an operations center headed by Talib al-Haq. Akbar Boland Tehrani and Yousef Herati were also prominent members of this group. The gathering place of this group was a small and  old house near Goharshad Mosque. Their intention was to incite the people of Mashhad against the national government, and in support of the former Shah, and then they wanted to bring Mohammad Ali Mirza to Mashhad via Astarabad and return him to the throne with the help of the Russians. The insurgents set up their base of struggle, Imam Reza Shrine, and eventually conquered it. The Russians, who were the main cause of the unrest in Mashhad, on the one hand encouraged the insurgents to continue the unrest and on the other hand threatened the people of the city with  shelling the shrine if the insurgents did not surrender. As the rebels remained in the shrine, the Russians reached their destination and began bombing. After two hours of bombing, at sunset, the Russian army entered the shrine in an attack. The Russians fired cannons and rifles, which hit the shrine and the people, until midnight. Finally, on March 30, 1912, the valuables were looted and the looted property was transferred directly to the Bank of Russia, but the shrine was kept occupied. In this uprising, 1,500 ordinary people were arrested or killed, but there were no casualties from the insurgents . Gomishan Campaign. Mohammad Ali Shah was deposed on July 15, 1909 and stayed at the Russian Embassy in Tehran for 53 days before moving to Odessa and settling there. In 1911, at the same time as the authoritarian uprising in Mashhad, he entered Iran with his two brothers, Malek Mansur Mirza Shoa O-Saltaneh and Abolfath Mirza Salar al-Dawlah, and encamped at Gomsh Tappeh (Gomishan). Shoa O-Saltaneh took the road to Mazandaran and camped in Babol to gathered army. Salar al-Dawlah went to Kurdistan, where he gathered an army and marched on Gerrus. The local Khans of  Mazandaran and Astarabad quickly joined Mohammad Ali Shah. The parliament was in crisis, they quickly set a reward for the arrest of Mohammad Ali Shah, at the same time many members of parliament took refuge in the British embassy to avoid being killed. At this time, the Russians continued to advance with the conquest of Mashhad and Neishabour, supplying weapons to Mohammad Ali Shah and his men. To restore the rule of his brother, Salar al-Dawlah with an army from the tribes of Kalhor, Jaf, Sanjabi and Lur, was able to capture Kermanshah and Hamedan. In the first battle  with the constitutionalists, under the command of Amir Mufakhm Bakhtiari, which took place near Malayer, Salar al-Dawlah defeated the constitutionalists. He then left for Tehran with about 30,000 troops. In the second battle, which was commanded by Amir Mufakhm and Salar al-Dawla's army near Saveh, this time Salar al-Dawla was severely defeated; Eventually, he managed to escape from the battlefield, and because the parliament set a reward of 25,000 tomans for his arrest or execution, Salar al-Dawla fled to the Ottoman Empire. And from there he went to Alexandria and stayed there until the end  of his life. Shoa O-Saltaneh conquered Babol by killing ten government forces and capturing seventy of them. He then went to Sari with his 13,000 army, but was defeated by Yeprem Khan's army nearby, so he fled east to join Mohammad Ali Shah. Finally, in Babol, Yeprem Khan's forces and the armed people defeated and arrested him. He was taken to Tehran and finally died in 1922. Mohammad Ali Shah divided the army into three groups: he sent a group to Shahroud under the command of Ali Khan Arshad al-Dawla, who advanced to Varamin and were  defeated by government troops, and Arshad al-Dawla was shot. A group went by the sea and its commanders were Mirza Mohammad Khan Amir Makram Larijani and Askar Khan Azam-ol-Molk who were defeated by Yeprem Khan and his Dashnaks. The middle army, in which Mohammad Ali Mirza himself participated, went to Astarabad via Mazandaran. Apart from Habibullah Khan Sartip, among the officials who were in this army are Amir Moayed Savadkuhi, Morad Khan Savadkuhi, Habibullah Khan Shoja Al-Molk Surtiji, Habibullah Khan Salar Azam Do Mehri and several others. In the meantime, Sardar Rafie Yanehsari, realizing the danger  of Mohammad Ali Shah, marched towards them with his army. The two armies fought in Savadkuh, and the crisis ended with the defeat of Muhammad Ali Shah and his return to Russia. Sardar Rafi later fought with the Russian army many times during the Persian Campaign. Aftermath. The defeat of Mohammad Ali Shah in returning to throne for Russia meant that the position of the authoritarians in Iran had weakened and it was no longer possible to return to that government before the Constitutional Revolution. Shortly afterwards, the Russian army stopped advancing and retreated to Tabriz. The Russians tried to  maintain their influence in the Qajar bureaucracy. Many princes and politicians took bribes to support Russia's goals in Iran. On the other hand, this worried the Ottoman Empire, which now sought more influence in Iran because it sought refuge with the constitutionalists during the Constitutional Revolution. The conflict between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire over Iran led to the invasion of Iran in 1915 and the beginning of the Persian campaign. References. Books Articles