Ardahan Okrug
The Ardahan Okrug (; ; ) was one of the four okrugs of the Kars Oblast of the Russian Empire between 1878 and 1918. The district was eponymously named for its administrative center, the town of Ardahan, presently part of the Ardahan Province of the Republic of Turkey. The okrug bordered with the Kars Okrug to the south, the Olti Okrug in the west, the Batum Oblast in the north, the Tiflis Governorate in the northeast, and from 1883 to 1903 the Kutais Governorate while the latter included the Artvin and Batum Okrugs. History. The Ardahan Okrug was one of the  four territorial administrative subunits (counties) of the Kars Oblast created after its annexation into the Russian Empire in 1878 through the Treaty of San Stefano, following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. During the First World War, the Kars Oblast became the site of intense battles between the Russian Caucasus Army supplemented by Armenian volunteers and the Ottoman Third Army, the latter of whom was successful in briefly occupying Ardahan on 25 December 1914 before they were dislodged in early January 1915. On 3 March 1918, in the aftermath of the October Revolution the Russian SFSR ceded the entire Kars  Oblast including the Ardahan Okrug through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk to the Ottoman Empire, who had been unreconciled with its loss of the territory since 1878. Despite the ineffectual resistance of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic which had initially rejected the aforementioned treaty, the Ottoman Third Army was successful in occupying the Kars Oblast and expelling its 100,000 panic-stricken Armenian inhabitants. The Ottoman Ninth Army under the command of Yakub Shevki Pasha, the occupying force of the district by the time of the Mudros Armistice, were permitted to winter in Kars until early 1919, after which on 7  January 1919 Major General G.T. Forestier-Walker ordered their complete withdrawal to the pre-1914 Ottoman-frontier. Intended to hinder the westward expansion of the fledgling Armenian and Georgian republics into the Kars Oblast, Yukub Shevki backed the emergence of the short-lived South-West Caucasus Republic with moral support, also furnishing it with weapons, ammunition and instructors. The South-West Caucasus Republic administered the Ardahan Okrug and neighboring formerly occupied districts for three months before provoking British intervention by order of General G.F. Milne, leading to its capitulation by Armenian and British forces on 10 April 1919. Consequently, the Kars  Oblast largely came under the Armenian civil governorship of Stepan Korganian who wasted no time in facilitating the repatriation of the region's exiled refugees. Despite the apparent defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish agitators were reported by Armenian intelligence to have been freely roaming the countryside of Kars encouraging sedition among the Muslim villages, culminating in a series of anti-Armenian uprisings on 1 July 1919. The Kars Oblast for the third time in six years saw invading Turkish troops, this time under the command of General Kâzım Karabekir in September 1920 during the Turkish-Armenian War. The disastrous  war for Armenia resulted in the permanent expulsion of the region's ethnic Armenian population, many who inexorably remained befalling massacre, resulting in the region joining the Republic of Turkey through the Treaty of Alexandropol on 3 December 1920. Turkey's annexation of Kars and the adjacent Surmalu Uyezd was confirmed in the treaties of Kars and Moscow in 1921, by virtue of the new Soviet regime in Armenia. Administrative divisions. The "uchastoks" (sub-counties) of the Ardahan Okrug were: Demographics. Russian Empire census (1897). According to the Russian Empire census of 1897, the Ardahan Okrug had a population of  65,763, including 34,930 men and 30,833 women. The plurality of the population indicated Turkish to be their mother tongue, with significant Kurdish, Karapapakh, Greek, and Turkmen speaking minorities. Caucasian Calendar (1917). The 1917 Caucasian Calendar which produced statistics of 1916 indicates 89,036 residents in the Ardahan Okrug, including 44,387 men and 44,649 women, 82,260 of whom were the permanent population, and 6,376 were temporary residents. The statistics indicated the town Ardahan to be overwhelmingly ethnic Armenian in population with a sizeable Turkish minority, conversely, the rest of the "okrug" was mainly Turkish, with sizeable Kurdish, Gypsy, Yezidi, Russian and Armenian  minorities: