Orchiopexy
Orchiopexy (or orchidopexy) is a surgery to move and/or permanently fix a testicle into the scrotum. While orchiopexy typically describes the operation to surgically correct an undescended testicle, it is also used to resolve testicular torsion. Indications. Undescended testicle. Undescended testicles affect 1% of males and are 10% bilateral. The cause is unknown, with a small percentage associated with developmental abnormalities or chromosomal aberrations. Early orchiopexy reduces the risks for cancer and sterility in males with cryptorchidism, or undescended testes. Cryptorchidism is definitively diagnosed after 1 year of age, as testicular descent may occur after birth. Surgical placement into  the scrotum is recommended by 18 months to decrease the likelihood of testicular cancer, testicular atrophy, and sterility. Cryptorchidism is associated with tubular atrophy and sterility. In addition, cryptorchid testes carry a three to five times higher risk for testicular cancer (germ cell neoplasia in situ within the atrophic tubules). Patients are at increased risk for the development of cancer and atrophy in the contralateral, normally descended testes as well. There are multiple different orchiopexy techniques used to correct an undescended testicle due to the large variation in location where the testes may present. The procedures have a high overall  success rate. Testicular torsion. Orchiopexy is performed in the event of testicular torsion, a urologic emergency presenting with intense pain and often without inciting injury. While neonatal torsion occurs with no anatomic defect to account for its occurrence (occurring in utero or shortly after birth), adult torsion results from a bilateral congenital anomaly often called a "bell-clapper deformity", where the testis is abnormally anchored in the scrotal sac, leading to increased mobility. Twisting of the spermatic cord results in obstruction of the testicular venous drainage. Intense vascular engorgement and infarction may lead to testicular injury and sterility. If the  cord is manually untwisted within approximately 6 hours the testis has a high chance of remaining viable. One in three cases results in dead testes, requiring orchiectomy. Surgical fixation in the form of orchiopexy is indicated to prevent the reoccurrence of torsion, and is usually performed bilaterally, even if only one testicle is affected by torsion. The procedure has a high success rate in preventing reoccurrence. Surgical techniques. For fixation of the undescended testes. For the management of palpable undescended testes (over 80% of undescended testes) the standard inguinal approach is the appropriate procedure. Approximately 50% of non-palpable testis  are high in the inguinal canal or abdominal, while the other 50% are atrophic, and usually located in the scrotum. Diagnostic laparoscopy is often advised to determine the location of non-palpable testis. For fixation of testicular torsion. Two distinct techniques used for surgical fixation are the sutured point-fixation and Jaboulay tunica plication. Multiple studies have shown that both are effective techniques for fixation with limited evidence favoring either in acute torsion. Sutured fixation may be performed using either absorbable or non-absorbable sutures, with 3 point fixation sites being preferred. There are concerns regarding potential complications arising from  suture fixation (and required breach of the tunica albuginea) like infarction and abscess formation, however this is not supported by data. the Jaboulay procedure was developed later as a non-suture fixation method that avoids trans-parenchymal sutures and instead utilizes eversion, loose plication, and adhesion formation. this technique is criticized for potential security inadequacy. Overall, there is considerable variation in surgical practice for testicular fixation for testicular torsion, with no significant difference in effectiveness between sutured and Jaboulay fixation in emergency re-presentations, post-operative complications, or returns to operation. History. The first attempts at surgical correction of cryptorchidism  began in the early 1800s. Before this, inguinal testis were managed with the use of truss or castration, if at all. The theory of orchiopexy is attributed to the observations of Baron Albrecht von Haller and John Hunter in the 1700s, who began to elucidate the anatomy and mechanism of testicular descent. The first recorded attempt for surgical correction of an undescended testis was performed by James Adams in the London Hospital in 1871, although there are reports of attempts by several German doctors (J. F. Rosenmerkel in 1820 and M.J. von Chelius in 1837). The patient died due to  infectious complications of the procedure. Thomas Annandale completed the first successful orchiopexy in 1887 on a 3-year-old boy. He discussed the care of this patient in ‘"The British Medical Journal’," crediting Thomas Curling (who had worked with James Adams) with the idea of anchoring the testis to the bottom of the scrotum. Notably, Annadale was a close acquaintance of Joseph Lister, and practiced antiseptic techniques that had been absent from previous attempts by other physicians. The postoperative course was reported to be “satisfactory in every way”. Max Schüller, Arthur Dean Bevan, and John K. Lattimer further contributed to  the current techniques for orchiopexy between the late 1800s and early 1900s, with the steps for standard orchiopexy being established before the 1960s. At this point, the standard orchiopexy applied to most undescended testes had a high success rate ranging from 89% to 92%- Attention was then turned to the treatment of high undescended testes, which the standard orchiopexy did not adequately treat. In 1979, Jones and Bagley suggested a high inguinal incision for high canalicular or intra-abdominal testes. Fowler and Stephens devised a means to preserve the blood supply of high undescended testes through collateral circulation- their technique  was modified into a 2-staged operation. Later, one-stage laparoscopic orchiopexy was reported first to reveal the location of non-palpable testes and then as a therapeutic treatment.