Awabakal language
Awabakal (also Awabagal or the Hunter River – Lake Macquarie, often abbreviated HRLM ) language is an Australian Aboriginal language that was spoken around Lake Macquarie and Newcastle in New South Wales. The name is derived from "Awaba", which was the native name of the lake. It was spoken by Awabakal and Wonnarua peoples. It was studied by missionary Lancelot Threlkeld in the 19th century, who wrote a grammar of the language, but the spoken language had died out before 21st-century revival efforts. Classification. Awabakal is a Pama–Nyungan language, most closely related to the Worimi language, within the  Yuin–Kuric group of Pama–Nyungan. History. Awabakal was studied by the Reverend Lancelot Threlkeld from 1825 until his death in 1859, producing a grammar and dictionary in "An Australian Grammar" in 1834. The speaker of Awabakal who taught him about the language was Biraban, the tribal leader. Threlkeld and Biraban's "Specimens of a Dialect of the Aborigines of New South Wales" in 1827 was the earliest attempt at exhibiting the structure of an Australian language. Threlkeld's work was greatly expanded by John Fraser and republished in 1892 as " An Australian language as spoken by the Awabakal, the  people of Awaba or Lake Macquarie (near Newcastle, New South Wales) being an account of their language, traditions and customs / by L.E. Threlkeld; re-arranged, condensed and edited with an appendix by John Fraser". It contained a grammar and vocabulary as well as much new material by Fraser, and helped to popularise the name "Awabakal" for the language grouping more broadly referred to as the Hunter River-Lake Macquarie language. Modern revival. The language is currently being revived. A new orthography and reconstruction of the phonology has been undertaken. To date, several publications have been produced including "A grammar for  the Awabakal language", "An introduction to the Awabakal language : its orthography, recommended orthoepy and its grammar and stylistics " and "Nupaleyalaan palii Awabakalkoba = Teach yourself Awabakal". Phonology. Awabakal ceased to be a spoken language since long before the creation of recording equipment, and part of the revival process has been the reconstruction of the phonology. Therefore, the exactness of the language's sounds will never be historically precise. This process has, however, produced one which will be satisfactory for the purpose of revitalisation. Grammar. Nouns. There exist three noun classes. The first has 4 declension patterns. A noun can exist  in any of 13 cases. 1st class – Common nouns, descriptors, demonstratives and "minaring" ('what?'). 2nd class – Place names, words of spatial relations and "wonta" ('where?'). 3rd class – Persons' names, kinship terms and "ngaan" ('who?'). The default, unmarked case of nouns is the absolutive. Unlike English and many European languages, in which an unmarked noun is the nominative case, and is (in the active voice) the subject of the sentence, Awabakal merely references a particular noun with this case. Descriptors. There is a category of words in Awabakal called descriptors. They can stand as referring terms and are in these cases  similar to nouns, like adjectives or intransitive verbs/predicative verb-adjective phrases. They can be declined into nominal cases. Numbers. There are four number words. Pronominal enclitics. Pronominal enclitics are suffixes which have several functions and can be attached to verbs, descriptors, appositions, interrogatives, negatives and nouns. The numbers are: singular, dual and plural with a feminine/masculine distinction in the first person. They mark verbs for person, number, case and voice. The "ergative" enclitcs imply an active transitive situation and the "accusative" implies a passive intransitive situation. There are three true pronouns which could be called a nominative or  topic case. There are only found at the beginning of an independent clause. These pronominals are found in ergative, accusative, dative and possessive cases. Demonstratives. There are 3 degrees. They are declined for 10 cases. Appositive demonstratives. Here too, there are 3 degrees. These terms indicate place. They decline for 13 cases. Verbs. The default verbative voice of Awabakal verbs is neutral. I.e. they do not give a sense of active or passive. The pronominal enclitics indicate which voice the verb should be analysed as being in. There are 3 present tenses, 8 future and 7 past, with various voice , aspect and mood modifications. Example: Negatives. There are 10 forms of negatives which work with different types of words or phrases. Conjunctions. Conjunctions are not commonly used in comparison to many languages. Sentences can often be connected without their use. These also have various combinations and case declinations. Examples. The Lord's Prayer. Below is the Lord's Prayer in Awabakal, according to the Gospel of Luke. Part of the Gospel of Luke was translated into Awabakal in 1892 and below the text reflects the orthography of the prayer in 1892. <poem> Ġatun noa wiya barun, wiyånůn ba , ġiakai wiyånůn nura, Biyuġbai ġearúmba wokka ka ba moroko ka ba kåtan, Kåmůnbilla yitirra ġiroúmba. Ġurrabunbilla wiyellikanne ġiroúmba, yanti moroko ka ba, yanti ta purrai ta ba. Ġuwoa ġearún purreåġ ka takilliko. Ġatun warekilla ġearúnba yarakai umatoara, kulla ġéen yanti ta wareka yanti ta wiyapaiyeůn ġearúnba. Ġatun yuti yikpra ġearún yarakai umullikan kolaġ; mitomulla ġearún yarakai tabiruġ. </poem> Influence on English. The word "Koori", a self-referential term used by some Aboriginal people, comes from Awabakal.