Saurophaganax
Saurophaganax ("lord of lizard-eaters") is a genus of large allosaurid dinosaur from the Morrison Formation of Late Jurassic (latest Kimmeridgian age, about 151 million years ago) Oklahoma, United States. Some paleontologists consider it to be a junior synonym and species of "Allosaurus" (as "A. maximus"). "Saurophaganax" represents a very large Morrison allosaurid characterized by horizontal laminae at the bases of the dorsal neural spines above the transverse processes, and "meat-chopper" chevrons. The maximum size of "S. maximus" has been estimated at anywhere from to in length, and to in weight. In 2020, it was estimated at 3.5 -3.8 tons, with a minimum average weight of 2.6 tons and a maximum average weight of 4.7 tons. Discovery and naming. In 1931 and 1932, John Willis Stovall uncovered remains of a large theropod near Kenton in Cimarron County, Oklahoma in layers of the late Kimmeridgian. In 1941, these were named "Saurophagus maximus" by Stovall in an article by journalist Grace Ernestine Ray. The generic name is derived from Greek , ', "lizard", , ', "to eat", with the compound meaning of "lizard eater". The specific epithet "maximus" means "the largest" in Latin. Because the naming article did not contain a description, the name  remained a "nomen nudum". In 1987, Spencer George Lucas erroneously made OMNH 4666, a tibia, the lectotype, unaware that "Saurophagus" was a "nomen nudum". Later, it was discovered that the name "Saurophagus" was preoccupied: in 1831, it had already been given by William Swainson to a tyrant-flycatcher, an extant eater of taxonomically true lizards. In 1995, Daniel Chure named a new genus: "Saurophaganax", adding Greek suffix -άναξ, "", meaning "ruler", to the earlier name. Chure also found OMNH 4666 undiagnostic in relation to "Allosaurus", so he chose OMNH 01123, a neural arch, as the holotype for "Saurophaganax". — and "Saurophaganax" is  not a renaming of "Saurophagus". Much of the material informally named "Saurophagus maximus", namely those diagnostic elements that could be distinguished from "Allosaurus", were referred to "Saurophaganax maximus" by Chure. They contain disarticulated bones of at least four individuals. "Saurophaganax" is the official state fossil of Oklahoma, and a large skeleton of "Saurophaganax" can be seen in the Jurassic hall in the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History. Although the best known "Saurophaganax" material was found in the panhandle of Oklahoma, possible "Saurophaganax" material, NMMNH P-26083, a partial skeleton including a femur, several tail vertebrae, and a hip bone , has been found in northern New Mexico. Relationship with "Allosaurus". The identification of "Saurophaganax" is a matter of dispute. It has been described as its own genus, or as a species of "Allosaurus": "Allosaurus maximus". The most recent review of basal tetanurans in 2004 accepted "Saurophaganax" as a distinct genus. New possible "Saurophaganax" material from New Mexico may clear up the status of the genus. Paleoecology. "Saurophaganax" was one of the largest carnivores of Late Jurassic North America. Chure even gave an estimate of , though other estimations have been lower. The fossils known of "Saurophaganax" (both the possible New Mexican  material and the Oklahoma material) are known from the Brushy Basin Member, which is the latest part of the Morrison Formation, suggesting that this genus was either always uncommon or that it first appeared rather late in the Jurassic. "Saurophaganax" was large for an allosaurid, and bigger than both its contemporaries "Torvosaurus tanneri" and "Allosaurus fragilis". Being much rarer than its contemporaries, making up one percent or less of the Morrison theropod fauna, not much about its behavior is known. The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, ranges between 156.3  million years old (Ma) at its base, to 146.8 million years old at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. This formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin where dinosaurs lived, stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes , river channels and floodplains. This formation is similar in age to the Solnhofen Limestone Formation in Germany and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. In 1877, this formation became the center of the Bone Wars, a fossil-collecting rivalry between early paleontologists Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope. The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs such as "Barosaurus", "Apatosaurus", "Brontosaurus", "Camarasaurus", "Diplodocus", and "Brachiosaurus". Dinosaurs that lived alongside "Saurophaganax", and may have served as prey, included the herbivorous ornithischians "Camptosaurus", "Dryosaurus", "Stegosaurus", and "Nanosaurus". Predators in this paleoenvironment included the theropods "Torvosaurus", "Ceratosaurus", "Marshosaurus , Stokesosaurus", "Ornitholestes", and "Allosaurus", which accounted for 70 to 75% of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. Other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included ray-finned fishes, frogs such as "Eobatrachus", salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans like "Goniopholis", and several species of pterosaur like "Kepodactylus". Early mammals were present in this region, such as "Fruitafossor", docodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests  of tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the "Araucaria"-like conifer "Brachyphyllum". In Oklahoma, Stovall unearthed a considerable number of "Apatosaurus" specimens, which may have represented possible prey for a large theropod like "Saurophaganax". Bite marks on "Allosaurus" and "Mymoorapelta" remains were found among other bones with feeding traces in the Upper Jurassic Mygatt-Moore Quarry. Unlike the others, these have left striations that, when measured to determine denticle width, produced tooth and body size extrapolations greater than any known specimen of "Allosaurus" or "Ceratosaurus," the two large predators known for osteological remains  from the quarry. The extrapolations are instead coherent either with an unusually large specimen of "Allosaurus", or a separate large taxon like "Torvosaurus" or "Saurophaganax," both of which are not known from the quarry"." The result either increases the known diversity of the site based on ichnological evidence alone, or represents powerful evidence of cannibalism in "Allosaurus". Based on the position and nutrient value associated with the various skeletal elements with bite marks, it is predicted that while "Mymoorapelta" was either predated upon or scavenged shortly after death, "Allosaurus" was scavenged some time after death.