Maitrī
Maitrī (Sanskrit; Pali: mettā) means benevolence, loving-kindness, friendliness, amity, good will, and active interest in others. It is the first of the four sublime states ("Brahmaviharas") and one of the ten pāramīs of the Theravāda school of Buddhism. The cultivation of benevolence ("mettā bhāvanā") is a popular form of Buddhist meditation. It is a part of the four immeasurables in Brahmavihara (divine abidings) meditation. "Metta" as 'compassion meditation' is often practiced in Asia by broadcast chanting, wherein monks chant for the laity. The compassion and universal loving-kindness concept of "Metta" is discussed in the "Metta Sutta" of  Buddhism, and is also found in the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism and Jainism as "Metta" or "Maitri". Small sample studies on the potential of loving-kindness meditation approach on patients suggest potential benefits. However, peer reviews question the quality and sample size of these studies. Etymology and meaning. "Mettā" is a Pali word, from "maitrī" itself derived from "mitra" which, states Monier-Williams, means "friendly, amicable, benevolent, affectionate, kind, good-will", as well as a form of "love, amity, sympathy". The term is found in this sense in the Vedic literature, such as the Shatapatha Brahmana and various  early Upanishads, and Vedanga literature such as Pāṇini's "Aṣṭādhyāyī" 5.4.36. The term appears in Buddhist texts as an important concept and practice. Buswell and Lopez, as well as Harvey, translate "metta" as "loving-kindness". In Buddhist belief, this is a "Brahma-vihara" (divine abode) or an immeasurable that leads to a meditative state by being a counter to ill-will. It removes clinging to negative state of mind, by cultivating kindness unto all beings. The "far enemy" of Metta is hate or ill-will, a mind-state in obvious opposition. The "near enemy" (quality which superficially resembles Metta but  is in fact more subtly in opposition to it), is (attachment) greed: here too one likes experiencing a virtue, but for the wrong reason. Mettā meditation. Mettā meditation, or often loving-kindness meditation, is the practice concerned with the cultivation of Mettā, i.e. benevolence, kindness, and amity. The practice generally consists of silent repetitions of phrases such as "may you be happy" or "may you be free from suffering", for example directed at a person who, depending on tradition, may or may not be internally visualized. Two different methodological approaches have been discerned in recent review papers, practices that focus  on compassion and practices focussing on loving-kindness. Focussing on compassion means that meditation consists of the wish to relieve a being from suffering, whereas focussing on loving-kindness means wishing a being happiness. The practice gradually increases in difficulty with respect to the targets that receive the practitioner’s compassion or loving-kindness. At first the practitioner is targeting "oneself, then loved ones, neutral ones, difficult ones and finally all beings, with variations across traditions". A 2015 meta-analysis synthesising various high quality experiments on loving-kindness meditation, found a medium-sized improvement to daily positive emotion, with meditation  on the loving-kindness aspect of metta having a greater effect than practices with a focus on compassion. The length of time meditating did not affect the magnitude of positive impact of the practice. Origins. Prior to the advent of the Buddha, according to Martin Wiltshire, there existed the traditions of "Brahma-loka" and meditation with the four virtues of loving-kindness, compassion, empathetic joy and equanimity. The early Buddhist texts assert that pre-Buddha ancient Indian sages who taught these virtues were earlier incarnations of the Buddha. Post-Buddha, these same virtues are found in the Hindu texts such  as verse 1.33 of the "Yoga Sutras of Patañjali", wherein the word "Maitri" is synonymous with "Metta". Loving-kindness (maitri), along with compassion and equanimity, are found in the early Upanishads of Hinduism, while loving-kindness (metta) is found in early Sutras of Jainism along with compassion, empathetic joy and equanimity. The ancient Indian "Paccekabuddhas" mentioned in the early Buddhist Suttas, those who lived before the Buddha, mention all "four immeasurables" and Brahmavihara, and they are claimed in the Suttas to be previous incarnations of the Buddha. According to Peter Harvey, the Buddhist scriptures acknowledge that the "Metta"-concept containing four  Brahmavihara meditation practices "did not originate within the Buddhist tradition". The Buddha never claimed that the "four immeasurables" and related "Metta"-meditation were his unique ideas, states Harvey Aronson, in a manner similar to "cessation, quieting, nirvana". The pre-Buddha Chandogya Upanishad, states Jayatilleke, in section 8.15 teaches metta and ahimsa (doctrine of non-harm, esp. non-violence) to all creatures claiming that this practice leads to "Brahmaloka". The shift in Vedic ideas, from rituals to virtues, is particularly discernible in the early Upanishadic thought, and it is unclear as to what extent and how early Upanishadic traditions of Hinduism and  Sramanic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism influenced each other, on ideas such as "four immeasurables", meditation and Brahmavihara. In the Jain text, the Tattvartha Sutra (Chapter 7, sutra 11), which is accepted by all Jainism sub-traditions as authoritative, there is a mention of four right sentiments: Maitri, pramoda, karunya, madhyastha: Buddhist texts. In the Pāli Canon, the term metta appears in many texts such as the "Kakacupama Sutta" and "Karaniya Metta Sutta". Other canonical materials, such as in the "Paṭisambhidāmagga", elaborate on it as a practice. And yet other canonical sources, such as the "Abhidhamma", underline the key  role of benevolence in the development of wholesome karma for better rebirths. This basic statement of intention and verse can also be found in several other canonical discourses. Section::::"Karaniya Metta Sutta" (Sn 1.8). "Metta" or lovingkindness here, states Harvey, is a heartfelt aspiration for the happiness of all beings. It is different than "lack of ill-will", and more an antidote to fear and hatred. It is the precept to conquer anger by kindness, conquer the liar by truth, conquer stingy by giving, conquer evil by good, states Harvey. Section::::"Vatthūpama Sutta". In over a dozen discourses, the following description (in  English and Pāli) is provided for radiating loving-kindness in six directions: In the canon, this basic formula is expanded upon in a variety of ways. For instance, a couple of discourses provide the following description to gain rebirth in the heavenly realm of Brahmā (" sahavyatāya maggo") : Section::::"Patisambhidamagga Mettakatha" (Ps. 2.4). In the "Khuddaka Nikāya's" "", traditionally ascribed to Sariputta, is a section entitled "Mettākathā" (Ps. 2.4, "Story on Loving-Kindness"). In this instruction, a general formula (below, in English and Pāli), essentially identical to the aforementioned "Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta" verse (especially evident in the Pāli), is provided for radiating  benevolence: In addition, this instruction categorizes twenty-two ways in which "the mind-deliverance of benevolence" ("mettācetovimutti") can be radiated with Moreover, the directional pervasions can then be applied to each of the unspecific and specific pervasions. For instance, after radiating benevolence to all beings in the east ("Sabbe puratthimāya disāya sattā ..."), one radiates it to all beings in the west and then north and then south, etc.; then, one radiates it to all breathing things in this fashion ("Sabbe puratthimāya disāya ..."), then all creatures, persons, and so forth until such is extended for all those born in the lower  realms. Benefits. The Pali Canon says that there are a number of benefits from the practicing of metta meditation, including: The Canon also upholds fully ripened metta development as a foremost antidote to ill will: "Monks, whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a future birth, all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the liberation of mind by benevolence. The liberation of mind by benevolence surpasses them and shines forth, bright and brilliant." Mettā meditation is regularly recommended to the Buddha's followers in the Pali canon. The canon generally advises radiating metta in each of  the six directions, to whatever beings there may be. A different set of practical instructions, still widely used today, is found in the 5th CE Visuddhimagga; this is also the main source for the 'near and far enemies' given above. In addition, variations on this traditional practice have been popularized by modern teachers and applied in modern research settings. Maitrī and Mettā. Metta is found in pre-Buddhist Vedic Sanskrit texts as "Maitrī", "Maitra" and "Mitra", which are derived from the ancient root "Mid" (love), and these Vedic words appear in the Samhita, Aranyaka, Brahmana and Upanishad layers of texts  in the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Similarly, the term appears in hymn 55 of Book 19 of the Atharvaveda, and various Upanishads. A major early Upanishad of Hinduism, named Maitri Upanishad, discusses universal kindness and amity. The Maitri Upanishad, states Martin Wiltshire, provides the philosophical underpinning, by asserting, "what one thinks, that one becomes, this is the eternal mystery". This idea, adds Wiltshire, reflects the assumption in the ancient thought that one influences their own environment and situation, causality is equitable, and "good volitional acts conduce pleasant situations, while bad volitional acts conduce unpleasant situations". The Maitri Upanishad teaches , states Juan Mascaró, that peace begins in one's own mind, in one's longing for truth, in looking within, and that "a quietness of mind overcomes good and evil works, and in quietness the soul is one: then one feels the joy of eternity." The Isha Upanishad similarly discusses universal amity and loving-kindness, but without the term "metta". These teachings of universal "Maitri" influenced Mahatma Gandhi. In Jainism, "Yogabindu" – the 6th-century yoga text by Haribhadra – uses the Sanskrit word "Maitri" in verses 402-404, in the sense of loving-kindness towards all living beings. Metta meditation research . Some pilot research studies on the effect of Mettā meditation indicate an increase in positive emotions for practitioners. In particular, an immediate impact on positive emotions after practice as well as a long-term effect could be shown, though these effects might not hold true for everybody. In one proof-of-concept study, uncontrolled in sample selection and benchmarking, the researchers report therapeutic potential for psychological problems like depression or social anxiety, when combined with other reliable treatments. Therapeutic potential. The application of Mettā meditation for the treatment of psychological and other healthcare-related problems is the topic of current  research. Hofmann et al. discuss in their paper the potential use for therapy and report insufficient data, with some promising studies so far. Those studies could show a positive impact on problems such as schizophrenia, depression and anxiety. According to Hofmann et al., there needs to be more rigorous research, especially with the application of Buddhist approaches to loving-kindness and compassion meditation. In an 8-week pilot study in 2005, loving-kindness meditation showed reduced pain and anger in people with chronic lower back pain. Compassion meditation, a Science Daily article states, may benefit by reductions in inflammatory and  behavioral responses to stress that have been linked to depression and a number of medical illnesses. Mettā meditation is a central practice within mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM), the effectiveness of which has been supported by a range of studies. Caution and reviews. Bishop in a 2002 review suggests caution on claims of benefits, and states, "what has been published has been rife with methodological problems. At present, we know very little about the effectiveness of this [mindfulness-lovingkindness-compassion meditation] approach; however, there is some evidence that suggests that it may hold some promise." In a 2014 review of  multiple studies, Galante et al. reach a similar conclusion, stating "results were inconclusive for some outcomes, in particular against active controls; the methodological quality of the reports was low to moderate; results suffered from imprecision due to wide CIs (confidence intervals) deriving from small studies" and that "the kindness meditation methods show evidence of individual and community benefits through its effects on their well-being and social interaction".