Nickname
A nickname (also moniker) is a substitute for the proper name of a familiar person, place or thing. Commonly used to express affection, a form of endearment, and sometimes amusement, it can also be used to express defamation of character, particularly by school bullies. As a concept, it is distinct from both pseudonym and stage name, and also from a title (for example, City of Fountains), although there may be overlap in these concepts. A "hypocoristic" is a nickname of affection between those in love or with a close emotional bond. Etymology. The compound word "ekename", literally meaning "additional  name", was attested as early as 1303. This word was derived from the Old English phrase "eac" "also", related to "eacian" "to increase". By the 15th century, the misdivision of the syllables of the phrase "an ekename" led to its rephrasing as "a nekename". Though the spelling has changed, the pronunciation and meaning of the word have remained relatively stable ever since. Conventions in various languages. English nicknames are generally represented in quotes between the bearer's first and last names (e.g., "Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower", "Daniel Lamont "Bubba" Franks", etc.). However, it is also common for the nickname to  be identified after a comma following the full real name or later in the body of the text, such as in an obituary (e.g., "Frankie Frisch, "The Fordham Flash""). Any middle name is generally omitted, especially in speech. Like English, German uses (German-style) quotation marks between the first and last names (e.g., "Andreas Nikolaus „Niki“ Lauda"). Other languages may use other conventions; for example, Italian writes the nickname after the full name followed by "detto" "called" (e.g., "Salvatore Schillaci detto Totò"), in Spanish the nickname is written in formal contexts at the end in quotes following "alias" (e.g. "Alfonso  Tostado, alias «el Abulense»"), in Portuguese the nickname is written after the full name followed by "vulgo" or between parenthesis (e.g. Edson Arantes do Nascimento, vulgo Pelé / Edson Arantes do Nascimento (Pelé)) and Slovenian represents nicknames after a dash or hyphen (e.g., "Franc Rozman – Stane"). The latter may cause confusion because it resembles an English convention sometimes used for married and maiden names. Uses in various societies. In Viking societies, many people had "heiti", "viðrnefni", or "kenningarnöfn" (Old Norse terms for nicknames) which were used in addition to, or instead of, the first name. In some circumstances, the giving of  a nickname had a special status in Viking society in that it created a relationship between the name maker and the recipient of the nickname, to the extent that the creation of a nickname also often entailed a formal ceremony and an exchange of gifts known in Old Norse as "nafnfestr" ('fastening a name'). In Bengali society, for example, people will often have two names: a "daknam" (pet name) which is the name used by family and friends and a "bhalonam" which is their formal name. In England, some nicknames are traditionally associated with a person's surname. A man  with the surname 'Clark' will be nicknamed 'Nobby': the surname 'Miller' will have the nickname 'Dusty' (alluding to the flour dust of a miller at work): the surname 'Adams' has the nickname 'Nabby'. There are several other nicknames linked traditionally with a person's surname, including Chalky White, Bunny Warren, Tug Wilson, and Spud Baker. Other English nicknames allude to a person's origins. A Scotsman may be nicknamed 'Jock', an Irishman 'Paddy' (alluding to Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland) or 'Mick' (alluding to the preponderance of Roman Catholicism in Ireland), and a Welshman may be nicknamed 'Taffy '. Some nicknames referred ironically to a person's physical characteristics, such as 'Lofty' for a short person, or 'Curly' for a bald man. Traditional English nicknaming – usually for men rather than women – was common through the first half of the 20th century, and was frequently used in the armed services during World War I and World War II, but has become less common since then. In Chinese culture, nicknames are frequently used within a community among relatives, friends, and neighbours. A typical southern Chinese nickname often begins with a "阿" followed by another character, usually, the last character of the  person's given name. For example, Taiwanese politician Chen Shui-bian (陳水扁) is sometimes referred as "阿扁" (A-Bian). In many Chinese communities of Southeast Asia, nicknames may also connote one's occupation or status. For example, the landlord might be known simply as "" () Hokkien for "boss") to his tenants or workers while a bread seller would be called "Mianbao Shu" 面包叔 (literally, Uncle Bread). Among Cantonese-speaking communities, the character "仔" (pronounced "Zai") may be used in a similar context of "Junior" in Western naming practices. Computing. In the context of information technology, a nickname (usually called a nick ) is a common synonym for the "screen name" or "handle" of a user. In computer networks it has become a common practice for every person to also have one or more nicknames for pseudonymity, to avoid ambiguity, or simply because the natural name or technical address would be too long to type or take too much space on the screen. People. Nicknames are usually applied to a person and they are not always chosen by the recipient themselves. Some nicknames are derogatory name calls. Abbreviation or modification. A nickname can be a shortened or modified variation on a person's  real name. Relationship. A nickname may refer to the relationship with the person. This is a term of endearment. Geography. Titles of geographical places. Many geographical places have titles, or alternative names, which have positive implications. Paris, for example, is the "City of Light", Venice is "La Serenissima", and New Jersey is the "Garden State". These alternative names are often used to boost the status of such places, contrary to the usual role of a nickname. Many places or communities, particularly in the US, adopt titles because they can help in establishing a civic identity, help outsiders recognize a community  or attract people to a community, promote civic pride, and build community unity. Titles and slogans that successfully create a new community "ideology or myth" are also believed to have economic value. Their economic value is difficult to measure, but there are anecdotal reports of cities that have achieved substantial economic benefits by "branding" themselves by adopting new slogans. By contrast, older city nicknames may be critical: London is still occasionally referred to as "The Smoke" in memory of its notorious "pea-souper" smogs (smoke-filled fogs) of the 19th and early 20th centuries, and Edinburgh was "Auld Reekie" for  the same reason, as countless coal fires polluted its atmosphere. Collective nicknames of inhabitants of a geographical place. Besides or replacing the demonym, some places have collective nicknames for their inhabitants. Many examples of this practice are found in Wallonia and in Belgium in general, where such a nickname is referred to in French as "blason populaire".