K2 Black Panther
The K2 Black Panther (Hangul: K2 '흑표'; Hanja: K2 '黑豹') is a next generation South Korean main battle tank designed by the South Korean Agency for Defense Development and manufactured by Hyundai Rotem. Developed as a modern main battle tank that will replace most of the remaining M48 Patton tanks and complement the K1 series of main battle tanks currently fielded by the South Korean military, the K2 Black Panther combines an auto-loaded 55 caliber 120 mm main gun, advanced composite armour along with hard and soft-kill active protection systems. Mass production commenced in 2013  and the first K2s were deployed with the armed forces in June 2014. The K2 costs over per unit, making it one of the most expensive main battle tanks in service, of any nation. Development. In 1995, the South Korean Agency for Defense Development (ADD) was given the task of developing a modern armored fighting vehicle based upon state-of-the-art domestic technologies. The objective of this development program was to further modernize the South Korean army, despite the superior capability of existing K1 and K1A1 designs versus North Korean tanks, most of which are aging T-55s and Type  59s. Emphasis upon indigenous technologies would also allow the proposed vehicle to enter the export market without licensing difficulties. From 1995 to 1997, research was conducted on the concept of tank, including function, performance, shape, and necessary technology, and from 1998 to 2002, development of tank specific design and core technology and parts were conducted to develop tank guns, automatic target tracking devices, autoloaders, and operating software. From 2003 to 2007, five vehicles were built to demonstrate technology and performance, named MTR (Mobility Test Rig), FTR (Firepower Test Rig), PV1, PV2, and PV3. MTR and FTR conducted mobility, fire control , combat control, and low Temperature Operating Life Tests, while PV1, PV2, and PV3 conducted Endurance test, Developer Test, Operator Test, and Integrated logistics Support Test. The last prototype was unveiled on 2 March 2007, and the development was officially completed after being declared fit for combat by the Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) in September 2008. Early design variants included a version with an unmanned turret, which was later scrapped in favor of manned turret designs. In addition, During the initial development, there was a plan to equip the K2 tank with the which is Rheinmetall's experimental 140 mm  smoothbore gun, However, the project was subsequently discontinued, and the K2 Black Panther's main armament was changed to be equipped with 120 mm smoothbore guns indigenously developed by the Agency for Defense Development and Hyundai Wia. The CN08 120 mm/L55 of K2 is equipped with a 6.6 m-length barrel that is longer than the KM256 120 mm main gun in the K1A1. This results in a higher muzzle velocity of for greater accuracy and armor penetration (compared to for the K1A1). The K2's autoloader also allows it to reload its main gun more quickly compared to  its predecessor. The K2 is capable of fording -deep rivers, is equipped with a posture control function that can tilt the chassis or lower its overall height by and deploys a laser warning system that can turn the turret towards the source of hostile fire almost instantaneously. Engines and powertrains. In March 2011, South Korea's Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) announced that mass production of the K2, which the Army was expecting to deploy in 2012, would not happen due to problems concerning its engine and transmission. In April 2012, DAPA announced that due to ongoing issues with the  reliability and durability of the domestically-produced powerpack, the first 100 production K2s would use German-made MTU powerpack and that service entry would be delayed until March 2014. The first 15 K2 Black Panther tanks were put into service in June 2014. Faulty indigenous engines and transmissions previously halted production, but the lowering of required acceleration performance allowed it to enter service. The powerpack will eventually be produced locally, but until that occurs the K2 employs German-made MTU power plants which makes possible the deployment of around 100 vehicles by 2017. Tanks under the second contract, after the  first 100 models, which were built with the domestic Doosan Infracore (now Hyundai Doosan Infracore) 1,500 hp engine and SNT Dynamics automatic transmission, began delivery in late 2016. Hyundai Rotem signed a contract from the second batch of 106 K2 tanks in December 2014, but the vehicles continued to have powerplant issues due to the SNT Dynamics transmission failing durability tests. In February 2018, DAPA announced the second batch would have a "hybrid" powerpack consisting of the locally developed engine with the German RENK transmission system, allowing them to start entering service in 2019. An additional contract for the production  of a third batch of about 110 K2s is to follow within the next several years. On 6 December 2021, a senior SNT Dynamics official said it solved a technical problem with the transmission defect, and only the Ministry of National Defense's durability test remains in the first half of next year, and the fourth production of the K2 tank will include domestic transmission. Weapon systems. The Black Panther is armed with a CN08 120 mm 55 caliber smoothbore gun indigenously developed by Agency for Defense Development and Hyundai Wia. This is complemented by an autoloader, similar to that  designed for the Leclerc tank, this enables the tank to fire up to 10 rounds per minute. The ammunition for the main gun is loaded in a 16-shell magazine. The tank has a total ammunition capacity of 40 rounds for its main armament. Secondary weapons include a 12.7 mm K6 Heavy Machine Gun and a 7.62 mm coaxial machine gun. Fire-control system and optics. The K2 is equipped with an advanced fire-control system linked to an Extremely High Frequency radar system deployed on the frontal arc of the turret, along with a Raman laser rangefinder and crosswind  sensor. The system is capable of a "lock-on" mode, which can acquire and track specific targets up to a range of using a thermographic camera. This allows the crew to fire accurately while moving as well as engage low-flying aircraft. The fire-control system is also linked to an advanced gun stabilizer and trigger-delay mechanism to optimise accuracy while moving in uneven terrain. If the trigger on the main gun is pulled at the same time the tank encounters an irregularity in the terrain, oscillation of the gun barrel will cause temporary misalignment between a laser emitter  at the top of the barrel and a sensor at the base. This will delay the fire-control system from activating until the beam is re-aligned, improving the chances of hitting the intended target. The Korean Gunner's Primary Sight (KGPS) and the Korean Commander's Panoramic Sight (KCPS) are present in the Black Panther as in the original series of K1A1 tanks, albeit modified to utilise the more advanced sensors and armaments deployed on the K2. The commander of the tank has the ability to override the command to take control of the turret and gun from the  gunner. Moreover, unconfirmed reports state that, in the event of an emergency, the vehicle can be operated by only two crew members, or even a single one. It is speculated that the fire-control system can automatically spot and track visible targets, compare them using the data link established with other friendly vehicles to prevent redundant target engagements, and fire its main gun without manual input. Munitions. The K2's primary anti-tank munition is an indigenously developed improved tungsten K279 APFSDS-T. For attacking unhardened targets, the K2 can use a multi-purpose K280 HEAT-MP-T chemical energy  round, similar to the U.S. M830A1 HEAT MP-T, providing good offensive capabilities against personnel, unarmored and lightly armored vehicles on the ground as well as low-flying helicopters. The Korean Smart Top-Attack Munition (KSTAM) is a fire-and-forget, top-attack anti-tank munition with an effective operating range of , developed specifically for use with the K2. It is launched as a kinetic energy projectile, fired from the main gun in a high trajectory profile comparable to that of a mortar. Upon reaching its designated target area, a parachute deploys, giving on-board millimeter band radar, infrared and  radiometer sensors time to seek and acquire stationary or moving targets. When a target is acquired, an explosively formed penetrator is fired from a top-down position, to exploit the weaker top armor of tanks. Target acquisition can also be directed manually by the tank crew via a remote link. These characteristics allow the launch vehicle to remain concealed behind cover while firing successive rounds towards the known location of an enemy, or provide effective indirect fire support against targets hidden behind obstacles and structures. Defensive capabilities. The Black Panther consists of a modular armor that combines POSCO MIL-12560H steel  with composite material. The frontal armor has been claimed to be effective against the 120 mm APFSDS round fired from the L55 gun. Explosive Reactive Armor blocks are also present, with the addition of Non-Explosive Reactive Armor planned for the K2 PIP (Product Improvement Program) version. Inside the tank, a positive pressure and air conditioning system are installed to protect the tank crew from chemical weapon, biological weapon, an automatic fire suppression system is programmed to detect and put out any internal fires that may occur, and atmospheric sensors alert the crew if the tank enters a hazardous environment . In addition, the interior of the tank is installed with a neutron shielding liner made of polyethylene-boron moderator to protect the tank crew from neutron radiation from nuclear explosions. VIRSS soft-kill active protection system. Defense against incoming missiles is provided by a Visual and Infrared Screening Smoke (VIRSS) soft-kill active protection system. The millimeter band radar system mounted on the turret is capable of operating as a Missile approach warning system (MAWS). The vehicle's computer in turn can triangulate incoming projectiles, immediately warn the vehicle crew and fire off Visual and Infrared Screening Smoke (VIRSS) grenades . The VIRSS provide the self-protection capabilities for the K2 tank to generate the multi-spectral smoke screening capability effective in the visual, infrared, and millimeter wave bands. Once the hard-kill active protection system is installed, the radar system will also be responsible for tracking and targeting the incoming missiles for the active protection system. The K2 has a Radar Warning Receiver (RWR) and four all-bearing Laser warning receivers (LWR) are present to alert the crew should the vehicle become "painted", and the computer can also deploy VIRSS grenades towards the direction of the beam. Mobility and maneuverability . The K2 can travel at speeds of up to 70 km/h on road surfaces, accelerate from 0 to 32 km/h within 8.7 seconds, and maintain speeds of up to 52 km/h in off-road conditions. It can also climb 60-degree slopes and vertical obstacles 1.8 meters in height. Due to the relatively compact design of the engine, the designers were able to fit an additional Farymann & TZEN compact auxiliary power unit into the remaining compartment space. This is capable of producing 8~10Kw, and intended to act as an auxiliary power unit with which the tank may  power its on-board systems when its main engines are turned off. It will also allow the tank to conserve fuel when idling and minimise the vehicle's thermal and acoustic signatures. The vehicle can cross rivers as deep as 4.1 meters using a snorkel system, which also serves as a conning tower for the tank commander. The system takes approximately 20~30 minutes to prepare. The turret becomes watertight while fording, but the chassis can take in 500 gallons of water to prevent excessive buoyancy from air inside the vehicle and keep the tracks planted firmly on the ground. Furthermore , the tank can enter combat-ready status as soon as it resurfaces. It is said that K2's predecessor, K1, can cross a river of 2 meter depth after 2 hours of preparation, which also requires assistance from military engineers. However, a K2 tank does not require outside assistance for river crossing. In-arm Suspension Unit (ISU). The Black Panther fields an advanced suspension system, called the In-arm Suspension Unit (ISU), which allows for individual control of every bogie on the tracks. This allows the K2 to "sit", "stand" and "kneel", as well as "lean" towards one side or  a corner. "Sitting" gives the tank a lower profile and offers superior handling over roads. "Standing" gives the vehicle higher ground clearance for maneuverability over rough terrain. "Kneeling" augments the angular range in which the tank's gun barrel can elevate and depress, allowing the vehicle to fire its main gun downhill as well as engage low-flying aircraft more effectively. The suspension unit also cushions the chassis from vibrations when travelling over uneven terrain, as the bogies can be adjusted individually on-the-fly. Using the suspension system, K2 is able to elevate its main gun up to 24  degrees, which allows a curved trajectory attack at a hovering helicopter target away. The K2 also has advanced track system called Dynamic Track Tensioning System. Maintaining optimum tension through all maneuvers, it dramatically reduces the chance of throwing a track even in the most extreme situations. Network-centric considerations. The K2 houses the following features which help to improve situational awareness for the crew: Work is also under way to integrate the experimental autonomous vehicle, unmanned wheeled reconnaissance drone into the Black Panther's systems, giving the tank's crew the ability to scout without disclosing its location. K2 product  improvement program (K2 PIP). The K2 PIP is an improved version of the initial production model of the K2 that will be released within the next few years. Improvements will include: Korean Active Protection System (KAPS). The Korean Active Protection System (KAPS) is an indigenously developed hard-kill active protection system designed to protect the K2 from anti-tank threats. It uses a three-dimensional detection and tracking radar and a thermal imager to detect incoming threats. Warheads can be detected out to 150 meters from the tank, and a defensive rocket is fired to destroy them at 10–15 meters  away. The system can neutralize rocket-propelled grenades and anti-tank guided missiles. It may be installed on other platforms in the future like warships, helicopters, and buildings. Unit price per system is ₩670 million ($600,000). Implementation of KAPS was cancelled in 2014 due to budgetary issues along price of K2 being at 8 billion won with addition of KAPS would increase procurement of K2 by 1 billion won to 9 billion won. Export. In late September 2013, South Korea entered the K2 Black Panther in the Peruvian Army's future tank competition. In January 2020 Poland announced  negotiations with Hyundai for license production of the K2 Black Panther for the Polish Army.