Japanese female beauty practices and ideals
Japanese female beauty practices and ideals are a cultural set of standards in relevance to human physical appearance and aesthetics. Distinctive features of Japanese aesthetics have the following qualities: simplicity, elegance, suggestion and symbolism. Concepts of female beauty originate from its traditional culture which has lasted for more than a century, some of which include skin whitening, long straight hair and slim eyes. Through evolution and the western influence, the ideals have changed, such as the double eyelid ideal. A small and slim face, as well as well cared for skin and a light  skin tone remains to be the foundation of Japanese beauty. These significant changes in the beauty ideals reflect the modernisation of Japan. Importance of female facial beauty. Facial beauty is important as human evolution begins with attraction and mate choice. Particularly for women, there have been benefits of physical attractiveness as it is often linked with increased economic mobility. For example, those who are attractive are seen to be confident with positive personality traits, able to pursue high-status occupations, and have happy and successful marriages. History. Hakuhō (646–710). The first form of white face powder was made out of  rice flour and white soil during the Hakuhō period. The manufacture of this was imported from China. This was limited to the upper class until the Edo period (1600–1868) where it was used extensively by the public. Nara (710–793). During the Nara period, lips and eyelids were given a red tint, and red beauty spots were painted on the outer corners of the lips and eyes, as well as in between the eyebrows. Hikimayu, the removal of natural eyebrows and penciling in new ones was practiced primarily in the upper classes. This became a norm for every woman to represent  their married status, and until the end of the 19th century this continued. Heian (793–1185). Teeth blackening during the Heian period, known as ohaguro, involved coating the teeth black with paint, mainly done by the wealthy. The black teeth imitated tooth decay, and decay was a status symbol as only the wealthy could afford sweets. This was used to sustain healthy teeth, as well as enhance sex appeal. Plump, round faced women were considered beautiful in this period, symbolising wealth as they were able to afford a lot of food. Straight, long black hair was also ideal. In essays written  in 1002 called The Pillow Book, Sei Shōnagon, a court lady stated that she envied "beautiful, very long hair". Edo (1600–1868). Etiquette of how to use the cosmetics was important during the Edo period, with emphasis of the colours white, red and black. The use of white face powder and teeth blackening continued. Heavy red lipstick made out of safflowers became popular. Face steaming was thought to make the skin white and smooth, and sanekazura root juice was used to straighten hair. Light, proper use of makeup was ideal. The women of Osaka and Kyoto were ridiculed as they used  heavier makeup than the women in Tokyo, considering them to be "yabo" (rough). Slim and fragile women with up turned eyes and narrow faces also began to be the ideal, shifting away from the preference of plumpness. Small hands and feet were also considered beautiful, therefore socks and rings were worn by women in their sleep to slow down the growth of their limbs. Meiji (1868–1912). After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, there was a westernisation of makeup techniques and clothing from the influence of the cultural exchange with the United States and Europe. Admiration to the white skin of  westerners were often referred to in historical writings, but wavy hair was disapproved of until the mid-1920s. White skin tone as a symbol of beauty. Since recorded time, white skin has been highly valued as an element of beauty. An old saying mentioned that "white skin makes up for seven defects", meaning that white skin can over shine the lack of other desired physical qualities. It was considered as an upper-level sign of beauty, femininity, purity and moral virtue. The earliest to conduct research on this topic is by an anthropologist Hiroshi Wagatsuma. He argued in his 1967 article  that there was a dichotomy in the 1960s of white vs. black with the preference of white heavily endorsed in aesthetic values. This preference is rooted in Japan's own tradition, simply for aesthetic preference rather than the influence of western culture. In the fieldwork conducted by Ashikari (2005), it was found that the same skin tone shared amongst the Japanese as a race is something they take pride in, and is often expressed to represent "Japaneseness". This ideal has sustained into the modern day, and more recently there has been immense consumer activity with the sales of whitening products  worldwide, turning it into a multi-billion-dollar industry that is still growing. It has transformed from a trivial practice where only the wealthy can partake in, to now accessible by everyone with an enormous amount of different products. Double eyelids. In feudal Japan, as there was little influence from other countries, beautiful women in ukiyo-e were portrayed with slim eyes and single eyelids. During the opening of Japan to the West in the Meiji Restoration, Japanese physician M. Mikamo was the first surgeon to publish a technique for East Asian blepharoplasty, to westernise the Asian eyelid. The submissive  femininity that was highly valued before was replaced by a new concept of liberated women. Japanese women admired the beauty of Westerners, and Mikamo considered these desires, and through his surgical efforts he opted to satisfy their claims in which he was successful. To only achieve westernisation was not the purpose of the surgery, it was to reduce the traditional Japanese look, which was considered too submissive, and to instead reflect the new liberated feminine beauty. Double eyelids did not automatically mean westernisation as fifty percent of Asians are born with double eyelids. Currently in the 21st century there are  cosmetics such as eyeliner, mascara and eyeshadow to make the eyes look well defined and larger. Often in Asian cosmetics shops there are eyelid glues and tapes to stick the top of the eyelid skin together to create the illusion of a double eyelid. These products are often advertised in girls magazines such as Popteen. Elimination of traditional practices. During the Meiji restoration there were aims of building a new modern economy, and the government also sought to modernise the appearance of the Japanese society. The Emperor's face was westernised to encourage the ban of whitening males faces, but  to maintain the traditional values, women's faces were still whitened. In 1914 the government banned female eyebrow shaving in urban areas, as well as tooth blackening as it was thought to be barbaric by Western ideals. The ideals of beauty transformed from having slim eyes, painted thin eyebrows and slim faces to having larger eyes, rounder faces and thick eyebrows. Increasingly the younger generations have been seeing sun-tanned skin as an indication of wealth and privilege, as they are able to afford summer holidays overseas by the seaside. The commercialisation of beauty and the cosmetics are a strong  influence to the Japanese aesthetic ideals. Advertisements in the cosmetics industry use models who look desirable, often by using half Japanese and half Caucasian models. This is because they have Japanese features displaying traditional beauty, and for the viewers to be able to relate to, as well as Caucasian features conforming to the western ideals. Skincare. Anti-aging skin care. In the 19th century women over 35 were respected and praised as virtuous grandmothers, but were seemed as unattractive. By the start of the 20th century, older women were considered more beautiful, and the cosmetics industry had introduced anti-aging  products such as creams, and practices of dying hair. This was fundamental in skin care brands as it assured women their youth could be restored, a highly valued beauty ideal. Japan was the largest non-western market for the demand of anti-aging products. Hygienic skin culture. The Japanese perceptions of excessively whitening their skin was changed by two events. The first one was the Food and Drugs Standards Law in 1900, forbidding the use of lead-based makeup. The second was more information about the dangers of lead poisoning, contributing to anxieties of maintaining skin health. Traditional cosmetics were  viewed as dangerous and the maintenance of clear pores became a serious aspect, especially due to the Nakamura Incident of 1887, where a kabuki actor was wearing heavy makeup on stage and then suffered from "skin suffocation". "Biganjutsu" (the technique of the beautiful face) emerged as a practice that made caring for the skin as a basic hygiene. The average facial, available in urban areas involved putting a hot towel on the face to open up pores, massaging the face with cream, and lastly electrotherapeutic devices were used. This assured smooth, blemish and wrinkle-free skin without the need of  having to over up with heavy makeup. The new beauty goal was to create a healthy complexion, radiating with "natural beauty". Shiseido. Throughout the Taishō period (1912–1926), there was a further Westernisation in Japan, with flourishing amounts of western fashion in Ginza, the first shopping district in Tokyo. New cosmetics products that came from liberal ideas of scientists originated from Shiseido. Arinobu Fukuhara was an entrepreneur who opened the Shiseido pharmacy in Ginza in 1872, Japan's first western style pharmacy, distinctive from when the pharmacies only sold traditional Chinese medicine at the time. Shiseido's success emerged from the  launch of a luxurious skin lotion called Eudermine in 1897. To create an emotional association, they used a non-Japanese name, from classical Greek terms meaning "good" and "skin". It was so successful that it is still continued to be sold today. The exotic motto "Richness in All" used by Shiseido accurately represented the time as it was when Japan was still new to western influences. In 1923, women were limited to only one shade of powder which was pure white, but Shiseido then produced powder of seven different shades of skin colour. This new range promoted that the natural  skin colour was the beauty ideal, allowing women to match their own colour, expressing liberation and individuality of women. Make-up. The shift away from pure whiteness. Starting from the Heisei Period (1989–2019), natural, healthy and clear skin was the new standard of beauty, redeveloping the meaning of whiteness. The cosmetics industry introduced powders that were skin coloured, and not just pure white. Pure white also sometimes revealed signs of disease and was no longer considered as beautiful as it once was before. The new ideal of skin colour was "nikutaibi", which implied health and is a balance between tan  and white, a complexion of pink paleness. Healthy skin was highly important as it was seen to be associated with fertility potential, especially during the prewar period. Natural make-up style. After the Equal Employment Opportunity Law (Japan) in 1985, the makeup style for women was heavy, emphasising their facial features by contouring, colouring in their eyebrows dark, and using deeper lip shades. This shifted towards a natural and lighter style of makeup after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, also known as the Great East Japan Earthquake. It was seen to express a softer beauty in a sensitive time  of healing. This style has continued until today, with preferences of bright skin, soft coloured eyebrows, light shimmery eyeshadows and warm toned blushes.