Prunus
Prunus is a genus of trees and shrubs, which includes (among many others) the fruits plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots, and almonds. Native to the northern temperate regions, 430 different species are classified under "Prunus". Many members of the genus are widely cultivated for their fruit and for decorative purposes. "Prunus" fruit are drupes, or stone fruits. The fleshy mesocarp surrounding the endocarp is edible while the endocarp itself forms a hard, inedible shell called the pyrena ("stone" or "pit"). This shell encloses the seed (or "kernel") which is edible in many species (such as almonds) but poisonous in  others (such as apricots). Most "Prunus" fruit are commonly used in processing, such as jam production, canning, drying, and seeds for roasting. Botany. Members of the genus can be deciduous or evergreen. A few species have spiny stems. The leaves are simple, alternate, usually lanceolate, unlobed, and often with nectaries on the leaf stalk along with stipules. The flowers are usually white to pink, sometimes red, with five petals and five sepals. Numerous stamens are present. Flowers are borne singly, or in umbels of two to six or sometimes more on racemes. The fruit is a fleshy drupe (a "prune ) with a single relatively large, hard-coated seed (a stone"). Within the rose family Rosaceae, it was traditionally placed as a subfamily, the Amygdaloideae (incorrectly "Prunoideae"), but was sometimes placed in its own family, the Prunaceae (or Amygdalaceae). More recently, "Prunus" is thought to have evolved from within a much larger clade now called subfamily Amygdaloideae (incorrectly "Spiraeoideae"). Classification. Linnean classification. In 1737, Carl Linnaeus used four genera to include the species of modern "Prunus"—"Amygdalus, Cerasus, Prunus", and "Padus"—but simplified it to "Amygdalus" and "Prunus" in 1758. Since then, the various genera of Linnaeus and others have become subgenera and  sections, as all the species clearly are more closely related. Liberty Hyde Bailey says: "The numerous forms grade into each other so imperceptibly and inextricably that the genus cannot be readily broken up into species." Traditional classification. Historical treatments break the genus into several different genera, but this segregation is not currently widely recognised other than at the subgeneric rank. The ITIS recognises just the single genus "Prunus", with an open list of species, all of which are given at List of Prunus species. One treatment of the subgenera derives from the work of Alfred Rehder in 1940. Rehder  hypothesized five subgenera: "Amygdalus, Prunus, Cerasus, Padus", and "Laurocerasus". To them C. Ingram added "Lithocerasus". The six subgenera are described as follows: Phylogenetic classification. An extensive phylogenetic study based on different chloroplast and nuclear sequences divides "Prunus" into three subgenera: Species. The lists below are incomplete, but include most of the better-known species. Cultivation. The genus "Prunus" includes the almond, the nectarine and peach, several species of apricots, cherries, and plums, all of which have cultivars developed for commercial fruit and nut production. The almond is not a true nut; the edible part is the seed. Other species are  occasionally cultivated or used for their seed and fruit. A number of species, hybrids, and cultivars are grown as ornamental plants, usually for their profusion of flowers, sometimes for ornamental foliage and shape, and occasionally for their bark. Because of their considerable value as both food and ornamental plants, many "Prunus" species have been introduced to parts of the world to which they are not native, some becoming naturalised. The Tree of 40 Fruit has 40 varieties grafted on to one rootstock. Species such as blackthorn ("Prunus spinosa"), are grown for hedging, game cover, and other utilitarian purposes. The wood  of some species (notably black cherry) is prized as a furniture and cabinetry timber, especially in North America. Many species produce an aromatic gum from wounds in the trunk; this is sometimes used medicinally. Other minor uses include dye production. Pygeum, a herbal remedy containing extracts from the bark of "Prunus africana", is used as to alleviate some of the discomfort caused by inflammation in patients suffering from benign prostatic hyperplasia. "Prunus" species are food plants for the larvae of many Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths); see List of Lepidoptera which feed on "Prunus". "Prunus" species are included in the  Tasmanian Fire Service's list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone. Ornamental "Prunus". Ornamentals include the group that may be collectively called "flowering cherries" (including "sakura", the Japanese flowering cherries). Toxicity. Many species are cyanogenic; that is, they contain compounds called cyanogenic glucosides, notably amygdalin, which, on hydrolysis, yield hydrogen cyanide. Although the fruits of some may be edible by humans and livestock (in addition to the ubiquitous fructivore of birds), seeds, leaves and other parts may be toxic, some highly so. The plants contain no more than trace amounts  of hydrogen cyanide, but on decomposition after crushing and exposure to air or on digestion, poisonous amounts may be generated. The trace amounts may give a characteristic taste ("bitter almond") with increasing bitterness in larger quantities, less tolerable to people than to birds, which habitually feed on specific fruits. Benefits to human health. People are often encouraged to consume many fruits because they are rich in a variety of nutrients and phytochemicals that are supposedly beneficial to human health. The fruits of "Prunus" often contain many phytochemicals and antioxidants. These compounds have properties that have been linked to preventing different  diseases and disorders. Research suggests that the consumption of these fruits reduces the risk of developing diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and other age-related declines. Many factors can affect the levels of bioactive compounds in the different fruits of the genus "Prunus", including the environment, season, processing methods, orchard operations, and postharvest management. Cherries. Cherries contain many different phenolic compounds and anthocyanins, which are indicators of being rich in antioxidants. Recent research has linked the phenolic compounds of the sweet cherry ("Prunus avium") with antitumor properties. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) include superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals , and singlet oxygen; they are the byproducts of metabolism. High levels of ROS lead to oxidative stress, which causes damage to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The oxidative damage results in cell death, which ultimately leads to numerous diseases and disorders. Antioxidants act as a defense mechanism against the oxidative stress. They are used to remove the free radicals in a living system that are generated as ROS. Some of those antioxidants include gutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. The antioxidants present in cherry extracts act as inhibitors of the free radicals. However, the DNA and proteins  can be damaged when an imbalance occurs in the level of free radicals and the antioxidants. When not enough antioxidants are available to remove the free radicals, many diseases can occur, such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, etc. Recent studies have shown that using natural antioxidants as a supplement in chemotherapy can decrease the amount of oxidative damage. Some of these natural antioxidants include ascorbic acid, tocopherol, and epigallocatechin gallate; they can be found in certain cherry extracts. Almonds. Similar to cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, almonds are also rich in phenolics. Almonds have a high oxygen radical absorbing  capacity (ORAC), which is another indicator of being rich in antioxidants. As stated before, high levels of free radicals are harmful, thus having the capacity to absorb those radicals is greatly beneficial. The bioactive compounds, polyphenols and anthocyanins, found in berries and cherries are also present in almonds. Almonds also contain nonflavonoid and flavonoid compounds, which contribute to the antioxidant properties of almonds. Flavonoids are a group of structurally related compounds that are arranged in a specific manner and can be found in all vascular plants on land. They also contribute to the antioxidant properties of almonds. Some of the  nonflavonoid compounds present are protocatechuic, vanillic, and p-hydroxybenzoic acids. Flavonoid compounds that can be found in the skin of the almond are flavanols, dihydroflavonols, and flavanones. Plums. Of all of the different species of stone fruits, plums are the richest in antioxidants and phenolic compounds. The total antioxidant capacity (TAC) varies within each fruit, but in plums, TAC is much higher in the skin than in the flesh of the fruit. Apricots. Apricots are high in carotenoids, which play a key role in light absorption during development. Carotenoids are the pigments that give the pulp and peel of apricots  and other "Prunus" fruits their yellow and orange colors. Moreover, it is an essential precursor for vitamin A, which is especially important for vision and the immune system in humans. Moreover, these fruits are quite rich in phenolic substances, including catechin, epicatechin, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid. Peaches and nectarines. Similar to the plum, peaches and nectarines also have higher TAC in the skin than in the flesh. They also contain moderate levels of carotenoids and ascorbic acid. Peaches and nectarines are orange and yellow in color, which can be attributed to the carotenoids present. Ascorbic acid  is important in hydroxylation reactions, such as collagen synthesis, "de novo" synthesis of bone and cartilage, and wound healing. Ascorbic acid is vitamin C, which is essential for repairing tissues and absorbing iron. Pests and diseases. Various "Prunus" species are winter hosts of the Damson-hop aphid, "Phorodon humuli", which is destructive to hops "Humulus lupulus" just at the time of their maturity, so plum trees should not be grown in the vicinity of hop fields. Corking is the drying or withering of fruit tissue. In stone fruit, it is often caused by a lack of boron and/or calcium. Gummosis  is a nonspecific condition of stone fruits (peach, nectarine, plum, and cherry) in which gum is exuded and deposited on the bark of trees. Gum is produced in response to any type of wound – insect, mechanical injury, or disease. "Apiosporina morbosa" is a major fungal disease in the Northern Americas, with many urban centres running black knot fungus management programs. This disease is best managed by physical removal of knot-bearing branches to prevent spore spread and immediate disposal of infected tissue. Chemical treatment is not largely effective, as trees can easily be re-infected by neighbouring knots. Palaeobotanical models . The earliest known fossil "Prunus" specimens are wood, drupe, seed, and a leaf from the middle Eocene of the Princeton Chert of British Columbia, Canada. Using the known age as calibration data, a partial phylogeny of some of the Rosaceae from a number of nucleotide sequences was reconstructed. "Prunus" and its sister clade Maloideae (apple subfamily) has been suggested to have diverged which is within the Lutetian, or older middle Eocene. Stockey and Wehr report: "The Eocene was a time of rapid evolution and diversification in Angiosperm families such as the Rosaceae ..." The Princeton finds are among a large number  of angiosperm fossils from the Okanagan Highlands dating to the late early and middle Eocene. "Crataegus" is found at three locations: the McAbee Fossil Beds, British Columbia; the Klondike Mountain Formation around Republic, Washington, and the Allenby Formation around Princeton, British Columbia, while "Prunus" is found at those locations plus the Coldwater Beds of Quilchena, British Columbia and Chu Chua Formation around Chu Chua, British Columbia. A review of research on the Eocene Okanagan Highlands reported that the Rosaceae were more diverse at higher altitudes. The Okanagan highlands formations date to as early as 52 mya, but the 44.3 mya  date, which is approximate, depending on assumptions, might still apply. The authors state: "... the McAbee flora records a diverse early middle Eocene angiosperm-dominated forest." Etymology. The "Online Etymology Dictionary" presents the customary derivations of plum and prune from Latin "prūnum", the plum fruit. The tree is "prūnus"; and Pliny uses "prūnus silvestris" to mean the blackthorn. The word is not native Latin, but is a loan from Greek προῦνον (), which is a variant of προῦμνον (), origin unknown. The tree is προύμνη (). Most dictionaries follow Hoffman, "Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen", in making some form of the word a loan from  a pre-Greek language of Asia Minor, related to Phrygian. The first use of "Prunus" as a genus name was by Carl Linnaeus in "Hortus Cliffortianus" of 1737, which went on to become "Species Plantarum". In the latter, Linnaeus attributes the word to "Varr.", who it is assumed must be Marcus Terentius Varro.