Cloak of invisibility was coined in 1955 by Henry A. Landsberger. Many researchers believe that the evidence that a Hawthorne effect exists has been exaggerated. Observer's paradox In the social sciences (and physics and experimental physics), the observer's paradox is a situation in which the phenomenon being observed is unwittingly influenced by the presence of the observer/investigator. In linguistics. In the field of sociolinguistics, the term Observer’s Paradox was coined by William Labov, who stated with regard to the term: The aim of linguistic research in the community must be to find out how people talk when they are 	Observer's paradox
15811993	Cloak of invisibility Cloak of invisibility A cloak of invisibility is a fictional theme. In folklore, mythology and fairy tales, a cloak of invisibility appears either as a magical item used by duplicitous characters or an item worn by a hero to fulfill a quest. It is a common theme in Welsh and Germanic folklore, and may originate with the cap of invisibility seen in ancient Greek myths. The motif falls under D1361.12 magic cloak of invisibility" in the Stith Thompson motif index scheme. In fiction. Cloaks of invisibility are magical items found in folklore and fairy tales. Such cloaks are common in  Welsh mythology; a "Mantle of Invisibility" is described in the tale "Culhwch and Olwen" (c. 1100) as one of King Arthur's most prized possessions. The mantle is described again, and in more detail, in the "Breuddwyd Rhonabwy," and is later listed as one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain. A similar mantle appears in the Second Branch of the Mabinogi, in which it is used by Caswallawn to assassinate the seven stewards left behind by Bran the Blessed and usurp the throne. In the English fairy tale "Jack the Giant Killer", the hero is rewarded with  several magical gifts by a giant he has spared, among them a coat of invisibility. Iona and Peter Opie observe in "The Classic Fairy Tales" (1974), that Jack's coat may have been borrowed from the "Tale of Tom Thumb" or from Norse mythology, but they also draw comparisons with the Celtic stories of the "Mabinogion". The counterpart in Japan is the , a magical "straw cape" or "raincoat" of invisibility. In the folktale of the "Peach Boy" "Momotarō", one of the treasures the hero collects from the ogres is a cape of invisibility, paralleling the story of Jack the giant -slayer. Tarnkappe. Although occurrences in fairy tales are rare, the cloak of invisibility appears in the German tale "The Twelve Dancing Princesses" (KHM 133) and in "The King of the Golden Mountain" (KHM 92) in "Grimm's Fairy Tales." The cloak in German fairy tales may be traceable to the "tarnkappe" ("cloak of concealment"), such as the one that the hero Sîfrit (Siegfried) acquires from the dwarf Alberich in the Middle High German epic "Nibelungenlied". The Grimms clarify that Sîfrit's "kappe" is a cape that covers not just the head but enshrouds the body, though in later times "tarnkappe  came to be regarded as a cap of invisibility. The tarnkappe" (or "tarnkeppelin") is also owned by the dwarf king who is the title character in "Laurin". In different passages or variant manuscripts of these works, the "tarnkappe" is also referred to as the "tarnhût" (mod. Ger. "Haut" "skin") or "hehlkappe" (mod. Ger. "hehlen" "to hide"). Modern adaptations. In the original epic "Nibelungenlied," the hero's cloak not only grants him invisibility, but also increases his strength, to win over the Icelandic queen Brünhild. In Richard Wagner's opera cycle "Der Ring des Nibelungen", the cloak becomes a magic helmet  called the Tarnhelm, which also imparts the ability to transform upon its wearer. When Fritz Lang adapted "Nibelungenlied" for the movie screen in his 1924 film "Die Nibelungen", Siegfried uses a veil or net of invisibility gained from the dwarf Alberich. Another film from the same year to use a cloak of invisibility was Raoul Walsh's "The Thief of Bagdad", in which the cloak plays a pivotal role. Edgar Rice Burroughs uses the idea of an invisibility cloak in his 1931 novel "A Fighting Man of Mars". The movie "Erik the Viking" humorously depicts the title character using a  cloak of invisibility, which he does not realize apparently works only on elderly men. In "The Lord of the Rings", Frodo, and the other members of the Fellowship of the Ring, were given cloaks by the Elves, and Samwise asked, "Are these magic cloaks?" The cloak given to Frodo camouflaged him so that the enemy could see "nothing more than a boulder where the Hobbits were." Camouflaging cloaks form a central plot element in Samuel R. Delany's 1975 novel "Dhalgren". Cloaks of invisibility also exist in the "Harry Potter" series of novels by J.K. Rowling. Harry Potter uses a  Cloak of Invisibility, that was passed down to him by his father, to sneak into forbidden areas of his school and remain unseen. It is later revealed that this specific cloak was once owned by Death himself, making it one of the Deathly Hallows. In "The Secret History" by Donna Tartt (1992), the character Richard says, "I became expert at making myself invisible"..."Sunday afternoons, my cloak of invisibility around my shoulders, I would sit in the infirmary for sometimes six hours at a time..." In science. On October 19, 2006, a cloak was produced that routed microwaves of a  particular frequency around a copper cylinder in a way that made them emerge almost as if there were nothing there. The cloak was made from metamaterials. It cast a small shadow, which the designers hope to fix. The device obscures a defined two dimensional region and only at a particular microwave frequency. Work on achieving similar results with visible light is in progress. Other types of invisibility cloak are also possible, including ones that cloak "events" rather than objects. However, cloaking a human-sized object at visible wavelengths appears to have low probability. Indeed, there appears to be a fundamental  problem with these devices as "invisibility cloaks": On the other hand, a group of researchers connected with Berkeley Lab and the University of California, Berkeley believe that cloaking at optical frequencies is indeed possible. Furthermore, it appears within reach. Their solution to the hurdles presented by cloaking issues are dielectrics. These nonconducting materials (dielectrics) are used for a carpet cloak, which serves as an optical cloaking device. According to the lead investigator: Furthermore, a new cloaking system was announced in the beginning of 2011 that is effective in visible light and hides macroscopic objects, i.e. objects that can be seen  with the human eye. The cloak is constructed from ordinary, and easily obtainable calcite. The crystal consists of two pieces configured according to specific parameters. The calcite is able to refract the light around a solid object positioned between the crystals. The system employs the natural birefringence of the calcite. From outside the system the object is not visible "for at least 3 orders of magnitude larger than the wavelength of light in all three dimensions." The calcite solves for the limitations of attempting to cloak with metallic inclusions - this method does not require a nanofabrication process as has become  necessary with the other methods of cloaking. The nanofabrication process is time-consuming and limits the size of the cloaked region to a microscopic area. The system works best under green light. In addition the researchers appear to be optimistic about a practical cloaking device in the future: Another design calls for tiny metal needles to be fitted into a hairbrush-shaped cone at angles and lengths that would force light to pass around the cloak. This would make everything inside the cone appear to vanish because the light would no longer reflect off it. "It looks pretty much like  fiction, I do realize, but it's completely in agreement with the laws of physics," said lead researcher Vladimir Shalaev, a professor of electrical and computer engineering at Purdue. "Ideally, if we make it real it would work exactly like Harry Potter's invisibility cloak," he said. "It's not going to be heavy because there's going to be very little metal in it." Furthermore, on April 30, 2009, two teams of scientists developed a cloak that rendered objects invisible to near-infrared light. Unlike its predecessors, this technology did not utilize metals, which improves cloaking since metals cause  some light to be lost. Researchers mentioned that since the approach can be scaled down further in size, it was a major step towards a cloak that would work for visible light. Problems of refraction and opacity. The headlined claims that laboratory results with metamaterials are demonstrations of prototype invisibility cloaks conflicts with two facts resulting from fundamental characteristics of the underlying metamaterial technology: Acoustic cloaking. Though perfect cloaking based on invisible paint is impossible if detectors (such as microphones) and sources (such as loudspeakers) are placed round a volume and if a particular formula is used to calculate the  signals to be fed to the sources, perfect cloaking is possible. Such perfect cloaking does require that the information can flow through the volume fast enough and the calculations can be performed fast enough so that the necessary information can get to the sources on the far side of the volume fast enough. As a result, perfect cloaking for light is still probably at least very difficult if not impossible. For sound waves, though, such perfect cloaking is possible in principle; an object could therefore be made invisible to sonar, for example. According to Fermat's Principle, light follows the  trajectory of the shortest optical path, that is, the path over which the integral of the refractive index function is minimal. Therefore, the refractive index of an optical medium determines how light propagates within it. Consequently, by a suitable choice of refractive index profile for an optical medium, light rays can be bent around and made to propagate in closed loops. Cloak of invisibility A cloak of invisibility is a fictional theme. In folklore, mythology and fairy tales, a cloak of invisibility appears either as a magical item used by duplicitous characters or an item worn by a hero to