Mangfu
Mangfu (), also known as mangpao (), huayi (), and Python robe in English, is a type of Hanfu robe decorated with a python embroidery, called "mang" (), although the python embroidery is not a python as defined in the dictionary but a four-clawed Chinese dragon-like creature. The "mangfu" was derived from the dragon robe in order to differentiate monarchs and subjects; i.e. only the Emperor is allowed to wear dragon (5-claws) while his subjects wears "mang". "Mangfu" were worn in the Ming and Qing dynasties. They had special status among the Chinese court clothing: they were only second to  the dragon robe; their use were restricted; and they were clothing which could only be awarded by the Chinese Emperor (cifu 賜服, lit. "bestowed clothing") (or by the Empress Dowager on the behalf of the Emperor) in the Ming and Qing dynasties, becoming "a sign of imperial favour". People who were bestowed with "mangfu" could not exchange it with or gifted it to other people. They were worn by members of the imperial family below of crown prince, by military and civil officials, and by Official wives. As an official clothing, the "mangfu" were worn by officials during celebration occasions  and ceremonial events. They could also be bestowed by the Emperor to people who performed extraordinary services to the empire as rewards, to the members of the Grand Secretariat and to prominent Daoist patriarchs, imperial physicians, tributary countries and local chiefs whose loyalty were considered crucial to secure the borders. The "mangfu" is also used as a theatrical costume in Chinese opera, it is typically found in the form of a round-necked robe. History. In the Ming dynasty, the "mangfu" was a form of "cifu" (赐服) along with feiyufu and douniu robes; therefore, the right to bestow "mangfu" was  only reserved to the Emperor who would bestow the robes to those he favoured. According to the Ming shi, mangfu was prescribed for certain officials on specific occasions. When Emperor Yongle became emperor, he relaxed the clothing regulations for the eunuchs; therefore, the eunuchs around the emperor wore yesa-style robes which were decorated with "mang" pattern tied with luandai (lit. "Luan belt") and the eunuchs who were of high ranks were often found wearing mangfu. However, the wearing of mangfu by the eunuchs were improper. According to Shen Defu, during the early reign of Zhengtong, the mang robe was  bestowed to foreign rulers. In 1447, there was an imperial edict by Emperor Zhengtong which prohibited the production of mang patterns (along with feiyu and douniu patterns) by unauthorized people; it was therefore a capital offence for artisans: According to the "Wanli yehuo bian" by Shen Defu, during this period, eunuchs were parading in the streets of the capital wearing mangfu and douniu robes and women (especially wives of the elite class) who were wearing embroidered robes with designs, such as qilin, feiyu and "seated mang" (坐蟒) in front of the senior officials. According to Shen Dufu, the sumptuary laws  were being trespassed and the fault was that of the Emperor who was failing at regulating the possession robes adorned with imperial insignia. During the 16th year of Emperor Hongzhi (1504), the customs of bestowing mangfu to the Grand Secretariat began. The Jiajing emperor also bestowed mangfu to prominent Daoist patriarchs several times during his reign. According to the Ming shi, in 1530, it was decreed that the "Head of the jinyiwei" had to wear a red mangfu or feiyufu with a black gauze hat and a phoenix belt on sacrificial and ceremonial occasions. In 1538, under the rule of  Emperor Jiajing, gradations of bestowed clothing (cifu) when it was stipulated that only ministers from the first to third rank were allowed to wear mangyi (python clothing), which consisted of mangfu, feiyu mangyi, and douniu mangyi. The mang patterns on the clothing insignia were also gradated based on a particular rank; according to Shen Defu, the most valued form of mang pattern was the "zuomang" (坐蟒; lit. "seated python") which a frontal view mang on the back and front region of the robe. Mang which faced on the right side were called "danmang" (單蟒). In 1578, Great Empress Dowager Li  bestowed mangfu to Zhang Juzhen on behalf of the Emperor. During the reign under Emperor Wanli, many python robes were bestowed. According to Xie Zhaozhe in the "Five assorted offerings"《五雜俎 –"Wu zazu"》, more than 10,000 eunuchs were wearing mangfu and jade belts in the Forbidden City. However, the python robes did not become a common form of clothing. Qing dynasty. Mangfu continued to be worn in the Qing dynasty as an official uniform and continued to be worn by only those who were awarded by the Emperor. The structure of the Manchu mangfu worn in the Qing dynasty differed from  those worn in the Ming dynasty as the mangfu worn in the Qing dynasty was derived from the early male clothing of the Manchu, thus retaining original features while making new changes to the robes (e.g. horse hoof-shaped cuff). Construction and design. Mang embroidery design. In ancient China, there is a clear difference between monarchs and subjects; therefore, the Emperor wears dragon patterns on their clothing (i.e. dragon robes) while officials wears the "mang". The "mang" embroidery is actually an imaginary creature in the form of a four-clawed dragon, called "mang" (蟒), which was derived from the imperial  (5-clawed) dragon pattern. In the Ming dynasty, Bian Yong, the Chief Censor of the Emperor Hongzhi, described the "mang" as having ""no horns and legs""; however, during his time, ""the mang robe worn by internal officials (eunuchs) is very similar to the image of the dragon"", therefore not fitting the regulations"." According to Shen Defu, ""The mang robe is a garment with an image close to a dragon, similar to the dragon robe of the top authority (the emperor), except for the deduction of one claw"." After the Ming dynasty, it was expressed that a dragon would be demoted  to a python if it lost 1 claw. Mangfu as court clothing. There is also strict regulations on the robes' colour and the numbers of mang that were allowed to decorate the mangfu: Theatrical mangfu. In Chinese opera, the theatrical "mangfu" is the highest of formal, ceremonial robe worn by performers in the roles of emperors, princes, officials (ministers for specific occasions, such as court audience), and generals. Chinese opera costumes were made based on the clothing style of the Ming dynasty while also absorbing clothing features of the Song, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. On stage, the theatrical "mangfu" is  typically a round-necked robe. The theatrical "mangfu" has a male and female version; the dragon patterns on the robes vary and can be found in : dragon medallions, front-viewed dragon and flying dragon. When decorated with flying dragon patterns, the robe is typically also decorated with patterns of waves and mountain peaks. There is also strict regulations on the colours used in the theatrical "mangfu"; the colours are divided into "upper five colours" and "lower five colours", minghuang (bright yellow) colour is exclusively reserved for imperial usage. Other colours included: red.