Bernard of Chartres
Bernard of Chartres (; died after 1124) was a twelfth-century French Neo-Platonist philosopher, scholar, and administrator. Life. The date and place of his birth are unknown. He was believed to have been the elder brother of Thierry of Chartres and to be of Breton origin, but research has shown that this is unlikely. He is recorded at the cathedral school of Chartres by 1115 and was chancellor until 1124. There is no proof that he was still alive after 1124. Contemporary accounts. Gilbert de la Porrée and William of Conches were students of his, and some  information about his work comes through their writings, as well as the writings of John of Salisbury. According to John of Salisbury, Bernard composed a prose treatise "De expositione Porphyrii", a metrical treatise on the same subject, a moral poem on education, and probably a fourth work in which he sought to reconcile Plato with Aristotle. Fragments of these treatises are to be found in John's "Metalogicon" (IV, 35) and "Policraticus" (VII, 3). Hauréau confounds Bernard of Chartres with Bernardus Silvestris, and assigns to the former works which are to be ascribed to the latter. The earliest attribution of  the phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is to Bernard (by John of Salisbury): Doctrines. Bernard, in common with others of his school, devoted more attention to the study of the "Timaeus" and the works of the Neo-Platonists than to the study of the dialectical treatises of Aristotle and the commentaries of Boethius. Consequently, he not only discussed the problem of universals (distinguishing between the abstract, the process, and the concrete—exemplified, for instance, by the Latin words "albedo", "albet", and "album") but also occupied himself with problems of metaphysics and cosmology. Metaphysics. According to Bernard, there are  three categories of reality: God, matter, and idea. God is supreme reality. Matter was brought out of nothingness by God's creative act and is the element which, in union with Ideas, constitutes the world of sensible things. Ideas are the prototypes by means of which the world was from all eternity present to the Divine Mind; they constitute the world of Providence ("in qua omnia semel et simul fecit Deus"), and are eternal but not coeternal with God. According to John of Salisbury, Bernard also taught that there exist native forms—copies of the Ideas created with matter—which  are alone united with matter. It is difficult, however, to determine what was Bernard's doctrine on this point. It is sufficient to note that he reproduced in his metaphysical doctrines many of the characteristic traits of Platonism and Neo-Platonism: the intellect as the habitat of Ideas, the world-soul, eternal matter, matter as the source of imperfection, etc. Cosmology. Bernard argued that matter, although caused by God, existed from all eternity. In the beginning, before its union with the Ideas, it was in a chaotic condition. It was by means of the native forms, which penetrate matter, that  distinction, order, regularity, and number were introduced into the universe. Glosses on Plato's "Timaeus". Paul Edward Dutton has shown that a set of anonymous glosses on Plato's "Timaeus" must be attributed to Bernard. These glosses edited by Dutton are Bernard's only extant work.