Elman Service
Elman Rogers Service (1915–1996) was an American cultural anthropologist. Biography. He was born on May 18, 1915 in Tecumseh, Michigan and died on November 14, 1996 in Santa Barbara, California. He earned a bachelor's degree in 1941 from the University of Michigan. He earned a Ph.D. in Anthropology from Columbia University in 1951 and taught there from 1949 to 1953. From there, Service went back to the University of Michigan to teach from 1953 until 1969. He later taught at the University of California at Santa Barbara from 1969 to 1985, when he retired. During his time  studying at the University of Michigan, Service joined the Abraham Lincoln Brigade of the Republican Faction in Spain to fight against the victorious Nationalist Faction of General Francisco Franco during the 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War. He also fought in the 1941–1945 World War II for the United States Army. Work. Elman Service researched Latin American Indian ethnology, cultural evolution, and theory and method in ethnology. He studied cultural evolution in Paraguay and studied cultures in Latin America and the Caribbean. These studies led to his theories about social systems and the rise of the state as a system of political  organization. He was the Secretary-Treasurer of the American Ethnological Society and a member of the American Anthropological Association. Theories. In 1962, Elman Service got published his defined four classifications of the stages of social evolution which are also the four levels of political organizations: band, tribe, chiefdom, and state. He also developed the "managerial benefits" theory that states that chiefdom-like society developed because it was apparently beneficial, because of the centralized leadership. The leader provides benefits to the followers, which, over time, become more complex, benefiting the whole chiefdom society. This keeps the leader in power, and allows  the bureaucratic organization to grow. He also had an integration theory. He believed that early civilizations were not stratified based on property. They were only stratified based on unequal political power, not because of unequal access to resources. He believed there were no true class conflicts, but only power struggles between the political elite in early civilizations. The integration part of this theory was that monuments were created through volunteering, not the leaders forcing it upon the populace. Elman Service also coined what he called “Law of Evolutionary Potential” in relation to cultural evolution. This law posited that the more  specialized and adapted a form in a given evolutionary stage, the smaller its potential for passing on to the next stage.