Runes
Runes are the letters in a set of related alphabets known as runic alphabets. Runes were used to write various Germanic languages before the adoption of the Latin alphabet and for specialised purposes thereafter. In addition to representing a sound value (a phoneme), runes can be used to represent the concepts after which they are named (ideographs). Examples of this are often referred to as "Begriffsrunen" by academics. The Scandinavian variants are also known as "futhark" or "fuþark" (derived from their first six letters of the alphabet: "F", "U", "Þ", "A", "R", and "K"); the Anglo-Saxon variant is  futhorc or "" (due to sound-changes undergone in Old English by the names of those six letters). Runology is the scholastic study of the runic alphabets, runic inscriptions, runestones, and their history. Runology forms a specialised branch of Germanic philology. The earliest known runic inscriptions date from around A.D. 150. The characters were generally replaced by the Latin alphabet as the cultures that had used runes underwent Christianisation, by approximately A.D. 700 in central Europe and 1100 in northern Europe. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes in northern Europe. Up until the early 20th century, runes were  still used in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and on Runic calendars. The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark (ca. A.D. 150–800), the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (400–1100), and the Younger Futhark (800–1100). The Younger Futhark is divided further into the long-branch runes (also called "Danish", although they were also used in Norway, Sweden, and Frisia); short-branch or Rök runes (also called "Swedish-Norwegian", although they were also used in Denmark); and the "" or Hälsinge runes (staveless runes). The Younger Futhark developed further into the medieval runes (1100–1500), and the Dalecarlian runes ( 1500–1800). Historically , the runic alphabet is a derivation of the Old Italic scripts of antiquity, with the addition of some innovations. Which variant of the Old Italic branch in particular gave rise to the runes is uncertain. Suggestions include Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin as candidates. At the time, all of these scripts had the same angular letter shapes suited for epigraphy, which would become characteristic of the runes. The process of transmission of the script is unknown. The oldest inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany. A "West Germanic hypothesis" suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a "Gothic  hypothesis" presumes transmission via East Germanic expansion. Name. Etymology. The name stems from a Proto-Germanic form reconstructed as , which may be translated as 'secret, mystery; secret conversation; rune'. It is the source of Gothic (, 'secret, mystery, counsel'), Old English ('whisper, mystery, secret, rune'), Old Saxon ('secret counsel, confidential talk'), Middle Dutch ('id'), Old High German ('secret, mystery'), and Old Norse ('secret, mystery, rune'). The earliest Germanic epigraphic attestation is the Primitive Norse (accusative singular), found on the Einang stone (A.D. 350–400) and the Noleby stone (A.D. 450). The term is related to Proto-Celtic ('secret, magic'), which is  attested in Old Irish ('mystery, secret'), Middle Welsh ('mystery, charm'), or Middle Breton ('secret wisdom'), and possibly also in the ancient Gaulish (< 'confident'; compare Middle Welsh , Middle Breton , Middle Irish 'shared secret, confidence') and (< 'sacred secret'), or in Lepontic (< 'belonging to the secret'). However, it is difficult to tell whether they are cognates (linguistic siblings from a common origin), or if the Proto-Germanic form reflects an early borrowing from Celtic. Various connections have been proposed with other Indo-European terms (for example: Sanskrit 'roar', Latin 'noise, rumor'; or Ancient Greek 'ask', 'investigate'), although linguist Ranko Matasović  finds them difficult to justify for semantic or linguistic reasons. Because of this, some scholars have speculated that the Germanic and Celtic words may have been a shared religious term borrowed from an unknown non-Indo-European language. Related terms. In early Germanic, a rune could also be referred to as a , a compound of and ('staff; letter'). It is attested in Old Norse , Old English , and Old High German .' Other Germanic terms derived from include ('counsellor'), and ('secret, mystery'), ('trial, inquiry, experiment'), ('secret of the mind, magical rune'), and ('witch, sorceress'; literally '[possessor of the] Hel-secret').' It is  also often part of personal names, including Gothic (), Frankish , Old Norse , , , , , Old English , or Langobardic . The Finnish word , meaning 'poem', is an early borrowing from Proto-Germanic, and the source of the term for rune, , meaning 'scratched letter'. The root may also be found in the Baltic languages, where Lithuanian means both 'to cut (with a knife)' and 'to speak'. The Old English form survived into the early modern period as "roun", which is now obsolete. The modern English "rune" is a later formation that is partly derived from Late Latin , Old Norse , and Danish . History and use. The runes  were in use among the Germanic peoples from the 1st or 2nd century AD. This period corresponds to the late Common Germanic stage linguistically, with a continuum of dialects not yet clearly separated into the three branches of later centuries: North Germanic, West Germanic, and East Germanic. No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs for labiovelars in the Elder Futhark (such signs were introduced in both the Anglo-Saxon futhorc and the Gothic alphabet  as variants of "p"; see .) Origins. The formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early 5th century, with the Kylver Stone being the first evidence of the "futhark" ordering as well as of the "p" rune. Specifically, the Rhaetic alphabet of Bolzano is often advanced as a candidate for the origin of the runes, with only five Elder Futhark runes ( "e", "ï", "j", "ŋ", "p") having no counterpart in the Bolzano alphabet. Scandinavian scholars tend to favor derivation from the Latin alphabet itself over Raetic candidates. A "North Etruscan" thesis is supported by the inscription on the Negau  helmet dating to the 2nd century BC. This is in a northern Etruscan alphabet but features a Germanic name, . Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante suggest that runes derived from some North Italic alphabet, specifically Venetic: but since Romans conquered Veneto after 200 BC, and then the Latin alphabet became prominent and Venetic culture diminished in importance, Germanic people could have adopted the Venetic alphabet within the 3rd century BC or even earlier. The angular shapes of the runes are shared with most contemporary alphabets of the period that were used for carving in wood or stone. There are no "horizontal" strokes : when carving a message on a flat staff or stick, it would be along the grain, thus both less legible and more likely to split the wood. This characteristic is also shared by other alphabets, such as the early form of the Latin alphabet used for the Duenos inscription, but it is not universal, especially among early runic inscriptions, which frequently have variant rune shapes, including horizontal strokes. Runic manuscripts (that is "written" rather than carved runes, such as ) also show horizontal strokes. The "West Germanic hypothesis" speculates on an introduction by West Germanic tribes. This hypothesis is based on  claiming that the earliest inscriptions of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, found in bogs and graves around Jutland (the Vimose inscriptions), exhibit word endings that, being interpreted by Scandinavian scholars to be Proto-Norse, are considered unresolved and long having been the subject of discussion. Inscriptions such as , , and are supposed to represent tribe names, tentatively proposed to be Vangiones, the Nidensis, and the Harii tribes located in the Rhineland. Since names ending in reflect Germanic morphology representing the Latin ending , and the suffix was reflected by Germanic , the question of the problematic ending in masculine Proto-Norse would be  resolved by assuming Roman (Rhineland) influences, while "the awkward ending -a of may be solved by accepting the fact that the name may indeed be West Germanic". In the early Runic period, differences between Germanic languages are generally presumed to be small. Another theory presumes a Northwest Germanic unity preceding the emergence of Proto-Norse proper from roughly the 5th century. An alternative suggestion explaining the impossibility of classifying the earliest inscriptions as either North or West Germanic is forwarded by È. A. Makaev, who presumes a "special runic koine", an early "literary Germanic" employed by the entire Late Common  Germanic linguistic community after the separation of Gothic (2nd to 5th centuries), while the spoken dialects may already have been more diverse. Early inscriptions. Runic inscriptions from the 400-year period 150–550 AD are described as "Period I". These inscriptions are generally in Elder Futhark, but the set of letter shapes and bindrunes employed is far from standardized. Notably the "j", "s", and "ŋ" runes undergo considerable modifications, while others, such as "p" and "ï", remain unattested altogether prior to the first full futhark row on the Kylver Stone ( 400 AD). Artifacts such as spear heads or shield mounts have  been found that bear runic marking that may be dated to 200 AD, as evidenced by artifacts found across northern Europe in Schleswig (North Germany), Funen, Zealand, Jutland (Denmark), and Scania (Sweden). Earlier—but less reliable—artifacts have been found in Meldorf, , in northern Germany; these include brooches and combs found in graves, most notably the Meldorf fibula, and are supposed to have the earliest markings resembling runic inscriptions. Magical or divinatory use. The stanza 157 of attribute to runes the power to bring that which is dead back to life. In this stanza, Odin recounts a spell: The earliest  runic inscriptions found on artifacts give the name of either the craftsman or the proprietor, or sometimes, remain a linguistic mystery. Due to this, it is possible that the early runes were not used so much as a simple writing system, but rather as magical signs to be used for charms. Although some say the runes were used for divination, there is no direct evidence to suggest they were ever used in this way. The name "rune" itself, taken to mean "secret, something hidden", seems to indicate that knowledge of the runes was originally considered esoteric, or restricted to an  elite. The 6th-century Björketorp Runestone warns in Proto-Norse using the word "rune" in both senses: The same curse and use of the word, rune, is also found on the Stentoften Runestone. There also are some inscriptions suggesting a medieval belief in the magical significance of runes, such as the Franks Casket (AD 700) panel. Charm words, such as , , , and most commonly, , appear on a number of Migration period Elder Futhark inscriptions as well as variants and abbreviations of them. Much speculation and study has been produced on the potential meaning of these inscriptions. Rhyming groups appear on some  early bracteates that also may be magical in purpose, such as and . Further, an inscription on the Gummarp Runestone (500–700 AD) gives a cryptic inscription describing the use of three runic letters followed by the Elder Futhark f-rune written three times in succession. Nevertheless, it has proven difficult to find unambiguous traces of runic "oracles": although Norse literature is full of references to runes, it nowhere contains specific instructions on divination. There are at least three sources on divination with rather vague descriptions that may, or may not, refer to runes: Tacitus's 1st-century , Snorri Sturluson's 13th -century , and Rimbert's 9th-century . The first source, Tacitus's , describes "signs" chosen in groups of three and cut from "a nut-bearing tree", although the runes do not seem to have been in use at the time of Tacitus' writings. A second source is the , where Granmar, the king of , goes to Uppsala for the . There, the "chips" fell in a way that said that he would not live long (). These "chips", however, are easily explainable as a (sacrificial chip), which was "marked, possibly with sacrificial blood, shaken, and thrown down like dice, and their positive or negative  significance then decided." The third source is Rimbert's , where there are three accounts of what some believe to be the use of runes for divination, but Rimbert calls it "drawing lots". One of these accounts is the description of how a renegade Swedish king, Anund Uppsale, first brings a Danish fleet to Birka, but then changes his mind and asks the Danes to "draw lots". According to the story, this "drawing of lots" was quite informative, telling them that attacking Birka would bring bad luck and that they should attack a Slavic town instead. The tool in the "drawing  of lots", however, is easily explainable as a (lot-twig), which according to Foote and Wilson would be used in the same manner as a . The lack of extensive knowledge on historical use of the runes has not stopped modern authors from extrapolating entire systems of divination from what few specifics exist, usually loosely based on the reconstructed names of the runes and additional outside influence. A recent study of runic magic suggests that runes were used to create magical objects such as amulets, but not in a way that would indicate that runic writing was any more inherently magical , than were other writing systems such as Latin or Greek. Medieval use. As Proto-Germanic evolved into its later language groups, the words assigned to the runes and the sounds represented by the runes themselves began to diverge somewhat and each culture would create new runes, rename or rearrange its rune names slightly, or stop using obsolete runes completely, to accommodate these changes. Thus, the Anglo-Saxon futhorc has several runes peculiar to itself to represent diphthongs unique to (or at least prevalent in) the Anglo-Saxon dialect. Some later runic finds are on monuments (runestones), which often contain solemn  inscriptions about people who died or performed great deeds. For a long time it was presumed that this kind of grand inscription was the primary use of runes, and that their use was associated with a certain societal class of rune carvers. In the mid-1950s, however, approximately 670 inscriptions, known as the Bryggen inscriptions, were found in Bergen. These inscriptions were made on wood and bone, often in the shape of sticks of various sizes, and contained inscriptions of an everyday nature—ranging from name tags, prayers (often in Latin), personal messages, business letters, and expressions of affection, to bawdy  phrases of a profane and sometimes even of a vulgar nature. Following this find, it is nowadays commonly presumed that, at least in late use, Runic was a widespread and common writing system. In the later Middle Ages, runes also were used in the clog almanacs (sometimes called "Runic staff", "Prim", or "Scandinavian calendar") of Sweden and Estonia. The authenticity of some monuments bearing Runic inscriptions found in Northern America is disputed; most of them have been dated to modern times. Runes in Eddic poetry. In Norse mythology, the runic alphabet is attested to a divine origin (). This is attested  as early as on the Noleby Runestone from that reads , meaning "I prepare the suitable divine rune..." and in an attestation from the 9th century on the Sparlösa Runestone, which reads , meaning "And interpret the runes of divine origin". In the Poetic Edda poem , Stanza 80, the runes also are described as : The poem explains that the originator of the runes was the major deity, Odin. Stanza 138 describes how Odin received the runes through self-sacrifice: In stanza 139, Odin continues: In the Poetic Edda poem another origin is related of how the runic alphabet became known to humans . The poem relates how , identified as in the introduction, sired three sons— (slave), (freeman), and (noble)—by human women. These sons became the ancestors of the three classes of humans indicated by their names. When Jarl reached an age when he began to handle weapons and show other signs of nobility, returned and, having claimed him as a son, taught him the runes. In 1555, the exiled Swedish archbishop recorded a tradition that a man named had stolen three rune staffs from Odin and learned the runes and their magic. Runic alphabets. Elder Futhark (2nd to 8th centuries). The Elder Futhark , used for writing Proto-Norse, consists of 24 runes that often are arranged in three groups of eight; each group is referred to as an Ætt (Old Norse, meaning 'clan, group'). The earliest known sequential listing of the full set of 24 runes dates to approximately AD 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland, Sweden. Most probably each rune had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however, not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves. Germanic philologists reconstruct names in Proto-Germanic based on the names given for the  runes in the later alphabets attested in the rune poems and the linked names of the letters of the Gothic alphabet. For example, the letter /a/ was named from the runic letter called Ansuz. An asterisk before the rune names means that they are unattested reconstructions. The 24 Elder Futhark runes are the following: Anglo-Saxon runes (5th to 11th centuries). The futhorc (sometimes written "fuþorc") are an extended alphabet, consisting of 29, and later 33 characters. It was probably used from the 5th century onwards. There are competing theories as to the origins of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc. One  theory proposes that it was developed in Frisia and later spread to England, while another holds that Scandinavians introduced runes to England, where the futhorc was modified and exported to Frisia. Some examples of futhorc inscriptions are found on the Thames scramasax, in the Vienna Codex, in Cotton Otho B.x (Anglo-Saxon rune poem) and on the Ruthwell Cross. The Anglo-Saxon rune poem gives the following characters and names: feoh, ur, þorn, os, rad, cen, gyfu, ƿynn, hægl, nyd, is, ger, eoh, peorð, eolh, sigel, tir, beorc, eh, mann, lagu, ing, œthel, dæg, ac, æsc, yr, ior, ear. Extra  runes attested to outside of the rune poem include cweorð, calc, gar, and stan. Some of these additional letters have only been found in manuscripts. Feoh, þorn, and sigel stood for [f], [þ], and [s] in most environments, but voiced to [v], [ð], and [z] between vowels or voiced consonants. Gyfu and wynn stood for the letters yogh and wynn, which became [g] and [w] in Middle English. Section::::"Marcomannic runes" (8th to 9th centuries). A runic alphabet consisting of a mixture of Elder Futhark with Anglo-Saxon futhorc is recorded in a treatise called "De Inventione Litterarum", ascribed to Hrabanus  Maurus and preserved in 8th- and 9th-century manuscripts mainly from the southern part of the Carolingian Empire (Alemannia, Bavaria). The manuscript text attributes the runes to the "Marcomanni, quos nos Nordmannos vocamus", and hence traditionally, the alphabet is called "Marcomannic runes", but it has no connection with the Marcomanni, and rather is an attempt of Carolingian scholars to represent all letters of the Latin alphabets with runic equivalents. Wilhelm Grimm discussed these runes in 1821. Younger Futhark (9th to 11th centuries). The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian Futhark, is a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only  16 characters. The reduction correlates with phonetic changes when Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse. They are found in Scandinavia and Viking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward. They are divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The difference between the two versions is a matter of controversy. A general opinion is that the difference between them was functional (viz., the long-branch runes were used for documentation on stone, whereas the short-twig runes were in everyday use for private or official messages on wood). Medieval runes (12th to  15th centuries). In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of the Old Norse language. Dotted variants of voiceless signs were introduced to denote the corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voiceless variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune forms, and some letters, such as "s", "c", and "z" often were used interchangeably. Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian  runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet for several centuries. Indeed, some of the medieval runic inscriptions are written in Latin. Dalecarlian runes (16th to 19th centuries). According to Carl-Gustav Werner, "In the isolated province of Dalarna in Sweden a mix of runes and Latin letters developed." The Dalecarlian runes came into use in the early 16th century  and remained in some use up to the 20th century. Some discussion remains on whether their use was an unbroken tradition throughout this period or whether people in the 19th and 20th centuries learned runes from books written on the subject. The character inventory was used mainly for transcribing Elfdalian. Differences from Roman script. While Roman script would ultimately replace runes in most contexts, it differed significantly form runic script. For example, on the differences between the use of Anglo-Saxon runes and the Latin script that would come to replace them, runologist Victoria Symons says: Use as ideographs ("Begriffsrunen ). In addition to their historic use as letters in the runic alphabets, runes were also used to represent their names (ideographs). Such instances are sometimes referred to by way of the modern German loan word Begriffsrunen", meaning 'concept-runes' (singular "Begriffsrune"). The criteria for the use of "Begriffsrunen" and the frequency of their use by ancient rune-writers remains controversial. The topic of "Begriffsrunen" has produced much discussion among runologists. Runologist Klaus Düwel has proposed a two-point criteria for the identification of runes as "Begriffsrunen": A graphic argument and a semantic argument. Examples of "Begriffsrunen" (or potential "Begriffsrunen") include  the following: In addition to the instances above, several different runes occurs as ideographs in Old English and Old Norse manuscripts (featuring Anglo-Saxon runes and Younger Futhark runes respectively). Runologist Thomas Birkett summarizes these numerous instances as follows: Academic study. The modern study of runes was initiated during the Renaissance, by Johannes Bureus (1568–1652). Bureus viewed runes as holy or magical in a kabbalistic sense. The study of runes was continued by Olof Rudbeck Sr (1630–1702) and presented in his collection "Atlantica". Anders Celsius (1701–1744) further extended the science of runes and travelled around the whole of Sweden to  examine the "runstenar". From the "golden age of philology" in the 19th century, runology formed a specialized branch of Germanic linguistics. Body of inscriptions. The largest group of surviving Runic inscription are Viking Age Younger Futhark runestones, commonly found in Denmark and Sweden. Another large group are medieval runes, most commonly found on small objects, often wooden sticks. The largest concentration of runic inscriptions are the Bryggen inscriptions found in Bergen, more than 650 in total. Elder Futhark inscriptions number around 350, about 260 of which are from Scandinavia, of which about half are on bracteates. Anglo-Saxon futhorc inscriptions  number around 100 items. Modern use. Runic alphabets have seen numerous uses since the 18th-century Viking revival, in Scandinavian Romantic nationalism (Gothicismus) and Germanic occultism in the 19th century, and in the context of the Fantasy genre and of Germanic Neopaganism in the 20th century. Esotericism. Germanic mysticism and Nazi Germany. The pioneer of the "Armanist" branch of Ariosophy and one of the more important figures in esotericism in Germany and Austria in the late 19th and early 20th century was the Austrian occultist, mysticist, and völkisch author, Guido von List. In 1908, he published in "Das Geheimnis der  Runen" ("The Secret of the Runes") a set of eighteen so-called, "Armanen runes", based on the Younger Futhark and runes of List's own introduction, which allegedly were revealed to him in a state of temporary blindness after cataract operations on both eyes in 1902. The use of runes in Germanic mysticism, notably List's "Armanen runes" and the derived "Wiligut runes" by Karl Maria Wiligut, played a certain role in Nazi symbolism. The fascination with runic symbolism was mostly limited to Heinrich Himmler, and not shared by the other members of the Nazi top echelon. Consequently, runes appear  mostly in insignia associated with the "Schutzstaffel" ("SS"), the paramilitary organization led by Himmler. Wiligut is credited with designing the SS-Ehrenring, which displays a number of "Wiligut runes". Modern neopaganism and esotericism. Runes are popular in Germanic neopaganism, and to a lesser extent in other forms of Neopaganism and New Age esotericism. Various systems of Runic divination have been published since the 1980s, notably by Ralph Blum (1982), Stephen Flowers (1984, onward), Stephan Grundy (1990), and Nigel Pennick (1995). The Uthark theory originally was proposed as a scholarly hypothesis by Sigurd Agrell in 1932. In 2002, Swedish esotericist Thomas  Karlsson popularized this "Uthark" runic row, which he refers to as, the "night side of the runes", in the context of modern occultism. Bluetooth. The Bluetooth logo is the combination of two runes of the Younger Futhark, "hagall" and "bjarkan", equivalent to the letters H and B, that are the initials of Harald Blåtand's name ("Bluetooth" in English), who was a king of Denmark from the Viking Age. J. R. R. Tolkien and contemporary fiction. In J. R. R. Tolkien's novel "The Hobbit" (1937), the Anglo-Saxon runes are used on a map and on the title page  to emphasize its connection to the Dwarves. They also were used in the initial drafts of "The Lord of the Rings", but later were replaced by the Cirth rune-like alphabet invented by Tolkien, used to write the language of the Dwarves, Khuzdul. Following Tolkien, historical and fictional runes appear commonly in modern popular culture, particularly in fantasy literature, but also in other forms of media such as video games (for example the 1992 video game "Heimdall" used it as "magical symbols" associated with unnatural forces) and role-playing games, such as Metagaming's The Fantasy Trip, which used rune -based cipher for clues and jokes throughout its publications. Unicode. Runic alphabets were added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0. The Unicode block for Runic alphabets is U+16A0–U+16FF. It is intended to encode the letters of the Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Frisian runes, and the Younger Futhark long-branch and short-twig (but not the staveless) variants, in cases where cognate letters have the same shape resorting to "unification". The block as of Unicode 3.0 contained 81 symbols: 75 runic letters (U+16A0–U+16EA), 3 punctuation marks (Runic Single Punctuation U+16EB , Runic Multiple  Punctuation U+16EC and Runic Cross Punctuation U+16ED ), and three runic symbols that are used in early modern runic calendar staves ("Golden number Runes", Runic Arlaug Symbol U+16EE , Runic Tvimadur Symbol U+16EF , Runic Belgthor Symbol U+16F0 ). As of Unicode 7.0 (2014), eight characters were added, three attributed to J. R. R. Tolkien's mode of writing Modern English in Anglo-Saxon runes, and five for the "cryptogrammic" vowel symbols used in an inscription on the Franks Casket.