Sotho verbs
Sesotho verbs are words in the language that signify the action or state of a substantive, and are brought into agreement with it using the subjectival concord. This definition excludes imperatives and infinitives, which are respectively interjectives and class 14 nouns. In the Bantu languages, verbs often form the centre of a complex web of regular derivational patterns, and words/roots belonging to many parts of speech may be directly or indirectly derived from them. Not only may new verbs be derived using a large number of derivational suffixes, nouns (and, iteratively, the other parts of speech that  derive from them), some imperative interjectives and, to a lesser extent, ideophones may be formed by simple morphological devices. Varieties. Verb stems may be divided into four varieties: Regular verbs are those beginning with a consonant and ending in the vowel . The final may change into every vowel except the near-close back vowel () through inflexion or derivation. The verb root is the atomic part of the verb, which does not change (save for some "purely phonetic changes") and Bantu languages share numerous similar verb roots (with predictable sound changes between languages). Monosyllabic stems may be classified into several categories : Vowel verb stems are conjugated as regular verbs but are put into a separate class due to being uncommon in Bantu languages (and, in some languages but not in Sesotho, causing changes to concords and other formatives prefixed to them). Class 1 and 5 nouns derived from these verbs do not cause any velarization to the prefix. The Proto-Bantu reconstructions of many of these verbs suggests that they originally began with *g (or sometimes *j), which "protected" the vowel. Tones. Verbs fall into only two categories when it comes to their tones: L verbs and H verbs. The difference  lies in whether the "underlying tone" of the verb's first syllable is high or null (under-specified). Thus, all verbs of a certain length in the same tonal category are pronounced with similar tonal patterns under the same grammatical circumstances. What the verbal tone system lacks in variety, however, it more than makes up for in complexity. The tones of the syllables of the verbs regularly change under varying grammatical environments, with the high tones being manipulated by "tonal rules", and the tones associated with certain syllables being changed by numerous "tonal melodies." Verbal derivatives. Various derivatives may (recursively ) be formed from verbs by means of several suffixes (called "extensions"). Each derived verb is as much an authentic verb as the original. In the following sections, "polysyllabic" generally means "of more than two syllables." Verbs are derived primarily through suffixes, some of which are no longer productive ("dead"). The passive indicates that the subject is acted upon by the agent, just like the "passive voice" in English. The agent is indicated by the copulative prefix although passives may also be used idiomatically without an agent. The suffix may be either (Proto-Bantu *-u-) (short passive) or (long passive). The  following rules are applied to form the passive: It is very rare to have other verbs derived from the passive through suffixes. This suffix has the effect of decreasing the valency of the verb and giving it an agentive import. In the most formal standard language, the perfect of the passive is generally formed by inserting before the final vowel of the perfect form (that is, the passive suffix has to come after the perfect suffix). In non-standard common speech, however, the perfect of the passive may alternatively be formed by using the long passive with the final vowel  changed to the final vowel (usually ) of the verb's perfect. Additionally, in non-standard speech the perfect passive of verbs ending in a that changes to in the passive replace it with . The passive is used more commonly in Sesotho than the English "passive voice." Consider the following example: The alternatives are more complex in their respective languages: Passive verbs are rare in the Niger–Congo family outside the Bantu sub-branch. The neutro-active indicates an intransitive state without reference to the agent determining the condition. It can be approximated in English by using "get" or "become." It  is, however, distinct from the passive. It indicates a current state of being done or being doable. The suffix is . Only transitive verbs may take this suffix. This suffix has the effect of making the valency of the verb 0, even if the original verb had two objects. The resultant verb is completely intransitive and cannot assume any objects even if they are prefixed. The perfect of verbs ending with this suffix is achieved by changing the final to . This extension is quite rare in the Bantu language family as a whole. The neutro-passive indicates an intransitive state  without reference to the agent determining the condition. It can be approximated in English by the suffix "-able." It is, however, distinct from the passive. It indicates that the verb has the potential of being doable, but not necessarily currently. The suffix is (Proto-Bantu *-ik-, with an irregular vowel shift). Only transitive vers may take this suffix. This suffix has the effect of making the valency of the verb 0, even if the original verb had two objects. The resultant verb is completely intransitive and cannot assume any objects even if they are prefixed. The past tense of  verbs ending with this suffix is formed in the general way by replacing the final vowel with . The applied indicates an action applied on behalf of or with regard to some object. It can be approximated in English by prepositions and prepositional phrases such as "for" and "towards." The suffix is (Proto-Bantu *-id-, with an irregular vowel shift). Sometimes this extension is doubled to , causing the verb to look like a perfective form but with an applied meaning. The following rules apply when forming the applied: The applied increases the valency of verbs; intransitive verbs may become transitive in  the applied, and transitive verbs may become doubly transitive The past tense of verbs ending with this suffix changes the to . The causative indicates an action caused to happen by some agent. It can be approximated in English by using "cause to." The suffix is (Proto-Bantu long causative *-îc- + short causative *-î- ⇒ *-îcî-). The following rules apply when forming the causative. Most complications are caused by the original Proto-Bantu "short causative" *-î- being absorbed into the preceding consonant (Sesotho does not allow palatal glides): Often the causative verb has a meaning implying "help to do" The  causative may increase the valency of verbs Usually the perfect is formed by further suffixing , but if the derivation alveolarized an original final to then the alveolarization is reversed, resulting in final . If the suffix changed final to then the perfect is formed by replacing this final syllable with . The intensive indicates intensity or quickness of action. The suffix is simply a doubling of the causative suffix () and the first syllable therefore follows similar phonetic rules as the causative. Sometimes, the suffix is used instead, resulting in causative and intensive verbs looking the same. The perfective indicates an action that  has been carried out to completion or perfection. The suffix is simply a doubling of the applied suffix (). It must therefore not be confused with the applied form of verbs ending in . A further intensification of meaning is achieved with the suffixes ( + Proto-Bantu *-îa) and ( + Proto-Bantu *-îa), a compounding of intensive and perfective suffixes. These verbs tend to denote meanings indicating specific purpose, and it is not unlikely that they are in fact intensifications of the applied suffix instead (though the verb's valency is not increased). Though one might expect this suffix to form the  perfect by replacing the with , it often appears as instead, even in standard speech. The reciprocal denotes a reciprocated action. It is formed by suffixing (Proto-Bantu *-an-). It is usually used with plural subjects and plural concords, and has the effect of decreasing the valency. However, an object (the second subject) as well as a singular subject may still be used if the object is prefixed with the conjunctive enclitic (and, with); that is, they have a conjunctive import Often this suffix is used when there is no chance that two subjects are involved in reciprocating the action. In  this case it simply converts the verb from transitive to conjunctive import, with a minor modification of meaning (the action is slightly extended in time, or indicates a habit of the actor) The perfect is usually formed by changing the final vowel to , though if the original verb was monosyllabic then the perfect replaces the with The associative indicates that two or more subjects are associated together in the action of the verb. It is formed by suffixing . This derivative formation is not regularly used with most verbs. The perfect simply replaces the final vowel with The reversive (or inversive ) indicates an entire reversal of an action. It is formed by suffixing (Proto-Bantu *-udud-) although several other dead formations exist, showing two sets of derivations into intransitive, transitive, and causative. These extensions, or at least their short forms as found in other languages (Proto-Bantu intransitive *-uk- and transitive *-ud-), are sometimes called the "separative" instead. Though the theory (and standard grammar) would dictate that this suffix forms its perfect by changing to , it often appears as instead, even in standard speech. The augmentative is a largely dead formation signifying an augmentation or extension of a verb. It is  indicated by suffixes similar to the dead full formation of the reversive (, , and ). The extensive indicates performing the action repeatedly or extensively. It is formed with the suffix but is limited in scope. It is primarily used with verbs signify discrete actions, causing them to be continuous or habitual. It is also sometimes heard doubled as , with the same meaning. The perfect of this extension simply suffixes . The diminutive indicates an action done "a little." It is indicated by reduplication, the form being determined by the length of the verb: Note that this derivation pattern, like all other uses of  reduplication in Bantu languages, is also sometimes used to indicate an "intensification" and/or repetition of an action—in these cases the actual meaning must be determined from context. After the reduplication, the new verb may only have an underlying high tone on the first syllable (that is, only the "phones" of the first syllable are repeated, but not its "tone"). The positional is a dead stative formation found in many verbs, mostly indicating bodily positions. It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu *-am-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise  the stative positional nature of the verb. The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation. The stative extensive is a dead stative formation found in a few miscellaneous verbs, united by the fact that they all indicate states. It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu *-ad-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise the stative nature of the verb. The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a  continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation. The contactive is a dead formation found in a few verbs, all indicating touch or contact of some sort. It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu *-at-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise or intensify the contactive nature of the verb. The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation. Compounding of extensions . A verb may assume more than one extension, giving it a correspondingly more complex meaning. Though it may appear that the possibilities are endless, the truth is that the depth is limited by various factors. Apart from the obvious constraints of semantics (whether a complex meaning actually makes any sense and serves any possible purpose) and markedness (how strange and complex the verb sounds to the native speaker), there are also restrictions on the order of the extensions. If an extension increases the valency of a verb, any objects of the original verb are demoted and the new object is  made principal. If an objectival concord is used instead of an object, the concord agrees with what would have been the principal object. Additionally, if the original object was also only indicated by an objectival concord, then it becomes demoted to an absolute pronoun (Sesotho verbs may only have one objectival concord). Like all other Bantu languages, Sesotho has inherited certain restrictions on the order of the extensions. The most basic rule (which is broken by very few languages) is that the passive and the short causative always follow all the other extensions (including the perfect , which is always used  with the final vowel ). Although it is probable that Proto-Bantu had fairly strict restrictions on the order of the other extensions, these rules have been relaxed somewhat in modern Bantu languages. For example, since the causative is normally ordered closer to the verb stem than the reciprocal (or indeed, most other extensions), to form the causative of the reciprocal the (dead) short causative (Proto-Bantu *-î-) is usually used instead, therefore palatalizing the reciprocal to . Various other unexpected palatalizations and alveolarizations brought on by combinations of the causative with other extensions may be similarly explained by the action of  the short causative either replacing the normal causative, or being used together with the long causative around another extension (causative + other extension ⇒ + other extension + *-î- ⇒ + modified extension). Certain extensions (intensive, perfective, associative, reversive, and augmentative) are obviously fossilised compound extensions. Often a derived verb may continue being used while the original verb disappears from the language. Note that, since prefixes are of the shape CV or V (where C represents a consonant and V a vowel), verb roots end without the final vowel, prefixes are of the shape (VC)* (* indicates possible repetition) and the  final vowel simply has shape V, this and other structures reinforce the open syllable structure of the Bantu languages, and very few languages have broken it. Non-verbal derivatives. Verbs may also, to a lesser degree, be derived from nouns, qualificatives, and ideophones. Denominative verbs are stative verbs derived from nouns and qualificatives. They are formed by suffixing (dead) or to the stem, giving a verb meaning "become..." The monosyllabic adjectival roots (except some, and four) become nasalized before assuming the suffix. Furthermore, the vowel of (beautiful) changes to : Causatives are formed regularly by changing the suffix to . Perfects are  formed regularly by changing the suffix to . This extension (the long ) is quite rare in the Bantu languages, though all languages have a few verbs in this form even if it may no longer be active. Deideophonic verbs are formed rather irregularly from disyllabic ideophones. They are miscellaneous in nature and are formed by the addition of several suffixes such as , , , , , , , etc. However, common across the Bantu language group are the forms for the intransitive, for the transitive, and for the causative. Additionally, the causative of the intransitive may be formed regularly with the suffix , but this is usually not  done if the causative form is regularly used. When forming these verbs, the tone of the first syllable of the verb (its characteristic tone) corresponds to the tone of the first syllable of the part of the original word used to form the verb (usually the root, but a complete noun for monosyllabic roots). Thus verbs derived regularly from monosyllabic stems are all L verbs (due to the null toned prefix). Inflexion during conjugation. In addition to the verbal derivatives, the following changes may occur to the stem's suffix , during conjugation: The general rules for the formation of the  perfect are varied due to various mostly phonological interactions with the suffix: For all verbs, however, the past tense may also be indicated with the simple (past subjunctive) multi-verbal conjugation, although its meaning does diverge somewhat from that of the perfect (especially with stative verbs) Conjugation. Verbal conjugation is by far the most complex and varied topic in the Bantu languages. The tenses are conjugated by means of prefixes and infixes indicating person, mood, implication, and aspect. There are two conjugations, the positive and negative, and most tenses have corresponding forms in each. The language recognises four moods: the  indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, and the participial sub-mood (infinitives are nouns and imperatives are interjectives). The moods may be divided into tenses according to time (remote past, immediate past, present, immediate future, and remote future) and implication (simple, progressive, and exclusive), which may be further subdivided according to aspect into indefinite, continuous, and perfect. There are also many often complex compound tenses, indicated by changes in tone and the use of deficient verbs (multi-verbal conjugations). Import refers to how the object of the verb is indicated. Verbs can be either: Many verbs can have more than one  import ( (walk) can be locative, instrumental, or conjunctive; (speak) can be intransitive, transitive, instrumental, or conjunctive) and verb derivatives can also change the import of the stem. Many shades of meaning are achieved by the employment of deficient verbs in multi-verbal conjugations. Many tenses and moods may only be formed in this manner. The verbal complex. In the Bantu languages, the typical full structure of verbs, excluding contractions, is as follows (the * indicates possible iteration): In Sesotho, as with most other Bantu languages, this has been modified somewhat, resulting in the following structure ("I shall no longer look on  his behalf"): Though indicative tenses form their negatives with the prefix , many other moods and tenses form their negatives with an infix (either or , depending on the specific tense). The verbal auxiliary infixes are used to indicate tense, certain forms of the subjunctive, progressive implication, the potential mood, as well verb focus in the present indicative tense. The verbal infixes always follow the simple infixes, though there are some instances where two simple infixes are used at the same time. The extensions include suffixes used in verbal derivatives as well as the perfect (which is always followed by the final  vowel ). With the exception of the verb root, each of these formatives is monosyllabic, but in Sesotho some verbal infixes (those that are contractions) and extensions (those that are obvious compoundings of earlier forms) also have more than one syllable. Additionally, the structure (obj conc. + stem) is often called the "macrostem" in various syntactical and tonal theories. Many aspects and tenses are indicated by multi-verbal conjugations and, with the exception of the subjectival concord, the root, and the final vowel, most of these formatives are not always necessary. Note that infinitives and imperatives (both of which do not  have subjectival concords) may be considered separate parts of speech (nouns/gerunds and interjectives). Deficient verbs are never used with objectival concords, and the use of the other formatives with them is also limited. This structure obviously ignores any possible enclitics that is suffixed. Tenses. The Sesotho tense system is somewhat less complex (though not necessarily less complicated) than that of other Bantu languages. Whereas many Bantu languages clearly divide the time into remote past, immediate past, present, immediate future, and remote future, not all Sesotho moods divide very clearly between immediate and remote tenses, and the differences in meaning  are not as great. Moods. There are basically four moods. Implication. Within the indicative and participial moods, tenses may be further sub-divided according to the "implication" of the action. Aspects. The tenses may be further divided according to the aspect of the action. In Sesotho there are at least three aspects, the definite, the continuous, and the perfect. Deficient verbs. Deficient verbs, so called because they require a subordinate or complementary verb to complete their action, are used to form many tenses and to impart certain shades of meaning. They form part of "multi-verbal conjugations" consisting of a  string of verbs, each with its own subjectival concord. Deficient verbs, being "deficient", are never used alone. Many of them are irregular in form and have irregular inflexions. Monosyllabic deficient verbs are never used with the penultimate that is sometimes used with normal verbs (not to be confused with the indefinite concord). Many of these verbs seem radical in nature, while others (especially those with complex implications) are obviously derived from certain extant normal verbs (but are used with slightly different meanings). What distinguishes the deficient usage of these normal verbs is the fact that they are followed directly by  another verb and affect its meaning (and only the main verb may carry an objectival concord).