Waluburg
Waluburg, 'magic staff protection' (), was a second century Germanic seeress (sorceress, priestess) from the Semnonian tribe whose existence was revealed by the archaeological find of an ostracon, a pot shard of the type that was used by scribes to write receipts in Roman Egypt. The shard was discovered in the early twentieth century on the Egyptian island of Elephantine, near the First Cataract of the Nile. Waluburg probably was taught her craft by a fellow tribeswoman, the seeress Ganna, who succeeded Veleda as a leader of the Germanic resistance against the Romans and who is known to have had  an audience with emperor Domitian. The reason how and why Waluburg ended up in southern Egypt at the First Cataract of the Nile is not known, but scholars speculate that she may have arrived while accompanying a warband of her own tribe in Roman service, that she was a war prisoner, or that she was a valuable hostage. Since Germanic sorceresses were known to make predictions of the future based on the movement of water, alternatively, she may have been hired by the Roman authorities to make predictions for them while studying the streams and currents of the First Cataract , hence the receipt of payment for services found with her name upon the shard found at Elephantine. Etymology of Waluburg. The first element *- is probably Proto-Germanic * 'staff', which could be a reference to the seeresses' insignia, the magic staff, and which connects her name semantically to that of her fellow tribeswoman, the seeress Ganna, who probably taught her the craft, and who had an audience with emperor Domitian in Rome. In the same way, her name may also be connected to the name of another Germanic seeress, Gambara, which can be interpreted as 'staff bearer' (* or *), see . The staffs  are also reflected in the North Germanic word for seeress, 'staff bearer'. In North Germanic accounts, the seeresses were always equipped with a staff, a , the Old Norse form of the same Proto-Germanic word *. The second element - is otherwise not attested in Germanic personal names before the 7th century, and there were some linguistic and gender related issues attached to it, which made its use in female names problematic and delayed its use. There were two feminine ablaut grades, * which meant 'help' and * which meant 'protection', but saving and protecting was the role of the man, while the role  of the woman was to be the object a man's protection. However, women with supernatural powers could legitimately be agents of protection and consequently the name element -* could have been coined in contexts where a supernatural woman, like a Valkyrie, helped and protected men fallen in battle. It was also an apt element in a name for a shield-maiden. So it was no coincidence that the name element -* 'help' was first used in a female name with the first element *- 'fight', as in the name of the Lombard princess "Gundiberga", the daughter of king Agilulf. The reason why  the ablaut grade -* 'protection' was used in Waluburg instead of the grade -* 'help' may have been because at this early time * could not be uncontroversially added to * because it was connected to a masculine noun that meant 'mountain' (*-). The grade -* 'protection' was possible on the other hand because it was connected to a female noun meaning 'fortress' (*), and in this way gender associations and sensitivities would have been respected. Constraints in name formation removed the final -"ō" and produced "Waluburg". The ostracon. Her name was discovered on an ostracon, a potshard fragment of a type that was used as a  receipt in Roman Egypt. It is dated to the second century AD and it was found on the island of Elephantine opposite Aswan (Syene) at the southern Egyptian border. It was first described by Wilhelm Schubart in 1917, and he noted that the text was faded and the writing was school-like, but her name, Waluburg, was clearly legible. The shard contains a list of Greek and Roman names in the dative case, noting that they are recipients, perhaps of a salary. They are mentioned in ten lines of titles and personal names. Above a broad line is listed the  title , which translates as either 'the governor' () or a 'legionary prefect' (), and , for the Latin 'adjutants, etc.'. Then it says three centurions but written with acronyms, then one or more scribes, and after that one or several , camel riders, of whom there were two stationed in the region. Below the dividing line it lists proper names and civilian occupations, such as 'cloth fuller' (but misspelt as ). Among the proper names are such that were usually given to servants and slaves, so it lists the members of a group of people occupied in service to the Roman governor. Among the names  for the civilians appears , in line 8, and it clearly sticks out among the Latin, Greek, and Egyptian names on the ostraca, and unlike them, it was not written with a grammatical case marker. This is unusual because the scribes who wrote the ostraca added Greek case markers even to Egyptian names. Analysis. Since the scribes also wrote names phonetically, it was clear to Schubart that the foreign name represented a feminine Germanic name. Schubart transcribed it as "Baloubourg", but he identified it as "Walburg", then a rare feminine Germanic name that appears in Walpurgis Night. However, Simek comments that  Schubart was mistaken about this because "Walburg" is derived from "Wald-burga", and is an entirely different name. Schubart also noted that the Senones were a Celtic tribe that poorly fits a woman with a Germanic name, and the reference was also anachronistic since that Celtic tribe had been subdued by Caesar during his Gallic campaigns in the first century BC. He concluded that it was more likely that the Germanic tribe Semnones had been mistaken for the Celtic Senones known from Roman history, than it was for a woman with a Germanic name to have identified with a long  defunct Celtic tribe. Schröder (1918) read the text as "Walburg, the Semnonic sibyl" and considered "Semnonic" to be a cultic name rather than an ethnonym, while Helm (1918) read her name as "Waluburg" and suggested that it was a title rather than a proper name. Reichert (1987) lists her name without elaboration as "Baluburg" in his , but as "Waluburg" in his article "Frau" in "Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde" (1995). Simek writes her name as "Waluborg" and adds that "Senoni" is clearly the tribal name "Semnoni" but misspelled. The First Cataract. Schubart suggests that Waluburg may have accompanied Germanic auxiliary troops  who were sent to the southern Egyptian border. During the Byzantine era, Germanic troops appear to have been stationed there, which is shown by the find of a fragment of the Gothic Bible in Egypt, and seeresses often accompanied Germanic troops. Enright considers it unlikely for her to have arrived at the location unless she followed a warband of auxiliary troops of her own tribe, and perhaps, the seeresses Veleda, Aurinia, and Ganna often accompanied the troops of their warlords. However, although, there are abundant records of Germanic troops in Egypt and three cohorts in Syene in the fourth and  fifth centuries, there is no evidence of a Germanic garrison in Syene during the first and the second centuries AD. Consequently, it has been suggested that the ostracon is from a later time, but the ethnonym, or cult name, "Semnones" did not survive the seonnd century, and it was last attested in 179/180 AD by Cassius Dio. It also is unlikely that Waluburg served in one of the temples on the island. Schubart also proposes that Waluburg may also have been a war prisoner accompanying a Roman soldier in his career that led to his being stationed in Egypt at  the first cataract. Simek considers her to have been deported by the Roman authorities, and he writes that it is uncertain how she arrived at Elephantine, but it is not surprising considering the significant and obvious influence that the Germanic seeresses wielded politically. She also may have been a valued hostage who eventually would have been returned to her people (cf. "Germania" 8), and perhaps future finds of papyri will clarify this. Reichert considers her to have been hired by the Roman governor, as the Romans appreciated the prophetic skills of the Germanic seeresses. Clement of Alexandria, who lived in  Egypt at the same time as Waluburg, and the earlier Plutarch, mentioned that the Germanic seeresses also could predict the future while studying the eddies, the whirling and the splashing of currents, and this may be the reason why Waluburg found herself on the island of Elephantine within hearing distance of the swirling waters of the First Cataract of the Nile.