Kyphoscoliosis
Kyphoscoliosis describes an abnormal curvature of the spine in both a coronal and sagittal plane. It is a combination of kyphosis and scoliosis. This musculoskeletal disorder often leads to other issues in patients, such as under-ventilation of lungs, pulmonary hypertension, difficulty in performing day-to-day activities, psychological issues emanating from anxiety about acceptance among peers, especially in young patients. It can also be seen in syringomyelia, Friedreich's ataxia, spina bifida, kyphoscoliotic Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (kEDS), and Duchenne muscular dystrophy due to asymmetric weakening of the paraspinal muscles. Signs and symptoms. The following are clear signs of  Kyphoscoliosis: Kyphosis. Kyphosis by itself refers to an excessive convex curvature of the spine occurring in the thoracic and sacral regions. A normal thoracic curvature from the 1st to the 12th spine has a naturally occurring convex shape with angles ranging from 20 degrees to 45 degrees. When the curvature goes past 45 degrees, the condition is termed as Kyphosis. Kyphosis, depending on the extent of curvature can result in many discomforts including breathing and digestion difficulties, cardiovascular issues, and neurological issues. There are several forms of kyphosis, including postural (related to slouching), Scheuermann’s kyphosis (found mostly in teenagers ), congenital, nutritional, osteoporosis-induced and post-traumatic. Depending on the type of kyphosis, the extent of curvature, the age of the patient, different treatments may be recommended, including the provision for posture correction, braces, physiotherapy, and surgery. Surgery can be most useful in patients who have an extensive deformity. The rate of post-surgery complications may be higher in elderly patients. Scoliosis. Scoliosis refers to a form of abnormal spinal curvature in which the person’s spine takes an "S" or "C" shape. Scoliosis has forms of treatments available similar to those for kyphosis including bracing, physical therapy and various  types of surgeries. Typically, a human spine is straight laterally, but in scoliosis patients, there may be a curve of ten degrees in either direction, left or right. Cause. Kyphoscoliosis may manifest in an individual at different stages of life and for various causes. When present at a young age ranging from childhood to teenage, kyphoscoliosis may be present from birth due to congenital abnormalities including spina bifida. Certain infections can also lead to the development of kyphoscoliosis such as vertebral tuberculosis or general tuberculosis. Osteochondrodysplasia, a disorder related to the development of bone and cartilage, can also cause this  disease. In later ages, kyphoscoliosis can occur in patients suffering from chronic degenerative diseases like osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. This type of incidence is usually seen in patients above 50 years of age and is mainly attributed to structural changes in the spine and adjoining tissues. Sometimes, a traumatic injury can also lead to its development. Further, there are many idiopathic occurrences of kyphoscoliosis where the exact cause is not very well known but is suspected to be caused by genetic factors. Diagnosis. Kyphoscoliosis is one of the main criteria in kyphoscoliotic Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. It is caused by mutation in  the PLOD1 gene and/or FKBP14 gene. The diagnosis is confirmed by molecular testing and suggested when a patient meets criteria 1 and criteria 2: congenital muscle hypotonia and congenital or early onset kyphoscoliosis (progressive or non-progressive), respectively. Treatments. The decision to choose a particular treatment approach very much depends on multiple factors such as the age of the patient, understanding the root cause of the condition i.e. postural, congenital, etc., risks involved in surgery for the patient, etc. Surgery. Surgery is usually indicated when the extent of deformity is large, causes issues in physiological functions such as breathing, interferes  with the daily activities or is cosmetically unacceptable to the adult. It is also advised when the patient has passed the age where other therapies such as braces are no longer effective. Kyphoscoliosis implies that the patient has both types of curvature deformity. The decision to undergo surgery or not is always a complex one, but sometimes, it becomes inevitable such as when the deformity begins to interface with crucial physiological functions like breathing or makes every day normal activities extremely painful. Sometimes, patients in their early adulthood may choose to have surgery because the presence of such deformity causes  social issues such as acceptability among their peers, a disability that comes in the way of working, etc. In the case of elderly patients who suffer from such deformity triggered at a later age, other factors are to be considered such as the presence of underlying disease that caused it, whether a progressive decline is expected, and if conservative treatments using physiotherapy or drugs have failed to give relief from debilitating pain. Surgical correction is attempted in some to fix the spine and arrest progression of the deformity. Surgical operations may include the use of spinal implants like the Harrington  Rod, or the VEPTR. Risks of corrective spine surgery: studies. Another study which focused on elderly patients found that the rate of complications was much higher for a sample population of 72 cases with mean age of 60.7 years. The rate of complications was as high as 22% in the entire sample. The study points that in the case of elderly patients, surgery should only be considered when there is no other option left; the disease is in progression stage, and the quality of life has degraded to an extent where conservative treatments can no longer help with pain. While  there are many surgical approaches for spinal deformity correction including anterior only, posterior only, anterior-posterior, the techniques that are most popular nowadays include the posterior only VCR or pVCR. One of the studies which analyze pVCR technique also noted the benefit of using a technique called NMEP monitoring in assisting the surgeon avoid any neurological complications while performing a spine surgery.