Time-of-flight diffraction ultrasonics
Time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) method of ultrasonic testing is a sensitive and accurate method for the nondestructive testing of welds for defects. TOFD originated from tip diffraction techniques which were first published by Silk and Liddington in 1975 which paved the way for TOFD. Later works on this technique are given in a number of sources which include Harumi et al. (1989), Avioli et al. (1991), and Bray and Stanley (1997). Bray and Stanley (1997) summarized TOFD as tip-diffraction techniques which utilized the principle that the tips of a crack when struck by  a wave will diffract the signals back to the other location on the surface. The depth of these tips can be determined from the diffracted energy. TOFD was invented in the UK in the 1970s initially as a research tool. The use of TOFD enabled crack sizes to be measured more accurately, so that expensive components could be kept in operation as long as possible with minimal risk of failure. Principle of operation. Measuring the amplitude of reflected signal is a relatively unreliable method of sizing defects because the amplitude strongly depends on the orientation of the crack. Instead of  amplitude, TOFD uses the time of flight of an ultrasonic pulse to determine the position and size of a reflector. In a TOFD system, a pair of ultrasonic probes sits on opposite sides of a weld. One of the probes, the transmitter, emits an ultrasonic pulse that is picked up by the probe on the other side, the receiver. In undamaged pipes, the signals picked up by the receiver probe are from two waves: one that travels along the surface and one that reflects off the far wall. When a crack is present, there is a diffraction of the ultrasonic  wave from the tip(s) of the crack. Using the measured time of flight of the pulse, the depth of a crack tips can be calculated automatically by simple trigonometry. Applications. Phased Array + TOFD combination is commonly used to inspect pipeline welds. Reliability. One of the limitations of TOFD is the "dead zone' created by the lateral wave signal just below the inspection surface (or OD surface in case of the pipe). The dead zone is approximately 5 mm and there is no flaw detection in this zone. Calibration blocks with side drilled holes as shown in Reference and ISO  10863 used to validate the "dead zone" and sizing accuracy.