Old Spanish
Old Spanish, also known as Old Castilian (; ), or Medieval Spanish (), was originally a dialect of Vulgar Latin spoken in the former provinces of the Roman Empire that provided the root for the early form of the Spanish language that was spoken on the Iberian Peninsula from the 10th century until roughly the beginning of the 15th century, before a "consonantal readjustment" gave rise to the evolution of modern Spanish. The poem ('The Poem of the Cid'), published around 1200, remains the best known and most extensive work of literature in Old Spanish. Phonology. The phonological system of Old  Spanish was quite similar to that of other medieval Romance languages. Sibilants. Among the consonants, there were seven sibilants, including three sets of voiceless/voiced pairs: The set of sounds is identical to that found in medieval Portuguese and almost the same as the system present in the modern Mirandese language. The Modern Spanish system evolved from the Old Spanish one with the following changes: Changes 2–4 all occurred in a short period of time, around 1550–1600. The change from to is comparable to the fluctuation occurring in the sj-sound of Modern Swedish. The Old Spanish spelling of the  sibilants was identical to modern Portuguese spelling, which, unlike Spanish, still preserves most of the sounds of the medieval language, and so is still a mostly faithful representation of the spoken language. Examples of words before spelling was altered in 1815 to reflect the changed pronunciation: The Old Spanish origins of and reflect their Arabic origins, from Arabic "sheikh" and from Arabic "sharif". Bilabial consonants. Voiced. The voiced bilabial stop and fricative were still distinct sounds in early Old Spanish, judging by the consistency with which they were spelled as and respectively. ( derived from Latin word-initial or intervocalic , while  derived from Latin or intervocalic .) Nevertheless, the two sounds could be confused in consonant clusters ( ~ 'dawn') or in word-initial position, perhaps after or a pause. The two appear to have merged in word-initial position by about 1400 CE and in all other environments by the mid–late 16th century at the latest. In Modern Spanish, many earlier instances of were replaced with , or vice-versa, to conform to Latin spelling. Voiceless. At an archaic stage, there would have existed three allophones of in approximately the following distribution: By the early stages of Old Spanish, the allophone had  spread to all prevocalic environments and possibly before as well. Subsequently, the bilabial allophones of (that is those other than ) were modified to the labiodental in 'proper' speech, likely under the influence of the many French and Occitan speakers who migrated to Spain from the twelfth century onward, bringing with them their reformed Latin pronunciation. This had the effect of introducing into Old Spanish numerous borrowings beginning with a labiodental . The result was a phonemic split of into and , since the native 'last' was now distinct from the borrowed 'form' (both ultimately derived from the Latin ). Compare also the native  'speech' and borrowed 'fable'. In some cases, doublets appear in apparently native vocabulary, possibly the result of borrowings from other Ibero-Romance varieties; compare modern 'iron' and 'branding iron' or the names "Hernando" and "Fernando". Old Spanish had , just as Modern Spanish does, which mostly represents a development of earlier * (still preserved in Portuguese and French), from the Latin . The use of for originated in Old French and spread to Spanish, Portuguese, and English despite the different origins of the sound in each language: Palatal nasal. The palatal nasal was written (the geminate being one of the sound's Latin  origins), but it was often abbreviated to following the common scribal shorthand of replacing an or with a tilde above the previous letter. Later, was used exclusively, and it came to be considered a letter in its own right by Modern Spanish. Also, as in modern times, the palatal lateral was indicated with , again reflecting its origin from a Latin geminate. Spelling. Greek digraphs. The Graeco-Latin digraphs (digraphs in words of Greek-Latin origin) , , and were reduced to , , and , respectively: Word-initial Y to I. Word-initial was spelled , which was simplified to . i/j, u/v. In common  with other European languages before the 17th century, the letter pairs and and and were not distinguished. Modern editions of Old Spanish texts usually normalise the spelling to distinguish the pairs, as Modern Spanish does. Morphology. In Old Spanish, perfect constructions of movement verbs, such as ('(to) go') and ('(to) come'), were formed using the auxiliary verb ('(to) be'), as in Italian and French: was used instead of ('The women have arrived in Castilla'). Possession was expressed with the verb (Modern Spanish , '(to) have'), rather than : was used instead of ('Pedro has two daughters'). In the perfect tenses, the past  participle often agreed with the gender and number of the direct object: was used instead of Modern Spanish ('María has sung two songs'). However, that was inconsistent even in the earliest texts. Personal pronouns and substantives were placed after the verb in any tense or mood unless a stressed word was before the verb. The future and the conditional tenses were not yet fully grammaticalised as inflections; rather, they were still periphrastic formations of the verb in the present or imperfect indicative followed by the infinitive of a main verb. Pronouns, therefore, by the general placement rules, could be inserted  between the main verb and the auxiliary in these periphrastic tenses, as still occurs with Portuguese (mesoclisis): When there was a stressed word before the verb, the pronouns would go before the verb: . Generally, an unstressed pronoun and a verb in simple sentences combined into one word. In a compound sentence, the pronoun was found in the beginning of the clause: = . The future subjunctive was in common use ( in the second example above) but it is generally now found only in legal or solemn discourse and in the spoken language in some dialects, particularly in areas of Venezuela, to  replace the imperfect subjunctive. It was used similarly to its Modern Portuguese counterpart, in place of the modern present subjunctive in a subordinate clause after , etc., when an event in the future is referenced: Sample text. The following is a sample from (lines 330–365), with abbreviations resolved, punctuation (the original has none), and some modernized letters. Below is the original Old Spanish text in the first column, along with the same text in Modern Spanish in the second column and an English translation in the third column. <poem> –Ya sennor glorioso, padre que en çielo estas, Fezist çielo  e tierra, el terçero el mar, Fezist estrelas e luna, e el sol pora escalentar, Prisist en carnaçion en sancta maria madre, En belleem apareçist, commo fue tu veluntad, Pastores te glorificaron, ovieron de a laudare, Tres Reyes de arabia te vinieron adorar, Melchior e gaspar e baltasar, oro e tus e mirra Te offreçieron, commo fue tu veluntad. Saluest a jonas quando cayo en la mar, Saluest a daniel con los leones en la mala carçel, Saluest dentro en Roma al sennor san sabastián, Saluest a sancta susanna del falso criminal, Por tierra andidiste xxxii annos, sennor spirital, Mostrando  los miraculos, por en auemos que fablar, Del agua fezist vino e dela piedra pan, Resuçitest a Lazaro, ca fue tu voluntad, Alos judios te dexeste prender, do dizen monte caluarie Pusieron te en cruz, por nombre en golgota, Dos ladrones contigo, estos de sennas partes, El vno es en parayso, ca el otro non entro ala, Estando en la cruz vertud fezist muy grant, Longinos era çiego, que nuquas vio alguandre, Diot con la lança enel costado, dont yxio la sangre, Corrio la sangre por el astil ayuso, las manos se ouo de vntar, Alçolas arriba, legolas a  la faz, Abrio sos oios, cato atodas partes, En ti crouo al ora, por end es saluo de mal. Enel monumento Resuçitest e fust alos ynfiernos, Commo fue tu voluntad, Quebranteste las puertas e saqueste los padres sanctos. Tueres Rey delos Reyes e de todel mundo padre, Ati adoro e creo de toda voluntad, E Ruego a san peydro que me aiude a Rogar Por mio çid el campeador, que dios le curie de mal, Quando oy nos partimos, en vida nos faz iuntar.</poem> <poem> "–Oh Señor glorioso, Padre que en el cielo estás," "Hiciste el cielo  y la tierra, al tercer día el mar," "Hiciste las estrellas y la luna, y el sol para calentar," "Te encarnaste en Santa María madre," "En Belén apareciste, como fue tu voluntad," "Pastores te glorificaron, te tuvieron que loar," "Tres reyes de Arabia te vinieron a adorar," "Melchor, Gaspar y Baltasar; oro, incienso y mirra" "Te ofrecieron, como fue tu voluntad." "Salvaste a Jonás cuando cayó en el mar," "Salvaste a Daniel con los leones en la mala cárcel," "Salvaste dentro de Roma al señor San Sebastián," "Salvaste a Santa Susana del falso criminal," "Por tierra anduviste treinta y dos  años, Señor espiritual," "Mostrando los milagros, por ende tenemos qué hablar," "Del agua hiciste vino y de la piedra pan," "Resucitaste a Lázaro, porque fue tu voluntad," "Por los judíos te dejaste prender, en donde llaman Monte Calvario" "Te pusieron en la cruz, en un lugar llamado Golgotá," "Dos ladrones contigo, estos de sendas partes," "Uno está en el paraíso, porque el otro no entró allá," "Estando en la cruz hiciste una virtud muy grande," "Longinos era ciego que jamás se vio," "Te dio con la lanza en el costado, de donde salió la sangre," "Corrió la sangre por el  astil abajo, las manos se tuvo que untar," "Las alzó arriba, se las llevó a la cara," "Abrió sus ojos, miró a todas partes," "En ti creyó entonces, por ende se salvó del mal." "En el monumento resucitaste y fuiste a los infiernos," "Como fue tu voluntad," "Quebrantaste las puertas y sacaste a los padres santos." "Tú eres Rey de los reyes y de todo el mundo padre," "A ti te adoro y en ti creo de toda voluntad," "Y ruego a San Pedro que me ayude a rogar" "Por mi Cid el Campeador, que Dios le cuide del mal ," "Cuando hoy partamos, en vida haznos juntar."</poem> <poem> "O glorious Lord, Father who art in Heaven," "Thou madest Heaven and Earth, and on the third day the sea," "Thou madest the stars and the Moon, and the Sun for warmth," "Thou incarnatedst Thyself of the Blessed Mother Mary," "In Bethlehem Thou appearedst, for it was Thy will," "Shepherds glorified Thee, they gave Thee praise," "Three kings of Arabia came to worship Thee," "Melchior, Caspar, and Balthazar; offered Thee" "Gold, frankincense, and myrrh, for it was Thy will." "Thou savedst Jonah when he fell into the sea ," "Thou savedst Daniel from the lions in the terrible jail," "Thou savedst Saint Sebastian in Rome," "Thou savedst Saint Susan from the false charge," "On Earth Thou walkedst thirty-two years, Spiritual Lord," "Performing miracles, thus we have of which to speak," "Of the water Thou madest wine and of the stone bread," "Thou revivedst Lazarus, because it was Thy will," "Thou leftest Thyself to be arrested by the Jews, where they call Mount Calvary," "They placed Thee on the Cross, in the place called Golgotha," "Two thieves with Thee, these of split paths," "One is in Paradise, but the  other did not enter there," "Being on the Cross Thou didst a very great virtue," "Longinus was blind ever he saw Thee," "He gave Thee a blow with the lance in the broadside, where he left the blood," "Running down the arm, the hands Thou hadst spread," "Raised it up, as it led to Thy face," "Opened their eyes, saw all parts," "And believed in Thee then, thus saved them from evil." "Thou revivedst in the tomb and went to Hell," "For it was Thy will," "Thou hast broken the doors and brought out the holy fathers." "Thou art King  of Kings and of all the world Father," "I worship Thee and I believe in all Thy will," "And I pray to Saint Peter to help with my prayer," "For my Cid the Champion, that God nurse from evil," "When we part today, that we are joined in this life or the next."</poem>