Larmor formula
In electrodynamics, the Larmor formula is used to calculate the total power radiated by a nonrelativistic point charge as it accelerates. It was first derived by J. J. Larmor in 1897, in the context of the wave theory of light. When any charged particle (such as an electron, a proton, or an ion) accelerates, energy is radiated away in the form of electromagnetic waves. For particle velocities that are small relative to the speed of light, the total power radiated is given by the Larmor formula: formula_1 formula_2 where formula_3 or formula_4 — is the proper acceleration, formula_5 — is  the charge, and formula_6 — is the speed of light. A relativistic generalization is given by the Liénard–Wiechert potentials. In either unit system, the power radiated by a single electron can be expressed in terms of the classical electron radius and electron mass as: formula_7 One implication is that an electron orbiting around a nucleus, as in the Bohr model, should lose energy, fall to the nucleus and the atom should collapse. This puzzle was not solved until quantum theory was introduced. Derivation. Derivation 1: Mathematical approach (using CGS units). We first need to find the form of the electric  and magnetic fields. The fields can be written (for a fuller derivation see Liénard–Wiechert potential) formula_8 and formula_9 where formula_10 is the charge's velocity divided by formula_11, formula_12 is the charge's acceleration divided by , formula_13 is a unit vector in the formula_14 direction, formula_15 is the magnitude of formula_16, formula_17 is the charge's location, and formula_18. The terms on the right are evaluated at the retarded time formula_19. The right-hand side is the sum of the electric fields associated with the velocity and the acceleration of the charged particle. The velocity field depends only upon  formula_10 while the acceleration field depends on both formula_10 and formula_12 and the angular relationship between the two. Since the velocity field is proportional to formula_23, it falls off very quickly with distance. On the other hand, the acceleration field is proportional to formula_24, which means that it falls much more slowly with distance. Because of this, the acceleration field is representative of the radiation field and is responsible for carrying most of the energy away from the charge. We can find the energy flux density of the radiation field by computing its Poynting vector: formula_25 where the 'a' subscripts  emphasize that we are taking only the acceleration field. Substituting in the relation between the magnetic and electric fields while assuming that the particle instantaneously at rest at time formula_26 and simplifying gives formula_27 If we let the angle between the acceleration and the observation vector be equal to formula_28, and we introduce the acceleration formula_29, then the power radiated per unit solid angle is formula_30 The total power radiated is found by integrating this quantity over all solid angles (that is, over formula_28 and formula_32). This gives formula_33 which is the Larmor result for a nonrelativistic accelerated charge. It  relates the power radiated by the particle to its acceleration. It clearly shows that the faster the charge accelerates the greater the radiation will be. We would expect this since the radiation field is dependent upon acceleration. Derivation 2: Edward M. Purcell approach. The full derivation can be found here. Here is an explanation which can help understanding the above page. This approach is based on the finite speed of light. A charge moving with constant velocity has a radial electric field formula_34 (at distance formula_15 from the charge), always emerging from the future position of the charge, and there  is no tangential component of the electric field formula_36. This future position is completely deterministic as long as the velocity is constant. When the velocity of the charge changes, (say it bounces back during a short time) the future position "jumps", so from this moment and on, the radial electric field formula_34 emerges from a new position. Given the fact that the electric field must be continuous, a non-zero tangential component of the electric field formula_38 appears, which decreases like formula_24 (unlike the radial component which decreases like formula_23). Hence, at large distances from the charge, the radial component  is negligible relative to the tangential component, and in addition to that, fields which behave like formula_23 cannot radiate, because the Poynting vector associated with them will behave like formula_42. The tangential component comes out (SI units): formula_43 And to obtain the Larmour formula, one has to integrate over all angles, at large distance formula_15 from the charge, the Poynting vector associated with formula_38, which is: formula_46 giving (SI units) formula_47 This is mathematically equivalent to: formula_47 Since formula_49, we recover the result quoted at the top of the article, namely formula_50 Relativistic generalization. Covariant form. Written in terms  of momentum, , the nonrelativistic Larmor formula is (in CGS units) formula_51 The power can be shown to be Lorentz invariant. Any relativistic generalization of the Larmor formula must therefore relate to some other Lorentz invariant quantity. The quantity formula_52 appearing in the nonrelativistic formula suggests that the relativistically correct formula should include the Lorentz scalar found by taking the inner product of the four-acceleration with itself [here is the four-momentum]. The correct relativistic generalization of the Larmor formula is (in CGS units) It can be shown that this inner product is given by formula_53 and so in the  limit , it reduces to formula_54, thus reproducing the nonrelativistic case. Non-covariant form. The above inner product can also be written in terms of and its time derivative. Then the relativistic generalization of the Larmor formula is (in CGS units) This is the Liénard result, which was first obtained in 1898. The formula_55 means that when the Lorentz factor formula_56 is very close to one (i.e. formula_57) the radiation emitted by the particle is likely to be negligible. However, as formula_58 the radiation grows like formula_55 as the particle tries to lose its energy in the form of EM waves . Also, when the acceleration and velocity are orthogonal the power is reduced by a factor of formula_60, i.e. the factor formula_55 becomes formula_62. The faster the motion becomes the greater this reduction gets. We can use Liénard's result to predict what sort of radiation losses to expect in different kinds of motion. Angular distribution. The angular distribution of radiated power is given by a general formula, applicable whether or not the particle is relativistic. In CGS units, this formula is formula_63 where formula_64 is a unit vector pointing from the particle towards the observer. In the case of linear  motion (velocity parallel to acceleration), this simplifies to formula_65 where formula_28 is the angle between the observer and the particle's motion. Issues and implications. Radiation reaction. The radiation from a charged particle carries energy and momentum. In order to satisfy energy and momentum conservation, the charged particle must experience a recoil at the time of emission. The radiation must exert an additional force on the charged particle. This force is known as the Abraham–Lorentz force in the nonrelativistic limit and the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac force in the relativistic setting. Atomic physics. A classical electron in the Bohr model  orbiting a nucleus experiences acceleration and should radiate. Consequently, the electron loses energy and the electron should eventually spiral into the nucleus. Atoms, according to classical mechanics, are consequently unstable. This classical prediction is violated by the observation of stable electron orbits. The problem is resolved with a quantum mechanical description of atomic physics, initially provided by the Bohr model. Classical solutions to the stability of electron orbitals can be demonstrated using non-radiation conditions and in accordance with known physical laws.