Kefir
Kefir (also spelled as kephir or kefier, ; ; ) ( ) is a fermented milk drink similar to a thin yogurt or ayran that is made from kefir grains, a specific type of mesophilic symbiotic culture. The drink originated in the North Caucasus, in particular the Elbrus region along the upper mountainous sections of Circassia, Karachay and Balkaria from where it came to Russia, and from there it spread to Europe and the United States, where it is prepared by inoculating the milk of cows, goats, or sheep with kefir grains. Origin and etymology. The word "kefir", known in the Russian language () since  at least 1884, is possibly of North Caucasian origin, as etymology dictionaries mention the origin of the word to be possibly deriving from a Caucasian language. One view is that it comes from Adyghe ' 'barrel' and ' 'to sour'. Traditional kefir was made in goatskin bags that were hung near a doorway; the bags would be knocked by anyone passing through to keep the milk and kefir grains well mixed. Among people of Circassian descent all over the world, it is called "qundəps" (, ). In Karachay-Balkar it is called , which may have a connection with (wineskin). It was under the name  wineskin that North Caucasian kefir was distributed in the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. Kefir spread from the former Soviet Union to the rest of Europe, Japan, and the United States by the early 21st century. The homeland of kefir is considered to be "the vicinity of Elbrus along the upper reaches of the Kuban", and the invention of kefir sourdough belongs to Circassians or Karachay-Balkars. There has been controversy on which one of the two first invented it, as nationalists of both sides claimed their side was the original  inventor. The cauliflower-like grains of kefir culture were thought of as having amazing healing powers as far back as the 18th century, and great care was taken by the North Caucasian families who bequeathed from generation to generation as a source of family wealth. It's still believed in North Caucasian tradition that it's taboo to give kefir grains to anyone because it makes the spirits angry. So the North Caucasian people found a way to get kefir grains, they ″bogusly steal″ them from their neighbors by prior agreement, so spirits wouldn't know about this. Word of  this powerful food and medicine spread to areas far from the Caucasus, and at the beginning of the 20th century, the All-Russian Physician's Society asked two brothers Blandov, who owned cheese manufacturing factories in the Northern Caucasus, for help in obtaining the culture grains of kefir. One of the brothers, Nikolai Blandov, persuaded a young employee, , to use her beauty to gain access to the much-desired grain. She, therefore, traveled to the Narsana where she attempted to interest a local uzden, Bek-Mirza Baychorov, to assist her in this plot. When he declined to give up any  of the precious substance she left to return, only to be captured by agents of Baychorov, who didn't want to give up the kefir and did not wish to lose the presence of the lovely Irina either. Finding herself back in his presence and facing a proposal of marriage into the bargain she remained silent until a rescue mission arranged by her employers freed her. She promptly brought the prince before the Tsar's court where she accepted grains of kefir as the settlement of her suit for abduction. In September 1908 Irina Sakharova brought the first bottles of  kefir to Moscow for sale where it was at first used for medicinal purposes. In 1973, Irina, then 85, was sent a letter from the Minister of the Food Industry of the Soviet Union, acknowledging her great part in bringing kefir to the Russian people. Also, according to Alimurat Tekeyev (great-grandson of Bek-Mirza Baychorov, owner of a patent for the manufacture of ayran), letters from Irina Timofeevna refute the fact of abduction: "My great-grandfather, realizing what would become the most valuable gift for Irina, gifted kefir fungi to her". Then Irina Timofeevna wrote: “Bek-Mirza and I  left the world a huge health-improving heritage of millions. If Bek-Mirza is no longer with us – his eternal memory”. In fact, Bekmyrza Baichorov continued to engage in animal husbandry and supplied the Caucasian breed of sheep for the famous Parisian Maxim restaurant, as well as to restaurants of Moscow. Fermentation. Traditional kefir is fermented at ambient temperatures, generally overnight. Fermentation of the lactose yields a sour, carbonated, slightly alcoholic beverage, with a consistency and taste similar to drinkable yogurt. The kefir grains initiating the fermentation are initially created by auto-aggregations of "Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens" and "Saccharomyces turicensis", where  multiple biofilm producers cause the surfaces to adhere which form a three dimensional microcolony. The biofilm is a matrix of heteropolysaccharides called kefiran, which is composed of equal proportions of glucose and galactose. It resembles small cauliflower grains, with color ranging from white to creamy yellow. A complex and highly variable symbiotic community can be found in these grains, which can include acetic acid bacteria (such as "A. aceti" and "A. rasens"), yeasts (such as "Candida kefyr" and "S. cerevisiae") and a number of "Lactobacillus" species, such as "L. parakefiri", "L. kefiranofaciens" (and subsp. "kefirgranum"), "L. kefiri", etc. While some  microbes predominate, "Lactobacillus" species are always present. The microbe flora can vary between batches of kefir due to factors such as the kefir grains rising out of the milk while fermenting or curds forming around the grains, as well as temperature. Additionally, Tibetan kefir composition differs from that of the Russian kefir, Irish kefir, Taiwan kefir and Turkey fermented beverage with kefir. In recent years, the use of freeze-dried starter culture has become common due to stability of the fermentation result, because the species of microbes are selected in laboratory conditions, as well as easy transportation. During fermentation, changes  in the composition of ingredients occur. Lactose, the sugar present in milk, is broken down mostly to lactic acid (25%) by the lactic acid bacteria, which results in acidification. Propionibacteria further break down some of the lactic acid into propionic acid (these bacteria also carry out the same fermentation in Swiss cheese). Other substances that contribute to the flavor of kefir are pyruvic acid, acetic acid, diacetyl and acetoin (both of which contribute a "buttery" flavor), citric acid, acetaldehyde, and amino acids resulting from protein breakdown. Low lactose content. The slow-acting yeasts, late in the fermentation process, break lactose  down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. As a result of the fermentation, very little lactose remains in kefir. People with lactose intolerance are able to tolerate kefir, provided the number of live bacteria present in this beverage consumed is high enough (i.e., fermentation has proceeded for adequate time). It has also been shown that fermented milk products have a slower transit time than milk, which may further improve lactose digestion. Alcohol/ethanol content. Kefir contains ethanol, which is detectable in the blood of human consumers. The level of ethanol in kefir can vary by production method. A 2016 study of  kefir sold in Germany showed an ethanol level of only 0.02 g per litre, which was attributed to fermentation under controlled conditions allowing the growth of "Lactobacteria" only, but excluding the growth of other microorganisms that form much higher amounts of ethanol. A 2008 study of German commercial kefir found levels of 0.002-0.005% of ethanol. Kefir produced by small-scale dairies in Russia early in the 20th century had 1-2% ethanol. Modern processes, which use shorter fermentation times, result in much lower ethanol concentrations of 0.2–0.3%. Nutrition. Composition. Kefir products contain nutrients in varying amounts from negligible to  significant, including dietary minerals, vitamins, essential amino acids, and conjugated linoleic acid, in amounts similar to unfermented cow, goat, or sheep milk. At a pH of 4.2 – 4.6, kefir is composed mainly of water and by-products of the fermentation process, including carbon dioxide and ethanol. Typical of milk, several dietary minerals are found in kefir, such as calcium, iron, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, copper, molybdenum, manganese, and zinc in amounts that have not been standardized to a reputable nutrient database. Also similar to milk, kefir contains vitamins in variable amounts, including vitamin A, vitamin B (thiamine), vitamin B (riboflavin ), vitamin B (niacin), vitamin B (pyridoxine), vitamin B (folic acid), vitamin B (cyanocobalamin), vitamin C, vitamin D, and vitamin E. Essential amino acids found in kefir include methionine, cysteine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, tyrosine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, lysine, and valine, as for any milk product. Microbiota. Probiotic bacteria found in kefir products include: "Lactobacillus acidophilus", "Bifidobacterium bifidum", "Streptococcus thermophilus", "Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus", "Lactobacillus helveticus", "Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens", "Lactococcus lactis", and "Leuconostoc" species. Lactobacilli in kefir may exist in concentrations varying from approximately 1 million to 1 billion colony-forming units per milliliter, and are the bacteria responsible for the synthesis of the  polysaccharide "kefiran". In addition to bacteria, kefir often contains strains of yeast that can metabolize lactose, such as "Kluyveromyces marxianus", "Kluyveromyces lactis", and "Saccharomyces fragilis", as well as strains of yeast that do not metabolize lactose, including "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", "Torulaspora delbrueckii", and "Kazachstania unispora". The nutritional significance of these strains is unknown. Production. Kefir is made by adding kefir grains to milk typically at a proportion of 2–5% grains-to-milk. The mixture is then placed in a corrosion-resistant container, such as a glass jar, and stored preferably in the dark to prevent degradation of light-sensitive vitamins. After  a period between 12 and 24 hours of fermentation at mild temperature, ideally 20–25 °C (68–77 °F), the grains are strained from the milk using a corrosion-resistant (stainless steel or plastic) utensil and kept to produce another batch. During the fermentation process the grains enlarge and eventually split forming new units. The resulting fermented liquid may be drunk, used in recipes, or kept aside in a sealed container for additional time to undergo a secondary fermentation. Because of its acidity the beverage should not be stored in reactive metal containers such as aluminium, copper, or zinc, as  these may leach into it over time. The shelf life, unrefrigerated, is up to thirty days. The Russian method permits production of kefir on a larger scale and uses two fermentations. The first step is to prepare the cultures by inoculating milk with 2–3% grains as described. The grains are then removed by filtration and 1–3% of the resulting liquid mother culture is added to milk and fermented for 12 to 18 hours. Kefir can be made using freeze-dried cultures commonly available in powder form from health food stores. A portion of the resulting kefir can be saved to  be used a number of times to propagate further fermentations but ultimately does not form grains. In Taiwan, researchers were able to produce kefir in laboratory using microorganisms isolated from kefir grains. They report that the resulting kefir drink had chemical properties similar to homemade kefir. Milk types. Kefir grains will ferment the milk from most mammals and will continue to grow in such milk. Typical animal milks used include cow, goat, and sheep, each with varying organoleptic (flavor, aroma, and texture) and nutritional qualities. Raw milk has been traditionally used. Milk sugar is not essential for the synthesis of  the polysaccharide that makes up the grains (kefiran), and rice hydrolysate is a suitable alternative medium. Additionally, kefir grains will reproduce when fermenting soy milk, although they will change in appearance and size due to the differing proteins available to them. A variation of kefir grains that thrive in sugary water also exists, see water kefir (or "tibicos"), and can vary markedly from milk kefir in both appearance and microbial composition. Culinary. As it contains "Lactobacillus" bacteria, kefir can be used to make a sourdough bread. It is also useful as a buttermilk substitute in baking. Kefir is one of  the main ingredients in cold borscht soup in Lithuania, also known in Poland as "Lithuanian cold soup" ("chłodnik litewski"), and other countries. Kefir-based soup okroshka is common across the former Soviet Union. Kefir may be used in place of milk on cereal, granola, milkshakes, salad dressing, ice cream, smoothies and soup.