Gurjaradesa
Gurjaradesa ("Gurjara country") or Gurjaratra,is a historical region in India comprising the eastern Rajasthan and northern Gujarat during the period of 6th -12th century CE. Gurjara, in history was applicable to a region in the middle of 6th century with its capital at Bhinmalla, having its southern boundary around Saraswati river and northern boundary beyond current city of Jodhpur. Rulers of this region consolidated surrounding parts of homogenous people, thus Gurjardesa became co-terminous with the kingdom of its Kings. Over years, the homogenous people of this region expanded the boundary of Gurjardesa under their kings and established  a mighty empire. Over a period, these rulers shifted their capital from Bhinmalla to Jalore, Jalore to Ujjayani and Ujjayani to Kannauj. These rulers who are styled as Gurjara-Pratihara of kannauj by the historians, looked to Gurjardesa as their homeland. Modern day state of Gujarat is different from Gurjardesa, historically and geographically and it is not the same as Gurjardesa. Early references to Gurjara country. "Gurjaradēśa", or Gurjaratra, is first attested in Bana's "Harshacharita" (7th century CE). Its king is said to have been subdued by Harsha's father Prabhakaravardhana (died c. 605 CE). The bracketing of the  country with Sindha (Sindh), Lāta (southern Gujarat) and Malava (western Malwa) indicates that the region including the northern Gujarat and Rajasthan is meant. The Gurjaras suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after the Hunas invasion of that region. The Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the Alchon Huns ("White Huns") and native Indian elements, and can probably be considered as a Hunnic state, although its precise origins remain unclear. In Bana's "Harshacharita" (7th century CE), the Gurjaras are associated with the Hunas. Hieun Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim  who visited India between 631-645 CE during Harsha's reign, mentioned the Gurjara country ("Kiu-che-lo") with its capital at Bhinmal ("Pi-lo-mo-lo") as the second largest kingdom of Western India. He distinguished it from the neighbouring kingdoms of Bharukaccha (Bharuch), Ujjayini (Ujjain), Malava (Malwa), Valabhi and Surashtra. The Gurjara was said to have measured 833 miles in circuit and its ruler was a 20-year old kshatriya, who was distinguished for his wisdom and courage. It is known that, in 628 CE, the kingdom at Bhinmal was ruled by a Chavda dynasty ruler "Vyāgrahamukha", under  whose reign the mathematician-astronomer Brahmagupta wrote his famous treatise. It is believed that the young ruler mentioned by Hieun Tsang must have been his immediate successor. It appears that the Gurjara country at that time comprised modern Rajasthan. Following the death of Harsha, his empire split up into small kingdoms. Gurjaradesa is believed to have become independent. The Arab chroniclers of Sindh (an Arab province from 712 CE onward), narrated the campaigns of Arab governors on "Jurz", the Arabic term for Gurjara. They mentioned it jointly with "Mermad" (Marumāda, in Western Rajasthan) and "Al Baylaman" (Bhinmal). The country was  first conquered by Mohammad bin Qasim (712-715) and, for a second time, by Junayd (723-726). Upon bin Qasim's victory, Al-Baladhuri mentioned that the Indian rulers, including that of Bhinmal, accepted Islam and paid tribute. They presumably recanted after bin Qasim's departure, which made Junayd's attack necessary. After Junayd's reconquest, the kingdom at Bhinmal appears to have been annexed by the Arabs. Successor Gurjara kingdoms. A Pratihara kingdom was founded by Harichandra Rohilladhi at Mandore ("Mandavyapura") in about 600 CE. This is expected to have been a small kingdom. His descendant, Nagabhata, shifted the  capital to Merta (Medāntakapura) in about 680 CE. Eventually, this dynasty adopted the designation of "Pratihara" in line with the Imperial Pratiharas, to whom it became feudatory. They are often referred to as Mandore Pratiharas by historians. The Bharuch line of Gurjaras (Gurjaras of Lata) was founded by Dadda I, who is identified with Harichandra's youngest son of the same name by many historians. These Gurjaras were always recognized as vassals ("sāmanthas") though their allegiance might have varied over time. They are believed to have wrested a fair portion of the Lata province of the Chaulukyas and their kingdom  also came to be regarded as part of Gurjaradesa. A final line of Gurjaras was founded by Nagabhata I at Jalore, in the vicinity of Bhinmal, in about 730 CE, soon after Junayd's end of term in Sindh. Nagabhata is said to have defeated the "invincible Gurjaras," presumably those of Bhinmal. Another account credits him for having defeated a "Muslim ruler." Nagabhata is also known to have repelled the Arabs during a later raid. His dynasty later expanded to Ujjain and called itself Gurjara-Pratihara. The rival kingdoms of Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas and Palas, however continued to call  them Gurjaras or kings of Gurjaratra ("Gurjardesa"). The Pratiharas became the dominant force of the entire Rajasthan and Gujarat regions, establishing a powerful empire centered at Kannauj, the former capital of Harshavardhana. Later references. Udyotana Suri's "Kuvalayamala" composed in Jalore in 778 CE describes in detail the Gurjaratra country as a beautiful country, whose residents were majaroly Gurjars. They were differentiated from the "Saindhavas" (people of Sindh), "Latas" (in southern Gujarat), "Malavas" (people of Malwa) and "Meravas". They were mentioned to be devotees of dharma and clever in matters of peace as well as war. The term "Gurjaratra" is  first mentioned in the Ghatiyala inscription of Kakkuka (Mandore Pratihara) in 861 CE. Kakkuka is said to have won the love of the people of Gurjaratra along with those Marumada, Valla and Travani. Later records suggest that this Gurjaratra mandala was in the region of Didwana in the old Jodhpur State. In later times, the term Gurjaratra is used to connote the present day Gujarat. Jinadatta Suri (1075-1154 CE) mentions a country of "Gujaratta" with its capital at Anahilapataka (Patan) in northern Gujarat. Culture and science. <mapframe text="Places in Gurjaradeśa, as mentioned in historical texts and determined from  the find spots of inscriptions (blue). The neighbouring places are shown as triangles (gray)." height="400" zoom="4" longitude="74.01" latitude="25.30"> </mapframe> Bhinmal was a great centre of learning. According to "Kanhadade Prabandha", it had 45,000 Brahmins who were never tired of studying the ancient sacred books. Brahmagupta, the well-known mathematicians astronomer, was born in 598 CE in Bhinmal. He is likely to have lived most of his life in the town, during the empire of Harsha. He wrote two texts on mathematics and astronomy: The Brahma Sphuta Siddhanta in 628, and the Khandakhadyaka in 665. He made seminal  contributions to mathematics, including the first mathematical treatment of zero, rules for manipulating positive and negative numbers, as well as algorithms for algebraic operations on decimal numbers. His work on astronomy and mathematics was transmitted to the court of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur (r. 754-775 CE), who had the Indian astronomical texts translated into Arabic. Through these texts, the decimal number system spread through the Arab world and later Europe. The Sanskrit poet Magha, the author of "Sisupalavadha," lived here in 680 CE. The Jain scholar Siddharshi Gani, a resident of Bhinmal wrote "Upmitibahava prapancha katha" in 905  CE. The "Jain Ramayana" was written by Jain monk Vijayagani in 1595 CE. Jain acharya Udyotana Suri wrote "Kuvalayamala" here.