Cryolophosaurus
Cryolophosaurus ( or ; "CRY-oh-loaf-oh-SAWR-us") is a genus of large theropod dinosaur known from only a single species Cryolophosaurus ellioti, from the early Jurassic of Antarctica. It was about long and in weight, making it one of the largest theropods of its time. Individuals of this species may have grown even larger, because the only known specimen probably represents a sub-adult. "Cryolophosaurus" is known from a skull, a femur and other material, the skull and femur of which have caused its classification to vary greatly. The femur possesses many primitive characteristics that have classified "Cryolophosaurus  as a dilophosaurid or a neotheropod outside of Dilophosauridae and Averostra, whereas the skull has many advanced features, leading the genus to be considered a tetanuran, an abelisaurid, a ceratosaur and even an allosaurid. Cryolophosaurus" is currently considered to be a derived neotheropod, close to Averostra. "Cryolophosaurus" possessed a distinctive "pompadour" crest that spanned the head from side to side. Based on evidence from related species and studies of bone texture, it is thought that this bizarre crest was used for intra-species recognition. The brain of "Cryolophosaurus" was also more primitive than those of other theropods. "Cryolophosaurus" was first  excavated from Antarctica's Early Jurassic, Pliensbachian aged Hanson Formation, formerly the upper Falla Formation, by paleontologist Dr. William Hammer in 1991. It was the first carnivorous dinosaur to be discovered in Antarctica and the first non-avian dinosaur from the continent to be officially named. The sediments in which its fossils were found have been dated at ~194 to 188 million years ago, representing the Early Jurassic Period. Discovery and naming. "Cryolophosaurus" originally was collected during the 1990–91 austral summer on Mount Kirkpatrick in the Beardmore Glacier region of the Transantarctic Mountains. The discovery was made by Hammer, a  professor at Augustana College, and his team. The fossils were found in the siliceous siltstone of the Hanson Formation, formerly the upper Falla Formation, and dated to the Pliensbachian Stage of the early Jurassic. "Cryolophosaurus" was the second dinosaur, and first theropod, to be discovered in Antarctica. It was discovered after "Antarctopelta", but named earlier. In 1991, both Hammer and the Ohio State University geologist David Elliot excavated separate outcrops near Beardmore Glacier, sharing logistical expenses. Elliot's team first came across the remains of "Cryolophosaurus" in a rock formation around the altitude of high and about from the South  Pole. When the discovery was made, they soon notified Hammer. Over the next three weeks, Hammer excavated of fossil-bearing rock. The team recovered over 100 fossil bones, including those of "Cryolophosaurus". The specimens were formally named and described in 1994 by Hammer and Hickerson, in the journal "Science". During the 2003 season, a field team returned and collected more material from the original site. A second locality was discovered about higher in the section on Mt. Kirkpatrick. The name "Cryolophosaurus ellioti" is derived from the Greek words κρυος (meaning 'cold' or 'frozen', in reference to its discovery in Antarctica ), λοφος (meaning 'crest') and (meaning 'lizard'), thus "cold crest lizard". Hammer and Hickerson named the species "C. ellioti", after David Elliot, who had made the initial discovery of the fossils. Description. The holotype FMNH PR1821 is the only fully described specimen of "Cryolophosaurus". The specimen consists of an incomplete skull and mandibles lacking most of their front half; nine maxillary teeth; a fragmentary sixth cervical centrum; cervical vertebrae 7-10; several posterior cervical ribs; several anterior dorsal vertebrae; most mid and posterior dorsal vertebrae; several dorsal ribs; the fifth sacral vertebrae; three chevrons; many partial and complete caudal vertebrae and  centra; two partial humeri; a proximal radius; a proximal ulna; a partial ilium; a proximal pubis; both ischia, but only one distal; two incomplete femora; the distal end of a tibia; the distal end of a fibula, and the astragalus and calcaneum. In 2013, new material of "Cryolophosaurus" was unearthed in Antarctica. The description of this material has not yet been published in a non-abstract form. "Cryolophosaurus" was a large, well-built theropod, one of the largest of its time. The genus has been described by Roger Benson and colleagues (2012) as a top predator in Antarctica. It had  slender proportions. "Cryolophosaurus" was estimated as being in length by William R. Hammer & William J. Hickerson (1999). A 2007 study by Nathan Smith "et al." revised the length to . Its weight estimated at . Based on these length and weight estimates, "Cryolophosaurus" is currently the largest known Early Jurassic theropod. Smith "et al." (2007b) and Benson "et al." (2012) noted that the holotype individual probably represents a sub-adult, so adults could have been larger. In 2016 Molina-Pérez and Larramendi gave a larger estimation of 7.7 meters (25.3 ft) and 780 kg (1.720 lbs). Skull. The holotype of "Cryolophosaurus" consists  of a high, narrow skull, which was discovered articulated with the rest of the skeleton. The skull is an estimated long. It has a peculiar nasal crest that runs just over the eyes, where it rises up perpendicular to the skull and fans out. It is thin and highly furrowed, giving it a unique "pompadour" appearance and earned it the nickname "Elvisaurus." The crest is an extension of the skull bones, near the tear ducts, fused on either side to orbital horns which rise from the eye sockets. While other theropods like the "Monolophosaurus" have crests, they usually run along  the skull instead of across it. An unpublished study conducted by Vernon Meidlinger-Chin in 2013 suggested that previous studies lacked focus on endocranial details. The study found that the "Cryolophosaurus" fossil has a nearly complete, undistorted cranial cavity which is complete enough to give an approximate shape and size of the living brain. The endocast features clarified the dissimilarity of the skull with those of Allosauroids and Coelurosaurs giving "Cryolophosaurus" a basal position in Theropoda. Closer examination of how the skull bones fused together reviewed details in the snout and forehead that are especially similar to "Dilophosaurus". Classification. Classification  of "Cryolophosaurus" is difficult because it has a mix of primitive and advanced characteristics. The femur has traits of early theropods, while the skull resembles much later species of the clade Tetanurae, like China's "Sinraptor" and "Yangchuanosaurus". This led Paul Sereno "et al." (1994) to place "Cryolophosaurus" in the taxon Allosauridae. Originally, Hammer and colleagues suspected that "Cryolophosaurus" might be a ceratosaur or even an early abelisaur, with some traits convergent with those of more advanced tetanurans, but ultimately concluded that it was itself the earliest known member of the tetanuran group. While a subsequent study by Hammer (along  with Smith and Currie) again recovered "Cryolophosaurus" as a tetanuran, a later (2007) study by the same authors found that it was more closely related to "Dilophosaurus" and "Dracovenator". Sterling Nesbitt "et al." (2009), using the characters of "Tawa" found "Cryolophosaurus" to be neither a dilophosaurid nor averostran neotheropod but instead the sister group of a clade composed of dilophosaurids and averostrans. However, in 2012, Matthew Carrano found that "Cryolophosaurus" was a tetanuran, related to "Sinosaurus", but unrelated to "Dilophosaurus". In 2020, a monograph of "Dilophosaurus" found "Cryolophosaurus" to be a derived neotheropod, close to Averostra, in a more derived  position than "Zupaysaurus", but less than "Dilophosaurus". The following family tree illustrates a synthesis of the relationships of the early theropod groups compiled by Hendrickx "et al." in 2015. Paleobiology. Cranial ornamentation. Cranial display features, such as the one possessed by "Cryolophosaurus", make sense in social, gregarious animals, where other members of the species are available to observe and interpret messages of sexual status. Kevin Padian "et al." (2004) challenged conventional hypotheses that the purpose of bizarre cranial structures and post-cranial armor in dinosaurs, was either for attracting mates, intimidating/fighting rivals in the group, or intimidating potential predators  of other species. Padian "et al." noted that based on phylogenetic, histological, and functional evidence these bizarre structures can be explained by the phenomenon of intra-species recognition, which is supported by the fossil evidence. Thomas R. Holtz Jr. (2010) found that the bizarre crest of "Cryolophosaurus" was primarily for intra-species recognition, based on evidence from related species and studies of bone texture. According to Thomas Rich and his colleagues, the crest would have been ineffective as a weapon and may have possibly functioned as a display feature during certain types of social behavior such as mating. In 2019 , a species recognition function was disputed but a socio-sexual display structure model was suggested. Diet. When the type specimen was discovered, several long cervical ribs, of a supposed prosauropod dinosaur were found in the mouth of "Cryolophosaurus", which led Hammer (1998) to conclude that it was feeding on the prosauropod when it died. Hammer further noted that since the ribs were found extending all the way back to the theropod's neck region, this individual may have choked to death on these ribs. However, Smith "et al." concluded that these remains belonged to the "Cryolophosaurus" specimen itself, and not  to Hammer's "prosauropod". Hammer also concluded that a post-canine tooth belonging to a tritylodont (an early mammal relative), found with the remains, was part of its stomach contents when it died. Paleopathology. Some "Cryolophosaurus" bones have pathologies that show evidence of scavenging. Broken teeth from a juvenile "Cryolophosaurus" were found nearby. These teeth have no roots and likely shed naturally while scavenging the adult "Cryolophosaurus" carcass. Another possible pathology is found in the astragalus (ankle bone) of "Cryolophosaurus". This bone was preserved with a small splint from the fibula located just above the ankle. The splint, however, may  also be just a unique morphological feature of "Cryolophosaurus". Paleoecology. All known specimens of "Cryolophosaurus" have been recovered in the Hanson Formation, which is one of only two major dinosaur-bearing rock formations found on the continent of Antarctica. It was discovered in "tuffaceous" siltstone deposited in the Sinemurian to Pliensbachian stage of the Early Jurassic, approximately 194 to 188 million years ago. This geological formation is part of the Victoria Group of the Transantarctic Mountains, which is approximately above sea level. The high altitude of this site supports the idea that early Jurassic Antarctica had forests populated by a  diverse range of species, at least along the coast. The Hanson Formation was deposited in an active volcano−tectonic rift system formed during the breakup of Gondwana. In the Early Jurassic, Antarctica was closer to the equator and the world was considerably warmer than today, but the climate was still cool temperate. Models of Jurassic air flow indicate that coastal areas probably never dropped much below freezing, although more extreme conditions existed inland. "Cryolophosaurus" was found about from the South Pole but, at the time it lived, this was about or so farther north. This formation has produced the remains of  Glacialisaurus (a large basal sauropodomorph), a crow-sized pterosaur (a dimorphodontid), a synapsid (a tritylodont, which is a type of synapsid about the size of a rat), herbivorous synapsid, and two small unnamed sauropodomorphs. There are also the remains of many plant genera recovered from the Early Jurassic Camp Hill Formation, around the same age as fossils of "Cryolophosaurus", proving that dense plant matter had once grown on Antarctica's surface before it drifted southward.