G beta-gamma complex
The G beta-gamma complex (G) is a tightly bound dimeric protein complex, composed of one G and one G subunit, and is a component of heterotrimeric G proteins. Heterotrimeric G proteins, also called guanosine nucleotide-binding proteins, consist of three subunits, called alpha, beta, and gamma subunits, or G, G, and G. When a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) is activated, G dissociates from G, allowing both subunits to perform their respective downstream signaling effects. One of the major functions of G is the inhibition of the G subunit. History. The individual subunits of the  G protein complex were first identified in 1980 when the regulatory component of adenylate cyclase was successfully purified, yielding three polypeptides of different molecular weights. Initially, it was thought that G, the largest subunit, was the major effector regulatory subunit, and that G was largely responsible for inactivating the G subunit and enhancing membrane binding. However, downstream signalling effects of G were later discovered when the purified G complex was found to activate a cardiac muscarinic K+ channel. Shortly after, the G complex associated with a mating factor receptor-coupled G protein in yeast was found to initiate a pheromone  response. Although these hypotheses were initially controversial, G has since been shown to directly regulate as many different protein targets as the G subunit. Recently, possible roles of the G complex in retinal rod photoreceptors have been investigated, with some evidence for the maintenance of G inactivation. However, these conclusions were drawn from "in vitro" experiments under unphysiological conditions, and the physiological role of the G complex in vision is still unclear. Nevertheless, recent "in vivo" findings demonstrate the necessity of the transducin G complex in the functioning of rod photoreceptors under low light conditions. Structure. The G subunit is  a dimer composed of two polypeptides, however it acts functionally as a monomer, as the individual subunits do not separate, and have not been found to function independently. The G subunit is a member of the β-propeller family of proteins, which typically possess 4-8 antiparallel β-sheets arranged in the shape of a propeller. G contains a 7 bladed β-propeller, each blade arranged around a central axis and composed of 4 antiparallel β-sheets. The amino acid sequence contains 7 WD repeat motifs of about 40 amino acids, each highly conserved and possessing the Trp-Asp dipeptide  that gives the repeat its name. The G subunit is considerably smaller than G, and is unstable on its own, requiring interaction with G to fold, explaining the close association of the dimer. In the G dimer, the G subunit wraps around the outside of G, interacting through hydrophobic associations, and exhibits no tertiary interactions with itself. The N terminus helical domains of the two subunits form a coiled coil with one another that typically extends away from the core of the dimer. To date, 5 β-subunit and 11 γ-subunit genes and have been identified in mammals. The  G genes have very similar sequences, while significantly greater variation is seen in the G genes, indicating that the functional specificity of the G dimer may be dependent on the type of G subunit involved. Of additional structural interest is the discovery of a so-called “hotspot” present on the surface of the G dimer; a specific site of the protein that binds to diverse range of peptides and is thought to be a contributing factor in the ability of G to interact with a wide variety of effectors. Synthesis and Modification. Synthesis of the subunits occurs in the cytosol . Folding of the β-subunit is thought to be aided by the chaperone CCT (chaperonin containing tailless-complex polypeptide 1), which also prevents aggregation of folded subunits. A second chaperone, PhLP (phosducin-like protein), binds to the CCT/G complex, and is phosphorylated, allowing CCT to dissociate and G to bind. Finally, PhLP is released, exposing the binding site for G, allowing for formation of the final trimer at the endoplasmic reticulum, where it is targeted to the plasma membrane. G subunits are known to be prenylated (covalently modified by the addition of lipid moieties) prior to addition to G , which itself has not been found to be modified. This prenylation is thought to be involved in directing the interaction of the subunit both with membrane lipids and other proteins. Function. The G complex is an essential element in the GPCR signaling cascade. It has two main states for which it performs different functions. When G is interacting with G it functions as a negative regulator. In the heterotrimer form, the G dimer increases the affinity of G for GDP, which causes the G protein to be in an inactive state. For the G subunit to become active, the nucleotide  exchange must be induced by the GPCR. Studies have shown that it is the G dimer that demonstrates specificity for the appropriate receptor and that the G subunit actually enhances the interaction of the G subunit with the GPCR. The GPCR is activated by an extracellular ligand and subsequently activates the G protein heterotrimer by causing a conformational change in the G subunit. This causes the replacement of GDP with GTP as well as the physical dissociation of the G and the G complex. Once separated, both G and G are free to participate in their own distinct signaling pathways . G does not go through any conformational changes when it dissociates from G and it acts as a signaling molecule as a dimer. The G dimer has been found to interact with many different effector molecules by protein-protein interactions. Different combinations of the G and G subtypes can influence different effectors and work exclusively or synergistically with the G subunit. G signaling is diverse, inhibiting or activating many downstream events depending on its interaction with different effectors. Researchers have discovered that G regulates ion channels, such as G protein-gated inward rectifier channels, as well as calcium channels. In  human PBMC, G complex has been shown to activate phosphorylation of ERK1/2. Another example of G signaling is its effect of activating or inhibiting adenylyl cyclase leading to the intracellular increase or decrease of the secondary messenger cyclic AMP. For more examples of G signaling see table. However, the full extent of G signaling has not yet been discovered. Medical implications. Drug design. The G subunit plays a variety of roles in cell signalling processes and as such researchers are now examining its potential as a therapeutic drug target for the treatment of many medical conditions. However, it is recognized  that there are a number of considerations to keep in mind when designing a drug which targets the G subunit: Targeting the G subunit in treatment. Research has been conducted on how altering the actions of G subunits could be beneficial for the treatment of certain medical conditions. G signalling has been examined for its role in a variety of conditions including heart failure, inflammation and leukemia. Heart failure. Heart failure can be characterized by a loss of β adrenergic receptor (βAR) signalling in heart cells. When the βAR is stimulated by catecholamines such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, there is  normally an increase in the contractility of the heart. However, in heart failure there are sustained and elevated levels of catecholamines which result in chronic desensitization of the βAR receptor. This leads to a decrease in the strength of heart contractions. Some research suggests that this chronic desensitization is due to the over activation of a kinase, G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2), which phosphorylates and deactivates certain G protein coupled receptors . When the G protein coupled receptor is activated, the G subunit recruits GRK2 which then phosphorylates and desensitizes GPCRs like the βAR. Preventing the interaction of the  βγ subunit with GRK2 has therefore been studied as a potential target for increasing heart contractile function. The developed molecule GRK2ct is a protein inhibitor which inhibits the signalling properties of G subunit but does not interfere with alpha subunit signalling. The over expression of GRK2ct has been shown to significantly rescue cardiac function in murine models of heart failure by blocking G subunit signalling. In another study, biopsies were taken from patients with heart failure and virally induced overexpression of GRK2ct in the heart myocytes. Other tests showed an improvement in cardiac cell contractile function by inhibiting G. Inflammation . When particular GPCRs are activated by their specific chemokines G directly activates PI3Kγ which is involved in the recruitment of neutrophils that contribute to inflammation. It has been discovered that the inhibition of PI3Kγ significantly reduces inflammation. PI3Kγ is the intended target molecule in the prevention of inflammation as it is the common signalling effector of many different chemokine and receptor types involved in promoting inflammation. Although PI3Kγ is the intended target there are other isoforms of PI3 which perform different functions from PI3Kγ. Since PI3Kγ is specifically regulated by G, while other isoforms of PI3 are largely regulated by  other molecules, inhibiting Gβγ signalling would provide the desired specificity of a therapeutic agent designed to treat inflammation. Leukemia. The G subunit has been shown to activate a Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor (RhoGef) gene PLEKHG2 which is upregulated in a number of leukemia cell lines and mouse models of leukemia. Lymphocyte chemotaxis as a result of Rac and CDC42 activation as well as actin polymerization is believed to be regulated by the G activated RhoGef. Therefore, a drug inhibiting the G could play a role in the treatment of leukemia.