Apophony
In linguistics, apophony (also known as ablaut, (vowel) gradation, (vowel) mutation, alternation, internal modification, stem modification, stem alternation, replacive morphology, stem mutation, internal inflection etc.) is any sound change within a word that indicates grammatical information (often inflectional). Description. Apophony is exemplified in English as the "internal" vowel alternations that produce such related words as The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in tense or aspect (e.g. "sing/sang/sung"), transitivity ("rise/raise"), part of speech ("sing/song"), or grammatical number ("goose/geese"). That these sound alternations function grammatically can be seen as they are often equivalent  to grammatical suffixes (an "external modification"). Compare the following: The vowel alternation between "i" and "a" indicates a difference between present and past tense in the pair "sing/sang". Here the past tense is indicated by the vowel "a" just as the past tense is indicated on the verb "jump" with the past tense suffix "-ed". Likewise, the plural suffix "-s" on the word "books" has the same grammatical function as the presence of the vowel "ee" in the word "geese" (where "ee" alternates with "oo" in the pair "goose/geese"). Consonants, too, can alternate in ways that are used  grammatically. An example is the pattern in English of verb-noun pairs with related meanings but differing in voicing of a postvocalic consonant: Most instances of apophony develop historically from changes due to phonological assimilation that are later grammaticalized (or morphologized) when the environment causing the assimilation is lost. Such is the case with English "goose/geese" and "breath/breathe". Types. Apophony may involve various types of alternations, including vowels, consonants, prosodic elements (such as tone, syllable length), and even smaller features, such as nasality (on vowels). The sound alternations may be used inflectionally or derivationally. The particular function of  a given alternation will depend on the language. Vowel gradation. Apophony often involves vowels. Indo-European ablaut (English "sing-sang") and Germanic umlaut ("goose-geese"), mentioned above, are well attested examples. Another example is from Dinka: When it comes to plurals, a common vowel alteration in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (a Semitic language) is shifting the ɑ sound to e as shown in this table: The vowel alternation may involve more than just a change in vowel quality. In Athabaskan languages, such as Navajo, verbs have series of stems where the vowel alternates (sometimes with an added suffix) indicating a different  tense-aspect. Navajo vowel ablaut, depending on the verb, may be a change in vowel, vowel length, nasality, and/or tone. For example, the verb stem 'to handle an open container' has a total of 16 combinations of the 5 modes and 4 aspects, resulting in 7 different verb stem forms (i.e. , , , , , , ). Another verb stem | 'to cut' has a different set of alternations and mode-aspect combinations, resulting in 3 different forms (i.e. , , ): Prosodic apophony. Various prosodic elements, such as tone, syllable length, and stress, may be found in alternations. For example, Vietnamese has the following tone alternations which are  used derivationally: Albanian uses different vowel lengths to indicate number and grammatical gender on nouns: English has alternating stress patterns that indicate whether related words are nouns (first syllable stressed) or verbs (second syllable stressed). This tends to be the case with words in English that came from Latin: Prosodic alternations are sometimes analyzed as not as a type of apophony but rather as prosodic affixes, which are known, variously, as "suprafixes", "superfixes", or "simulfixes". Consonant apophony. Consonant alternation is commonly known as consonant mutation or consonant gradation. Bemba indicates causative verbs through alternation of the stem-final consonant. Here  the alternation involves spirantization and palatalization: Celtic languages are well known for their initial consonant mutations. Indo-European linguistics. Indo-European ablaut. In Indo-European linguistics, ablaut is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as sing, sang, sung, and song. The difference in the vowels results from the alternation (in the Proto-Indo-European language) of the vowel "e" with the vowel "o" or with no vowel. To cite a few other examples of Indo-European ablaut, English has a certain class of verbs, called strong verbs, in which the vowel changes to indicate a different grammatical tense -aspect. As the examples above show, a trade in the vowel of the verb stem creates a different verb form. Some of the verbs also have a suffix in the past participle form. Umlaut. In Indo-European linguistics, umlaut is the vowel fronting that produces such related words as foot > feet or strong > strength. The difference in the vowels results from the influence of an , or (which in most cases has since been lost) at the end of the word causing the stem vowel to be pulled forward. Some weak verbs show umlaut in the present tense, with  the past tense representing the original vowel: bought > buy (>). Hundreds of similar examples can be found in English, German, Dutch and other languages. Germanic a-mutation is a process analogous to umlaut, but involving the influence of an or similar causing the stem vowel to move back in the mouth. Ablaut versus umlaut. In Indo-European historical linguistics the terms "ablaut" and "umlaut" refer to different phenomena and are not interchangeable. "Ablaut" is a process that dates back to Proto-Indo-European times, occurs in all Indo-European languages, and refers to (phonologically) unpredictable vowel alternations of a  specific nature. From an Indo-European perspective, it typically appears as a variation between "o", "e", and no vowel, although various sound changes result in different vowel alternations appearing in different daughter languages. "Umlaut", meanwhile, is a process that is particular to the Germanic languages and refers to a variation between back vowels and front vowels that was originally phonologically predictable, and was caused by the presence of an or in the syllable following the modified vowel. From a diachronic (historical) perspective, the distinction between ablaut and umlaut is very important, particularly in the Germanic languages, as it indicates where  and how a specific vowel alternation originates. It is also important when taking a synchronic (descriptive) perspective on old Germanic languages such as Old English, as umlaut was still a very regular and productive process at the time. When taking a synchronic perspective on modern languages, however, both processes appear very similar. For example, the alternations seen in "sing/sang/sung" and "foot/feet" both appear to be morphologically conditioned (e.g. the alternation appears in the plural or past tense, but not the singular or present tense) and phonologically unpredictable. By analogy, descriptive linguists discussing synchronic grammars sometimes employ the  terms "ablaut" and "umlaut", using "ablaut" to refer to morphological vowel alternation generally (which is unpredictable phonologically) and "umlaut" to refer to any type of regressive vowel harmony (which is phonologically predictable). Ambiguity can be avoided by using alternative terms ("apophony", "gradation", "alternation", "internal modification" for "ablaut"; "vowel harmony" for "umlaut") for the broader sense of the words. Stem alternations and other morphological processes. Stem modifications (i.e. apophony) may co-occur with other morphological processes, such as affixation. An example of this is in the formation of plural nouns in German: Here the singular/plural distinction is indicated through umlaut  and additionally by a suffix "-er" in the plural form. English also displays similar forms with a "-ren" suffix in the plural and a "-en" suffix in the past participle forms along with the internal vowel alternation: Chechen features this as well: A more complicated example comes from Chickasaw where the positive/negative distinction in verbs displays vowel ablaut along with prefixation () and infixation (): Transfixation. The nonconcatenative morphology of the Afroasiatic languages is sometimes described in terms of apophony. The alternation patterns in many of these languages is quite extensive involving vowels and consonant gemination (i.e. doubled consonants). The alternations  below are of Modern Standard Arabic, based on the root 'write' (the symbol indicates gemination on the preceding consonant): Other analyses of these languages consider the patterns not to be sound alternations, but rather discontinuous roots with discontinuous affixes, known as "transfixes" (sometimes considered "simulfixes" or "suprafixes"). Some theoretical perspectives call up the notion of morphological templates or morpheme "skeletons". It would also be possible to analyze English in this way as well, where the alternation of "goose/geese" could be explained as a basic discontinuous root "g-se" that is filled out with an infix "-oo-" "(singular)" or "-ee-  (plural)". Many would consider this type of analysis for English to be less desirable as this type of infixal morphology is not very prevalent throughout English and the morphemes "-oo-" and "-ee-" would be exceedingly rare. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, "Israeli" (Modern Hebrew) has many verbs that follow the Indo-European "ablaut" rather than the Semitic "transfixation". For example, the Israeli verbs 'splashed (masculine 3rd person singular)' and 'splashed (masculine 1st person singular)' are based on a root but rather on the , which is traceable back to the Yiddish , which means 'splash, spout, squirt' (see German ). Zuckermann argues that is  similar to Indo-European stems such as English "s⌂ng" (as in "sing-sang-song-sung") and German 'speak' (as in ). Replacive morphemes. Another analytical perspective on sound alternations treats the phenomena not as merely alternation but rather a "replacive" morpheme that replaces part of a word. In this analysis, the alternation between "goose/geese" may be thought of as "goose" being the basic form where "-ee-" is a replacive morpheme that is substituted for "oo". This usage of the term "morpheme" (which is actually describing a replacement process, and not a true morpheme), however, is more in keeping  with Item-and-Process models of morphology instead of Item-and-Arrangement models. Ablaut-motivated compounding. Ablaut reduplication or ablaut-motivated compounding is a type of word formation of "expressives" (such as onomatopoeia or ideophones). Examples of these in English include: Many Turkic languages have the vowel alternation pattern of "low vowel - high vowel" in their reduplicatives, e.g. Turkish . Here the words are formed by a reduplication of a base and an alternation of the internal vowel. Some examples in Japanese: Some examples in Chinese: