Air separation
An air separation plant separates atmospheric air into its primary components, typically nitrogen and oxygen, and sometimes also argon and other rare inert gases. The most common method for air separation is fractional distillation. Cryogenic air separation units (ASUs) are built to provide nitrogen or oxygen and often co-produce argon. Other methods such as membrane, pressure swing adsorption (PSA) and vacuum pressure swing adsorption (VPSA) are commercially used to separate a single component from ordinary air. High purity oxygen, nitrogen, and argon, used for semiconductor device fabrication, require cryogenic distillation. Similarly, the only viable source of the  rare gases neon, krypton, and xenon is the distillation of air using at least two distillation columns. Cryogenic distillation process. Pure gases can be separated from air by first cooling it until it liquefies, then selectively distilling the components at their various boiling temperatures. The process can produce high purity gases but is energy-intensive. This process was pioneered by Carl von Linde in the early 20th century and is still used today to produce high purity gases. He developed it in the year 1895; the process remained purely academic for seven years before it was used in industrial applications  for the first time (1902). The cryogenic separation process requires a very tight integration of heat exchangers and separation columns to obtain a good efficiency and all the energy for refrigeration is provided by the compression of the air at the inlet of the unit. To achieve the low distillation temperatures, an air separation unit requires a refrigeration cycle that operates by means of the Joule–Thomson effect, and the cold equipment has to be kept within an insulated enclosure (commonly called a "cold box"). The cooling of the gases requires a large amount of energy to make this refrigeration  cycle work and is delivered by an air compressor. Modern ASUs use expansion turbines for cooling; the output of the expander helps drive the air compressor, for improved efficiency. The process consists of the following main steps: The separated products are sometimes supplied by pipeline to large industrial users near the production plant. Long distance transportation of products is by shipping liquid product for large quantities or as dewar flasks or gas cylinders for small quantities. Non-cryogenic processes. Pressure swing adsorption provides separation of oxygen or nitrogen from air without liquefaction. The process operates around ambient temperature; a zeolite  (molecular sponge) is exposed to high pressure air, then the air is released and an adsorbed film of the desired gas is released. The size of compressor is much reduced over a liquefaction plant, and portable oxygen concentrators are made in this manner to provide oxygen-enriched air for medical purposes. Vacuum swing adsorption is a similar process; the product gas is evolved from the zeolite at sub-atmospheric pressure. Membrane technologies can provide alternate, lower-energy approaches to air separation. For example, a number of approaches are being explored for oxygen generation. Polymeric membranes operating at ambient or warm  temperatures, for example, may be able to produce oxygen-enriched air (25-50% oxygen). Ceramic membranes can provide high-purity oxygen (90% or more) but require higher temperatures (800-900 deg C) to operate. These ceramic membranes include Ion Transport Membranes (ITM) and Oxygen Transport Membranes (OTM). Air Products and Chemicals Inc and Praxair are developing flat ITM and tubular OTM systems, . Membrane gas separation is used to provide oxygen-poor and nitrogen-rich gases instead of air to fill the fuel tanks of jet liners, thus greatly reducing the chances of accidental fires and explosions. Conversely, membrane gas separation  is currently used to provide oxygen-enriched air to pilots flying at great altitudes in aircraft without pressurized cabins. Oxygen-enriched air can be obtained exploiting the different solubility of oxygen and nitrogen. Oxygen is more soluble than nitrogen in water, so if air is degassed from water, a stream of 35% oxygen can be obtained. Applications. Steel. In steelmaking oxygen is required for the basic oxygen steelmaking. Today, modern basic oxygen steelmaking uses almost two tons of oxygen per ton of steel. Ammonia. Nitrogen used in the Haber process to make ammonia. Coal gas. Large amounts of oxygen are  required for coal gasification projects; cryogenic plants producing 3000 tons/day are found in some projects. Inert gas. Inerting with nitrogen storage tanks of ships and tanks for petroleum products, or for protecting edible oil products from oxidation.