Landsknecht
The (singular: , ), also rendered as Landsknechts or Lansquenets, were Germanic mercenaries used in pike and shot formations during the early modern period. Consisting predominantly of pikemen and supporting foot soldiers, their front line was formed by "Doppelsöldner" ("double-pay men") renowned for their use of "Zweihänder" and arquebus. Originally organized by Emperor Maximilian I and Georg von Frundsberg, they formed the bulk of the Holy Roman Empire's Imperial Army from the late 1400s to the early 1600s, fighting in the Habsburg-Valois wars, the Habsburg-Ottoman wars, and the European wars of religion. Although prone to mutiny if  unpaid and divided within their ranks between Catholics and Lutherans, the Landsknechts were well-armed, experienced, and fierce warriors. In addition, they were recruitable in large numbers throughout Germany and Austria by the Holy Roman Emperor and thus guaranteed both quantity and quality to the Imperial military for a century and a half. At the peak of their fame during the reign of Charles V of Habsburg, and under the leadership of notable captains such as Georg von Frundsberg and Nicholas of Salm, the Imperial Landskenechts obtained universal prestige for important successes such as the capture of the French king  Francis I at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 and the resistance against the Ottoman Turks led by Suleiman the Magnificent at the Siege of Vienna in 1529, while also being responsible for the infamous Sack of Rome in 1527. Etymology. The Germanic compound (earlier "Lantknecht", without Fugen-"s") combines "" and "" to form "servant of the land." The compound "Lantknecht" was used during the 15th century for bailiffs or court ushers. The word first appeared in the German language circa 1470 to describe certain troops in the army of Charles, Duke of Burgundy. As early as 1500, the term was morphed  into "Lanzknecht", referring to the unit's use of the pike as its main weapon. History. Over the Burgundian Wars, the well-organized and supplied armies of Charles the Bold were defeated again and again by the Swiss Confederation, which wielded an "ad hoc" militia army. Charles's army lacked "esprit de corps" because of its composition by feudal lords, mercenaries, and levied gentry. The Swiss army, though poorly organized, were highly motivated, aggressive, and well-trained with their arms. The Swiss pikemen, called , repeatedly defeated and eventually killed Charles, eliminating Burgundy as a European power. Archduke Maximilian, who became  co-ruler of Burgundian lands in 1477 by marrying Mary of Burgundy, was greatly influenced by the Swiss victories. When the French contested the inheritance, Maximilian levied a Flemish army and defeated the French in 1479 at the Battle of Guinegate, mixing Swiss-styled square infantry formation and Hussite wagon forts tactics. The dissolution of his levied army at war's end found Maximilian wanting a permanent and organized military force like the Confederation's to protect his domain. The existing Burgundian structure was inadequate to this end, however, and moreover the French wielded a monopoly on the hiring of  . Maximilian began raising the first units in 1486, amassing 6,000–8,000 mercenaries. One of these units he gave to Eitel Friedrich II, Count of Hohenzollern, who trained them with Swiss instructors in Bruges in 1487 to become the "Black Guard" – the first . In 1488, Maximilian organized the Swabian League, creating an army of 12,000 infantry and 1,200 cavalry to deter Bavaria and Bohemia. This is considered to be the first army to be raised in Germany. Maximilian raised a strong army for the Austrian-Hungarian War of 1490, and succeeded in driving the Hungarians out of Austria. The in his army  refused to serve after sacking Stuhlweissenburg (now Székesfehérvár, Hungary), citing lack of pay and stopping Maximilian's advance on Buda. To prevent a repeat of Stuhlweissenburg, Maximilian now sought to homogenize the into a fully professional, and mostly Germanic military force. In the 1490s, the well-trained managed to defeat significantly greater Frisian armies. wrote of the siege of Älvsborg Fortress in July 1502, fighting for the King of Denmark: "We were 1800 Germans, and we were attacked by 15000 Swedish farmers ... we struck most of them dead." In 1521, the Spaniards recruited German infantrymen to defend their country against  the French because, as they stated "our infantry does not perform as well in its native country as abroad". At the Battle of Bicocca and the Battle of Marignano (1515), the performed well, defeating the famed . The Imperial were instrumental in many of the Emperor's victories, including the decisive Battle of Pavia in 1525. The same year, they also managed to defeat the peasants' revolt in the Empire. At their peak in the early 16th century, the were considered formidable soldiers who were often brave and loyal. However, these qualities may have declined afterward. The were also employed by  the Habsburg emperor and the royal Valencian authorities in the suppression of the First Revolt of Espadà of 1526, which took place in the mountains of Espadà, in modern-day Spanish Castelló province (then in the Aragonese Kingdom of Valencia), where thousands of Valencian Muslim "fellah"s took up arms against the decree of forced conversion issued that very year by the emperor. They are attested as deployed in the armies of Kings John III of Navarre and successor Henry II of Navarre during their campaigns to reconquer Navarre (1512–1524). In the same context, they are also found fighting on Charles  V's side (battle for Hondarribia, 1521–1524) where they performed strongly. They also served in high numbers in the Imperial army during the campaigns of Austria (1532), France (1542), Germanic Reformed League (1547) and in of all the Italian wars. Others also fought on the Habsburg-Ottoman frontier. The army of the Holy Roman Emperor defeated the French army in Italy, but funds were not available to pay the soldiers. The 34,000 Imperial troops mutinied and forced their commander, Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, to lead them towards Rome. The Sack of Rome in 1527 was executed by some 6,000  Spaniards under the Duke, 14,000 under Georg von Frundsberg, some Italian infantry and some cavalry. Terence McIntosh comments that the expansionist, aggressive policy pursued by Maximilian I and Charles V at the inception of the early modern German nation (although not to further the aims specific to the German nation per se), mainly relying on German manpower as well as utilizing fearsome "Landsknecht" and other mercenaries (with the Battle of Pavia and atrocities like the Sack of Rome being associated with them), would affect the way neighbours viewed the German polity, although in the longue durée, Germany tended to be  at peace. From the 1560s on, after the death of Frundsberg, the reputation of the steadily decreased. In the French Wars of Religion and the Eighty Years War, their bravery and discipline came under criticism, and the Spanish elements of the army of Flanders regularly deprecated the battlefield usefulness of the , somewhat unfairly. Their status also suffered from the rising reputation of the dreaded Spanish tercios who, however, were far less abundant and more expensive to train. When serving in southern Europe, were still considered elite troops. In the army of the Dutch rebels, many German mercenaries were hired but  were forced to give up some traditions in order to increase their discipline in river crossing and their naval fighting abilities. Increasing ill-discipline within the ranks saw them replaced with an improved system of raising a German army, the "Kaiserlicher Fussknecht", which was far less reliant on mercenaries. Organization and recruitment. The "Landsknechte", often recruited from South Germany, came from a society with exploding population growth, increasing unemployment, diverse cultural factors and depleting hierarchical structure (unlike the tightly organized society of the Swiss). In addition to dispossessed craftmen and peasants, there were burghers, aristocrats and runaway serfs as well . They were also used to freedom of carrying weapons. The result was that soldiers leaned towards a libertine (and also brutal) lifestyle. Thus, the role of the regiment, leadership by example (commanders tended to dismount to fight with the troops) and harsh discipline (involving capital punishment) were emphasized to compensate. As with the , a regiment (a typical "Landsknecht" regiment consisted of 4,000 men) of was raised by a lord with a letter patent ("Bestallungsbrief") that named the unit colonel ("Obrist"). This document laid out the size and structure of the unit, the pay of its men, and contained its Articles  of War ("Artikelsbriefe"). Upon accepting the commission and securing funding, either through a bank loan or a grant from the lord, the colonel assembled his chain of command. His captains, once appointed, would then go to a locality he knew with drummers and fifers. Recruits gathered at a specified place and time for the muster. There, they would parade under an arch and be inspected by the colonel and his captains, then be paid their first months' salary. The colonel next read the "Bestallungsbrief" in full to the soldiers, who then swore oaths of allegiance to cause, officers, and the  Emperor. This ceremony also saw the appointing of the unit staff and its standard bearers, or "Fähnriche" (ensigns), who swore to never lose the standard. The colonel was the highest–ranking officer in a in a regiment, but if his force contained more than one regiment he could become a "Generalobrist". If it contained cavalry and artillery in addition to its infantry, then he could be a "Feldobrist" or "Generalfeldobrist". The regiment would be commanded by a lieutenant colonel in the colonel's stead. The regiment itself was formed by ten "Fähnlein", equivalent to a company and commanded by a  captain. A "Fähnlein" was made up by 400 men, including 100 veterans. "Rotten", equivalent to a platoon, were the building blocks of the "Fähnlein" and contained either ten ordinary or six "Doppelsöldner", led by a "Rottmeister" elected by his unit. In totality, the regiment averaged 4,000 men; ten "Fähnlein", containing 40 "Rotten". Unit sergeant majors, called "Feldweibel", were tasked with training drill and formation. The regimental sergeant major, "Oberster-Feldweibel" was responsible for drill on the battlefield. "Rotten" sergeants, "Weibel", were charged with ensuring discipline and relaying liaisons between enlisted men and their officers. One of these men, the "Gemeinweibel , was the spokesman for the men and was elected monthly. According to Imperial law, a colonel could have a staff of 22 officers but in practice this depended on the colonel's wealth. Included in that staff were a chaplain, a scribe, a doctor, a scout, his personal quartermaster and ensign, a drummer and fifer, and a bodyguard (Trabanten") of eight men. Captains also had a staff that included much of the same, but with additional musicians and two "Doppelsöldner" to protect him. A provost marshal and "Schultheiss" were appointed by the colonel to maintain military discipline and to prosecute  the "Artikelsbriefe" respectively. The provost was unimpeachable, and feared. Harsh punishments could be expected for offenses such as mutiny or drunkenness on duty. A provost had a retinue of a jailer, bailiff, and executioner ("Freimann"). Equipment. Just like the , formations consisted of men trained and armed with pikes, halberds, and swords. 300 men of a "Fähnlein" would be armed with a pike, though a 's pike was generally shorter than a 's at about . Experienced and well-equipped soldiers, receiving double a normal 's pay and getting the title "Doppelsöldner", made up a quarter of each "Fähnlein". 50 of these  men were armed with a halberd or with a two-handed sword called a "Zweihänder" while another fifty were arquebusiers or crossbowmen. The focus on firearms, rather than crossbows, as ordained by Maximilian, was where they were different from the Swiss. Maximilian abolished the crossbow in military use in 1517 (although other countries continued to use them). Most , regardless of primary weapon, carried a short sword called a "Katzbalger" for close combat. By the end of the 16th century, however, the number of pikemen in a "Fähnlein" had diminished to around 200. Tactics. They also copied the Swiss in tactics . fought in a pike square they called the "gevierte Ordnung", forty to sixty men deep. "Doppelsöldnern" made up the formation's first two ranks. Then came the ensigns, and then the squares themselves. Pikemen, supported by halberdiers, formed the square while swordsmen made up their front and rear. The most experienced soldiers were located at the back of the formation and arquebusiers were placed on its flanks. In the attack, a band of soldiers called a forlorn hope preceded the pike square to break enemy pikes. The pikemen were supported by halberdiers, who would rush a gap in an opposing  line, a tactic also copied from the Swiss. As their solidarity grew, commanders emphasized on finess and timing, rather than the head-down battering charge of the Swiss. As the "Landsknechte's" fighting techniques were developed, they no longer preferred fighting along a straight line (as exercised by even the Swiss until the end of the fifteenth century), but leaned towards a circle-wise movement that enhanced the use of the space around the combatant and allowed them to attack the opponents from different angles. The circle-wise formation described by Jean Molinet as the "snail" would become the hallmark  of "Landsknechte's" combat. The new types of combat also required the maintenance of a stable bodily equilibrium. Maximilian, an innovator of these types of movements, also saw value in their effects over the maintenance of group discipline (apart from the control of centralized institutions). As Maximilian and his commanders sought to popularize these forms of movements (which only became daily practice at the end of the fifteen century and gained dominance after Maximilian's death in 1519), he promoted them in tournaments, in fencing and in dancing as well. The courtly festivals became a playground for innovations, foreshadowing developments  in military practices. Camp. The "Tross" were the camp followers or baggage train who traveled with each unit, carrying military necessities, the food, and the belongings of each soldier and his family. The "Tross" was made up of women, children and some craftsmen. Women and young boys set up camps, cooked, mended injuries, and dug and cleaned latrines. A was usually forbidden by his "Bestallungsbrief" from having more than one woman in the baggage train. The "Tross" was overseen by a "whore's sergeant" ("Hurenweibel").