Tara Brooch
The Tara Brooch is an Irish Celtic brooch of the pseudo-penannular type (i.e. with a fully closed head or hoop), dated to the late-7th or early-8th century. It is made from bronze, silver and gold, and has a head formed from a circular ornate ring that is highly decorated on both sides, whose structure's upper is hollow and lower half is solid with fused terminals. It was constructed from numerous individually made pieces, and both sides are equally decorated and contain numerous separately cast panels with highly ornate filigree. The borders and terminals contain multiple panels  holding multi-coloured studs, interlace patterns, filigree and Celtic spirals. The brooch is widely considered the most complex and ornate of its kind, and would have been commissioned to be worn as a fastener for a cloak and as an insignia of high office for a high king in Irish Early Medieval society. The brooch was buried sometime during the 11th and 12 centuries, probably to protect it from Viking and later Norman invaders. It lay undiscovered until around 1850. Despite its name, it was found not at the Hill of Tara but very probably on or near the beach  around Bettystown on the coast of County Meath. The name by which it became known was chosen by its first commercial owner, the jeweller George Waterhouse, as a marketing ploy for selling copies during the height of the 19th century Celtic Revival. For this reason, some art historians describe it with inverted commas as the "Tara" brooch. It was acquired by the Royal Irish Academy from Waterhouse in 1868, and transferred to the archaeology branch of the National Museum of Ireland – Archaeology (NMI), Dublin in 1890, where it remains. It was cleaned in the late 20th century by the British  Museum. Art historians see only the similar Hunterston Brooch (c. 700 AD) as of equal in craftsmanship and design. The archaeologist Niamh Whitfield called it "the most ornate and intricate piece of medieval jewellery ever found in Ireland", while the NMI describes it as representing "the pinnacle of early medieval Irish metalworkers’ achievement". In 2011 it was listed by "The Irish Times" as number 29 in its chronological A History of Ireland in 100 Objects. Dating. The brooch is usually dated by art historians to the late-7th or early 8th century, in the general range of 710-750 AD often  given. This view is based on both technical analysis and stylistic comparisons, in particular to its many similarities to illustrations in the Lindisfarne Gospels produced in Northumberland at the turn of the 8th century. Common design elements include the curvilinear patterns, the rendering of the animal interlace and the decorations on the borders of bird interlace. The penannular form was introduced to Ireland by craftsmen working in Roman Britain in the 5th century. The Irish style later drew influence from Anglo-Saxon formats and the chip carving and inlay methods of Germanic polychrome jewelry. In addition, by the 7th century , Irish missionaries had become exposed to Mediterranean cultures. In light of these influences, the Tara Brooch is one of the earliest Irish examples to move from copper-alloy or tin lined with red enamel and millefiori, to sliver decorated with gold, amber and coloured glass. Further early 8th century developments include the enlarging of both the terminals and pin heads, each of which became a focal point for decoration. The archeologist Niamh Whitfield has noted how Ireland was relatively outwards looking and cosmopolitan during this period, and that "it is not surprising that it should have produced jewels which reflected  European fashions". Function. Brooches were status symbols from at least the Roman era, usually worn by men to fasten cloaks ("brats" in Gaelic), and generally worn over tunics. The Tara Brooch was designed for a secular owner of high status, likely a high king. It was probably worn on high up, just below the right shoulder. Placing the brooch below the right shoulder was a tradition that originated from the Roman military, who place it there so as to keep their cloak on the left and not impede access to their sword. Description. The Tara brooch is unusual in its  dimensions compared to other Celtic brooches: the pin-head has a typically sized diameter of while the pin is unusually long at . It is widely considered the most elaborately constructed and decorated Celtic brooch, comparable in breath of ornamentation to the 8th century Ardagh and 8th or 9th century Derrynaflan chalices, a fact used to date it to the 8th or 9th centuries. However, it is older than both, and one of the earliest Insular metalwork pieces to depict animals in filigreed gold wires, in the zoomorphic style that became widespread in Irish art until the late 12th century. Like  the Hunterston Brooch, it is of the pseudo-penannular type, in that it is fully circular but does not have a gap between its terminals (through which the pin could pass). Its basic structure is formed from the circular hook forming the upper part of the brooch, the semi-circular terminals closing below, the long pin used to fasten it to the owners cloth, and the string that was likely added to provide additional support in keeping the brooch in place. Given the complex geometry of the piece, including concentric and ancillary circles and various rectangular inserts (or trays), it  is likely that it would have been planned or sketched in advance using a compass on parchment. This is all the more likely as it contains series of consistently detailed imagery condensed into a very small area. Hoop. The ring is formed from cast and gilt silver, and is decorated on both the front and rear using forms and patterns from the La Tène style of Celtic art. The brooch's basic form is highly geometric and composed from two concentric circles making up the outline of the pin-head, and a number of other and differently sized circular decorative  panels and rounded studs lining the arms of the pin head. The ring is open on its top half, while the lower half is made of two fused terminals, and is thus solid and closed. The brooch was made in many pieces, with much of the decoration on small "trays" or panels which were then fixed into place. On the front are fine gold filigree panels depicting animal and abstract motifs, separated by studs of glass, enamel and amber. The back, which would have been positioned against the wearer's garment and thus hidden, is flatter than the front but  unusually, is equally decorated, with motifs consisting of scrolls and triple spirals. Like all penannular and pseudo- penannular brooches, the zoomorphic designs around the terminals are intended to represent a beast biting at a metal bar. The meeting of the terminals on the front side contains three large and thin panels richly ornamented with filigree and studs. The terminals on the reverse consists of two trapezoids rendered in the La Tène style and are set against a silver and niello background. Pin. The pin is movable and attached to the hoop at the upper-end by a long central oval  panel containing a gilded serpent with glass eyes, hinged to two ancillary panels with paired animal heads at the ends, and two human faces formed from purple glass. Chain. A long silver and plaited chain is attached to the hook by a swivel made from plaited wire. Although damaged in areas, it contains a number of animal heads (including wolves and dragons) and two small cast glass human heads. Mostly likely the chain was wrapped around pieces of the garment to hold the brooch more securely. Other theories including it functioned as a safety chain, or that is that the  brooch was once part of a pair and the chain was used to link them together. Condition. The brooch is missing some elements of its decoration. On the front, ten of the compartments (or panels) are empty, and one stud is missing, with a further two studs lacking filigree. A further two studs from the back are also missing. Comparison with 19th century photographs show that when found, only one panel of decoration was missing, and that a number of the losses occurred at different times after its rediscovery and before it entered the collection of the Royal Irish Academy  (who transferred their collection of antiquities to the National Museum in 1890). Two wood-engraving made in 1852 show it "in near perfect condition" with the now missing filigree, studs, and additional interlace designs. Discovery. Although the brooch is named after the Hill of Tara, the seat of the High Kings of Ireland and a necropolis, it has no connection to either Tara or the High Kings of Ireland. Although there are a number of conflicting accounts, the brooch was supposedly found in August 1850 on the beach at Bettystown, near Laytown, in County Meath, not far from Drogheda and  some 50 km (30 mi) north of Dublin and about 25 kilometers from Tara. The finder, a peasant woman (or her two sons), claimed to have found it in a container buried in the sand, though it is likely that it was found inland, by a river and she said it was found at the beach to avoid a legal claim by the landowner. It was sold to a dealer and then to the Dublin jeweller, G. & S. Waterhouse, who were already producing Celtic Revival jewellery and who renamed it the "Tara Brooch" to increase its public appeal. Whitfield describes  the firm's owner, George Waterhouse, as "in the habit of attaching romantic and high-sounding names to brooches of which they sold replicas". The circumstances of its finding meant that no contemporary archeological survey was made of the find-spot. However, late 20th century excavations of the area by the beach found a large burial site that was in use from the pre-historic to the Early medieval period. This has led to speculation that it was buried as part of a hoard, but as of yet no other objects have been found. Equally the date and reasons for  its burial are unknown, mostly likely it was placed in the earth to hid it from Viking or Norman invaders, or following a defeat at battle. A 12th century codex, the Book of Leinster, contains a section titled "The siege of Howth" which mentions a precious brooch buried after a defeat, leading some art historians to speculated that a similar fate befell the Tara Brooch. 19th century reception. Celtic Revival jewellery had become fashionable in the 1840s. Waterhouse used the Tara Brooch as the centre of displays of his replicas and imitations of Celtic brooches in his Dublin shop, also  exhibiting it at The Great Exhibition in London in 1851 and the Paris Exposition Universelle, as well as the Dublin exhibition visited by Queen Victoria in 1853. Victoria liked these Celtic brooches and purchased a facsimile of the Tara Brooch at the Great Exhibition. Prince Albert had already bought two similar pieces for her when the two of them visited Dublin in 1849. Waterhouse had invented the brooch's name, choosing to link it to the site associated with the High Kings of Ireland, "fully aware that this would feed the Irish middle-class fantasy of being descended from them . In 1868, the brooch was sold to the Royal Irish Academy. By the 1870s, Tara brooch" had become a generic term for Celtic Revival brooches, some of which were by then being made by Indian workshops for export to Europe.