Red-vented bulbul
The red-vented bulbul ("Pycnonotus cafer") is a member of the bulbul family of passerines. It is a resident breeder across the Indian subcontinent, including Sri Lanka extending east to Burma and parts of Bhutan and Nepal. It has been introduced in many other parts of the world and has established itself including New Zealand, Argentina, Tonga, and Fiji. It has also established itself in parts of Samoa, Australia, USA and Cook Islands. It is included in the list of the world's 100 worst invasive alien species. Taxonomy and systematics. In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin  Jacques Brisson included a description of the red-vented bulbul in his "Ornithologie" based on a specimen that he mistakenly believed had been collected from the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. He used the French name "Le merle hupé du Cap de Bonne Espérance" and the Latin "Merula Cristata Capitis Bonae Spei". Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his "Systema Naturae" for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had  been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the red-vented bulbul. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name "Turdus cafer" and cited Brisson's work. The red-vented bulbul does not occur in Africa. The type location was later changed to Sri Lanka and then in 1952 designated as Pondicherry in India by the German naturalist Erwin Stresemann. The specific epithet "cafer" is New Latin for South Africa. This species is now placed in the genus "Pycnonotus" that was introduced by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1826. Two formerly designated races, "P. c. nigropileus" in  southern Burma and "P. c. burmanicus" of northern Burma, are now considered as hybrids. Subspecies. Eight subspecies are recognized: Description. The red-vented bulbul is easily identified by its short crest giving the head a squarish appearance. The body is dark brown with a scaly pattern while the head is darker or black. The rump is white while the vent is red. The black tail is tipped in white. The Himalayan races have a more prominent crest and are more streaked on the underside. The Race "intermedius" of the Western Himalayas has a black hood extending to the mid-breast . Population "bengalensis" of Central and Eastern Himalayas and the Gangetic plain has a dark hood, lacks the scale like pattern on the underside and instead has dark streaks on the paler lower belly. Race "stanfordi" of the South Assam hills is similar to "intermedius". The desert race "humayuni" has a paler brown mantle. The nominate race "cafer" is found in Peninsular India. Northeast Indian race "wetmorei" is between "cafer", "humayuni" and "bengalensis". About 20 cm in length, with a long tail. Sri Lankan race "haemorrhous" (="haemorrhousus") has a dark mantle with narrow pale edges. Race "humayuni" is known to  hybridize with "Pycnonotus leucogenys" and these hybrids were once described as a subspecies "magrathi" marked by their pale rumps and yellow-orange or pink vents. In eastern Myanmar there is some natural hybridization with "Pycnonotus aurigaster". Sexes are similar in plumage, but young birds are duller than adults. The typical call has been transcribed as "ginger beer" but a number of sharp single note calls likened as "pick" are also produced. Their alarm calls are usually responded to and heeded by many other species of bird. Melanistic as well as leucistic individuals have been noted. An individual with aberrant colour  form was observed in Bhavans College Campus, Andheri, Mumbai. Distribution and habitat. This is a bird of dry scrub, open forest, plains and cultivated lands. In its native range it is rarely found in mature forests. A study based on 54 localities in India concluded that vegetation is the single most important factor that determines the distribution of the species. It has been introduced into New Zealand and Fiji. They were introduced to Tonga in 1943 and became common on Samoa by 1957. Red-vented bulbuls were introduced to Tonga around 1903 by indentured labourers from India. They established on  the Tongan islands of Tongatapu and Niuafo'ou. They were introduced into Melbourne around 1917 but were not seen after 1942. They established in Auckland in the 1950s but were exterminated and another wild population that was detected was exterminated in 2006. In 2013 more were found, and authorities offered a $1000 reward for information that led to a bird's capture. They prefer the dry lowland regions in these introduced regions. They were first observed breeding on the Canary Islands in 2018. They are considered as pests because of their habit of damaging fruit crops. Methiocarb and ziram have  been used to protect cultivated "Dendrobium" orchids in Hawaii from damage by these birds. These birds learn to avoid the repellent chemicals. They can also disperse the seeds of invasive plants like "Lantana camara" and "Miconia calvescens". "P. cafer" is invasive in New Caledonia. Thibault et al. 2018 finds this species to be pushing out native species but not other introduced species. Behaviour and ecology. Red-vented bulbuls feed on fruits, petals of flowers, nectar, insects and occasionally house geckos (Hemidactylus flaviviridis). They have also been seen feeding on the leaves of "Medicago sativa". Red-vented bulbuls build their nests  in bushes at a height of around two or three eggs is a typical clutch. Nests are occasionally built inside houses or in a hole in a mud bank. In one instance, a nest was found on a floating mat of Water hyacinth leaves and another observer noted a pair nesting inside a regularly used bus. Nests in tree cavities have also been noted. Nesting in safe cavities of residence buildings have also been noted They breed from June to September. The eggs are pale-pinkish with spots of darker red more dense at the broad end. However, in an  instance, breeding has also been observed in February in Tamil Nadu. They are capable of having multiple clutches in a year. Nests are small flat cups made of small dry twigs and spider web but sometimes making use of metal wires. The eggs hatch after about 14 days. Both parents feed the chicks and on feeding trips wait for the young to excrete, swallowing the faecal sacs produced for the first few days when the bacterial level is minimum. Later they carry the faecal sacs and dump them elsewhere. The pied crested cuckoo is a brood parasite of this species . Fires, heavy rains and predators are the main causes of fledgling mortality in scrub habitats in southern India. Their vocalizations are usually stereotyped and they call throughout the year. However, a number of distinct call types have been identified including roosting, begging, greeting, flight and two kinds of alarm calls. They are important dispersers of seed of plants such as "Carissa spinarum". The red-vented bulbul was among the first animals other than humans that was found to be incapable of synthesizing vitamin C. However a large number of birds were later found to likewise lack the ability to synthesize  vitamin C. Like most birds, these bulbuls are hosts to coccidian blood parasites ("Isospora" sp.) while some bird lice such as "Menacanthus guldum" (Ansari 1951 Proc. Natl. Inst. Sci. India 17:40) have been described as ectoparasites. Along with red-whiskered bulbuls this species has led to changes in the population dynamics of butterfly morphs on the island of Oahu in Hawaii. Here the population of white morphs of the "Danaus plexippus" butterfly have risen over a period of 20 years due to predation of the orange morphs by these bulbuls. In culture. In 19th-century India these birds were frequently  kept as cage pets and for fighting especially in the Carnatic region. They would be held on the finger with a thread attached and when they fought they would seize the red feathers of the opponents. In the state of Assam of India, the Bulbul (বুলবুলী) bird as it is known in Assamese, the male birds were held captive for a few days and were engaged in fights as a spectator sport in the Bihu festival during the Ahom rule. This was banned in January 2016.