Nuclear weapons tests in Australia
The United Kingdom conducted 12 major nuclear weapons tests in Australia between 1952 and 1957. These explosions occurred at the Montebello Islands, Emu Field and Maralinga. Several books have been written about nuclear weapons testing in Australia. These include "Britain, Australia and the Bomb", "" and "My Australian Story: Atomic Testing: The Diary of Anthony Brown, Woomera, 1953". In 2006 Wakefield Press published "Beyond belief: the British bomb tests: Australia's veterans speak out" by Roger Cross and veteran and whistleblower, Avon Hudson. Sites. The British conducted testing in the Pacific Ocean at Malden Island and  Kiritimati known at the time as Christmas Island (not to be confused with Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean) between 1957 and 1958. These were airbursts mostly occurring over water or suspended a few hundred metres above the ground by balloon. In Australia there were three sites. Testing was carried out between 1952 and 1957 and was mostly done at the surface. A few hundred smaller scale tests were conducted at both Emu Field and Maralinga between 1953 and 1963. Monte Bello Islands. Two separate atomic test projects occurred at the islands, the first being Operation Hurricane and the second  being Operation Mosaic. Following the second Mosaic explosion, the radioactive cloud that was supposed to be taken away from the site, was sent back by wind that was not anticipated by the British scientists. Emu Field. The atomic tests at Emu Field in 1953 were known as Operation Totem. The test site of Emu Field was abandoned just hours after the second and final test, Totem 2. Maralinga. A testing site at Maralinga was established in 1955, close to a siding along the Trans-Australian Railway. Because supplies could be brought to the site via rail, it was preferred over  Emu Field. A total of seven major tests were conducted at Maralinga. Both the Federal government and Australian newspapers at the time were very supportive of the tests. In 1952, the Liberal Government passed legislation, the "Defence (Special Undertakings) Act 1952", which allowed the British Government access to remote parts of Australia to undertake atmospheric nuclear weapons tests. The general public were largely unaware of the risks from the testing program, stemming from official secrecy about the testing program and the remote locations of the test sites. Before the tests could begin the Maralinga Tjarutja, the traditional Aboriginal owners of  the land, were forcibly removed. An air base at Woomera, 570 km away, which had been used for rocket testing, was initially used as a base from which planes were flown for testing of the bomb clouds. According to Liz Tynan from James Cook University, the Maralinga tests were a striking example of extreme secrecy, but by the late 1970s there was a marked change in how the Australian media covered the British nuclear tests. Avon Hudson, an atomic veteran who participated as an Australian serviceman during the later stage Minor Trials became a prominent whistleblower. Some resourceful investigative journalists  emerged and political scrutiny became more intense. In June 1993, "New Scientist" journalist Ian Anderson wrote an article entitled "Britain's dirty deeds at Maralinga" and several related articles. Minor Trials. Over a decade, 1953 to 1963, a series of "Minor Trials" occurred testing components of the Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs using in some instances radioactive and toxic materials, such as Plutonium, Beryllium, and Uranium. Most of the minor trials involved conventional explosions to map out the radioactive dispersion and contamination of military assets, building structures and early crash test dummies. The Minor Trial of Vixen A dispersing Plutonium over  a wide area by conventional explosive was considered to have had the longest half-life of any test or trial conducted in Australia. Opposition. Opposition to the tests grew throughout the 1950s. A poll in 1957 found that almost half the population was against them.