Gelou
Gelou (; ) was the Vlach ruler of Transylvania at the time of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 900 AD, according to the "Gesta Hungarorum". Although the "Gesta Hungarorum", which was written after 1150, does not indicate the enemies of the conquering Hungarians (Magyars) known from earlier annals and chronicles, it refers to local rulersincluding Gelouwho are not mentioned in other primary sources. Consequently, historians debate whether Gelou was a historical person or an imaginary figure created by the unidentified author of the "Gesta Hungarorum". In Romanian historiography, based on the mention of him by Anonymus some 300  years later, Gelou is considered one of three early-10th-century Romanian dukes with lands in the intra-Carpathian region of present-day Romania. The "Gesta Hungarorum" describes pre-conquest Transylvania as a country rich in salt and gold, which was raided by Turkic peoples"Cumans and Pechenegs"before the arrival of the Magyars. Archaeological research indicates that a people who cremated their dead inhabited the regions of the Transylvanian salt mines from the seventh to the ninth centuries. Although excavated weapons suggest a military elite, none of the early-medieval Transylvanian fortresses uncovered can be reliably dated before the 10th century. The  Gesta Hungarorum states that Gelou's duchy was inhabited by Vlachs and Slavs; most toponyms recorded by the chronicler in connection with Gelou's duchy are of Magyar origin. According to the "Gesta Hungarorum", Tétény (or Tuhutum), who was one of seven Magyar chieftains, defeated Gelou's army at the Meseș Gates and Gelou was killed at the Căpuș River as he fled towards his unnamed fortress. Gelou's subjects then yielded to Tuhutum without further resistance. Background. What is known about Gelou comes from the "Gesta Hungarorum" ("The Deeds of the Hungarians"), the earliest surviving Hungarian chronicle. The "Gesta  was written during the second half of the 12th century or the early 13th century by an unidentified author, now known as Anonymus. It describes the Magyar conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 900. The Magyars, settled in the Pontic–Caspian steppe by the 830s, began a westward migration after their defeat by a coalition of Pechenegs and Bulgarians in about 895. They crossed the Carpathian Mountains, invading the surrounding area. Gelou is a local ruler described in the Gesta Hungarorum" as an opponent of the invading Magyars. Anonymus did not write about Simeon I of Bulgaria, Svatopluk I of  Moravia or other opponents known from contemporary sources, instead chronicling Magyar battles with local rulers (including Gelou, Menumorut and Salan) not mentioned in other primary sources. Transylvania on the eve of the Hungarian conquest. The nomadic Avars dominated the Carpathian Basin from about 567. In Transylvania, archaeological evidence attributed to them around 630 is clustered in the region of the salt mines at Ocnișoara, Ocna Mureș and Turda, and along the rivers Mureș and Someș. The cremation cemeteries of the Mediaș group, a sedentary population, were also concentrated around the salt mines in the seventh to ninth centuries. Although the  Mediaș cemeteries have been attributed to Slavs, according to Madgearu "the presence of Romanians in this context should not be ruled out". The names of many rivers in Transylvaniafor instance, Bistrița ("swift"), Cerna ("black"), Dobra ("good") and Târnava ("thorny")are of Slavic origin, indicating the historical presence of a Slavic-speaking population. According to Madgearu, two eighth-century spurs unearthed at Șura Mică and Medișoru Mare "suggest the existence of cavalry troops of Slavs and, perhaps, Romanians in Avar service" (since Avar spur use is uncertain). The Avar Khaganate disintegrated after the Franks invaded its western regions three times between 791  and 803. A stone column erected during the reign of Omurtag of Bulgaria commemorates the 829 death of a Bulgarian commander named Onegavon at the river Tisa, indicating that the Bulgarians invaded the eastern regions of the one-time khaganate. According to the "Annals of Fulda", in 894 Emperor Arnulf sent envoys to the Bulgarians to "ask that they should not sell salt to the Moravians"; this demonstrates that the Bulgarians controlled, at a minimum, the roads between the Transylvanian salt mines and Moravia. According to Kurdt Horedt, István Bóna and other historians, Dridu B pottery unearthed in the Alba  Iulia region which was similar to ceramic utensils found along the lower Danube demonstrates that the Bulgarians expanded their authority over this region. Other historians (including Victor Spinei) reject this theory, saying that Dridu B ceramics can only prove cultural influences from the Balkan Peninsula. The so-called "Ciumbrud group" of cemeteries, which were also unearthed near Alba Iulia, yielded earrings and clothing accessories analogous to finds from the lower Danube region and Moravia. Spurs, weapons and other Frankish objects unearthed at Iernut, Tărtăria and other Transylvanian sites demonstrate ninth-century trade with the Carolingian Empire; similar spurs were also  commonly used in Bulgaria and by 10th-century Magyars. According to historians Vlad Georgescu, Ioan-Aurel Pop and Alexandru Madgearu, the existence of a ninth-century Vlach polity in the Carpatho-Danubian region is verified by the "Gesta Hungarorum" and contemporary sources. Alfred the Great's translation of the "Historiae Adversus Paganos"a fifth-century work by Orosiusreferred to "the Dacians, who were formerly Goths" and lived east of the Moravians and the "Vistula country". The 11th-century Persian scholar Gardizi, who studied the works of the late ninth-century Abu Abdallah al-Jayhani, wrote about the "Nandars""a people of Rûm  who are all Christians"who inhabited the lower Danube and the Carpathians. Pop identifies them as Romanians, but Bóna and Kristó consider them Bulgarians because "nándor" was the Bulgarians' Hungarian exonym. An Armenian geographical work mentions "an unknown country called "Balak"" north of Bulgaria. According to Pop and Georgescu, this demonstrates that a Vlach country existed in the region at the end of the ninth century. Manuscript studies indicate that the reference to "Balak" was interpolated after 1000, with the original text describing the "large country of Dacia" and its 25 Slavic tribes. According to the early-12th-century "Russian Primary Chronicle , although the Slavs were the first settlers west of the Carpathians, the Volokhs" seized their territory. The "Volokhs" were expelled in turn by the Magyars, who "took their lands and settled among the Slavs". Many scholars, including Georgescu and Madgearu, identify the "Volokhs" as Vlachs fighting the invading Magyars. Other historians, including Kristó and Dennis Deletant, say that the context indicates that these "Volokhs" were Franks driven out of the March of Pannonia by the Magyars. Although Romanian scholars have identified about a dozen Transylvanian fort sites in Gelou's duchy, none can be definitively dated before the turn of  the ninth and tenth centuries. The forts at Dăbâca and Șirioara were destroyed between the last decades of the 10th century and the first half of the 11th, but their existence before 900 is unproven. At Dăbâca, "the evidence published so far, albeit poorly, "does" contain evidence of a ninth-century occupation of the site", according to archaeologist Florin Curta. Curta mentions two pairs of bell-shaped pendants, found outside the fort, which are similar to 9th-century Moravian artefacts. Madgearu writes that the bell-shaped pendants were only made after around 965, because similar jewellery was found at sites  dated between the last third of the 10th century and the first half of the 11th century. Pottery finds suggest that the fortress at Cluj-Mănăștur may have been built during the ninth or tenth century. Early-medieval forts at Moigrad, Ortelec, Șimleu Silvaniei and Zalnoc were built at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries, and the fort at Moldovenești even later. Legends identify the ruins of forts at Gheorgheni, Gilău and Ugruțiu as Gelou's, but they were built during the Iron Age. According to Vlad Georgescu, more than 40 excavated Transylvanian sites can be identified as  settlements in Gelou's duchy. Anonymus' narrative. Gelou and his duchy. According to Anonymus, "Slavs, Bulgarians, Vlachs, and the shepherds of the Romans" inhabited the Carpathian Basin when the Magyars invaded the territory. The chronicler describes Transylvania ("terra ultrasilvana", "the land beyond the woods") as a rich country with salt mines and gold-yielding rivers, inhabited by "Vlachs and Slavs" when the Magyars arrived, and records the names of five Transylvanian rivers or mountain passes. MostAlmaș, Aștileu, Căpuș and Mezeșare of Hungarian origin. In the "Gesta Hungarorum" Gelou is described as "a certain Vlach" and "prince of the Vlachs", indicating  that the Vlachs were considered the dominant Transylvanian population. According to Anonymus, Gelou "was not steadfast and did not have around him good warriors". The Vlachs and Slavs of Transylvania were "the basest of the whole world" because "they had nothing else for arms than bows and arrows"; Transylvanian weakness was the result of frequent raids by "the Cumans and Pechenegs". According to Ioan Aurel Pop, Anonymus' description of Gelou's subjects indicates a sedentary people called to arms. Carlile Aylmer Macartney writes that the "Blasii" and "Picenati" words for Vlachs and Pechenegs and the reference to their "bows and  arrows" suggest that Anonymus borrowed the text from a work describing the route of the Third or Fourth Crusade across the Balkans; the late-12th-century "Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris" refers to Vlachs and Cumanians and their bows and arrows. Based on Anonymus's narrative, Sălăgean says that Gelou's polity was small compared with the other five mentioned in the "Gesta Hungarorum". Conquest of Transylvania. Anonymus and the late 13th-century Simon of Kéza wrote that the Magyars bypassed Transylvania after crossing the northern Carpathians. However, 14th-century Hungarian chronicles preserve a tradition contradicting these narratives. In the "Illuminated  Chronicle", the Magyars first arrived in Transylvania ("Erdelw") with their conquest, "remain[ing] quietly in "Erdelw" and rest[ing] their herds" before moving further west. The "Gesta Hungarorum" recounts a meeting of three Hungarian chieftainsTeteny (or Tuhutum), Szabolcs and Tasafter their victory over Menumorut, who is described as lord of Bihor. They decided that "the border of the realm of Prince Árpád" (the head of the Magyars) "should be at the Mezeș Gates", forcing the local population to build a stone-and-timber enclosure at the new border. Tétény soon sent a spy, "father Agmánd Apafarkas", to reconnoitre the land east of  the Mezeș Gates. The spy informed him of Transylvania's wealth and its ruler's weakness. Before the invasion, Tétény "sent his envoys" to Árpád for permission. With Árpád's consent, Tétény hurried to the Mezeș Gates; according to Madgearu, his attack was "clearly targeted toward the salt mine district" of Transylvania. Gelou "gathered his army and rode speedily" to the border to stop the invaders. Tétény crossed the forest in one day, forcing Gelou to retreat to the Almaș River and fight the Magyars there. The next day, Tétény divided his army and "sent one part a little way  upstream" to cross the Almaș and surprise Gelou. Gelou was defeated, with many of his men killed or captured. Although he fled from the battlefield towards "his castle beside the Someș River", Tétény's soldiers chased and killed him on the banks of the Căpuș River, near the place where the village Gilău (which was first mentioned in the 13th century) is located. When they heard about their lord's death the inhabitants of Transylvania conceded, acknowledging Tétény as their new lord. They swore an oath of loyalty to him at a place later named Așchileu (in Hungarian, Eskellő, which  derived from "eskü", meaning "oath" in Hungarian, according to Anonymus). Anonymus ends his account of the Hungarian conquest of Transylvania by saying that Tétény governed Transylvania "peacefully and happily from that day, but his posterity possessed it only up to the times of the holy King Stephen" (who conquered the province around 1000). In modern historiography. The "Gesta Hungarorum"s reliabilityparticularly regarding Gelou, Glad, Menumorut and the other rulers described as fighting the conquering Magyarshas been debated by scholars since the publication of the chronicle during the late 18th century. Most Romanian historians (including Vlad Georgescu, Alexandru Madgearu and Victor Spinei ) believe that Anonymus' story of the three dukes and their realms is reliable. Madgearu says that Anonymus' "account about the conquest" of Transylvania "combines data taken from oral tradition with invented facts", but "Gelou was a real person and his name could be considered authentic". Spinei also writes that most reports in the "Gesta Hungarorum" "are not inventions, but they have a real support, even if here and there some anachronisms occurred." He cites the role of the Cumans as an example, saying that the Hungarian word translated by Anonymus as "Cumans" "(kun)" originally referred to any nomadic Turkic tribe . During the late 1960s through 1989, Dăbâca was assumed the capital city of Gelou, during the excavations at Dăbâca, according to Florin Curta, Romanian archaeologists "made every possible effort to turn Dăbâca into a Transylvanian Troy and to prove that the "Gesta" was a reliable source for the medieval history of (Romanian) Transylvania", while "the evidence published so far, albeit poorly, does contain evidence of a 9th century occupation on the site ... the impression the attentive reader will get from the 1968 archeological report is that, far from cunningly distorting or destroying the evidence, the excavators were overwhelmed by the  complexity of the site and embarrassed that no substantial evidence was found to prove the "Gesta" right ... there are four enclosures at Dăbâca". He argues that based on two pairs of silver pendants, similar to 9th-century Moravian jewellery, that were found at the site, may prove that the first encampment existed in the 9th century. In contrast, Madgearu states that "the investigators proposed a date in the 9th century for these pendants, but this is impossible, because such pieces were found only in sites dated between the last third of the 10th century and the first half of the  11th century, therefore, these pendants show that the first stage lasted until a moment that could be placed between the last third of the 10th century and the first half of the 11th century". According to Madgearu, "stage I ended with the burning of the entire fortress ... it can be concluded that the destruction that ended the first stage occurred around the beginning of the 11th century. This means that the historical event that could be associated with this archaeological evidence is the attack of King Stephen I against the Transylvanian duke, happened in 1002 or 1003." however "the destruction  of stage I had no relation with the conflict in which Gelou was involved. No earlier destruction was observed. This fact does not rule out a dating of stage I during the time of Gelou, because the fortress could have remained untouched, since, according to "Gesta Hungarorum", the men of Gelou surrendered to the Hungarians after his death". Concluding his case about the excavations, Madgearu argues that "the existence of the Dăbâca fortress since the 9th century is not yet proven by the archaeological evidence, but it is still possible, since some excavations results were not published. On the other  hand, if the events related by "Gesta Hungarorum" occurred, mast probably, in the 930s, a date during the time of Gelou remains possible. Taking into account that stage I had two phases and that the settlement from phase 2 had two or three levels, it could be supposed that stage I lasted for about a century, which means that its beginning could be placed before the Hungarian conquest. However, there are no certain archaeological arguments for this idea". Additionally, Madgearu casts doubt of whether Dăbâca was indeed Gelou's capital city in "Gesta Hungarorum" "Even if it was contemporary with  Gelou, the fortress from Dăbâca cannot be identified with the residence mentioned in "Gesta Hungarorum". From the relation of the conflict it results that Gelou, after being defeated somewhere on the Almaş valley, went back to his fort located on the Someş River. Since he was killed near the Căpuş River, most probably at Gilău, it can be inferred that the target of his retreat was Cluj, not Dăbâca. Had he wanted to go to Dăbâca, he would have chosen another way, a shorter one, over the hills between Alrnaş and Dăbâca". Based on toponymy, Madgearu argues that Dăbâca  may have existed before the Hungarian conquest "the fact that the Dăbâca fortress bears a Slavic name is very important. If it had been built by Hungarians, its name would have also been Hungarian, like Şirioara and Cuzdrioara. Besides, we know that a place called Tiligrad (which means "complete fortress") exists 1.6 km away from the fortress. Dăbâca belongs to the group of early medieval Transylvanian fortifications with Slavic, pre-Hungarian names: Bălgrad (Alba-Iulia), Tiligrad (Blandiana), Moigrad. Since none of these names has any meaning in Romanian, it results that they were created when the Slavs were not yet  assimilated". with his final conclusion about Dăbâca being that "the building of the Dăbâca fortress during the 9th century is not yet demonstrated, but remains possible. Even if this fortified settlement actually existed before the Hungarian attack, the identitfication with the residence located on the Someş is contradicted by its location, too far from the warzone described in "Gesta Hungarorum". Most Hungarian historians (including István Bóna, Pál Engel and Gyula Kristó) write that Anonymus had no real knowledge of the Carpathian Basin (including Transylvania) at the time of the Hungarian conquest and invented all the opponents of the Hungarians because  he needed characters to be defeated by the conquerors. According to this view, Gelou is one of a half-dozen "imaginary figures"including Laborec, Menumorut and Zobornamed by Anonymus for a river, hill or settlement. If this theory is true, Gelou was named after Gilău (Gyalu in Hungarian), a Transylvanian village in which Gelou dies in the "Gesta". According to Tudor Sălăgean, the village of Gilău was apparently named for the duke. Zoltán Kordé says that the names of the village and the duke may have Hungarian or Turkic origins. Dennis Deletant is of the opinion that "the cases for and  against the existance of Gelou and the Vlachs simply cannot be proven".