Jain cosmology
Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe ("loka") and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity that has existed since infinity with neither beginning nor end. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. Six eternal substances. According to Jains , the Universe is made up of six simple and eternal substances called "dravya" which are broadly categorized under Jiva (Living Substances) and Ajiva (Non Living Substances) as follows: "Jīva" (Living Substances) "Ajīva" (Non-Living Substances) Universe and its structure. The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on universal natural laws. The existence of a creator deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain doctrine. , a Jain text authored by "Ācārya Jinasena" is famous for this quote: According to Jains, the universe has a firm and an unalterable shape, which is measured in the Jain texts by  means of a unit called "Rajlok", which is supposed to be very large. The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen "Rajloks" high and extends seven "Rajloks" from north to south. Its breadth is seven "Rajlok"s long at the bottom and decreases gradually towards the middle, where it is one "Rajlok long". The width then increases gradually until it is five "Rajloks" long and again decreases until it is one "Rajlok" long. The apex of the universe is one "Rajlok" long, one "Rajlok" wide and eight "Rajloks" high. The total space of the world is thus 343  cubic "Rajlok"s. The Svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is a constant increase and decrease in the breadth, and the space is 239 cubic "Rajlok". Apart from the apex, which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts. The world is surrounded by three atmospheres: dense-water, dense-wind and thin-wind. It is then surrounded by an infinitely large non-world which is completely empty. The whole world is said to be filled with living beings. In all three parts, there is the existence of very small living beings called nigoda. Nigoda  are of two types: nitya-nigoda and Itara-nigoda. Nitya-nigoda are those which will reincarnate as nigoda throughout eternity, where as Itara-nigoda will be reborn as other beings. The mobile region of universe (Trasnaadi) is one "Rajlok" wide, one "Rajlok" broad and fourteen "Rajlok"s high. Within this region, there are animals and plants everywhere, where as Human beings are restricted to 2 continents of the middle world. The beings inhabiting the lower world are called Narak (Hellish beings). The Deva (roughly demi-gods) live in the whole of the top and middle worlds, and top three realms of  the lower world. Living beings are divided in fourteen classes (Jivasthana) : Fine beings with one sense, crude beings with one sense, beings with two senses, beings with three senses, beings with four senses, beings with five senses and no mind, and beings with five senses and a mind. These can be under-developed or developed, a total or 14. Human beings can get any form of existence, and are the only ones which can attain salvation. Three lokas. The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe. They developed a detailed hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy  and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into 3 parts: The following Upanga āgamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail: Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail: Urdhva Loka, the upper world. Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls. Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma, Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara , Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar, Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi, Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi. The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration, capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings  residing in the higher abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups, organized like earthly kingdoms—rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies etc. Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe is the realm of the liberated souls, the perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains. Madhya Loka, the middle world. Madhya Loka consists of  900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited by: Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names are: Mount Meru (also "Sumeru") is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans. There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the Mount Meru. Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mighty mountains, dividing the continent into 7 zones (Ksetra). The names of these zones are: The three zones i.e.  Bharat Kshetra, Mahavideh Kshetra and Airavat Kshetra are also known as Karma bhoomi because practice of austerities and liberation is possible and the Tirthankaras preach the Jain doctrine. The other four zones, Ramyak, Hairanyvat Kshetra, Haimava Kshetra and Hari Kshetra are known as akarmabhoomi or bhogbhumi as humans live a sinless life of pleasure and no religion or liberation is possible. "Nandishvara Dvipa" is not the edge of cosmos, but it is beyond the reach of humans. Humans can reside only on "Jambudvipa", "Dhatatikhanda Dvipa", and the inner half of "Pushkara Dvipa". Adho Loka, the lower world. The lower world  consists of seven hells, which are inhabited by Bhavanpati demigods and the hellish beings. Hellish beings reside in the following hells: Time cycle. According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal. The "Kālacakra", the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-rotations, "Utsarpiṇī" or ascending time cycle and "Avasarpiṇī", the descending time cycle, occurring continuously after each other. "Utsarpiṇī" is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the time spans and ages are at an increasing scale, while "Avsarpiṇī" is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality with decline in timespans  of the epochs. Each of this half time cycle consisting of innumerable period of time (measured in "sagaropama" and "palyopama" years) is further sub-divided into six "aras" or epochs of unequal periods. Currently, the time cycle is in "avasarpiṇī" or descending phase with the following epochs. In "utsarpiṇī" the order of the eras is reversed. Starting from "duṣamā-duṣamā", it ends with "suṣamā-suṣamā" and thus this never ending cycle continues. Each of these aras progress into the next phase seamlessly without any apocalyptic consequences. The increase or decrease in the happiness, life spans and length of people and  general moral conduct of the society changes in a phased and graded manner as the time passes. No divine or supernatural beings are credited or responsible with these spontaneous temporal changes, either in a creative or overseeing role, rather human beings and creatures are born under the impulse of their own "karmas". Section::::– The deeds of the 63 illustrious men. According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called "śalākāpuruṣas", are born on this earth in every "Dukhama-sukhamā" "ara". The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons. They comprise twenty-four "Tīrthaṅkaras", twelve  chakravartins, nine "balabhadra", nine "narayana", and nine "pratinarayana". A "chakravartī" is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm. Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos. Jain "puranas" give a list of twelve "chakravartins" (universal monarchs). They are golden in complexion. One of the "chakravartins" mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata Chakravartin. Jain texts like "Harivamsa Purana" and Hindu Texts like "Vishnu Purana" state that Indian subcontinent came to be known as "Bharata varsha" in his memory. There are nine sets of "balabhadra", "narayana", and "pratinarayana". The  balabhadra and "narayana" are brothers. "Balabhadra" are nonviolent heroes, "narayana" are violent heroes, and "pratinarayana" the villains. According to the legends, the "narayana" ultimately kill the "pratinarayana". Of the nine "balabhadra", eight attain liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the "narayana" go to hell because of their violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness. Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts ("avasarpiṇī" and "utsarpiṇī"). According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four "tīrthaṅkaras" are born in the human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine  appropriate for that era. The word "tīrthankara" signifies the founder of a "tirtha", which means a fordable passage across a sea. The "tīrthaṅkaras" show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Rishabhanatha is said to be the first "tīrthankara" of the present half-cycle ("avasarpiṇī"). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is revered as the twenty fourth "tīrthankara" of "avasarpiṇī". Jain texts state that Jainism has always existed and will always exist. During each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 "Śalākāpuruṣa" or 63 illustrious men, consisting of the 24 "Tīrthaṅkaras" and their contemporaries  regularly appear. The Jain universal or legendary history is basically a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious men. They are categorised as follows: "Balabhadra" and "Narayana" are half brothers who jointly rule over three continents. Besides these a few other important classes of 106 persons are recognized:-