Misandry
Misandry () is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against men. It is the asymmetrical counterpart of misogyny. The definition of misandry has been debated by feminists and antifeminists. Antifeminists generally promote the idea that misandry is a growing problem in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Topic scholars criticize this viewpoint as promoting a false equivalence between misandry and misogyny; misogyny is considered many times larger in scope. Etymology. Misandry is formed from the Greek "misos" (μῖσος, "hatred") and "anēr", "andros" (ἀνήρ, gen. ἀνδρός; "man"). Use of the word can be found as far back as the  19th century, including an 1871 use in "The Spectator" magazine. It appeared in "Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary" (11th ed.) in 1952. Translation of the French to the German (Hatred of Men) is recorded in 1803. "Misandrous" or "misandrist" can be used as adjectival forms of the word. A term with a similar but distinct meaning is "androphobia", which describes a fear, but not necessarily hatred, of men. Writer Helen Pluckrose has argued that "androphobia" is the more propitious term in instances where aversion to men stems from a sense of fear. Overview. Men's rights activists and other masculinist  groups have criticized modern laws concerning divorce, domestic violence, the draft, circumcision (known as genital mutilation by opponents), and treatment of male rape victims as examples of institutional misandry. Religious studies professors Paul Nathanson and Katherine Young examined the institutionalization of misandry in the public sphere in their 2001 three-book series "Beyond the Fall of Man", which refers to misandry as a "form of prejudice and discrimination that has become institutionalized in North American society", writing, "The same problem that long prevented mutual respect between Jews and Christians, the teaching of contempt, now prevents mutual respect between men and  women." Proposed examples of misandry in popular culture include frequent portrayals of men as absent, insensitive, or abusive, as well as a legal process that discriminates against men in divorce proceedings, or in cases of domestic or sexual violence where the victim is a man. Other examples include social problems that lead to men's shorter lifespans, higher suicide rates, requirements to participate in military drafts, and lack of tax benefits afforded to widowers compared to widows. In a 2016 "Washington Post" article, Cathy Young wrote that terms using "man" as a derogatory prefix, such as mansplaining, manspreading, and manterrupting , are part of a "current cycle of misandry". In psychology. Glick and Fiske developed psychometric constructs to measure the attitudes of individuals towards men in their "Ambivalence toward Men Inventory, AMI", which includes a factor "Hostility toward Men." These metrics were based on a small group discussion with women which identified factors, these number of questions were then reduced using statistical methods. "Hostility toward Men" was split into three factors: "Resentment of Paternalism", the belief men supported male power, "Compensatory Gender Differentiation", the belief that men were supported by women and "Heterosexual Hostility", which looked at beliefs that men were  likely to engage in hostile actions. The combined construct, Hosility toward Men, was found to be inversely correlated with measures of gender equality when comparing difference countries and in a study with university students, self-describing feminists were found to have a lower score. In literature. Ancient Greek literature. Classics professor Froma Zeitlin of Princeton University discussed misandry in her article titled "Patterns of Gender in Aeschylean Drama: Seven against Thebes and the Danaid Trilogy". She writes: Shakespeare. Literary critic Harold Bloom argued that even though the word misandry is relatively unheard of in literature, it is not hard to  find implicit, even explicit, misandry. In reference to the works of Shakespeare, Bloom argued: Modern literature. Anthony Synnott argues that there is a tendency in literature to represent men as villains and women as victims and argues that there is a market for "anti-male" novels with no corresponding "anti-female" market, citing "The Women's Room", by Marilyn French, and "The Color Purple", by Alice Walker. He gives examples of comparisons of men to Nazi prison guards as a common theme in literature. Critic of mainstream feminism Christina Hoff Sommers has described Eve Ensler's play "The Vagina Monologues  as misandric in that there are no admirable males ... the play presents a rogues' gallery of male brutes, sadists, child-molesters, genital mutilators, gang rapists and hateful little boys" which she finds out of step with the reality that "most men are not brutes. They are not oppressors". Racialized misandry occurs in both "high" and "low" culture and literature. For instance, African-American men have often been disparagingly portrayed as either infantile or as eroticized and hyper-masculine, depending on prevailing cultural stereotypes. Julie M. Thompson, a feminist author, connects misandry with envy of men, in particular "penis envy", a  term coined by Sigmund Freud in 1908, in his theory of female sexual development. Nancy Kang has discussed "the misandric impulse" in relation to the works of Toni Morrison. In his book, "Gender and Judaism: The Transformation of Tradition", Harry Brod, a Professor of Philosophy and Humanities in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at the University of Northern Iowa, writes: In 2020, the explicitly misandric essay "Moi, les hommes, je les déteste" ("I Hate Men") by the French writer Pauline Harmange caused controversy in France after a government official threatened its publisher with criminal prosecution. Misandry and feminism. The  role of misandry in feminism is controversial and has been debated both within and outside feminist movements. Opponents of feminism often argue that feminism is misandristic; citing examples such as opposition to shared parenting by NOW, or opposition to equal rape and domestic violence laws. The validity of these perceptions and of the concept has been claimed as promoting a false equivalence between misandry and misogyny. Radical feminism has often been associated with misandry in the public consciousness. However, radical feminist arguments have also been misinterpreted, and individual radical feminists such as Valerie Solanas, best known for her attempted murder  of Andy Warhol in 1968, have historically had a higher profile in popular culture than within feminist scholarship. Historian Alice Echols, in her 1989 book "Daring To Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975", argued that Valerie Solanas displayed an extreme level of misandry in her tract the "SCUM Manifesto", but wrote that it was not typical for radical feminists of the time. Echols stated: "Solanas's unabashed misandry—especially her belief in men's biological inferiority—her endorsement of relationships between 'independent women,' and her dismissal of sex as 'the refuge of the mindless' contravened the sort of radical  feminism which prevailed in most women's groups across the country." Echols also claims that, after her attempted murder, Solanas' "SCUM Manifesto" became more popular within radical feminism; but not all radical feminists shared her beliefs. For example, radical feminist Andrea Dworkin criticized the biological determinist strand in radical feminism that, in 1977, she found "with increasing frequency in feminist circles" which echoed the views of Valerie Solanas that males are biologically inferior to women and violent by nature, requiring a gendercide to allow for the emergence of a "new "Übermensch" Womon". Individual viewpoints. bell hooks. The author bell hooks  conceptualized the issue of "man hating" during the early period of women's liberation as a reaction to patriarchal oppression and women who had bad experiences with men in non-feminist social movements. She also criticized separatist strands of feminism as "reactionary" for promoting the notion that men are inherently immoral, inferior, and unable to help end sexist oppression or benefit from feminism. In "Feminism is For Everybody", hooks laments the fact that feminists who critiqued anti-male bias in the early women's movement never gained mainstream media attention and that "our theoretical work critiquing the demonization of men  as the enemy did not change the perspective of women who were anti-male." She has theorized previously that this demonization led to an unnecessary rift between the Men's movement and the Women's movement. Anthony Synnott. Anthony Synnott argues in his book "Re-Thinking Men: Heroes, Villains and Victims" that certain forms of feminism present misandristic view of gender. He argues that men are presented as having power over others regardless of the actual power they possess and that some feminists define the experience of being male inaccurately through writing on masculinity. He further argues that some forms  of feminism create an in-group of women, simplifies the nuances of gender issues, demonizes those who are not feminists and legimitizes victimization by way of retributive justice. Reviewing Synnott, Roman Kuhar argues that Synnott might not accurately represent the views of feminism, commenting that "whether it re-thinks men in a manner in which men have not been thought of in feminist theory, is another question." Nathanson and Young. Religion scholars Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young argued that "ideological feminism" as opposed to "egalitarian feminism" has imposed misandry on culture. Their 2001 book, "Spreading Misandry", analyzed "pop cultural  artifacts and productions from the 1990s" from movies to greeting cards for what they considered to be pervasive messages of hatred toward men. "Legalizing Misandry" (2005), the second in the series, gave similar attention to laws in North America. The methodology used by Nathanson and Young to research misandry has been criticized. In the book "Angry White Men", Michael Kimmel argues that much of the misandry identified by Nathanson and Young is actually criticizing patriarchy. Kimmel condemns Nathanson and Young for their "selective, simplistic, and shallow" interpretations of sexism in film and fiction. Kimmel says that the "bad history" produced  by Nathanson and Young should only be used as an indicator of how the "male studies enterprise" operates. Individualist feminists. Wendy McElroy, an individualist feminist, wrote in 2001 that some feminists "have redefined the view of the movement of the opposite sex" as "a hot anger toward men [that] seems to have turned into a cold hatred." She argued it was a misandrist position to consider men, as a class, to be irreformable or rapists. In a 2016 article, individualist feminist Cathy Young described a "current cycle of misandry" in feminism. This cycle, she explains, includes the use of the  term "mansplaining" and other neologisms using "man" as a derogatory prefix. The term "mansplaining", according to feminist writer Rebecca Solnit, was coined soon after the appearance in 2008 of her essay "Men Explain Things to Me". Criticism of the concept. Sociologist Allan G. Johnson argues in "" that accusations of man-hating have been used to put down feminists and to shift attention onto men, reinforcing a male-centered culture. Johnson posits that culture offers no comparable anti-male ideology to misogyny and that "people often confuse men as individuals with men as a dominant and privileged category of people" and  that "[given the] reality of women's oppression, male privilege, and men's enforcement of both, it's hardly surprising that "every" woman should have moments where she resents or even hates men". Marc A. Ouellette argues in "International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities" that "misandry lacks the systemic, transhistoric, institutionalized, and legislated antipathy of misogyny"; in his view, assuming a parallel between misogyny and misandry overly simplifies relations of gender and power. Anthropologist David D. Gilmore also argues that misogyny is a "near-universal phenomenon" and that there is no male equivalent to misogyny, further characterising manifestations of perceived  misandry as "hatred of men's traditional male role" and a "culture of machismo". He argues that misandry is "different from the intensely "ad feminam" aspect of misogyny that targets women no matter what they believe or do". Michael Kimmel states of misogyny and misandry that "claiming some sort of equivalent parallel is, of course, utterly tendentious." References. Sources