Issue 2, 2003 Journal for Juridical Science - Volume 28,
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Optimising closely held entities to enhance commercial participation and development : the Southern African experience in comparative perspective
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 1 –32 (2003)
The important contribution of the small business sector to economic growth and regional development is widely and generally acknowledged. In 1984, the South African Close Corporations Act introduced a simple, inexpensive and flexible closelyheld entity for the business consisting of a single entrepreneur or small number of participants, designed with a view to his or their reasonable needs and expectations and without burdening him or them with legal requirements that would not be meaningful in the circumstances. This example was followed with varying degrees of success in Southern Africa and Australia by legislative developments aimed at the introduction, in various guises, of new legal forms for small business. In more recent law reform initiatives in Australia and especially the United Kingdom, various options were analysed to optimise closely-held entities with a view to enhancing commercial participation and economic development through small businesses. Eventually, the somewhat less imaginative approach of merely simplifying the private company was chosen. Attention will be given to the Southern African experience of closely-held entities and then to a critical comparative analysis of and perspectives on recent developments in Australia and especially the United Kingdom.
<b>Die optimalisering van beslote entiteite om ekonomiese deelname en groei te bevorder : die Suider-Afrikaanse ervaring in regsvergelykende perspektief</b>
<br>Die belangrike bydrae van die kleinsakesektor tot ekonomiese groei en ontwikkeling word wyd en algemeen erken. In 1984 het die Suid-Afrikaanse Wet op Beslote Korporasies &apos;n eenvoudige, goedkoop en buigsame beslote entiteit ingevoer vir die onderneming wat bestaan uit &apos;n enkele entrepreneur of klein groepie deelnemers, ontwerp met die oog op sy of hul redelike behoeftes en verwagtinge en sonder om hom of hulle te belas met regsvereistes wat in die omstandighede nie sinvol sou wees nie. Hierdie voorbeeld is met wisselende grade van sukses nagevolg in Suider-Afrika en Australië deur statutêre ontwikkelings gemik op die invoering van nuwe regsvorms vir kleinsake. Tydens meer resente hervormingsinisiatiewe in Australië en veral die Verenigde Koningkryk, is verskeie opsies ontleed om beslote entiteite te optimaliseer met die oogmerk om deelname aan die ekonomie en ekonomiese ontwikkeling deur middel van kleinsake te bevorder. Die keuse het uiteindelik op die ietwat verbeeldinglose benadering geval om bloot die private maatskappy te vereenvoudig. Aandag sal geskenk word aan die Suider Afrikaanse ervaring met beslote entiteite en daarna aan &apos;n kritiese vergelykende ontleding van en perspektiewe op resente ontwikkelings in Australië en veral die Verenigde Koningkryk.
Die resepsie van arbeidsreg in Suid-Afrika
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 33 –57 (2003)
In hierdie artikel word die resepsie en vroeë ontwikkeling van arbeidsreg in Suid- Afrika ondersoek. Die arbeidsregstelsels van beide Nederland en Engeland is hier aangepas by die plaaslike sosio-ekonomiese en politieke omstandighede. &apos;n Unieke dualistiese arbeidsregstelsel het ontstaan. Hierdie stelsel het afsonderlike voorsiening vir swart en wit werkers gemaak. Navorsing oor die resepsie van arbeidsreg in Suid- Afrika word gekompliseer deur die feit dat die 17de-eeuse koloniste geen instruksies gehad het m.b.t. welke regstelsel hier toegepas moes word nie. Die eerste hof, die Raad van Justisie het boonop geen redes vir beslissings verstrek nie. Plakkaaten van die Politieke Raad, die vroegste wetgewende liggaam, het ook geen materiële reg bevat nie. Die enigste wyse om vas te stel welke regstelsel en dus welke arbeidsregstelsel op die Kaap van toepassing was, is om die destydse arbeidsregpraktyke saam met die arbeidsregtelike erfenis van die koloniste te ondersoek. Die arbeidsverhouding tussen wit werkgewers en wit werknemers was gebaseer op die Romeinsregtelike locatio conductio operarum, &apos;n kontrak wat vrylik gesluit is en nie die persoonlike vryheid van die werknemer geraak het nie. In teenstelling hiermee was feodalisme wat aan die taan was in Nederland, waar die meeste koloniste vandaan gekom het, van toepassing op die arbeidsverhouding tussen wit werkgewers en swart werknemers. Die rede hiervoor blyk te wees dat die ongesofistikeerde inheemse werkers wat geen besittings gehad het nie (die Khoikhoi) werk en beskerming gesoek het by diegene wat grond besit het (die wit mense). Hierdie feodale verhouding het die vryheid van die werknemer beperk en sodoende ook &apos;n verlaging in die status van die werknemer (dienskneg/vassal) meegebring. Die posisie van die inheemse bevolking het gedegenereer van &apos;n posisie waar hulle vrylik tot &apos;n arbeidsverhouding kon toetree, tot een waar hulle gedwing was om werk by wit persone te soek. Dit is meegebring deur metodes wat deur die koloniste gebruik is en regsmaatreëls wat deur die verskillende regerings ingestel is ten einde &apos;n stabiele arbeidsmag te verseker. Alhoewel beide die Britse en Nederlandse regerings in Suid-Afrika gepoog het om inheemse arbeiders te beskerm teen verslawende praktyke, het beide hierdie regerings ook sekere onderdrukkende praktyke van die koloniste gewettig. Slawerny het &apos;n besliste invloed op arbeidsverhoudings aan die Kaap gehad. Wit persone het die Khoikhoi en slawe (donkerkleurige persone) met mekaar geassosieer. Die resultaat was dat wit persone wat arbeidstekorte ondervind het, van mening was dat hulle ook geregtig is op die arbeid van die inheemse bevolking. Sekere maatreëls soos die inboekstelsel, die paswette en die dopstelsel is geïmplementeer om arbeidstekorte die hoof te bied en het die effek gehad dat inheemse inwoners in &apos;n posisie gelyk aan dié van slawe gehou is.
<b>The reception of labour law in South Africa</b>
<br>This article investigates the reception and early development of labour law in South Africa. The labour law systems of both the Netherlands and England were adapted to local socio-economic and political circumstances. A unique dual labour law system came about. This system made provision for black and white workers separately. Research into the reception of labour law in South Africa is complicated by the fact that the 17th-century colonists had no instructions as to which legal system to apply. Moreover, the first court, the Court of Justice, furnished no reasons for its decisions. Legislation in the form of plakkaaten of the earliest legislative body, the Political Council, did not contain any material law either. The only possible way of establishing which legal system and thus which labour law system applied to the Cape, is by investigating the labour law practices in place, together with the labour law heritage of the colonists. The labour relationship between white employers and white employees was based on the Roman locatio conductio operarum, a contract entered into freely and which did not affect the personal freedom of the employee. However, feudalism which was being phased out in the Netherlands where most of the early colonists came from, applied in respect of the labour relationship between white employers and black employees. The reason for this appears to be that the unsophisticated indigenous habitants who had no possessions (the Khoikhoi), sought work and protection from those who possessed land (the whites). This feudal relationship curtailed the freedom and thus brought about a change in the status of the employee (servant/ vassal). The position of the indigenous people degenerated from one of being able to enter freely into a labour relationship to one of being forced to seek employment by white persons. This was brought about by methods used by the colonists and legal measures implemented by the different governments to ensure a stable labour force. Although the Netherlands and British governments in South Africa endeavoured to protect indigenous labourers from the practices &apos;enslaving&apos; them, both governments legalised some of the oppressing measures practised by the colonists. Slavery had a definite influence on the labour relations in the Cape. White people associated Khoikhoi and slaves (dark-skinned people) with each other. The result was that white people who experienced labour shortages, regarded themselves as being entitled to the labour of indigenous people as well. Certain measures, such as the apprenticeship system, pass laws and the tot system were implemented to combat labour shortages and had the effect that indigenous people were kept in a slave-like position.
The invasion of Iraq : a challenge to the Charter Prohibition of Violence in Inter-State Relations
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 58 –90 (2003)
Just before its armed invasion of Iraq, the US tried but failed to get the UN to sanction war on Iraq. Having failed in that effort, the US on 20 March 2003 invaded Iraq with the armed support of Australia, Britain and Spain. The invasion was greeted with world-wide condemnation and street protests. The US and its allies were unmoved. It was claimed that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction posing a threat to the world, and that, therefore, it was necessary to militarily overwhelm and disarm it. It was also claimed that President Saddam Hussein was a ruthless dictator, and that, therefore, there had to be a regime change in Iraq for the benefit of the Iraqi people. Thirdly, it was claimed that Iraq was linked to Al Qaeda, the elusive terrorist group that was thrust into the international limelight by its spectacular attacks in the US on 11 September 2001, and that, therefore, the war on Iraq was simply one phase of the wider war against international terrorism. This article examines the legality of the war on Iraq in the light of the reasons pleaded in its justification. This is done against the backdrop of the norm of jus cogens prohibiting the threat or use of force by states in their international relations as well as the law of international humanitarian law prohibiting certain means and methods in the conduct of war. The article also considers the ramifications of the war as well as the responsibility, under international law, of the leaders of the invading powers. It is the contention of this article that the war on Iraq breaches the law of the United Nations and violates international law. This transgression of the law, it is argued, engages the international responsibility of the invading powers and the major actors involved in the aggressive war. The article concludes that the war portends certain dangerous consequences regionally and internationally.
<b>Die inval op Irak : &apos;n uitdaging vir die Handves op die Voorkoming van Geweld in Interstaatlike Verhoudinge</b>
<br>Kort voor die gewapende inval in Irak, het die VSA onsuksesvol gepoog om die sanksie van die VN vir die oorlog in Irak te verkry. Die VSA het Irak hierna op 20 Maart 2003 met die gewapende ondersteuning van Australië, Brittanje en Spanje binnegeval. Die aanval is met wêreldwye veroordeling en straatproteste begroet, waaraan die VSA en sy bondgenote hul egter nie gesteur het nie. As &apos;n rede vir die inval is aangevoer dat Irak oor wapens van massavernietiging beskik wat &apos;n gevaar vir die wêreld daarstel, en dat dit daarom noodsaaklik was om Irak militêr te oorweldig en te ontwapen. Daar is ook daarop gesteun dat President Saddam Hussein &apos;n roekelose diktator is, en dat &apos;n regimeverandering tot voordeel van die Irakese bevolking sal wees. Derdens is betoog dat Irak bande onderhou met Al Qaeda, die terroristegroep wat internasionale aandag op hulle gevestig het met die aanval in die VSA op 11 September 2001. Die argument was dus dat die oorlog in Irak bloot een fase van die wyer oorlog teen internasionale terrorisme uitmaak. Hierdie artikel ondersoek die regsgeldigheid van die oorlog in Irak in die lig van die redes wat as regverdiging daarvoor aangevoer is. Dit word gedoen teen die agtergrond van die norm van die jus cogens wat die gebruik van geweld deur state in hul internasionale verhoudinge verbied, sowel as die internasionale humanitêre reg waardeur sekere wyses en metodes van oorlogvoering verbied word. Die artikel ondersoek ook verdere uitvloeisels van die oorlog, sowel as die verantwoordelikheid, ingevolge die internasionale reg, van die leiers van invallende magte. Dit is die slotsom van hierdie artikel dat die oorlog in Irak &apos;n verbreking van die besluite van die Verenigde Nasies en die toepaslike internasionale reg daarstel. Hierdie regsoortreding, so word betoog, bring die internasionale verantwoordelikheid van die invallende magte en die hoof rolspelers wat betrokke is in die oorlog van agressie, in die spel. Die artikel kom tot die slotsom dat die oorlog bepaalde gevaarlike resultate op streeks- en internasionale vlak inhou.
Are the rights of the disabled a reality in South Africa? Part One
J.M. Reyneke and
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 91 –108 (2003)
For a long time the rights of disabled persons have been ignored not only in South Africa, but also in the rest of the world. There are many disabled persons who can participate on an equal level with able-bodied persons, but on the other hand, there are many disabled persons who are unable to do so due to the nature and severity of their disabilities. Discrimination against disabled persons leads to exclusion from functioning in a normal way in the community and the denial of the right to function freely in society. Legislation can assist in the prevention of discrimination against such persons and also in their upliftment.
<b>Is die regte van die gestremde &apos;n realiteit in Suid-Afrika?</b>
<br>Die regte van gestremde persone word nie alleen net in Suid-Afrika geignoreer nie, maar ook in die res van die wêreld. Daar is baie gestremde persone wat op gelyke vlak met normale mense kan funksioneer, terwyl daar aan die ander kant ook baie gestremde persone is wat weens die aard en ernstigheid van hul gestremdehede nie in staat is om dit te kan doen nie. Diskriminasie teen gestremde persone lei tot die uitsluiting van hulle reg om op&apos;n normale wyse te kan funksioneer en dit lei ook tot die miskenning van hul regte en vryhede.Wetgewing kan gebruik word om diskriminasie teen hierdie persone te voorkom en ook om hul in die gemeenskap op te hef.
Institutional independence and the constitutionality of legislation establishing lower courts and tribunals : part I
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 109 –141 (2003)
The independence of the judiciary is the bedrock of the democratic system of government. Judicial independence is the gateway to the proper performance of the courts of their role of keeping all organs of state within the boundaries of their powers under the Constitution. The test for determining whether judicial independence is safeguarded is an objective one based on public confidence in the structure of the court and the impartiality of its judicial officers. The ascertainment of the independence of a tribunal depends on the mode of appointment of its judges, their financial security and whether their security of tenure is institutionally safeguarded from legislative or executive manipulation. This article lays down the constitutional basis for judicial independence; examines the test for ascertaining whether a court is independent and impartial; and links judicial independence with separation of powers. The discussion culminates in the analysis of the application of the principles of judicial independence to specific legislative schemes where the structure of the tribunal thereby established had been tested in the courts for unconstitutionality.
<b>Institusionele onafhanklikheid en die grondwetlikheid van wetgewing vir die skepping van laer howe en tribunale : deel I</b>
<br>Die onafhanklikheid van die regbank is die grondslag van &apos;n demokratiese regeringstelsel. &apos;n Onafhanklike regbank is die toegangspunt vir die behoorlike funksionering van die howe en &apos;n voorwaarde vir hulle rol om alle staatorgane binne die grense van hul verleende bevoegdhede ingevolge die grondwet te hou. Die toets om te bepaal of regterlike onafhanklikheid gewaarborg word is &apos;n objektiewe een gebasseer op openbare vertroue in die struktuur van die howe en die onpartydigheid van voorsittende beamptes. Die vasstelling van die onafhanklikheid van &apos;n tribunaal hang af van die wyse van aanstelling van regsprekende beamptes, hulle finansiële sekuriteit en of hul sekerheid van ampsbekleding institusioneel gewaarborg is teenoor wetgewende en uitvoerende manipulasie. Hierdie artikel bespreek die konstitusionele basis vir regtelike onafhanklikheid; dit ondersoek die toets om vas te stel of &apos;n hof onafhanklik en onpartydig is; en verbind regterlike onafhanklikheid met skeiding van magte. Die beginsels van regterlike onafhanklikheid word toegepas op spesifieke wetgewende programme waar die ongrondwetlikheid van die struktuur van die tribunaal wat daardeur totstand gebring is in die howe getoets is.
&apos;n Verkenning van die soorte vennootskappe in die Amerikaanse reg
E. Snyman-Van Deventer and
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 142 –174 (2003)
In hierdie artikel word die verskillende tipes vennootskappe in die Amerikaanse vennootskapsreg kortliks bespreek. Die verskillende soorte gewone, sowel as buitengewone vennootskappe word geïdentifiseer. Die verskillende soorte gewone vennootskappe word net ontleed in soverre dit afwyk van die standaard gewone vennootskap. In die Amerikaanse literatuur word talle verwysings gevind na die vennootskap in mynbou ("mining partnership"), familievennootskap ("family partnership", vennootskap in vaste eiendom ("partnership in real estate") en vennootskap vir boerdery ("farming partnership"). Hierdie onderskeiding is primêr gebaseer op die tipe besigheid wat bedryf word. Die vennootskap in mynbou en die vennootskap in landbou toon egter verskille met die gewone vennootskap en word dus volledig ontleed as gevolg van die unieke kenmerke of eienskappe van hierdie vennootskappe. Dit is nodig dat die verskillende tipes buitengewone vennootskappe kortliks ontleed word ten einde verskille aan te dui. Die beperkte vennootskap moet volledigheidsonthalwe ook as buitengewone vennootskap genoem word alhoewel net die hoofkenmerke kortliks aangedui word.
<b>An exploration of the various types of partnerships encountered in American law</b>
<br>This article briefly comments on the various types of partnerships encountered in American law. The types of ordinary as well as extraordinary partnerships are identified. Ordinary partnerships are only analyzed to the extent that they differ from the standard ordinary partnership. In American literature reference is made to the mining partnership, the family partnership, the partnership in real estate and the farming partnership. This differentiation is primarily based on the type of business with which the partnership is concerned. However, the mining partnership and the farming partnership differ from the ordinary partnership in a number of ways, and, as a result of their unique attributes, are discussed in detail. A brief discussion of the types of extraordinary partnerships is necessitated in order to highlight their differences. The limited partnership is discussed briefly and only the main characteristics are named.
The framework convention on tobacco control measures : does South Africa measure up?
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 175 –198 (2003)
It is a trite fact that tobacco smoking is a hazardous habit with often fatal consequences. The global scale of this problem has prompted the United Nations, through WHO, to assist states in their fight against the tobacco pandemic. The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control has been drafted with the specific intent of serving as a guide to states, to enable them to formulate both national and international responses to this global problem. This article examines the standards suggested by the Framework Convention against which the South African legislative measures are analysed.
<b>Die raamwerkkonvensie oor tabaksbeheermaatreëls : hoe vaar Suid-Afrika?</b>
<br>Dit is &apos;n afgesaagde feit dat die rook van tabak &apos;n gevaarlike gewoonte met dikwels dodelike gevolge is. Die globale afmetings van hierdie probleem het die Verenigde Nasies, deur middel van die WGO, aangespoor om nasies in hulle stryd teen die tabakspandemie te help. Die Raamwerkkonvensie oor Tabakbeheermaatreëls is met die spesifieke doelstelling om as &apos;n gids vir nasies te dien, wat hulle in staat sal stel om sowel nasionale as internasionale reaksies op hierdie globale probleem te formuleer, opgestel. In hierdie artikel word die Suid-Afrikanse legislatiewe maatreëls teen die standaarde, wat deur die Raamwerkkonvensie voorgestel is, ontleed.
Can&apos;t get no satisfaction : the law and its customers : are universities and law schools producing lawyers qualified to satisfy the needs of the public? : chronicle
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 199 –209 (2003)
Hospital disclaimers : Afrox Health Care v Strydom : chronicle
R-M Jansen and
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 210 –221 (2003)
Vonnisoplegging by roof met verswarende omstandighede : chronicle
Journal for Juridical Science 28, pp 222 –229 (2003)