Gongyang Zhuan
The Gongyang Zhuan (, ), also known as the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals or the Commentary of Gongyang, is a commentary on the "Spring and Autumn Annals", and is thus one of the Chinese classics. Along with the "Zuo Zhuan" and the "Guliang Zhuan", the work is one of the "Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals". In particular, "Gongyang Zhuan" is a central work to New Text Confucianism (), which advocates Confucius as an institutional reformer instead of a respected scholar, and "Chunqiu" as an embodiment of Confucius' holistic vision on political, social, and moral  issues instead of a merely chronicle. "Gongyang Zhuan" significantly influenced the political institution in Han Dynasty. It fell out of favor among elites and was eventually replaced by the "Zuo Zhuan". "Gongyang Zhuan" scholarship was reinvigorated in late Ming Dynasty and became a major source of inspiration for Chinese reformers from eighteen to early twentieth century. Sima Qian states that Mencius, Gongsun Gu, Xunzi and Han Fei often drew on the Gongyang, while actually they drew on commentaries similar to what we now call the "Zuozhuan"; for him the distinction was meaningless. Content. "Gongyang Zhuan" argues that "Chunqiu" is not  merely a history, but a manifesto of Confucius' philosophy on his ideal regarding sociopolitical order. Unlike "Zuo Zhuan", a later favorite among many scholars for its vivid narrative of historical events, "Gongyang Zhuan" was compiled in a dialogistic style resembling a class conversation between a Confucian scholar and his student discussing the "profound meanings behind the subtle words [of "Chunqiu"]"(), and was brief in explaining the historical context. Because of its emphasis on the theoretical interpretation of the Annals, Jiang Qing (b. 1953) dubbed it "the political theory wing of Confucianism ()." The primary assumption of "Gongyang Zhuan" is that Confucius  authored "Chunqiu" in order to criticize the politics of his time and set a constitutional guideline for future generations. Moreover, Confucius is not merely a transmitter of ancient scholarship but a charismatic sage () who should have received the Mandate of Heaven and become a King himself. But since Confucius did not receive the kingship due to the political circumstances at the time, he compiled "Chunqiu" based on official chronicles, in which he criticized () the events and historical figures of the Spring and Autumn period according to a coherent philosophy. Based on this assumption, "Gongyang Zhuan" strives to undercover what it  claims to be the deeper meaning behind layers of subtle texts. "Gongyang Zhuan"'s interpretation of "Chunqiu" is more voluntarism than that advocated by the Old Texts scholars. Dong Zhongshu's interpretation. Dong Zhongshu was a leading Confucian scholar in the Western Han dynasty, and was regarded as an authority on "Gongyang Zhuan". Dong advocated According to Qing Dynasty scholar Kang Youwei's summary, some of "Gongyang Zhuan"'s political agenda including the establishment of a well-ordered hierarchical regime (), a strong and centralized political authority (), and a merit-based civil government (), and a benevolent ruler whose legitimacy is based  on the Mandate of Heaven. Jiang Qing's reading. According to contemporary scholar Jiang Qing's "Introductory Treatise on Gongyang Scholarship" (), "Gongyang Zhuan" includes the following themes: "Gongyang Zhuan"' argues that human society evolves over time and could be divided into three phases. The first stage (據亂世) is marked by political chaos and social anomy, the second stage () is characterized by the reestablishment of legitimate political order, and the third stage (太平世) is when the world as a whole experiences great harmony and every individual is able to fully realize their potential. Early development. The genealogy of "Gongyang Zhuan" has  been a contested issue among scholars. According to the "Book of Han", Bu Shang (Zixia), one of the top disciples of Confucius, taught Confucius' class notes to his disciple Gongyang Gao (公羊高) of the State of Qi during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). An oral commentary at first, it was written down and edited during the early Han Dynasty by Gongyang Gao's decedent Gongyang Shou (公羊壽) and his collaborator Humu Sheng (胡母生). Humu Sheng later became a "boshi" ("erudite") in the Han court in charge of the studying and teaching of "Gongyang Zhuan". Along with him was another  Gongyang Zhuan authority Dong Zhongshu. With Emperor Wu of Han's adoption of Dong's proposal to formally establish Confucianism as the state ideology, the power and influence of the Gongyang School increased significantly. Later, Dong Zhongshu authored "Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals", "Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind" and "Strange Calamities of Yin and Yang", in which he popularized his mysticism interpretation of "Gongyang Zhuan". Along with the widespread adoption of divination practices, the Han intelligentsia became shrouded in an atmosphere of superstition and mystery. Nonetheless, among officials, "Gongyang School" was seen as a vital political classic  that provided ideological basis and historical precedents in governing, and was cited during policy debates. Dong Zhongshu's two students, Yan Pengzu (嚴彭祖) and Yan Anle (顏安樂) became the leaders of Gongyang School after Dong's death. Some exegesis monographs by Gongyang scholars mounts to over one million characters in length, that scholars from other schools accused Gongyang school for being too fixated on the trivia of "Chunqiu". At the end of Western Han Dynasty, scholar Liu Xin proposed to establish professorship for "Zuo Zhuan" and ‘’Guliang Zhuan". Once his advice was adopted, Gongyang school no longer monopolized the official  interpretation of Spring and Autumn Annals. From the time of the Eastern Han Dynasty onwards, more and more people criticized Dong Zhongshu's interpretation of the "Gongyang Zhuan". During the later years of the Han Dynasty, He Xiu (何休) became the most ardent defender of Gongyang School. He combated vigorously with scholars who prefer "Zuo Zhuan" and "Guliang Zhuan". After spending seventeen years, he wrote a hermeneutics work on "Gongyang Zhuan", which is largely survived into modern days. He Xiu's work became the primary source for textual reconstruction of "Gongyang Zhuan" and a major source of inspiration for later  Gongyang scholars. Huan Kuan (桓寬), author of the Confucian political treatise "Discourses on Salt and Iron" (鹽鐵論), was another notable Gongyang Scholar. Commentaries. In his Confucian work "Discourse on the Six Arts" (六藝論), the Han scholar Zheng Xuan makes the following comment: The Eastern Jin Dynasty scholar Fan Ning (范寧) (grandfather of Fan Ye, author of the "Book of the Later Han"), in his commentary on works relating to the "Spring and Autumn Annals" said that the "Zuo Zhuan" was colorful and rich in content but contains too much wizardry, the "Guliang Zhuan" was clear and elegantly written but too  short whilst the "Gongyang Zhuan" seemed argumentative, judgmental and vulgar in style. In the opinion of the Han scholar and official He Xiu (何休), the "Gongyang Zhuan"'s achievement is its appraisal of the "Spring and Autumn Annals" to expound the "great way of Confucianism" through the use of subtle and profound language. Later development. In the period between the Eastern Wu and the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (229-589 CE), the official He Xiu School was established. During the Tang Dynasty, study of the "Gongyang Zhuan" gradually declined with very few academics concentrating on the work . Gongyang scholarship was introduced to Japan. Notable scholars include Hayashi Razan and his son Hayashi Gahō. Hayashi Gahō later published a commentated version of "Gongyang Zhuan" (公谷白文) in 1688, attributing the comments to his father. During the Qing Dynasty the study of textual criticism flourished with successive scholars researching the "Gongyang Zhuan" and reinvigorating its ideas. This re-evaluation of the work was probably a response to the massive social and political changes of the period which caused scholars to reassess the dominant official interpretation of Confucianism. "Gongyang Zhuan" played an important role in the works of the Changzhou School  of Thought (常州學派) proponents. The school held an important position during the late Qing Dynasty as a mainstream center of learning with scholars such as Kong Guangsen (孔廣森), Zhuang Cunyu (莊存與), Liu Fenglu (劉逢祿), Gong Zizhen (龔自珍), Wei Yuan (魏源) and Kang Youwei (康有爲) amongst others. The school's main target for criticism was the Old Texts (古文經). In particular, Kang Youwei's interpretation helped facilitated the widespread doubt on the Old Texts among intellectuals, and thus creating a sympathetic audience for his reformist ideas, which later became well known in Hundred Days' Reform. In 1995, Chinese scholar Jiang Qing  (蔣慶) published his work "Introductory Treatise on Gongyang Scholarship", which marked the revived interest in the "Gongyang Zhuan" among modern political theorists.