Sweets from the Indian subcontinent
Mithai (sweets) are the confectionery and desserts of the Indian subcontinent. Thousands of dedicated shops in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka sell nothing but sweets. Sugarcane has been grown in the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years, and the art of refining sugar was invented there 8000 years ago (6000 BCE) by the Indus Valley Civilisation. The English word "sugar" comes from a Sanskrit word for refined sugar, while the word "candy" comes from Sanskrit word for the unrefined sugar – one of the simplest raw forms of sweet. Over its long history, cuisines  of the Indian subcontinent developed a diverse array of sweets. Some claim there is no other region in the world where sweets are so varied, so numerous, or so invested with meaning as the Indian subcontinent. In the diverse languages of the Indian subcontinent, sweets are called by numerous names, one common name being "Mithai" (मिठाई, মিঠাই, ). They include sugar, and a vast array of ingredients such as different flours, milk, milk solids, fermented foods, root vegetables, raw and roasted seeds, seasonal fruits, fruit pastes and dry fruits. Some sweets such as "kheer" and "barfi" are cooked, varieties like "Mysore  pak" are roasted, some like "jalebi" are fried, others like "kulfi" are frozen, while still others involve a creative combination of preparation techniques. The composition and recipes of the sweets and other ingredients vary by region. "Mithai" are sometimes served with a meal, and often included as a form of greeting, celebration, religious offering, gift giving, parties, and hospitality in the Indian subcontinent. On South Asian festivals – such as Holi, Diwali, and Raksha Bandhan – sweets are homemade or purchased, then shared. Many social gatherings, wedding ceremonies and religious festivals often include a social celebration of food, and the flavors of  sweets are an essential element of such a celebration. History. Ancient Sanskrit literature from India mention feasts and offerings of (sweet). Rigveda mentions a sweet cake made of barley called apūpa, where barley flour was either fried in ghee or boiled in water, and then dipped in honey. Malpua preserves both the name and the essentials of this preparation. One of the more complete surviving texts, with extensive descriptions of sweets and how to prepare them, is the (; meaning in Sanskrit, the delight of an idea, or delight of mind and senses). This ancient encyclopedia on food, music and other  Indian arts is also known as the (the magical stone that fulfils desires). "Mānasollāsa" was composed about 1130 CE, by the Hindu King Somesvara III. The document describes meals that include a rice pudding called "payasam" (Sanskrit: पायसं), known as "kheer" in other South Asian languages. The document mentions seven kinds of rice. "Mānasollāsa" also describes recipes for , a donut from wheat flour that is scented with cardamom; , a fried cake from black gram flour and sugar syrup; "chhana", a fresh cheese and rice flour fritter soaked in sugar syrup that the document suggests should be prepared from strained curdled  milk mixed with buttermilk; and many others. "Mānasollāsa" mentions numerous milk-derived sweets and describes how to make milk solids and condensed milk. It also contains methods for souring milk to produce sweets. The origin of sweets in the Indian subcontinent has been traced to at least 500 BCE when, records suggest, both raw sugar ("gur", "vellam", jaggery) and refined sugar (sarkara) were being produced. By 300 BCE, kingdom officials in India were acknowledging five kinds of sugar in official documents. By the Gupta dynasty era (300–500 CE), sugar was being made not only from sugar cane, but from other  plant sources such as palm. Sushruta Samhita records about sugar being produced from mahua flowers, barley (yavasa) and honey and Sugar-based foods were also used in temple offerings as "bhoga" for the deities which, after the prayers, became "prasād" for devotees, the poor, or visitors to the temple. Varieties (in alphabetical order). Adhirasam. Adhirasam is a sweet similar to a doughnut originating from Tamil cuisine made from rice flour, jaggery, butter and pepper. Bal mithai. Bal mithai is a brown chocolate-like fudge, made with roasted khoya, coated with white sugar balls, and is a popular sweet from Kumaon . It is said to be invented in Almora bazaars in early twentieth century and since then has become a symbol of Kumaoni cuisine. Barfi. Barfi is a sweet made from milk solids (khoya) or condensed milk and other ingredients like ground cashews or pistachios. Some barfis use various flours such as besan (gram flour). Barfi may be flavored with pastes or pieces of fruit such as mango, banana, berries, or coconut. They may also include aromatic spices such as cardamom and rose water as flavorings. Chhena murki. Chhena murki is a sweet made from an Indian version of cottage cheese , milk, and sugar. It originated in Bhadrak, but is now popular throughout Odisha and other parts of India. To prepare chhena murki, milk and sugar are boiled to a thick consistency. Then cottage cheese is soaked in the mixture. Flavorings and spices are typically added. Chhena poda. Chhena poda ('burnt cheese' in Odia) is a dessert from Odisha. It is made of well-kneaded "chhena", sugar, cashews, and raisins. It is baked for several hours until it browns. Chikki. Chikki is a ready-to-eat solid, brittle sweet generally made from casting a mix of dry nuts and hot jaggery  syrup. Peanuts and jaggery mix are most common. Other than almonds, cashews, walnuts, sesame and other seeds, varieties of chikki are also prepared from puffed or roasted Bengal gram, puffed rice, beaten rice, puffed seasonal grains, and regional produce such as Khobara (desiccated coconut). Like many Indian sweets, Chikki is typically a high protein delicacy. Chomchom. Chomchom is a traditional Bengali sweet, prepared from flattened "paneer" (a form of curdled milk solids, cheese) sweetened in syrup. Gajrela. Gajrela, also called "Gajar halwa", is a seasonal pudding-like sweet made from carrots. It is popular in the Punjab regions of India , the agricultural belt of North India, and now common in many parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is made by slowly cooking shredded carrots with ghee, concentrated and caramelized milk, mawa (khoya) and sugar; it is often served with a garnish of aromatic spices, almonds, cashews or pistachios. The recipes vary by region. Gajrela may be cooked without ghee and can include cheese or other milk solids for a sophisticated mix of flavors. It is common in Indian and Pakistani restaurants and is a seasonal street and cafe food served during the post-monsoon season through to spring festive celebrations . Gulab jamun. Gulab jamun is a common sweet found in the Indian subcontinent. It is made out of fried "chenna" (milk solids and cheese) balls soaked in sweet rose-water flavoured syrup. Jalebi and imarti. Jalebi and Imarti is made by deep-frying a fermented batter of wheat flour with yoghurt, in a circular (coil-like) shape and then soaking it in sugar syrup. Imarti is a variant of Jalebi, with a different flour mixture and has tighter coils. Typically Jalebi is brown or yellow, while Imarti is reddish in colour. The sweet is often enjoyed with milk, tea, yogurt  or Lassi. In classical Sanskrit literature, "jalebis" have been referred to as "kundalika" or "jalavallika". Kesari bhath. Kesari Bhath is a sweet dish made of semolina, sugar, ghee. Its origins are attributed to Kannada cuisine. It has the consistency of a grainy soft halwa. Semolina is roasted and boiled with very little water when it loses its water content sugar and ghee are added . Often cardamom and Cloves are added for the aromatic smell. Khaja. Khaja is a sweet of India. Refined wheat flour, sugar, and oils are the chief ingredients of khaja. It is believed that, even 2000 years  ago, Khaja was prepared in the southern side of the Gangetic Plains of Bihar. These areas, which are home to the sweet, once comprised the central part of the Maurya and Gupta empires. Presently, Khajas are prepared and sold in the city of Patna, Gaya and several other places across the state of Bihar. Khajas of the Silao and Rajgir are known for their puffiness. Khajas have traveled to other parts of the Indian subcontinent, including Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. The Khaja of Kakinada, a coastal town of Andhra Pradesh, is famous in South India and Orissa. This Khaja is  dry on the outside and full of sugar syrup on the inside. The Khaja of Puri is also very famous. Khajas are made by first mixing a batter of wheat flour, mawa and oil. The batter is then deep fried until crisp. Next, a sugar syrup is made which is known as "pak". The crisp croissants are finally soaked in the sugar syrup until they absorb the liquid. Kheer/phirni/payasam. Kheer is a pudding, usually made from milk, sugar and one of these ingredients: vermicelli, rice, bulgur wheat, semolina, tapioca, dried dates, or shredded white gourd. It is also  known as "payasam". "Phirni" is a popular variation of kheer. Payasam has been a cultural dish throughout the history of the Indian subcontinent and is usually served during ceremonies, feasts and celebrations. In many parts of India, ancient traditions maintain that a wedding is not fully blessed if payasam is not served at the feast during traditional ceremonies like marriage, childbirth, annaprasan (first solid feed to child), and other occasions. Other than sweet yogurt, some families serve kheer during the last meal, as auspicious food, before a family member or guest departs on a long journey away from the home . Kozhukatta. Kozhukatta is a traditional sweet dumpling from Kerala and Sri Lankan Catholics . It is made up of thickened rice flour and variations of the filling may include using coconut, jaggery or sugar. It is closely associated with modak and mochi. Kulfi. Kulfi is traditional South Asian ice-cream. It is made using flavored milk that is first condensed and caramelized by slow cooking along with a small quantity of rice or seasonal grain flour; once condensed, dry nut pastes and aromatic spices are added and the mix frozen in small earthen or metal cans. This creates a dense form  of frozen dessert; it is typically served between −10 to −15 °C when it is easier to spoon and eat. Kulfi comes in a variety of flavors such as mango, saffron, pistachios, "badam" (almond), coconut and plain. It is also a street side summertime snack and festive sweet, which food hawkers carry around in a big earthen pot and play a particular horn music to attract customers. These vendors are known as "kulfiwalla" (those who sell kulfi). Laddu. Laddu (sometimes transliterated as laddoo or laadu) is made of varieties of flour, grains, pulses, semolina, regional or seasonal fruits, dry  fruits, and other ingredients cooked with sugar. These are then shaped into bite-size or larger spheres. Laddu is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit documents as temple offerings, and is referred to as . It is popular all over India, is easy to prepare, and comes in dozens of varieties. Laddu is often served during festivals, religious ceremonies, or household events such as weddings. One example of laddu is "Motichoor ka Ladoo". It is a sweet food popular in states like Bihar. It is made from roasted gram flour flakes which are sweetened, mixed with almonds, rolled into a batter and then  cast into mini balls and fried in ghee. Every mini ball, called "boondi", melts like a fresh sweet. The mini balls are combined with aromatic spices and then formed into bite-size spheres, which are called "motichoor ka ladoo". With each bite, the mini balls distribute a burst of flavor throughout the mouth. Other examples include "Tirupati laddu", so popular that over a million "laddu" are distributed every week from a single temple of Lord Venkateswara. Malpua. Malpua is a deep fried wheat or rice flour pancake soaked in sugar syrup. It is popular in Bangladesh, East India, and Nepal . Pathishapta. Pathishapta is a Bengali dessert. The final dish is a rolled pancake that is stuffed with a filling often made of coconut, milk, cream, and jaggery from the date palm. These desserts are consumed in Thailand as well. Pongal. Pongal is a sweet dish traditionally made on Pongal, the Tamil harvest festival. Rasgulla. Rasgulla is a popular sweet in the Indian subcontinent. It comes in many forms, such as "Kamalabhog" (orange rasgulla), "Rajbhog" (stuffed with dry fruits and khoya inside), "Kadamba" (often served with "kheer"), and "Rasamundi", "Raskadamba". Some are white in color while others are cream, brown, gold  or orange. They are called "Rasbari" in Nepal. This dish is made by boiling small dumplings made of a mixture of "chhenna" and semolina in sugar syrup. Once cooked, these are stored in the syrup, making them spongy. Increasing the semolina content reduces the sponginess of the dessert and hardens them, creating a variety of textures. Some "Rasgulla" are stuffed inside with treats, such as dry fruits, raisins, candied peel, and other delicacies to create a variety of flavors. Some versions, called "danedhar", are removed from the syrup and sugar-coated into different fruit shapes and other creative designs. These  are festive foods found year-round in many parts of India. Ras malai. Ras malai consists of flattened balls of "chhena" (cheese curds) soaked in "malai" (clotted cream) flavored with cardamom. Its name comes from the Hindu/Urdu "ras", "juice," and "malai", "cream." Sandesh. Sandesh is a Bengali sweet made from "chhena" (cheese curds) kneaded with sugar. A variation called "nolen gurher sandesh" is made from date molasses instead of sugar. Sel roti. Sel roti is a Nepali home-made circular-shaped bread or rice donut that is prepared during Tihar, a widely celebrated Hindu festival in Nepal and India  (Sikkim and Darjeeling regions). It is made of rice flour and incorporates customized flavors. A semi liquid rice flour dough is usually prepared by adding together milk, water, sugar, butter, cardamom, cloves as well as other flavors based on personal choice. Shrikhand. Shrikhand is a traditional Gujarati and Marathi dessert made from strained yogurt, sugar, saffron, and cardamom. It has a smooth, creamy texture and is served chilled. Soan papdi. Soan papdi is a predominantly sugar based sweet that is pulled to create thin strands resembling cotton candy. It is flaky and has a crisp texture and melts in the  mouth. It is usually packaged in cubes and served garnished with chopped pistachio nuts, or in a rolled paper cone. There are many different flavorings that can be added, including mango, strawberry, pineapple and chocolate. Other sweets. Other traditional Indian sweets and desserts famous throughout the history of Indian food include: