Song cycle
A song cycle () is a group, or cycle, of individually complete songs designed to be performed in a sequence as a unit. The songs are either for solo voice or an ensemble, or rarely a combination of solo songs mingled with choral pieces. The number of songs in a song cycle may be as brief as two songs or as long as 30 or more songs. The term "song cycle" did not enter lexicography until 1865, in Arrey von Dommer's edition of "Koch’s Musikalisches Lexikon", but works definable in retrospect as song cycles existed long before  then. One of the earliest examples may be the set of seven Cantigas de amigo by the 13th-century Galician jongleur Martin Codax. Jeffrey Mark identified the group of dialect songs 'Hodge und Malkyn' from Thomas Ravenscroft's "The Briefe Discourse" (1614) as the first of a number of early 17th Century examples in England. A song cycle is similar to a song collection, and the two can be difficult to distinguish. Some type of coherence, however, is regarded as a necessary attribute of song cycles. It may derive from the text (a single poet; a story line; a central  theme or topic such as love or nature; a unifying mood; poetic form or genre, as in a sonnet or ballad cycle) or from musical procedures (tonal schemes; recurring motifs, passages or entire songs; formal structures). These unifying features may appear singly or in combination. Because of these many variations, the song cycle "resists definition". The nature and quality of the coherence within a song cycle must therefore be examined "in individual cases". Song cycles in German Lieder. Although most European countries began developing the art song genre by the beginning of the 19th century, the rise of Lieder in  Austria and Germany have outweighed all others in terms of influence. German-language song composition at the end of 18th century shifted from accessible, Strophic form, more traditional folk songs to 19th century settings of more sophisticated poetry for a more educated middle class, "who were gradually supplanting the aristocracy as the main patrons of the arts". Since these songs were relatively small-scale works, like the lyric poetry used for their musical settings, they were often published in collections, and consequently borrowed various poetic terms to mark their groupings: "Reihe" (series), "Kranz" (ring), "Zyklus" (cycle) or "Kreis" (circle). In  the first few decades of the 1800s, the collections of poetry and the subsequent song settings took on more underlying coherence and dramatic plot, giving rise to the song cycle. This coherence allowed the song genre to be elevated to a "higher form", serious enough to be compared with symphonies and cycles of lyric piano pieces. Two of the earliest examples of the German song cycle were composed in 1816: Beethoven's "An die ferne Geliebte" (Op. 98), and "Die Temperamente beim Verluste der Geliebten" (J. 200-3, \Op. 46) by Carl Maria von Weber. The genre was firmly established  by the cycles of Schubert: his "Die schöne Müllerin" (1823) and "Winterreise" (1827), settings of poems by Wilhelm Müller, are among his most greatly admired works. Schubert's "Schwanengesang" (1828), though collected posthumously, is also frequently performed as a cycle. Schumann's great cycles were all composed in 1840. They comprise "Dichterliebe", "Frauenliebe und -leben", two collections entitled "Liederkreis" (Opp. 24 & 39 on texts by Heinrich Heine and Eichendorf respectively)—a German word meaning a song cycle—and the "Kerner Lieder" (Op. 35), a "Liederreihe" (literally "song row") on poems by Justinus Kerner. Brahms composed settings (Op. 33) of verses from  Ludwig Tieck's novel "Magelone", and modern performances usually include some sort of connecting narration. He also wrote "Vier ernste Gesänge" ("Four Serious Songs"), Op. 121 (1896). Mahler's "Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen", "Kindertotenlieder", and "Das Lied von der Erde" expand the accompaniment from piano to orchestra. Wolf made the composition of song collections by a single poet something of a specialty, although only the shorter "Italian Songbook" and "Spanish Songbook" are performed at a single sitting, and Eisler's "Hollywood Liederbuch" also falls into the category of anthology. "Das Buch der hängenden Gärten" by Schoenberg and Krenek's "Reisebuch  aus den österreichischen Alpen" are important 20th-century examples. Wilhelm Killmayer composed several song cycles, on lyrics by Sappho, French Renaissance poets, German Romantic poets, and contemporary poets. The tradition is carried on by Wolfgang Rihm, with so far a dozen works. Graham Waterhouse composed a song cycle "Sechs späteste Lieder" after Hölderlin's late poems in 2003. Song cycles in France. Berlioz's "Les nuits d'été" (1841) pioneered the use of the orchestra, and the French cycle reached a pinnacle in Fauré's "La bonne chanson", "La chanson d'Ève" and "L'horizon chimérique" and later in the works of Poulenc . Recent masterpieces such as "Poèmes pour Mi", "Chants de Terre et de Ciel" and "Harawi" by Messiaen. "Paroles tissées" and "Chantefleurs et Chantefables" by Lutosławski (only an honorary Frenchman) as well as "Correspondances" and "Le temps l'horloge" by Dutilleux should also be mentioned. English, Scottish, and American song cycles. Perhaps the first English song cycle was Arthur Sullivan's "The Window; or, The Song of the Wrens" (1871), to a text of eleven poems by Tennyson. In the early 20th century, Vaughan Williams composed his famous song cycle, the "Songs of Travel". Other song cycles by Vaughan Williams are "The  House of Life" on sonnets by Dante Gabriel Rossetti and "On Wenlock Edge" on poems from A. E. Housman's "A Shropshire Lad", the latter originally for voice with piano and string quartet but later orchestrated. The composer and renowned Lieder accompanist Benjamin Britten also wrote song cycles, including "The Holy Sonnets of John Donne", "Seven Sonnets of Michelangelo", "Sechs Hölderlin-Fragmente", and "Winter Words", all with piano accompaniment, and the orchestral "Les Illuminations", "Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings", and "Nocturne". "Raising Sparks" (1977) by the Scottish composer James MacMillan (1997) is a more recent example. Trevor Hold wrote  numerous song cycles, including many setting his own words, such as "The Image Stays" (1979), "River Songs" (1982) and "Book of Beasts" (1984). The English composer Robin Holloway's many song cycles include "From High Windows" (Philip Larkin) (1977), "Wherever We May Be" (Robert Graves) (1980) and "Retreats and Advances" (A.S.J. Tessimond) (2016). His pupil Peter Seabourne's five song cycles include "Sonnets to Orpheus" (2016}) setting eleven poems of Rainer Maria Rilke. Stephen Hough has written three cycles: "Herbstlieder" (Rilke) (2007), "Dappled Things" (Wilde and Hopkins) (2013), and "Other Love Songs" (2010) for four singers and piano duet. Graham  Waterhouse composed several song cycles, based on texts by Shakespeare, James Joyce, and Irish female writers, among others. American examples include Samuel Barber's "Hermit Songs" (1953), "Mélodies Passagères", and "Despite and Still", and by Leonard Bernstein, "Hammarskjöld Portrait" (1974), "Les Olympiques" (1976), "Tribute to a Hero" (1981), "Elegies for Angels, Punks and Raging Queens" (1989), "Next Year in Jerusalem" (1985), and "A Year of Birds" (1995) by Malcolm Williamson, "Honey and Rue" by André Previn (composed for the American soprano Kathleen Battle). David Conte's "American Death Ballads" (2015) won the National Association of Teachers of Singing Composition Award  in 2016. Alex Weiser's song cycle in Yiddish and English, "and all the days were purple" (2019), was a 2020 finalist for the Pulitzer Prize. Song cycles in other countries. Mussorgsky wrote "Sunless" (1874), "The Nursery" (1868–72) and "Songs and Dances of Death" (1875–77), and Shostakovich wrote cycles on English and Yiddish poets, as well as Michelangelo and Alexander Pushkin. The orchestral song cycle "Sing, Poetry" on the 2011 album "Troika" consists of settings of Vladimir Nabokov's Russian and English-language poetry by three Russian and three American composers. Cycles in other languages have been written by Granados , Mohammed Fairouz, Cristiano Melli, Falla, Juan María Solare, Grieg, Lorenzo Ferrero, Dvořák, Janáček, Bartók, Kodály, Sibelius, Rautavaara, Peter Schat, Mompou, Montsalvatge, and A. Saygun etc. Popular music. Song cycles written by popular musicians (also called rock operas) are a short series of songs that tell a story or focus on a particular theme. Some musicians also blend tracks together, so that the start of the next song continues from the preceding one. Modern examples of this can be found in James Pankow's rock opera "Ballet for a Girl in Buchannon" (for Chicago on their self-titled second album) Pink  Floyd's rock opera "The Wall", Dream Theater's progressive metal albums "" and "The Astonishing", as well as Marvin Gaye's classic soul album "What's Going On". The R&B singer Raphael Saadiq's 2019 album, "Jimmy Lee", is composed as a song cycle with personal narratives thematizing issues affecting African Americans, including addiction, stress, domestic conflict, AIDS, perpetual financial hardship, and mass incarceration. Musical theater. One of the earliest song cycle musical theater works was created in 1991. This was "December Songs" (1991), created by Maury Yeston, and commissioned by Carnegie Hall for its Centennial celebration in 1991. It  has been translated, performed and recorded in French, German. and Polish. Other examples include "Ghost Quartet" by Dave Malloy (2014), "Songs for a New World" by Jason Robert Brown (1995), William Finn's "Elegies" (2003), Bill Russell's "Elegies for Angels, Punks and Raging Queens" (1989), and "Myths and Hymns" by Adam Guettel (1998).