Mann Gulch fire
The Mann Gulch fire was a wildfire reported on August 5, 1949, in a gulch located along the upper Missouri River in the Gates of the Mountains Wilderness (then known as the Gates of the Mountains Wild Area), Helena National Forest, in the U.S. state of Montana. A team of 15 smokejumpers parachuted into the area on the afternoon of August 5, 1949, to fight the fire, rendezvousing with a former smokejumper who was employed as a fire guard at the nearby campground. As the team approached the fire to begin fighting it, unexpected high winds caused  the fire to suddenly expand, cutting off the men's route and forcing them back uphill. During the next few minutes, a "blow-up" of the fire covered in ten minutes, claiming the lives of 13 firefighters, including 12 of the smokejumpers. Only three of the smokejumpers survived. The fire would continue for five more days before being controlled. The United States Forest Service drew lessons from the tragedy of the Mann Gulch fire by designing new training techniques and safety measures that developed how the agency approached wildfire suppression. The agency also increased emphasis on fire research and the  science of fire behavior. University of Chicago English professor and author Norman Maclean (1902–1990) researched the fire and its behavior for his book, "Young Men and Fire" (1992) which was published after his death. Maclean, who worked northwestern Montana in logging camps and for the forest service in his youth, recounted the events of the fire and ensuing tragedy and undertook a detailed investigation of the fire's causes. "Young Men and Fire" won the National Book Critics Circle Award for non-fiction in 1992. The 1952 film "Red Skies of Montana", starring actor Richard Widmark and directed by Joseph  M. Newman, was loosely based on the events of the Mann Gulch fire. The location of the Mann Gulch fire was included as a historical district on the United States National Register of Historic Places on May 19, 1999. The fire. The fire started when lightning struck the south side of Mann Gulch at the Gates of the Mountains, a canyon over five miles ( 8 km ) long that cuts through a series of 1,200 foot ( 365 m ) cliffs. The place was noted and named by Lewis and Clark on their journey west in 1805. The fire was spotted by forest  ranger James O. Harrison around noon on August 5, 1949. Harrison, a college student at Montana State University, was working the summer as recreation and fire prevention guard for the Meriwether Canyon Campground. He had been a smokejumper the previous year but had given it up because of the danger. As a ranger, he still had a responsibility to watch for and help fight fires, but it was not his primary role. On this day, he fought the fire on his own for four hours before he met the crew of smokejumpers who had been dispatched from Hale Field, Missoula , Montana, in a Douglas DC-3. Contributing factors. Several factors that combined to create the disaster are described in Norman Maclean's book "Young Men and Fire". Airplane. The C-47/DC-3 "Miss Montana", registration number NC24320, was the only smokejumper plane available at Hale Field, near the current location of Sentinel High School, on August 5, 1949, when the call came in seeking 25 smokejumpers to fight a blaze in a hard-to-reach area of the Helena National Forest. The C-47/DC-3 could only hold 16 jumpers and their equipment. Even though more help was needed, fire bosses decided not  to wait for a second plane, and instead sent No. NC24320 out on its own. NC24320 flew with Johnson Flying Service from Hale Field in Missoula, Montana and was used to drop smokejumpers as well as for other operations for which Johnson Flying Service held contracts. “Miss Montana” has since been restored to airworthy condition and still flies out of Missoula. Incident. It was hot, with a temperature of 97 °F ( 36 °C ), and the fire danger rating was high, rated 74 out of a possible 100. Wind conditions were turbulent. The plane flight was especially rough. One  smokejumper got sick on the way and did not jump, returning with the airplane to Hale Field. Getting off the plane, he resigned from the smokejumpers. The remaining 15 smokejumpers parachuted into an open area at the top of the gulch. Below them, they could see the fire burning on the south ridge further down toward the Missouri River. Gear and individual jumpers were scattered widely due to the conditions. Their radio was destroyed after its parachute failed to open. After the smokejumpers had landed, a shout was heard coming from the front of the fire. The foreman, Wagner "Wag  Dodge, went out ahead to find the person shouting and to scout the fire. He left instructions for the team to finish gathering their equipment and eat, and then to cross the gully to the south slope and advance to the front of the fire. The voice turned out to be Jim Harrison who had been fighting the fire by himself for the past four hours. The two headed back up the gulch with Dodge noting that one could not get closer to within 100 feet of the fire due to the heat. The crew met Dodge and Harrison about 	Mann Gulch fire
14622357	half way to the fire. Dodge instructed the team to move off the front of the fire, and instead move down the gulch and cross over to the thinly-forested and grass-covered north slope of the gulch; sidehilling" (keeping the same contour or elevation) and moving "down gulch" towards the Missouri River. They could then fight the fire from the flank and steer it to a low-fuel area. Dodge returned with Harrison to the supply area at the top of the gulch. The two stopped there to eat. From the high vantage point, Dodge noticed the smoke along  the fire front boiling up indicating an intensification of the heat of the fire. He and Harrison headed down the gulch to catch up with the crew. The "blow up". By the time Dodge reached his men, the fire at the bottom of the gulch had already jumped from the south ridge to the bottom of the north slope. The intense heat, combined with wind coming off the river, pushed the flames up-gulch into the dry grass of the north slope causing what fire fighters call a "blow up". Various side ridges running down the north slope obscured the  crew's view, so they could not see the conditions further down the gulch, and they initially continued down toward the fire. When Dodge finally got a glimpse of what was happening below, he turned the men around and started them angling back up the gulch. Within a couple hundred yards, he ordered the men to drop packs and heavy tools (Pulaskis, shovels and crosscut saws): Dodge's order was to throw away just their packs and heavy tools, but to his surprise some of them had already thrown away all of their heavy equipment. On the other hand, some  of them wouldn't abandon their heavy tools, even after Dodge's order. Diettert, one of the most intelligent of the crew, continued carrying both his tools until Rumsey caught up with him, took his shovel and leaned it against a pine tree. Just a little further on, Rumsey and Sallee pass the recreation guard, Jim Harrison, who, having been on the fire all afternoon, was now exhausted. He was sitting with his heavy pack on and was making no effort to take it off By this point, the fire was moving extremely fast up the 76% north slope (37.23  degree slope) of Mann Gulch and Dodge realized they would not be able to make the ridge line in front of the fire. With the fire less than a hundred yards ( 90 m ) behind, he took a match out and set fire to the grass just before them. In doing so, he was attempting to create an escape fire to lie in so that the main fire would burn around him and his crew. In the back draft of the main fire, the grass fire set burned straight up toward the ridge above. Turning to the three men by him  – Robert Sallee, Walter Rumsey and Eldon Diettert – Dodge said "Up this way", but the men misunderstood him. The three ran straight up for the ridge crest, moving up along the far edge of Dodge's fire. Sallee later said he wasn't sure what Dodge was doing, and thought perhaps he intended the fire to act as a buffer between the men and the main fire. It was not until he got to the ridge crest and looked back down that he realized what Dodge had intended. As the rest of the crew came up, Dodge tried to direct them  through the fire he had set and into the center burnt out area. Dodge later stated that someone, possibly squad leader William Hellman, said "To hell with that, I'm getting out of here". The rest of the team raced past Dodge up the slope toward the hogback of Mann Gulch ridge, hoping they had enough time to get through the rock ridge line to safer ground on the other side. None of the men trying to outrun the fire entered the area Dodge had burned. Immediate outcome. Four of the men reached the ridge crest, but only two, Bob  Sallee and Walter Rumsey, managed to escape through a crevice or deep fissure in the rock ridge to reach the other side. In the dense smoke of the fire, the two had no way of knowing if the crevice they found actually "went through" to the other side or would be a blind trap. Diettert had been just to the right, slightly upgulch of Sallee and Rumsey, but he did not drop back to the crevice and continued on up the right side of the hogback. He did not find another escape route and was overtaken by the fire. Sallee  and Rumsey came through the hogback to the ridge crest above what became known as "Rescue Gulch". Dropping down off the ridge, they managed to find a rock slide with little to no vegetation. They waited there for the fire to overtake them, moving from the bottom of the slide to the top as the fire moved past. Hellman was caught by the fire on the top of the ridge and was badly burned. Though he and Joseph Sylvia initially survived the fire, they suffered heavy injuries and both died in the hospital the next day. Wag Dodge entered the  charred center of the escape fire he had built and survived the intensely burning main fire. In "Young Men and Fire", Maclean stated that when the fire passed over Dodge's position, "he was lifted off the ground two or three times." Later researchers repeated the claim. However, this statement was an exaggeration. Dodge actually wrote, in his statement to the board of review, "There were three extreme gusts of hot air that almost lifted me from the ground as the fire passed over" In another description of Dodge's ordeal, John Maclean said, "as the main fire passed, it  [the fire] picked him up and shook him like a dog with a bone." Although "Young Men and Fire" attributed the story to Earl Cooley, the spotter and kicker aboard the airplane, it actually originated with C.E. "Mike" Hardy, who was the head of the litter bearers collecting the bodies the day after the disaster. Hardy assisted Norman Maclean in his research and accompanied him on a trip to the site. Four hundred fifty men fought for five more days to get the fire under control, which had spread to 4,500 acres (1,800 ha). Casualties. Thirteen firefighters died, with eleven  killed in the fire itself and two who sustained fatal burns. Only three of the sixteen survived. Smokejumpers. Those who were killed by the fire: Those who survived: Additional individuals. Earl Cooley was the spotter/kicker (the airborne supervisor who directed the crew of smokejumpers who dropped in to fight the fire) the morning of the August 5, 1949 Mann Gulch fire jump. On July 12, 1940, as part of a two-man jump, Cooley had been the first smokejumper to jump on an operational fire jump. In the 1950s Cooley served as the smokejumper base superintendent and was the  first president of the National Smokejumper Association. He died November 9, 2009, at age 98. Controversy. Much controversy surrounded foreman Dodge and the fire he lit to escape. In answering the questions of the Forest Service Review Board as to why he took the actions he did, Dodge stated he had never heard of such a fire being set; it had just seemed "logical" to him. In fact, it was not a method that the Forest Service had considered, nor would it work in the intense heat of the normal tall growth forest fires that they typically fought. Similar types  of escape fires had been used by the plains Indians to escape the fast-moving, brief duration grass fires of the plains, and the method had been written about by James Fenimore Cooper (1827) in "The Prairie", but in this case Dodge appears to have invented it on the spot, as the only means available to him to save his crew. None of the men realized what it was and only Dodge was saved by it. There was some controversy about the fire, with a few parents of the men trying to sue the government. One charge was that the  escape fire had actually burned the men. It was originally thought that the unburned patches underneath the bodies indicated they had suffocated for lack of air before the fire caught them. However, the unburned patches are called protected areas. The firefighters' bodies protected these areas by shielding from the intense thermal radiation, by keeping out hot gases, and absorbing heat. All of these factors kept the grass and forest litter unburned where they were lying. It is now known that death by smoke and toxic gas inhalation, while common in structure fires because of the confined atmosphere, is virtually nonexistent  among wildland fire fatalities. Aftermath. Several months following the fire, fire scientist Harry Gisborne, from the U.S. Forest Service Research Center at Priest River, came to examine the damage. Despite a history of heart problems, he nevertheless conducted an on-ground survey of the fire site. He suffered a heart attack and died while finishing the day's research. Gisborne had forwarded theories as to the cause of the blowup prior to his arrival on site. Once there, he discovered several conditions, which caused him to change his concepts of fire activity, particularly those pertaining to fire "blow-ups". He  noted this to his companion just before his death on November 9, 1949. Lessons learned from the Mann Gulch fire had a significant effect on firefighter training. Two training protocols—"Ten Standard Firefighting Orders" and "Eighteen Situations That Shout Watch Out"—were incorporated into Forest Service firefighter training program, and safety training made mandatory to achieve certification to work on a fire line. However, the training methodology proved inadequate and the tragedy would be repeated twice, in the 1990 Dude fire in Arizona, which killed six firefighters, and in the 1994 South Canyon Fire in Colorado, in which 14 firefighters died. A  primary factor in the latter appeared to be surprise of the sudden transition from surface fire to crown fire, leading to the development and adoption of LCES, an acronym for a four-point safety procedure to increase observance of the previous training protocols. LCES consists of posting "lookouts", providing all firefighters radio "communication" with lookouts, identifying "escape routes", and designating valid "safety zones", and ensuring that all members of the process, from "hotshot" crews to seasonal Type 2 crew volunteers to "crew bosses", understand and follow its tenets. Memorials. Thirteen crosses were erected to mark the locations where the thirteen  firefighters who died fighting the Mann Gulch fire fell. However, one of the smokejumpers who died in the Mann Gulch fire was David Navon, who was Jewish. In 2001 the cross marking the location where Navon died was replaced with a marker bearing a Star of David. "Miss Montana", the C-47/DC-3 that carried the smokejumpers that day, was later placed on exhibit in Missoula at the Museum of Mountain Flying. The aircraft was restored as a memorial to the smokejumpers and the fire guard who lost their lives at Mann Gulch on August 5, 1949. It was made airworthy  and flown to France in 2019 as part of the D-Day 75th anniversary commemorations with a flight to Normandy. On August 5, 2019, "Miss Montana" flew back over Mann Gulch on the 70th anniversary of the fire and dropped wreaths for the 13 men lost. Depiction in media. Section::::"Young Men and Fire". The Mann Gulch fire was the subject of Norman Maclean's book "Young Men and Fire", which was published after his death. The book won the National Book Critics Circle Award for non-fiction in 1992. Norman Maclean's son John wrote a book in 2003 titled  Fire and Ashes: On the Front Lines Battling Wildfires, and it also includes a section on the Mann Gulch fire. In 2004, John N. Maclean also published an article called "Fire and Ashes: The Last Survivor of the Mann Gulch Fire," in "Montana: The Magazine of Western History". The article was adapted from the Mann Gulch section of his book, in which he interviewed Bob Sallee, the last remaining survivor of the fire. Folk songs. James Keelaghan wrote a song about this fire entitled "Cold Missouri Waters" after being inspired by "Young Men and Fire". The song was covered by  Richard Shindell, Dar Williams, and Lucy Kaplansky on their album "Cry Cry Cry". It was also covered by Hank Cramer in his album, "Days Gone By". It was again recorded by Paul McKenna Band on their 2012 album ”Elements” and by Wolf Loescher on his 2020 album "Sheep's Clothing". A cover version also appears on the 2014 album ”The Call”, by Greg Russell and Ciaran Algar. In 2016, Irish singer Pauline Scanlon covered the song on her album "Gossamer". It is sung from the perspective of foreman Dodge, lying on his deathbed dying of Hodgkin's disease five years  after the fire. It imagines Dodge saying of his decision to set the escape fire: "I don't know why, I just thought it. I struck a match to waist-high grass, running out of time. Tried to tell them, 'Step into this fire I set. We can't make it, this is the only chance you'll get.' But they cursed me, ran for the rocks above instead. I lay face down and prayed above the cold Missouri waters." Ross Brown, a musician/songwriter from Townsend, Montana (about 35 miles south of Helena), wrote another song entitled "The Mann  Gulch." A scratch version of this song is available on YouTube. The song also has been recorded on Black Irish Band's album "Into the Fire", released in 2007. The album is all songs about firefighters. The album also features Michael Martin Murphey. "Underneath Montana Skies" is another song about the Mann Gulch fire written by Patrick Michael Karnahan also on this album. The song was revived as a tribute to the 19 firefighters who died in the massive Yarnell Hill Fire near Yarnell, Arizona in 2013. This song was also recorded by Larry Carpenter, a folk singer from Minneapolis , on his 2011 album "Across the Water". Timeline. The events described above all transpired in a relatively short period of time. Studies estimated that the fire covered 3,000 acres in 10 minutes during this blow-up stage, an hour and 45 minutes after they had arrived.