Jaina seven-valued logic
Jaina seven-valued logic is system of argumentation developed by Jaina philosophers and thinkers in ancient India to support and substantiate their theory of pluralism. This argumentation system has seven distinct semantic predicates which may be thought of as seven different truth values. Traditionally, in the Jaina and other Indian literature dealing with topics in Jain philosophy, this system of argumentation is referred to as "Saptabhangivada" or "Syadvada". The earliest reference to "Syadvada" occurs is the writings of Bhadrabahu (c. 433–357 BCE). There is mention of "Syadvada" in the "Nyayavatara" of Siddhasena Divakara (about 480–550 CE ). Samantabhadra (about 600 CE) gave a full exposition of the seven parts of "Syadvada" or "Saptabhanginyaya" in his "Aptamimamsa". The "Syadvadamanjari" of Mallisena (1292 CE) is a separate treatise on the same theory. There are, of course, still later works and a large number of modern commentaries. The interpretation of Saptabhangivada as a seven-valued logic was attempted by Harvard University philosophy professor George Bosworth Burch (1902–1973) in a paper published in International Philosophical Quarterly in the year 1964. P. C. Mahalanobis, an Indian applied statistician, has given a probabilistic interpretation of the "Saptabhangivada". The seven predicates. The "Saptabhangivada", the  seven predicate theory may be summarized as follows: The seven predicate theory consists in the use of seven claims about sentences, each preceded by "arguably" or "conditionally" (), concerning a single object and its particular properties, composed of assertions and denials, either simultaneously or successively, and without contradiction. These seven claims are the following. There are three basic truth values, namely, true (t), false (f) and unassertible (u). These are combined to produce four more truth values, namely, tf, tu, fu, and tfu (Three-valued logic). Though, superficially, it appears that there are only three distinct truth values a deeper analysis  of the Jaina system reveals that the seven truth values are indeed distinct. This is a consequence of the conditionalising operator "arguably" denoted in Sanskrit by the word . This Sanskrit word has the literal meaning of "perhaps it is", and it is used to mean "from a certain standpoint" or "within a particular philosophical perspective". In this discussion the term "standpoint" has been used in a technical sense. Consider a situation in which a globally inconsistent set of propositions, the totality of philosophical discourse, is divided into sub-sets, each of which is internally consistent. Any proposition might be supported  by others from within the same sub-set. At the same time, the negation of that proposition might occur in a distinct, though possibly overlapping subset, and be supported by other propositions within it. Each such consistent sub-set of a globally inconsistent discourse, is what the Jainas call a "standpoint" (naya). A standpoint corresponds to a particular philosophical perspective. In this terminology, it can be seen that the seven predicates get translated to the following seven possibilities. Each proposition "p" has the following seven states: