AUKUS
AUKUS (, ), also styled as Aukus, is a trilateral security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, announced on 15 September 2021 for the Indo-Pacific region. Under the pact, the US and the UK will help Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarines. The pact also includes cooperation on advanced cyber, artificial intelligence and autonomy, quantum technologies, undersea capabilities, hypersonic and counter-hypersonic, electronic warfare, innovation and information sharing. The pact will focus on military capability, separating it from the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing alliance that also includes New Zealand and Canada. The deal has been subject  to both praise and disapproval. The government of China was vocal in its contempt for the deal, accusing the three western powers of having a "cold-war mentality", as the deal was widely seen as being, at least in part, a response to China's status as an increasingly assertive emerging superpower. On 17 September 2021, France, which is an ally of the three countries, recalled its ambassadors from Australia and the US; French foreign minister Jean-Yves Le Drian called the pact a "stab in the back" following Australia's cancellation of a French–Australian submarine deal worth € 56 billion (A$90 billion) without notice, ending efforts to develop a deeper strategic partnership between France and Australia. It was also criticised for not making room for New Zealand, an important strategic ally in the Pacific region, which was presumed to be because of the country's nuclear-free policy. Background. Naval Group–Australia strategic partnership agreement. In 2009, two years after the start of the project to replace the Royal Australian Navy's conventionally-powered submarines, the Australian Defence White Paper stated: "The Government has ruled out nuclear propulsion for these submarines". In 2016, Australian prime minister Malcolm  Turnbull signed a A$50 billion (€31 billion) deal with the partly French government-owned company Naval Group (known as DCNS until 2017) to design a new generation of submarines, known as the , under the "Future Submarine Program", scheduled to replace the "Collins" class. The design was based on the latest French nuclear-powered attack submarine, the Barracuda class, which required converting the nuclear propulsion to conventional propulsion. Another difference was that Australia chose to equip it with a United States Navy combat system and torpedo with Lockheed Martin Australia selected to integrate them into the design. Australia typically  requires that part of their vessels be built there, which increases the cost. In this case it corresponded to 60 per cent of the contract value, with France handling the technology transfer. In 2019, Australia signed a strategic partnership agreement with Naval Group to design and construct twelve submarines to be built in Australia. However, the project was beset by delays and cost overruns, leading to uncertainty and tension behind the scenes. The revised cost, including inflation during the length of the program, was A$90 billion (€56 billion). In February 2021, an initial design plan was rejected as  being too expensive, and Naval Group were given until September to improve their proposal. At a Senate inquiry in early June 2021, with delays ongoing, Defence Secretary Greg Moriarty revealed under questioning that he had considered making contingency plans if the French project was to fail, admitting that there had been ongoing problems for over a year. Two weeks later, Australian prime minister Scott Morrison met French president Emmanuel Macron in Paris and expressed concern about the project going off track, to which Macron replied that France was giving "full and complete" commitment and would proceed "further and faster if  possible". On 30 August 2021, the French and Australian defense and foreign affairs ministers released a joint statement reaffirming the project, stating that the "Ministers underlined the importance of the Future Submarine program." Less than three weeks later, Australia decided to cancel the contract with Naval Group for the "Attack"-class submarines despite having already spent about $2.4 billion on the French project. It was expected that Australia would have to pay hundreds of millions of Euros in penalties for cancelling the contract. The contract contained "control gates" with "off-ramps" at which point Australia could withdraw from the contract . The Australian Department of Defence wrote to Naval Group on the same day the security pact was announced. The French Ministry of Defense claim the department told them that "they were satisfied with the submarine's achievable performance and with the progress of the program." Naval Group said that Australia "terminated the contract for convenience". Morrison said that Australia now required a nuclear-powered submarine which has the advantages of greater speed, remaining underwater for longer and carrying heavier loads than a conventionally powered submarine, based on a change in the strategic situation in the Indo-Pacific. Australia–UK–US  negotiations. "The Sunday Telegraph" reported that in March 2021 the Australian navy chief Vice Admiral Michael Noonan met in London with his British counterpart Admiral Tony Radakin and requested assistance from the UK and the US in acquiring nuclear-powered submarines. "The Daily Telegraph" reported that British Foreign Secretary Dominic Raab "helped broker the deal". "The New York Times" too reported that Australia first approached the UK for assistance. "Axios" reported that Australia and the UK first approached the US earlier in February. A trilateral discussion was held between Johnson, Biden and Morrison at the June 2021 G7 summit held  in Cornwall, England. The talks took place without Macron's knowledge. This approach was possible as a result of the UK not entering into a formal foreign policy and security treaty in the post-Brexit deal with the EU. As a result, the UK was free to pursue enhanced cooperation with other allies. "Axios" reported that the Biden administration sought assurances from Australia that cancelling the contract was not dependent on the US providing them with assistance and that cancelling was a fait accompli. Morrison said Australia had been considering an alternative to the "Attack"-class submarine deal for the past  18 months. Although the joint announcement by Australian prime minister Scott Morrison, British prime minister Boris Johnson and US president Joe Biden did not mention any other country by name, anonymous White House sources have alleged it is designed to counter the influence of China in the Indo-Pacific region. However, Johnson later told parliament that the move was not intended to be adversarial toward China. US Secretary of State Antony Blinken and US Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin said that Australia did not have any "reciprocal requirements" as a consequence of the US sharing nuclear submarine propulsion technology such  as Australia hosting intermediate-range missiles. Features. Nuclear-powered submarines. Under the pact, the US will share nuclear propulsion technology with Australia the same as it has with the UK since 1958 under the US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement as will the UK. The Royal Australian Navy will now acquire at least eight nuclear-powered submarines armed with conventional weapons to be built in Australia. The basic design and key technologies will be decided by the Nuclear-Powered Submarine Task Force an 18-month Department of Defence research project headed by Vice Admiral Jonathan Mead, begun in September 2021 with  assistance from the US and UK. Australia will now extend the life of its "Collins"-class submarines that the "Attack" class was due to replace and may consider leasing or buying nuclear-powered submarines from the US or the UK in the interim until the delivery of its future nuclear powered submarines. Also in the interim, Australian Defence Minister Peter Dutton said that Australia will have regular visits by US and UK nuclear-powered submarines. The annual Australia-US Ministerial Consultations (AUSMIN) between the Australian Ministers for Foreign Affairs and Defence and the US Secretaries of State and Defense held in  September 2021 endorsed "increasing logistics and sustainment capabilities of U.S. surface and subsurface vessels in Australia." Australia considered purchasing French nuclear submarines which use nuclear reactors fuelled by low-enriched uranium at less than 6%. However, French reactor designs have to be refuelled every ten years, and Australia does not have a civil nuclear capability with nuclear energy prohibited. In contrast, American and British designs power the submarines for the expected life of the submarines using nuclear reactors fuelled by highly enriched uranium (HEU) at 93% enrichment. Currently, only six countries have nuclear submarines, the five permanent members of the  UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States) and India. The New York Times reported that Australia will probably buy highly enriched uranium (HEU) from the US for the nuclear reactor that powers the submarine. The United States' naval reactors are all pressurized water reactors (PWR). The latest UK propulsion system is the Rolls-Royce PWR3 that will power the Royal Navy's new submarines currently being built and is "based on a US design but using UK reactor technology". US officials have said that sharing nuclear propulsion technology with Australia is a "one-off  and that they have no intention of extending this to other countries". South Korea, also a US ally, has had ambitions to acquire nuclear-powered submarines since 2017 and was reportedly refused US assistance in September 2020 because of nuclear non-proliferation. On 22 November 2021, Australia, the US and the UK signed the Exchange of Naval Nuclear Propulsion Information Agreement (ENNPIA) treaty. The treaty permits the disclosure of information by the US and the UK to Australia and its use. The US is restricted by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 from sharing information without an agreement and the  UK is also restricted by the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement unless authorised. The treaty was considered in Australia by the Parliament's Joint Standing Committee on Treaties, in the UK by the Parliament and in the US by Congress. The ENNPIA treaty entered into force on 8 February 2022. Computer and cybertechnology. The announcement of AUKUS included the stated aim of improving "joint capabilities and interoperability. These initial efforts will focus on cyber capabilities, artificial intelligence, quantum technologies, and additional undersea capabilities." Tom Tugendhat, chair of the British Commons' Foreign Affairs Committee, later commented on Twitter that "Bringing  together the military-industrial complex of these three allies together is a step-change in the relationship. We've always been interoperable, but this aims at much more. From artificial intelligence to advanced technology the US, UK and Australia will now be able to cost save by increasing platform sharing and innovation costs. Particularly for the smaller two, that's game-changing." "Engineering & Technology" pointed to the increasing expansion of Chinese technology firms such as Huawei, which has been excluded from tendering for participation in telecommunications networks by the US and Australia on national security grounds, and government vetoes over  the attempted Chinese acquisition of American company Lattice Semiconductor and ongoing British consideration of proposed takeovers of local semiconductor firms. "Engineering & Technology" also pointed to the March 2021 statement of the US National Security Commission on AI, of the imperative to intensify local efforts but also "rally our closest allies and partners to defend and compete in the coming era of AI-accelerated competition and conflict". Hypersonic and counter-hypersonic. Under the pact, the three countries will cooperate to accelerate development of hypersonic missiles and defence against such missiles. Hypersonic and counter-hypersonic cooperation was one of four additional areas  of cooperation announced on 5 April 2022. Australia and the US have been cooperating on the development of hypersonic missiles since 2020 after signing an agreement to "flight test full-size prototype hypersonic cruise missiles" under the Southern Cross Integrated Flight Research Experiment (SCIFiRE). Nuclear proliferation concerns. The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty allows non-nuclear-weapon states to produce the highly enriched uranium for naval reactor fuel. Nevertheless, the agreement to transfer US or UK nuclear submarine technology including possibly highly enriched uranium has been described as an act of nuclear proliferation, and has been criticised by scholars and politicians. In  the "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists", scholar Sébastien Philippe criticised AUKUS and wrote "we can now expect the proliferation of very sensitive military nuclear technology in the coming years, with literally tons of new nuclear materials under loose or no international safeguards." James M. Acton of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace wrote that "the nonproliferation implications of the AUKUS submarine deal are both negative and serious. For Australia to operate nuclear-powered submarines, it will have to become the first non-nuclear-weapon state to exercise a loophole that allows it to remove nuclear material from the inspection system  of the International Atomic Energy Agency. I have no real concerns that Australia will misuse this material itself, but I am concerned that this removal will set a damaging precedent. In the future, would-be proliferators could use naval reactor programs as cover for the development of nuclear weapons." Australia and Brazil would be the first countries without nuclear weapons to have nuclear-powered submarines. Concerns were raised that this may lead to increased risk of arms proliferation if other countries follow the same approach because it would involve other countries enriching uranium for naval reactors, potentially creating more avenues  to develop material needed for nuclear weapons without the safeguards provided by regular inspections. This would not apply in the case of Brazil because the reactor will use low enriched uranium at 7% concentration. 20% is the minimum level required to make a nuclear weapon. Comments and responses from participating countries. Australia. Federal opposition leader Anthony Albanese, of the Australian Labor Party, said that his party would support nuclear submarines as long as there was no requirement to have a domestic civil nuclear industry, no possession of nuclear weapons and that the deal is consistent with Australia's responsibilities under  the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. Former Labor prime minister Paul Keating condemned the deal, saying "This arrangement would witness a further dramatic loss of Australian sovereignty, as material dependency on the United States robbed Australia of any freedom or choice in any engagement Australia may deem appropriate". Former Labor prime minister Kevin Rudd warned against overly obtrusive criticism of China and recommended that Australia focus on quietly improving military capability. Former Liberal prime minister Tony Abbott called the move "the biggest decision that any Australian government has made in decades" as "it indicates that we are going to stand shoulder  to shoulder with the United States and the United Kingdom in meeting the great strategic challenge of our time, which obviously, is China". Abbott said that Australia would be safer as a result, and cited China's increasing naval firepower as a justification for the deal. Australian defence minister Peter Dutton responded by saying that Australia wanted peace and stability and "an opportunity for Indonesia, Vietnam and Sri Lanka and Korea to continue to develop". Dutton further dismissed "outbursts from China" and said that Australia was a "proud democracy" committed to "enduring peace and this collaboration makes it a safer  region ... no amount of propaganda can dismiss the facts". Australian Greens leader Adam Bandt criticised the deal, saying that it escalates tensions in the region and "makes Australia less safe". United Kingdom. Prime Minister Boris Johnson said that the deal would create "hundreds of high-skilled jobs" and "preserve security and stability around the world" but said that the relationship with France was "rock solid". Conservative MP Tom Tugendhat said: "After years of bullying and trade hostility, and watching regional neighbours like the Philippines see encroachment into their waters, Australia didn't have a choice, and nor did the US  or UK [to make the deal]". Former prime minister Theresa May questioned whether the UK would be forced into a war with China should Taiwan be invaded. Johnson responded to French anger on 21 September by saying "I just think it's time for some of our dearest friends around the world to prenez un grip about this and donnez-moi un break"; the latter being broken French for "get a grip and give me a break". Foreign Secretary Liz Truss viewed AUKUS as the beginning of a "Network of Liberty", and also stated "On security we are striking new  pacts to protect our sea routes, trade routes and freedoms", adding that "We are in talks with Japan about better military access and operational support between our two countries [and] we want closer security ties with key allies like India and Canada in everything from fighting cyber to traditional defence capability". Former leader of the Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn called the pact "crazy beyond belief", with Labour members voting to condemn the pact as dangerous to world peace. The British High Commissioner to Australia Victoria Treadell told ABC Radio "This is not an issue of this Anglosphere and I really  do think we have to move away from defining countries like Australia, US and the UK as Anglosphere". United States. President Joe Biden stated that the deal was a way to "address both the current strategic environment in the (Indo-Pacific) region and how it may evolve". After a call between the French and US presidents, the White House acknowledged the crisis could have been averted if there had been open consultations between allies. It was agreed the process would continue in such manner. International responses. France. The French government received official notification from Australia that the "Attack"-class submarine project  was to be cancelled only a few hours before it was publicly announced. "Le Monde" reported that the original cost of the project in 2016 was €35 billion of which €8 billion (A$12 billion) was to go to French companies. The project was reportedly going to employ 4,000 people in France over six years at Naval Group and its 200 subcontractors. The French government was angered by both the cancellation of the "Attack"-class submarine project and not being made aware of the negotiations that led to the AUKUS agreement. In a joint statement, French foreign minister Jean -Yves Le Drian and armed forces minister Florence Parly expressed disappointment at Australia's decision to abandon their joint submarine program with France. Le Drian further stated in a radio interview that the contract termination was a "stab in the back". On 17 September, France recalled its ambassadors from Australia and the US, Jean-Pierre Thébault and Philippe Étienne respectively. Despite tension in the past, France had never before withdrawn its ambassador to the United States. In a statement, Le Drian said that the "exceptional decision is justified by the exceptional gravity of the [AUKUS] announcements" and that the snap  cancellation of the submarine contract "constitute[d] unacceptable behaviour between allies and partners". French president Emmanuel Macron has not commented but is reported to have been "furious" about the turn of events. In response to questions about the Australia-EU trade deal currently being negotiated, French Secretary of State for European Affairs Clément Beaune stated that he doesn't see how France can trust Australia. Arnaud Danjean, a French MEP, said that "Australians can expect more than a delay in concluding the Free Trade Agreement with the EU". French Lowy Institute policy analyst Hervé Lemahieu said the diplomatic damage from the  cancellation will take years to repair and leave a lasting legacy of mistrust". After a call between the French and US presidents, the French ambassador is to return to the US. Beaune described the United Kingdom as a junior partner and vassal of the United States due to the pact, saying in an interview: "Our British friends explained to us they were leaving the EU to create Global Britain. We can see that this is a return into the American lap and a form of accepted vassalisation." Le Drian stated that "We have recalled our ambassadors to [Canberra and Washington ] to re-evaluate the situation. With Britain, there is no need. We know their constant opportunism. So there is no need to bring our ambassador back to explain." A Franco-British defence summit was cancelled. Opposition politicians in France criticised the French government and demanded that France leave NATO, as well as demanding a parliamentary inquiry. A foreign ministers meeting between France, Germany, the UK, and the US has been postponed, and a ministerial meeting between Australia, France, and India was cancelled. France however, contacted India to talk about strengthening their cooperation in the Indo-Pacific. France's foreign commerce  minister declined a meeting with his Australian counterpart. French president Macron said that Europe needs to stop being naïve when it comes to defending its interests and build its own military capacity. China. The People's Republic of China (PRC)'s foreign affairs department spokesperson Zhao Lijian said, "The nuclear submarine cooperation between the US, the UK and Australia has seriously undermined regional peace and stability, intensified the arms race and undermined international non-proliferation efforts". Zhao also said "The three countries should discard the Cold War zero-sum mentality and narrow geopolitical perspective". Spokesperson Hua Chunying said "China is  firmly opposed to the US, the UK and Australia's malicious exploitation of loopholes in the Nuclear non-proliferation treaty and the International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards mechanism". The Chinese Communist Party-owned tabloid "Global Times", which is known for being more aggressive than official government statements, denounced Australia and said it had "turned itself into an adversary of China" and warned that Australia could be targeted by China as a warning to other countries if it acted "with bravado" in alliance with the US, or by being "militarily assertive". It further told Australia to avoid "provocation" or else China  would "certainly punish it with no mercy", and concluded "Thus, Australian troops are also most likely to be the first batch of western soldiers to waste their lives in the South China Sea". A Chinese Communist Party official, Victor Gao — former interpreter for Deng Xiaoping, and vice president of a Beijing think tank, the Center for China and Globalization considered the move to be a violation of international law and warned that Australia's moves towards nuclear-powered submarines would lead to the country "being targeted with nuclear weapons," in a future nuclear war. The PRC ambassador to France Lu  Shaye urged the new alliance to fulfill their nuclear non proliferation obligations and said Asia-Pacific needs jobs, not submarines, and urged France to boost cooperation. European Union. President of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen, who told CNN that "one of our member states has been treated in a way that is not acceptable. ... We want to know what happened and why." The EU also demanded an apology from Australia. President of the European Council Charles Michel denounced a "lack of transparency and loyalty" by the US. The EU said the crisis affects the whole union. Preparations for  a new EU-US trade and technology council between the US and EU were postponed. France eventually dropped their opposition to these talks which took place in Pittsburgh on September 29, 2021. France also attempted to delay the free trade talks between the EU and Australia. Apparently "most of Europe felt that transatlantic ties were too important to sacrifice to French pique"; such as the pro-free trade Northern Europe countries, as well as Eastern European nations that prioritize security ties with Washington, who "resented the French attempt to impose its indignation on the rest of the bloc". Key advocates  for the TTC talks included EU's digital chief Margrethe Vestager, who favors open markets, and EU trade chief Valdis Dombrovskis from Latvia, who views the U.S. alliance and NATO as a vital counterweight to Russia and China. Lithuanian deputy European Affairs Minister Arnoldas Prankevicius proclaimed “What is important is to keep trans-Atlantic unity, because we believe this is our biggest strength and biggest value, especially vis-à-vis such countries as Russia and China”.