Democracy in Africa
Democracy in Africa is measured by a variety of indexes primarily devised by Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), such as Freedom House's "Freedom in the World" index, and the Fraser Institute's "Economic Freedom of the World" index. Both organisations measure a range of factors including human rights, property rights and free elections to determine the status of states as 'free', 'partially free', or 'not free'. The Freedom Index ranks states based on the protection of 'political and civil liberties and freedoms' that individuals are entitled to and receive (Freedom House, 2018). In 2018, the index found  that the majority of sub-Saharan African states including Sudan, Cameroon and Ethiopia were 'not-free', while several states including Namibia, Botswana and Ghana were pronounced 'free'. The states that fell under the 'free' category were deemed democratic, as they presented the hallmarks of freedom including upholding the values and institutions central to democracy, such as the freedom to participate in elections. Historical overview. The integration of democracy in Africa is something some academic scholars place to have occurred in fairly recent history, as a result of historical processes like decolonization and the collapse of communism. Doorenspleet and Nijzink (2014 ) discuss how democratisation occurred in African states like Ghana, when governments were democratically elected through party systems, which they present to be a hallmark of gauging democracy. There is a variety of explanations throughout the scholarly discourse on what prompted democratisation in Africa. Adejumobi (2015) articulates that one key indicator of democracy being introduced to Africa was "the introduction of multiparty elections in most African countries during the 1990s", which will be discussed later in this article in the title 'Measures of Democracy'. Adejumobi is a proponent of the idea that, prior to democracy, most post-colonial states were authoritarian  due to "internal and external factors" including volatile circumstances socially and economically. According to his account, stark divisions of "ethnicity, religion, class, and region" across African states were a key impediment to the democratic management of a state's affairs, which has since been overcome to an extent, with numerous states being identified as 'free' by Freedom House (2018). In 2013, Gylfason wrote that democratic systems of government saw substantial increases when communist regimes in Europe fell, which had the knock on effect of increasing the number of democracies across the African continent. He states that "the number of democracies  in Africa rose from four to 17 while the number of autocracies fell down to single digits". The advantages of incorporating a democratic system of government over autocratic regimes include reducing the likelihood of corruption according to Gylfason, who states "democracy tends to hinder corruption and help growth" by promoting education and governance in the public interest. Colonialism. According to scholars such as J.R Hellibrun, colonialism was an important historical factor in shaping the current political landscape of Africa. He suggests that decolonisation and its coercive 'legacy' which involved subjugation "was critical to suppress dissent among colonial subjects". He argues  that the often violent nature of colonial states in Africa had the legacy of prompting the use of force by authoritarian states in the continent, or fragmented the possibilities of an organised, democratic state. Judith Van Allen (2001) is an additional scholar who suggests that colonialism had an important influence in the contemporary political circumstances in Southern Africa. Van Allen states that "countries in the Southern African cone share a colonial history as a labour reserve, an anti-colonial, anti-minority rule history as Frontline States", which she attributes as a fundamental force in regional cooperation and multilateralism, in the  establishment of intergovernmental organisations such as the African Union (AU), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Measures of democracy. There are a variety of models used to measure democracy in the world. Freedom House's "Freedom of the World" index provides a framework that assesses the degree of liberty and thus democracy in states, and as stated on the NGO's website, is established upon the moral principles of articles of international law, namely the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. The Freedom Index generates a numerical rating for states between 1 and 7, and the  status designation of Free, Partly Free, or Not Free is reached through evaluating the extent to which "political rights and civil liberties" are enjoyed by citizens and upheld by the state. Freedom House wrote in 2018 that the state of democracy in the contemporary international system is in a state of "dramatic decline", and states that "dramatic declines in freedom have been observed in every region of the world". Only eleven African states are listed as 'free' under the Freedom Index; Botswana, Mauritius, Cape Verde, Senegal, Tunisia, Ghana, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Namibia, South Africa, and Benin. The NGO 's website discusses that the world faces a "crisis of democracy", with 37 per cent of the global population living in circumstances that it finds to be categorically not free. Freedom House marked 2017 as the year that saw the most rapid decline, with "the basic tenets of democracy including guarantees of free and fair elections, the rights of minorities, freedom of the press, and the rule of law" to face serious threats, all of which occurred in African states that are listed as 'partially-free' or 'not free'. The 'Economic Freedom' index from the Fraser Institute examines aspects of  a states economy, including its integration into the world economy and trade liberalisation to determine whether a state demonstrates economic freedom that corresponds with the values of democracy. The Fraser Institute outlines the key aspects that constitute an economically 'free' state; "1) personal choice, 2) voluntary exchange coordinated by markets, 3) freedom to enter and compete in markets, and 4) protection of persons and their property from aggression by others". Recent reviews published by the Fraser Institute using the index listed the majority of African states to be the categorically amongst the 'least free' in the world. In 2016 for  instance, the state of Angola was ranked 155th in the world in terms of its economic freedom, with a numerical score of 5.7 out of 10. Additional factors the Economic Freedom Index analysed to reach such conclusions, included the size and diverse parties in government, the legal system, and whether enterprises had the ability to trade internationally. In comparison to Angola, Botswana is represented with greater figures and numerical scores relating to the country's economic progress. The Fraser Institute and Freedom House both provide a numerical measure of how democracy is implemented in African states. Judith Van Allen (2001 ) provides an additional measure of democracy, that focuses on the role of social movements and social equality as an indicator of the extent to which liberal democratic freedoms and rights are protected or prevalent in a state. Van Allen articulates this through her case study on women's rights movements in Botswana, a state listed as 'free' by Freedom House. Her discussion of democracy in Africa begins with a statement of the relevance of utilizing such measures, when she posits that academic discourse on democracy in Africa tends to "focus on conflicts between male elites". She suggests that the importance  of women's rights movements to the stability of democracy in Botswana is an interconnection under-addressed throughout the academic scholarship and political discourse, and states that it bears a fundamental "significance for Botswana's present and potential future democratic political life of these successes and the resulting position of women in society and policy". Van Allen presents that women's rights movements in Botswana were coincided by similar efforts in states like "Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa", where many Marxist oriented activism "recruited women on the basis of their commitment to women's emancipation". She states that  such developments, particularly in Botswana, have been central yet often un-identified aspects that have facilitated its liberalized economy and robust public service network. Democratisation and globalisation in Africa. The correlation between democratisation and globalisation has been discussed extensively by scholars like Nicola Pratt, who present the argument that the relationship between globalisation and African states democratising is complex, as it bears both advantages and disadvantages. As outlined by Pratt, the discourse surrounding the link between democratisation and globalisation typically aligns with a 'pro-globalisation' or 'anti-globalisation' stance. Proponents of a pro-globalisation stance are often advocates for free  trade and market liberalisation, who suggest such economic processes advance prospects of economic freedom, and thus democracy in a broader context. Yet, anti-globalisation theorists often denounce these defining features of economic globalisation according to Pratt, and instead suggest that aiming to incorporate such economic processes into newly democratised states in continents like Africa is premature, and increases circumstances of volatility. Current systems of governance. The contemporary systems of governance across the African continent are diverse. Therefore, when discussing a topic as broad as democracy in Africa, it is important to consider individual states as the key unit of analysis , which indices of Freedom in the world have modelled. The NGO Freedom House classifies the systems of governance in Africa to encompass democratic, autocratic, and 'hybrid regimes'. Through imploring the various indices used to measure democracy, political commentators, NGOs and academics suggest it to be evident that the current systems of governance incorporate elements of democracy, however may need to commit further systematic and institutional change to be classified 'democratic', hence the category of 'hybrid regimes'. 'Hybrid regimes' is a term in the Democracy Index from the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) in the UK to examine states that have both  authoritarian and democratic institutions and patterns of governing and organising its central political and economic processes. Nyeck discusses systems of governance in Africa, and emphasises Public Procurement Reform as a means of understanding current trends in central governance. He cites Schapper and Malta (2012:1) who state that "procurement is a vital component of a country's public administration that links the financial systems with economic and social outcomes. This makes public procurement systems a critical element to good governance". In other words, how a state uses its budget across public services is an important element in measuring the rights and  entitlements of its citizens, which Nyeck discusses in relation to Botswana. He suggests that health and education are supported adequately by the state, although there are certain challenges in relation to the dispensary of medicines.