Accommodationism in the United States
Accommodationism in the United States is a judicial interpretation of accommodationism which espouses that "the government may support or endorse religious establishments as long as it treats all religions equally and does not show preferential treatment." Accommodationists espouse the view that "religious individuals, and/or religious entities may be accommodated by government in regard to such things as free exercise rights, access to government programs and facilities, and religious expression." Accommodationists hold that religion "has beneficial consequences for human behavior; that is, religion provides a transcendent basis for morality and provides limits for the scope of  political conflict". They teach that religion "combines an objective, nonarbitrary basis for public morality with respect for the dignity and autonomy of each individual" and thus "balances the need for public order with a respect for individual liberty". Since the time that the first president of the United States, George Washington, wrote a notable letter to the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) affirming their right to conscientious objection with regard to war, "the accommodationist position has been dominant in U.S. law and public culture". It is also advocated by many social conservatives of many political orientations, such as Christian democratic  political parties. Accommodationism stands in tension with the judicial interpretation of separation of church and state, and the constitutionality of various government practices with respect to religion is a topic of active debate. Both principles arise from interpretations of the Establishment Clause and the Free Exercise Clause in the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. History. Historians Mark Noll and Luke E. Harlow write that accommodationism was the view held by the Founding Fathers of the United States: Alexis de Tocqueville noted that most Christian denominations produce similar political effects in society: In light of this broad  consensus, many political scientists have noted that religion legitimizes political authority. Accommodationism also opines that "there is a common set of religiously based morals" with values such as "chastity, honesty, charity, and frugality [which are] ultimately regarded as having a religious basis, but are common to virtually all religious traditions". Richard John Neuhaus likewise stated that religion provides a "sacred canopy" under which political activity can occur, stating: In contrast to Tocqueville's view, different Christian denominations have taken opposing views on moral issues which have been the basis for law, such as slavery, contraception, abortion, Christianity and homosexuality, capital  punishment, and war. Some of these disputes break down into the Christian right vs. Christian left. Christian libertarianism is directly opposed to the use of state power to support religious beliefs. Policy. Accommodationism advocates providing aid to parochial schools, school vouchers that provide tax credit for private/parochial schools, as well as nonsectarian school prayer, as long as these policies apply equally to all religious institutions and individuals. In contrast to those advocating laicity, accommodationists view the expression of one's religious faith in the public sphere as a human right, such as the wearing of a cross necklace or  headcovering, for example. In the United States, religious-based federal holidays and observances, including the National Day of Prayer and Thanksgiving, as well as Christmas, exist based on accommodationist principles. Accommodationism also is seen in the national anthem since 1931, in the Pledge of Allegiance since 1954, and in the official motto of the United States since 1956, In God We Trust, as well as in the judicial oath So help me God as early as 1789. Notably, William O. Douglas, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, sounded the "clarion call for accommodation" when he stated  in his ruling: In the United States, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled with an accommodationist outcome in "Everson v. Board of Education", "Zorach v. Clauson", "McGowan v. Maryland", "Epperson v. Arkansas", "Board of Education v. Allen", "Walz v. Tax Commission of the City of New York", "Tilton v. Richardson", "Roemer v. Board of Public Works of Maryland", "CPERL v. Regan", "Widmar v. Vincent", "Larson v. Valente", "United States v. Lee", "Mueller v. Allen", "Marsh v. Chambers", "Lynch v. Donnelly", "Alamo Foundation v. Secretary of Labor", "Bowen v. Roy", "Witters v. Washington Department of Services for the Blind , Goldman v. Weinberger", "Corp. of Presiding Bishop v. Amos", "Bowen v. Kendrick", "Employment Division v. Smith", "Hernandez v. Commissioner", "Jimmy Swaggart Ministries v. Board of Equalization of California", "Westside Community Board of Education v. Mergens", "Lamb's Chapel v. Center Moriches Union Free School District", "Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School District", "Rosenberger v. University of Virginia", "Capitol Square Review & Advisory Board v. Pinette", "Agostini v. Felton", "City of Boerne v. Flores", "Mitchell v. Helms", "Good News Club v. Milford Central School", "Zelman v. Simmons-Harris", "Van Orden v. Perry", and "Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation", among others. Supreme Court  justices regarded as accomodationist have included Byron White, William Rehnquist, Antonin Scalia, and Clarence Thomas. Politics. Organizations that promote accommodationism in the United States include The Becket Fund for Religious Liberty, Foundation for Moral Law, Lord's Day Alliance, Alliance Defending Freedom, Christian Coalition, Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and the First Liberty Institute. Socially conservative political parties such as the Republican Party, Constitution Party, and American Solidarity Party espouse accommodationism. Organizations that have argued against accommodationist policies in the United States include Americans United for Separation of Church and State, the Ayn Rand Institute, the Freedom From Religion Foundation , the Military Religious Freedom Foundation, People for the American Way, and the Secular Coalition for America.