Bristol Britannia
The Bristol Type 175 Britannia is a retired British medium-to-long-range airliner built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1952 to fly across the Commonwealth. During development two prototypes were lost and the turboprop engines proved susceptible to inlet icing, which delayed entry into service while solutions were sought. By the time development was completed, "pure" jet airliners from France, the United Kingdom, and the United States were about to enter service, and consequently, only 85 Britannias were built before production ended in 1960. Nevertheless, the Britannia is considered one of the landmarks in turboprop-powered  airliner design and was popular with passengers. It became known as "The Whispering Giant" for its quiet exterior noise and smooth flying, although the passenger interior remained less tranquil. Canadair purchased a licence to build the Britannia in Canada, adding another 72 aircraft in two variants. These were the stretched Canadair CL-44/Canadair CC-106 Yukon, and the greatly modified Canadair CP-107 Argus maritime patrol aircraft. Design and development. Origins. In 1942, during the Second World War, Allied aircraft construction saw the UK of necessity concentrating on heavy bombers, leaving the production of transport aircraft to the USA. This would have  left the UK with little experience in transport construction at the end of the war, so in 1943, a committee under Lord Brabazon of Tara investigated the future British civilian airliner market. The Brabazon Committee called for several aircraft to be developed to its specifications for Britain's civilian aviation needs. Bristol won the Type I and Type III contracts, delivering their Type I design, the Bristol Brabazon in 1949. The requirement for the 1946 British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) Medium Range Empire (MRE) Requirements coincided with the Type III, Specification C.2/47, issued in April 1947 by the Minister of  Supply. The specifications called for an airliner capable of carrying 48 passengers and powered with Bristol Centaurus radial engines or Napier Nomad turbo-compound Diesel engine. Turboprop options were also considered, but they were so new that Bristol could not guarantee their performance. Although in-company Proposals "X" for conversions of Lockheed Constellations to Centaurus 662 powerplants or "Y" for licence production of the Constellation were considered in late 1946, BOAC decided that an entirely new design was preferred. After wrangling between the Ministry of Supply and BOAC over costs, the go-ahead for the project assigned the company designation  Model 175 in July 1948. Three prototypes were ordered with the first being Mk 1 (Centaurus 662), and the second and third prototypes designated Mk 2 (to be convertible to Bristol Proteus turboprops, then under development). In October 1947, with work already underway, Bristol had settled on a Centaurus-powered design with a gross weight of and a payload of . The anticipated Karachi-Cairo run necessitated a 48-seat limit including sufficient fuel for the lengthy stage. On 5 July 1949, the Ministry of Supply ordered five such prototypes with the understanding that BOAC would contract for 25 production units . BOAC purchased options for 25 aircraft on 28 July powered by the Bristol Centaurus, but to be re-fitted with the Bristol Proteus when available. Redefinition and prototypes. In November 1948, the Type 175 was revised again to accommodate 74 passengers and a longer wingspan in a contemplated long-range version aimed at long-haul Empire and transatlantic routes rather than the medium-haul Empire routes originally planned. On reflection, BOAC decided that only the Proteus engine was viable, necessitating a further redesign eliminating the Centaurus option. Senior figures within BOAC such as the Deputy Chairman Whitney Straight, however, considered  the Proteus engine to be "an obsolete contraption". Despite BOAC's desire to have a turboprop engine, the Type 175 project was contingent on the Proteus passing a 150-hour Type Test. During April 1950, the airliner's name, "Britannia", was selected. The designation "Britannia 101" was applied to first pair of prototypes, which were powered by the early Proteus 625, the successor to the 600 series engine that had already completed type trials. The first prototype, registered "G-ALBO", with Bristol Chief Test Pilot A.J. "Bill" Pegg at the controls, first flew on 16 August 1952 at Filton Aerodrome . During the maiden flight, the over-sensitive flying controls led to wild pitching before Pegg restored control. During the landing approach, smoke filled the cockpit and the main undercarriage bogie temporarily stuck, only fully deploying seconds before landing. The snags were resolved and by September, the prototype was cleared to perform at the 1952 SBAC Display at Farnborough where spectators commented on the "quietness" of the giant airliner. In November 1952, Popular Science reported that by 1954 BOAC would have 25 of these aircraft on routes such as London-to-Tokyo over the Arctic and North Pole. Delays. However, in  1953 and 1954, three de Havilland Comets crashed without explanation, which led the Air Ministry to demand that the Britannia undergo lengthy tests. Further delays were attributed to teething problems with the engine resulting in the loss in February 1954 of the second prototype, "G-ALRX", caused by a failed reduction gear that led to an engine fire and the aircraft landing on the mudflats of the Severn Estuary. Resolving inlet icing issues (by selecting a different cruising height) that were discovered as the first aircraft were being delivered to BOAC, and which were exaggerated by BOAC, devastated future sales  and delayed the Britannia's introduction by two years, also took time. The first prototype "G-ALBO" was modified to more closely approximate a production standard, but was retained by the company to undergo engine testing and development. Bristol revised the design into a larger transatlantic airliner for BOAC, resulting in the Series 200 and 300; the Britannia 300LR (Long-Range) was viewed as being "eminently suitable" for BOAC's services between London and Sydney. The purchase price for each Britannia 100-series aircraft was agreed by BOAC in 1955 at £768,000. Australian airline Qantas considered the procurement of  a Britannia fleet, however its protracted development eroded any competitive advantage against the Douglas DC-8 and de Havilland Comet 4. Route-proving trials continued through 1955, although orders were on the books from "El Al" and Canadian Pacific Air Lines alongside the standing order placed by BOAC. During the first eight months of its operational trials, a total of 16 in-flight engine failures and 49 unscheduled engine changes punctuated the ongoing engine dilemma and delayed the Britannia's in-service date until February 1957, roughly two years late. The Britannia received a fair amount of attention in both the  popular press and the British House of Commons, especially when it was revealed that BOAC had contemplated fitting Rolls-Royce Tynes to their fleet of Douglas DC-7s as an interim measure until the Britannia was cleared for service. In 1956, Bristol's managing director Peter Masefield flew the tenth production Britannia, G-ANBJ, on a world sales tour. American interest was strong, since the Britannia seemed to be a faster, longer-range, higher-capacity sister of the Vickers Viscount, which was already a marketing success on US domestic routes, and, compared to the piston-engined DC-7C, itself a new type , the Britannia offered similar transcontinental or transatlantic range with greater speed and the public appeal of more modern powerplants. Eastern Air Lines and TWA both wished to place orders, which might have forced competitors to follow suit. TWA's majority owner Howard Hughes took the controls of the Britannia for one flight and immediately requested 30 aircraft. However, the Americans wanted delivery within a couple of years, and Bristol, with its limited production facilities and the prior commitment to the BOAC order, could not meet that requirement, so, with the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 jets expected in service by  1958-9, the opportunity passed. Aviation historian Peter Pigott summarised the impact of the delays: Related developments. In 1954, a licence was issued to Canadair to build the derivative Canadair CL-28/CP-107 Argus, and the Canadair CL-44/Canadair CC-106 Yukon. Based on the Britannia, the Argus maritime patrol and anti-submarine military aircraft was optimised for endurance on long-range patrol, not speed, and used four Wright R-3350-32W Turbo-Compound engines that used less fuel at low altitude. Unlike its Britannia forebear, the Argus was a hybrid, using the Britannia wings, tail surfaces and landing gear matched to a  purpose-built, unpressurised fuselage. It substituted North American materials and standard parts for British parts. The interior of the Argus was well equipped to conduct anti-submarine warfare — navigation, communication and tactical electronic equipment along with weapon loads that included bombs, torpedoes, mines and depth charges. A total of 33 Argus aircraft were built in two series (Mk 1 and Mk 2), serving the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and Canadian Forces from 1957 to 1982. Canadair built 39 Canadair CL-44/Canadair CC-106 Yukon turboprop Rolls-Royce Tyne-powered aircraft, comprising 12 CC-106 Yukon for the RCAF and 27 CL-44D4  passenger/cargo variants for the civil market. Civilian operators typically operated the type as freighters. Four CL-44D4s were converted as CL-44Js with lengthened fuselages for service with the Icelandic "budget" airline "Loftleiðir". The CL-44D4s were all built with swing-tails to allow straight-in cargo loading and served with a variety of carriers, most notably Flying Tiger Line. The similar CC-106 Yukon was used by the RCAF in a solely passenger configuration. A final "one-off" development was the Conroy Skymonster, nicknamed "Guppy", based on a Canadair CL-44D4 N447T. The prominent modification was an enlarged fuselage, like the Mini Guppy , which was produced by Jack Conroy's previous company, Aero Spacelines. After a long operational career as a freighter, the "Guppy" was stored at Bournemouth Airport in 2003 and was later sold. Operational history. Following a long period of uneventful development flying trials and the fitting of a modified Proteus 765 series engine that greatly reduced breakdowns, a full Certificate of Airworthiness was awarded at the end of 1955. The first two Model 102s were delivered to BOAC on 30 December 1955 for crew training. The Model 102 began scheduled service on 1 February 1957 with a BOAC flight from  London to Johannesburg, flights to Sydney following in March and to Tokyo in July. By August 1957, the first 15 Model 102 aircraft had been delivered to BOAC. The last 10 aircraft of the order were built as Series 300 aircraft for transatlantic flights. In April 1959, a Model 102 Britannia was leased by BOAC to Ghana Airways for flights between Accra and London, and several more Britannias were purchased by the airline in the early 1960s. The Model 102 was eventually made available to other BOAC associates, including Cathay Pacific, Central Africa, East African, Nigeria and Malayan airlines. The  next production series was based on the long-range, mixed passenger/freight Model 200 series that was intended for civil airline use, but ultimately Bristol offered the series to the Royal Air Force (RAF) instead. The production series of three Model 252 and 20 Model 253 aircraft were purchased by RAF Transport Command in 1959, assigned the designation "Britannia C.2" (first Model 252 series) and "C.1" (Model 253 series). Those in RAF service were allocated the names of stars, such as "Arcturus", "Sirius" and "Vega". On retirement from the RAF in 1975, many Model 200 series were subsequently used by  independent civil operators for cargo operations, harkening back to their original intended role. Although the Bristol Model 302 was built first as part of the original BOAC order, BOAC released this series to other airlines; "Aeronaves de Mexico" took two Model 302s, which entered service in December 1957. The 18 Bristol Britannia 312s for BOAC were delivered from September 1957 with its service introduction on the first-ever non-stop flight from London to Canada on 19 December 1957. In late December 1957, BOAC began regular Britannia flights from London to New York. Other airlines, such as Israel's "El  Al", also operated the Britannia on transatlantic routes. In 1959, BOAC started flying the Britannia across the Pacific to Tokyo and Hong Kong, thus extending their network round the world. The westbound routing in 1959 for these intercontinental BOAC Britannia flights between the U.K. and Asia was London-New York-San Francisco-Honolulu-Wake Island-Tokyo-Hong Kong. On 1 April 1958 Canadian Pacific Air Lines took delivery of the first of six Model 314 Britannias, with an additional two Model 324s (built to a 320 standard) arriving later and sold to Cathay Pacific in 1961. BOAC ordered seven Model  302s, but never took delivery, instead they were taken on by airlines including "Aeronaves de México" and Ghana Airways. The main long-range series were the 310s, of which BOAC took 18 and, after deliveries began in September 1957, put them into service between London and New York City; in March 1964 BOAC owned 50 aircraft, 10 being Britannia 312s. BOAC's last scheduled Britannia flight was April 1965. The 310 series (the Model 318) also saw transatlantic service with "Cubana de Aviación" starting in 1958, in spite of the Cuban Revolution the airline had a special accord with British  aircraft manufacturers to maintain this model of aircraft. In 1975, multiple Cuban Britannias were used to transport hundreds of soldiers of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces to Angola in Operation Carlota, a proxy war. "Cubana de Aviación" continued to fly its fleet of Britannias until March 1990. Following the purchase of remaining spare parts from the Royal Aircraft Establishment and Cubana, Zaïrois airlines continued to operate several Britannias into the early 1990s on regular cargo flights from N'djili Airport to various destinations within the country. Most aircraft were built by Bristol at Filton, but 30 were built at Belfast by  Short Brothers and Harland. Due to the extended development instead of a projected production of 180 Britannias, only 80 were sold. The negative experience with the development of the Britannia caused BOAC to be more cautious towards other British-made aircraft such as the Vickers VC10. Throughout the Britannia's lifespan, the engine icing condition remained a "continual potential hazard" that flight crews ultimately learned to manage with a "high-lo" flight regime that minimized the danger, Squadron Leader David Berry who had 5,000 hours on the type characterised it as flying "Beauty and the Beast." "Aeroplane" in "100 Great  British Aircraft" (2008) said the Britannia counted among the "greats". Variants. Series 100. Seventy-four passenger airliner with 114 ft (35m) fuselage and powered by four Bristol Proteus 705 Series 200. All cargo variant with a 124 ft 3 in (38 m) fuselage, BOAC option for five was cancelled, none built. Series 250. Similar to the 200 series, but mixed passenger and freight. Series 300. Passenger-only "stretched" version of the 200 series, incorporating longer fuselage, capable of carrying up to 139 (originally 99) passengers, medium-fuel capacity. Series 310. As 305 series, but with strengthened fuselage skin and  undercarriage. Long-range fuel capacity and was originally known as 300LR. Accidents and incidents. Fourteen Britannias were lost with a total of 365 fatalities between 1954 and 1980. The worst accident was the 1967 Nicosia Britannia disaster with a loss of life totalling 126.