Stratifold
In differential topology, a branch of mathematics, a stratifold is a generalization of a differentiable manifold where certain kinds of singularities are allowed. More specifically a stratifold is stratified into differentiable manifolds of (possibly) different dimensions. Stratifolds can be used to construct new homology theories. For example, they provide a new geometric model for ordinary homology. The concept of stratifolds was invented by Matthias Kreck. The basic idea is similar to that of a topologically stratified space, but adapted to differential topology. Definitions. Before we come to stratifolds, we define a preliminary notion, which captures the minimal notion for  a smooth structure on a space: A "differential space" (in the sense of Sikorski) is a pair formula_1 where "X" is a topological space and "C" is a subalgebra of the continuous functions formula_2 such that a function is in "C" if it is locally in "C" and formula_3 is in C for formula_4 smooth and formula_5 A simple example takes for "X" a smooth manifold and for "C" just the smooth functions. For a general differential space formula_6 and a point "x" in "X" we can define as in the case of manifolds a tangent space formula_7 as the  vector space of all derivations of function germs at "x". Define strata formula_8 has dimension iformula_9 For an "n"-dimensional manifold "M" we have that formula_10 and all other strata are empty. We are now ready for the definition of a stratifold, where more than one stratum may be non-empty: A "k"-dimensional "stratifold" is a differential space formula_11 where "S" is a locally compact Hausdorff space with countable base of topology. All skeleta should be closed. In addition we assume: A "n"-dimensional stratifold is called "oriented" if its ("n" − 1)-stratum is empty and its top stratum is oriented. One  can also define stratifolds with boundary, the so-called "c-stratifolds". One defines them as a pair formula_17 of topological spaces such that formula_18 is an "n"-dimensional stratifold and formula_19 is an ("n" − 1)-dimensional stratifold, together with an equivalence class of collars. An important subclass of stratifolds are the "regular" stratifolds, which can be roughly characterized as looking locally around a point in the "i"-stratum like the "i"-stratum times a ("n" − "i")-dimensional stratifold. This is a condition which is fulfilled in most stratifold one usually encounters. Examples. There are plenty of examples of stratifolds. The first example to  consider is the open cone over a manifold "M". We define a continuous function from "S" to the reals to be in "C" if and only if it is smooth on formula_20 and it is locally constant around the cone point. The last condition is automatic by point 2 in the definition of a stratifold. We can substitute "M" by a stratifold "S" in this construction. The cone is oriented if and only if "S" is oriented and not zero-dimensional. If we consider the (closed) cone with bottom, we get a stratifold with boundary "S". Other examples for stratifolds  are one-point compactifications and suspensions of manifolds, (real) algebraic varieties with only isolated singularities and (finite) simplicial complexes. Bordism theories. In this section, we will assume all stratifolds to be regular. We call two maps formula_21 from two oriented compact "k"-dimensional stratifolds into a space "X" "bordant" if there exists an oriented ("k" + 1)-dimensional compact stratifold "T" with boundary "S" + (−"S"<nowiki>'</nowiki>) such that the map to "X" extends to "T". The set of equivalence classes of such maps formula_22 is denoted by formula_23 The sets have actually the structure of abelian groups with disjoint union as  addition. One can develop enough differential topology of stratifolds to show that these define a homology theory. Clearly, formula_24 for formula_25 since every oriented stratifold "S" is the boundary of its cone, which is oriented if formula_26 One can show that formula_27 Hence, by the Eilenberg–Steenrod uniqueness theorem, formula_28 for every space "X" homotopy-equivalent to a CW-complex, where "H" denotes singular homology. For other spaces these two homology theories need not be isomorphic (an example is the one-point compactification of the surface of infinite genus). There is also a simple way to define equivariant homology with  the help of stratifolds. Let "G" be a compact Lie group. We can then define a bordism theory of stratifolds mapping into a space "X" with a "G"-action just as above, only that we require all stratifolds to be equipped with an orientation-preserving free "G"-action and all maps to be G-equivariant. Denote by formula_29 the bordism classes. One can prove formula_30 for every X homotopy equivalent to a CW-complex. Connection to the theory of genera. A genus is a ring homomorphism from a bordism ring into another ring. For example, the Euler characteristic defines a ring homomorphism  formula_31 from the unoriented bordism ring and the signature defines a ring homomorphism formula_32 from the oriented bordism ring. Here "t" has in the first case degree "1" and in the second case degree "4", since only manifolds in dimensions divisible by "4" can have non-zero signature. The left hand sides of these homomorphisms are homology theories evaluated at a point. With the help of stratifolds it is possible to construct homology theories such that the right hand sides are these homology theories evaluated at a point, the Euler homology and the Hirzebruch homology respectively. Umkehr maps. Suppose, one  has a closed embedding formula_33 of manifolds with oriented normal bundle. Then one can define an umkehr map formula_34 One possibility is to use stratifolds: represent a class formula_35 by a stratifold formula_36 Then make "ƒ" transversal to "N". The intersection of "S" and "N" defines a new stratifold "S"<nowiki>'</nowiki> with a map to "N", which represents a class in formula_37 It is possible to repeat this construction in the context of an embedding of Hilbert manifolds of finite codimension, which can be used in string topology.