Hyposaurus
Hyposaurus is a genus of extinct marine dyrosaurid crocodyliform. Fossils have been found in Paleocene aged rocks of the Iullemmeden Basin in West Africa, Campanian–Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) Shendi Formation of Sudan and Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) through Danian (Early Paleocene) strata in New Jersey, Alabama and South Carolina. Isolated teeth comparable to "Hyposaurus" have also been found in Thanetian (Late Paleocene) strata of Virginia. It was related to "Dyrosaurus". The priority of the species "H. rogersii" has been debated, however there is no sound basis for the recognition of more than one species from North America. The other North  American species (i.e. "H. fraterculus", "H. ferox" and "H. natator") are therefore considered "nomina vanum" (i.e. empty names). Introduction. "Hyposaurus" is an extinct reptile whose fossils are found in marine sediments from the Maastrichtian (latest Cretaceous age) to the Danian (earliest Paleocene age). It is a mesosuchian crocodyliform in the family Dyrosauridae. It is closely related to dyrosaurs and congosaurs (Schwarz-Wings). The earliest fossils were found in North America, and they were later discovered in Africa and South America. The genus is believed to have originated in Africa. "Hyposaurus" lived in a shallow, near shore marine environment and has  many aquatic adaptations In 2009, the disorganized phylogeny of crocodyliforms was treated and reliable diagnostic traits established, but remaining questions are unanswered. Early discoveries. Owen first recognized the genus in 1849. This first fossil was two amphicoelous vertebrae, vertebrae with two concave sides of the centrum, discovered by Professor Henry Roger. It was found in the greensand beds in New Jersey. The different greensand beds of New Jersey represent a complete record from the Cretaceous to the Paleocene. They are estimated to cover of sea floor but are limited on land to coastal environments. In honor of professor Roger, Owen  named this new fossil "Hyposaurus rogersii". The genus name is meant to describe the unique "hypapophyseal keel extended on the ventral surface of the centrum". This is an extension of the vertebrae centrum which point down towards the belly, similar to a boat keel. The second fossil find was by Cope in 1886. This fossil was found in Brazil and comprises a left molar, quadratojugal bone, a lower jaw, many vertebrae from the middle to posterior parts of the column, a humerus, a coracoid bone, teeth, and several other bones. It had been hypothesized "Hyposaurus" was related to "Teleosaurus" and  this fossil evidence allowed Cope to propose "Hyposaurus" was part of the family Teleosauridae. The differences between "Hyposaurus" and "Teleosaurus" are described as "the robust size and vertical direction" of the teeth of "Hyposaurus", as well as "Hyposaurus" had hypapophyses on more dorsal vertebrae than "Teleosaurus", which only has these on the first and second dorsal vertebrae. Cope remarks the characteristics of "H. rogersii" and his new specimen are very similar, but the articular faces of the centrum are less concave than "H. rogersii". The species was named "Hyposaurus derbianus" after professor Orville Derby, the director of the department of  Geology at the National Museum of Brazil. Description. In 2006, Schwarz and colleagues, described the postcranial skeletons of new specimens of "Hyposaurus", focusing mostly on the vertebrae. From partial skeletons a proatlas, atlas, axis, a third to ninth cervical vertebrae, and at least 16 dorsal, two sacral, and 45 caudal vertebrae have been reconstructed. The vertebrae are weakly amphicoelous, meaning both sides of the centrum are concave. The dorsal shield is made of two columns of paravertebral osteoderms and two lateral columns of accessory osteoderms. At least 12 horizontal rows of these make up the shield. The three main differences  between the axial skeletons of "Hyposaurus" and modern crocodylians are the tall neural spines, vertically oriented thoracic ribs and osteoderm which lack external keels. This indicates that they also have a different epiaxial musculature (muscles above the axial skeleton). Along with the specialized osteoderm morphology, "Hyposaurus" probably had a specialized trunk bracing system which suggests that individuals with low body mass could have only high walked or galloped. Distribution. Fossils of "Hyposaurus" have been found in North and South America and Africa. There is evidence supporting presence of the genus "Hyposaurus" in Africa where the Dryosauridae originated. Dispersal into the  New World is hypothesized to have taken place during the Late Cretaceous or Early Paleocene. Hastings proposed three independent dispersal events of the dyrosaurid clade. These findings show a clear Atlantic focus in fossil distribution. "Hyposaurus" is believed to have been the only amphicoelous crocodylian in North America. It lasted long enough to live alongside the modern procoelous crocodylians which most other amphicoelous crocodylians did not. Taxonomy. "Hyposaurus" was a mesosuchian crocodyliform reptile and a member of the family Dyrosauridae (Denton. There is a disputed phylogeny with many interpretations. Some paleontologists interpret that Dyrosaurids, "Congosaurus", and "Acherontisuchus" are sister taxa  of "Hyposaurus". Paleobiology and paleoecology. "Hyposaurus" probably lived in marine environments, mostly in shallow water and in near-shore environments. "Hyposaurus" had many aquatic adaptations, including pelvic and tail propulsion and light scute armor. In addition, its tail was long, both eyes were on the side of the head, and the snout was long with many uniform teeth. The feet were not paddle-formed, a trait rather similar to modern crocodiles. The short transverse process on the caudal vertebrae implies the tail did not move vertically, indicating that "Hyposaurus" was not a diving animal. Moreover, Dyrosaurids generally are hypothesized to  have pitch correction where the pleural cavity is pushed towards the back side to produce a more horizontal stance while submerged in water. "Hyposaurus" foraged in their marine environments and used the protection of the water column. Buffetaut proposed Dyrosaurids laid their eggs on land and only after they have fully grown moved to coastal waters. Under this hypothesis, the young would live on land or in shallow fresh water environments. This could explain the fossil finds of smaller dyrosaurid specimens in Pakistan in freshwater sediments. This "Hyposaurus" hypothesis has been debated as there is still a significant amount of  variation among the Pakistani Dyrosaurid specimens. Later research. In 2006 Schwarz and colleagues, described the postcranial skeletons of new specimens of "Hyposaurus", focusing mostly on the vertebrae. From partial skeletons, a proatlas, atlas, axis, a third to ninth cervical vertebrae, and at least 16 dorsal, two sacral, and 45 caudal vertebrae have been reconstructed. The vertebrae are weakly amphicoelous, meaning both sides of the centrum are concave. The dorsal shield is made of two columns of paravertebral osteoderms and two lateral columns of accessory osteoderms. At least 12 horizontal rows of these make up the shield. Citing vague distinctions, Jove  and colleagues, attempted to reclassify the genus "Hyposaurus" based on diagnostic characteristics and sort of taxonomic troubles. Flattening of the mandibular symphysis, used previously to distinguish between species, is not confirmed and only can be used to distinguish between "Hyposaurus" and "Congosaurus". Currently, width height ratio of teeth in different positions are being used to distinguish between species. The little variation between the species "Hyposaurus wilsoni" and "Hyposaurus nopcsai", means one of the two is a nomen dubium (Latin: "doubtful name"), although fossil evidence does suggest two species. The paper focuses on the at least 5 species of "Hyposaurus" or  Congosaurus known from the Paleocene of the Iullemmeden Basin of Western Africa (Mali, Niger, Nigeria). The authors suggest using skull characteristics instead of mandibular characteristics for taxonomic distinctions because skulls are usually better preserved. A paper by Hastings and colleagues described a new skull of a dyrosaurid crocodyliform, found in the Cerrejón Formation of northern Colombia. They used mandibular and cranial characteristics to map it onto a cladogram with "Hyposaurus" and other taxa. Analysis supports an African origin to Dyrosauridae, with dispersal and radiation in South America in the Late Cretaceous or very early Paleocene. This specimen of dyrosaurid is  the smallest of the family Dyrosauridae found to date, with "Hyposaurus rogersii" being a contender for the next smallest. In 2016, Salih and colleagues reported the first "Hyposaurus" fossil found in the Campanian to Maastrichtian Shendi Formation of Sudan. It was identified as a "Hyposaurus" based on the flat shape of the mandible (lower jawbone) and the elliptical shape of the mandibular symphysis (median line ridge of mandible). The African member occurs in the Late Cretaceous, which supports the idea that "Hyposaurus" originated in Africa. This fossil is different from other specimens of "Hyposaurus" because it has a larger eighth  alveolus (bony socket for tooth root), smaller interveolar space between the ninth and tenth alveoli, and a ridge along the dorsal side of the mandible.