Women in music education
Women in music education describes the role of women musicians, conductors, teachers and educational administrators in music education at the elementary school and secondary education levels. While music critics argued in the 1880s that "...women lacked the innate creativity to compose good music" due to "biological predisposition", later, it was accepted that women would have a role in music education, and they became involved in this field "...to such a degree that women dominated music education during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century." "Traditional accounts of the history of  music education [in the US] have often neglected the contributions of women, because these texts have emphasized bands and the top leaders in hierarchical music organizations." When looking beyond these bandleaders and top leaders, women had many music education roles in the "...home, community, churches, public schools, and teacher-training institutions" and "...as writers, patrons, and through their volunteer work in organizations." Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century. Musicologist Megan Lam has noted a connection between the marginalization of women in music education and western society at large, writing, "Even as activities for women in the 19th century continued to be  restricted to household and domestic chores, contributions by women to music and music education remained 'confined to the home, young children, and women’s organizations and institutions.'" Despite the limitations imposed on women's roles in music education in the 19th century, women were accepted as kindergarten teachers, because this was deemed to be a "private sphere." Women also taught music privately, in girl's schools, Sunday schools, and they trained musicians in school music programs. By the turn of the 20th century, women began to be employed as music supervisors in elementary schools, teachers in normal schools and professors  of music in universities. Women also became more active in professional organizations in music education, and women presented papers at conferences. A woman, Frances Clarke (1860–1958) founded the Music Supervisors National Conference in 1907. While a small number of women served as President of the Music Supervisors National Conference (and the following renamed versions of the organization over the next century) in the early 20th century, there were only two female Presidents between 1952 and 1992, which "[p]ossibly reflects discrimination." After 1990, however, leadership roles for women in the organization opened up. From 1990 to 2010, there were five female  Presidents of this organization. Women music educators "outnumber men two-to-one" in teaching general music, choir, private lessons, and keyboard instruction. More men tend to be hired as for band education, administration and jazz jobs, and more men work in colleges and universities. According to Dr. Sandra Wieland Howe, there is still a "glass ceiling" for women in music education careers, as there is "stigma" associated with women in leadership positions and "men outnumber women as administrators." Impacts of Social Media. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube have made it possible for women in music  education to display their talents and publicize the work they have long been doing. These platforms could serve as inspiration to women and girls aspiring to be involved with music and music education. According to Megan Lam, “...with the rise of social media and interconnectedness through the Internet, female and male musicians alike can reach audiences like never before and students are thus able to witness talents from all over the world.” An important aspect of social media is that the poster is in control of what is being displayed. Female musicians and educators are now able to promote themselves  without having to rely on a gatekeeper. For example, in "The Instrumentalist," Heather McWilliams found that "women were represented in the magazine far less than what would be proportionate to the current number of women working in the band field and “'qualitative findings revealed that females were often depicted in disparaging and stereotypical ways”' Social media can alleviate some of these problems due to self representation. Discrimination against Women in Music Education. The discrimination against women in music education goes far beyond a fight for equal pay. According to Cheryl Jackson, "Women encountered discrimination through limited access to such privileges  as departmental vote, applying for promotion and tenure, serving on committees that determined departmental policies, and teaching upper level courses for which their academic training had prepared them." Women are also more likely to be educators in low-income areas. According to Elisa Jones, "the vast majority of band directors at large, public high schools in high income areas are male. In fact, 84.62%…In contrast, at small, private elementary schools in low income areas, 83.66% of general classroom music teachers in our universe are female!” The discrimination against women in music education often starts at an early age. According  to Kelly Gathen, “While researchers suggest that instrument choice should be based on timbre and personal preference, gender stereotypes and biases play a more prominent role. These stereotypes and biases intensify with age, leading to a disproportionately small percentage of female high school music educators." The lack of female educators means a lack of female role models. This cycle leads to fewer women at the more prestigious levels of music education field (Gathen).