Profilicollis
Profilicollis is a genus of acanthocephalan parasites of crustaceans. The status of the genus "Profilicollis" has been debated, and species placed in this genus were formerly included in the genus "Polymorphus". However, research on the morphology of the group and their use of hosts has concluded that "Profilicollis" and "Polymorphus" should be regarded as distinct genera, and species previously described as "Polymorphus altmani" are now referred to as "Profilicollis altmani" in taxonomic and biological literature. "Profilicollis" parasites infect decapod crustaceans, usually shore crabs, as intermediate hosts, and use many species of shorebirds as definitive (final) hosts. Life cycle. This  parasite first develops in the haemocoel or digestive gland of shore crabs, which are the intermediate host. The species of crabs that are parasitized differs between "Profilicollis" species. Mole crabs in the genus "Emerita" are parasitized throughout North and South America by "Profilicollis altmani". After infection of the crab, the parasite becomes a dormant cystacanth until the crab is eaten by a suitable bird, such as the surf scoter "Melanitta perspicillata" or herring gull, "Larus argentatus" (the final or definitive host). Once the parasite cystacanth has passed through the stomach of the bird, it develops into the adult worm and  attaches to the intestines of the bird. Eggs produced by the parasite are released from the bird with bird feces and enter the ocean. Here the eggs are transported by the currents until they are ingested by a filter-feeding mole crab. The southern sea otter, "Enhydra lutris nereis" is an accidental host (or paratenic host) of "Profilicollis altmani" and "P. major". Between 1998 and 2001, between 13% and 16.2% of sea otter carcasses found along the coasts of central California were determined to be caused by acanthocephalan peritonitis, or inflammation of the intestines caused by acanthocephalan parasites. This is  a large increase in deaths of sea otters due to these parasites; only a few decades ago, the proportion of sea otters dying because of these parasites was almost negligible. Most of the sea otters that were found to be killed by infections by "Profilicollis altmani" were either young juvenile or older female otters, and it is hypothesized that they feed on sand crabs because they are less skilled at foraging or because of a decrease in their preferred prey. Behavioral manipulation. Like many other acanthocephalans, recent studies have shown that the presence of cystacanth of "Profilicollis antarcticus" causes behavioral  alterations due to changes in the levels of hemolymph dopamine in its intermediate host, the crab "Hemigrapsus crenulatus". These changes in the biogenic amino levels can cause behavioral changes such as changes in response to external stimuli resulting from neurological damages (escape behavior), increased conspicuity resulting from modified pigmentation and/ or behavior and castration. Previous studies have also shown that crabs infected with cystacanths exhibit higher metabolic rates and activity levels than non-parasitized crabs. The free living conditions of cystacanths in the hemocoelomic cavity of the intermediate host maybe interpreted as the direct way of altering the dopamine metabolic  pathway. The alteration of dopamine levels in the hemolymph system implies that there is a generalized effect of the parasite on the body of its intermediate host, rather than an effect on the nerve ganglion level. Therefore, the increase in activity and metabolic rates for this host parasite system could be a consequence of higher metabolic cost of maintenance for the host, linked to the synthesis of monoamines and/ or the physiological consequences of their bio-availability. This altered physiological condition is beneficial for the parasite, considering that their final goal is to increase transmission by increasing the probability of  predation on the intermediate host (the crab) by its definitive host (the gull). Species. Infects mole crabs as intermediate hosts in North and South America. Final hosts include scoters, "Melanitta" spp.; gulls, "Chroicocephalus maculipennis", "Leucopheus pipixcan", "Larus modestus", and "L. dominicanus"; lesser scaup, "Marilla affnis"; sanderling, "Calidris alba"; dunlin, "Calidris alpina"; whimbrel, "Phaeopus hudsonicus"; rhinoceros auklet, "Cerorhinca monocerata"; and willet, "Catoptrophorus semipalmatus". This species was moved to this genus by Van Cleave in 1947. This species was redescribed in great detail by Amin et al. in 2022 on the basis of specimens from Pacific mole crab "Emerita analoga" (Hippidae) and  Belcher's gull "Larus belcheri" (Laridae), in Peru. Infects shore crabs such as "Hemigrapsus crenulatus" and gulls such as "Larus dominicanus" in Chile and New Zealand. Infects shore crabs such as "Hemigrapsus oregonensis" and the invasive green crab "Carcinus maenas" as well as the lobster "Homarus americanus". Its final hosts are shorebirds such as common goldeneye, "Bucephala clangula"; Barrow's goldeneye, "B. islandica"; greater scaup, "Aythya marila"; eider duck, "Somateria mollissima"; and long-tailed duck, "Clangula hyemalis". Infects estuarine crabs (described in Uruguay) and gulls, including "Larus atlanticus". The species was moved to this genus by Golvan, 1994. Infects "Macrobrachium  and domestic ducks in Taiwan. Infects the Atlantic rock crab Cancer irroratus", although likely other species as well. This parasite has also found in the intestines of sea otters, although it appears to be much less pathogenic to the otters than "Profilicollis altmani". Infects shore crabs such as "Hemigrapsus crenulatus", and mud crabs "Macrophthalmus hirtipes" and "Helice crassa". They then infect birds such as the South Island pied oystercatcher "Haematopus ostralegus finschi" and bar-tailed godwit "Limosa lapponica" in New Zealand. Infects many grapsid crabs (including "Brachynotus spinosus," "Cyclograpsus granulosus", "Paragrapsus gaimardii", "Paragrapsus laevis" and "Paragrapsus quadridentatus") 1 species of  portunid crab ("Nectocarcinus integrifrons"). This species also infects gulls.