Ann Radcliffe
Ann Radcliffe (née Ward; 9 July 1764 – 7 February 1823) was an English author and a pioneer of Gothic fiction. Her technique of explaining apparently supernatural elements in her novels has been credited with gaining Gothic fiction respectability in the 1790s. Radcliffe was the most popular writer of her day and almost universally admired; contemporary critics called her the mighty enchantress and the Shakespeare of romance-writers, and her popularity continued through the 19th century. Interest has revived in the early 21st century, with the publication of three biographies. Biography. Radcliffe was born Ann Ward in Holborn, London , on 9 July 1764. Her father was William Ward (1737–1798), a haberdasher, who moved the family to Bath to manage a china shop in 1772. Her mother was Ann Oates (1726–1800) of Chesterfield. Radcliffe occasionally lived in Chelsea with her maternal uncle, Thomas Bentley, who was in partnership with a fellow Unitarian, Josiah Wedgwood, maker of the Wedgwood china. Sukey, Wedgwood's daughter, also stayed in Chelsea and is Radcliffe's only known childhood companion. Sukey later married Dr Robert Darwin and had a son, the naturalist Charles Darwin. Although mixing in some distinguished circles, Radcliffe seems to have made  little impression in this society and was described by Wedgwood as "Bentley's shy niece". In 1787, Ward married the Oxford graduate and journalist William Radcliffe (1763–1830), part-owner and editor of the "English Chronicle". He often came home late, and to occupy her time she began to write and to read her work to him when he returned. Theirs was a childless and seemingly happy marriage. Radcliffe called him her "nearest relative and friend". The money she earned from her novels later allowed them to travel together, along with their dog, Chance. In her final years, Radcliffe retreated from  public life and was rumoured to have become insane as a result of her writing. These rumours arose because Radcliffe just stopped writing after publishing her five novels, though the last three were very successful. She remained secluded for 26 years, with no real explanation available to her many fans. Ann died on 7 February 1823 and was buried in a vault in the Chapel of Ease at St George's, Hanover Square, London. Although she had suffered from asthma for twelve years previously, her modern biographer, Rictor Norton, cites the description given by her physician, Dr Scudamore, of how  a new inflammation seized the membranes of the brain, which led to "violent symptoms" and argues that they suggest a "bronchial infection, leading to pneumonia, high fever, delirium and death." There are few artefacts or manuscripts that give insight into Radcliffe's personal life, but in 2014 a rare letter from Radcliffe to her mother-in-law was found in an archive at the British Library. Its tone suggests a strained relationship between the two, which may have inspired the relationship between Ellena Rosalba and the Marchesa di Vivaldi in her novel "The Italian". Little is known of Ann Radcliffe 's life. In 1823, the year of her death, the "Edinburgh Review" said, "She never appeared in public, nor mingled in private society, but kept herself apart, like the sweet bird that sings its solitary notes, shrouded and unseen." Shortly after her death, "Gaston de Blondeville" was published for Henry Colburn, featuring "A Memoir for the Authoress", the first known biographical piece on Radcliffe. Christina Rossetti attempted to write a biography of Radcliffe in 1883, but abandoned it for lack of information. For 50 years biographers stayed away from her as a subject, agreeing with Rossetti's estimation. Rictor "[sic ]" Norton, author of "Mistress of Udolpho: The Life of Ann Radcliffe" (1999), argues that those 50 years were "dominated by interpretation rather than scholarship" where information (specifically on her rumoured madness) was repeated rather than traced to a reliable source. According to Ruth Facer, "Physically, she was said to be 'exquisitely proportioned' – quite short, complexion beautiful – 'as was her whole countenance, especially her eyes, eyebrows and mouth.'" Literary life. Radcliffe published five novels during her lifetime, which she always referred to as "romances"; a final novel, "Gaston de Blondeville" was published posthumously in 1826. At a time when the average  amount earned by an author for a manuscript was £10, her publishers, G. G. and J. Robinson, bought the copyright for "The Mysteries of Udolpho" (1794) for £500, while Cadell and Davies paid £800 for "The Italian" (1797), making Radcliffe the highest-paid professional writer of the 1790s. Her first successful novel was "Romance of the Forest" (1791). Ann Radcliffe led a retired life and never visited the countries where the fearful happenings in her novels took place. Her only journey abroad, to Holland and Germany, was made in 1794 after most of her books were written . The journey was described in her "A Journey Made in the Summer of 1794" (1795). Jane Austen parodied "The Mysteries of Udolpho" in "Northanger Abbey". Radcliffe did not like the direction in which Gothic literature was heading – one of her later novels, "The Italian", was written in response to Matthew Gregory Lewis's "The Monk". Radcliffe portrayed her female characters as equal to male characters, allowing them to dominate and overtake the typically powerful male villains and heroes, creating new roles for women in literature previously not available. After Radcliffe's death, her husband released her unfinished essay "On the  Supernatural in Poetry", which details the difference between the sensation of "terror" her works aimed to achieve and the "horror" Lewis sought to evoke. Radcliffe stated that terror aims to stimulate readers through imagination and perceived evils while horror closes them off through fear and physical dangers. "Terror and Horror are so far opposite, that the first expands the soul and awakens the faculties to a high degree of life; the other contracts, freezes and nearly annihilates them." Radcliffe was unique in that she was known for including supernatural elements but eventually giving readers a rational explanation for the supernatural . Usually, Radcliffe would reveal the logical excuse for what first appeared to be supernatural towards the end of her novels, which led to heightened suspense. Some critics/readers found this disappointing and felt duped. "Perhaps the most eloquent complaint against the trope was penned by Walter Scott in his "Lives of the Novelists" (1821–1824). Regarding Radcliffe’s penchant, he writes: “A stealthy step behind the arras may, doubtless, in some situations, and when the nerves are tuned to a certain pitch, have no small influence upon the imagination; but if the conscious listener discovers it to be only the noise  made by the cat, the solemnity of the feeling is gone, and the visionary is at once angry with his sense for having been cheated, and with his reason for having acquiesced in the deception." Some modern critics have been frustrated by her work, as she fails to include "real ghosts". This could be motivated by the idea that works in the Romantic period, from the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, had to undermine Enlightenment values such as rationalism and realism. Anti-Catholicism. Radcliffe's work have been considered by some scholars to be part of a larger  tradition of anti-Catholicism within Gothic literature; her works contain hostile portrayals of both Catholicism and Catholics. "The Italian" frequently presents Catholicism, the largest religion in Italy, in a negative light. In the novel, Radcliffe portrays Catholic elements such as the Inquisition in a negative light, pointing to its discriminatory practises against non-Catholics. Radcliffe also portrays the confessional as a "danger zone" controlled by the power of the priest and the church. "The Mysteries of Udolpho" also contained negative portrayals of Catholicism; both novels are set in Catholic-majority Italy, and Catholicism was presented as being part of "ancient  Italianess". Italy, along with its Catholicism, had been featured in earlier Gothic literature; Horace Walpole's novel "The Castle of Otranto" claimed in-universe that it was "found in the library of an ancient catholic family in the north of England” and “printed at Naples, in the black letter, in the year 1529”. Some scholars have suggested that Radcliffe's anti-Catholicism was partly a response to the 1791 Roman Catholic Relief Act passed by the British parliament, which was a major component of Catholic emancipation in Great Britain. Other scholars have suggested that Radcliffe was ultimately ambivalent towards Catholicism , claiming that she was either a Latitudinarian or Unitarian Anglican. Art connection. Radcliffe's elaborate descriptions of landscape were influenced by the painters Claude Lorrain and Salvator Rosa. She often wrote about places she had never visited. Lorrain's influence can be seen through Radcliffe's picturesque, romantic descriptions, as seen in the first volume of "The Mysteries of Udolpho". Rosa's influence can be seen through dark landscapes and elements of the Gothic. Radcliffe said of Claude: Gothic landscapes. Radcliffe used the framing narrative of personifying nature in many of her novels. For example, she believed that the sublime  motivated the protagonist to create an image that was more idealistic within the plot. Influence on later writers. Radcliffe influenced many later authors, both by inspiring more Gothic fiction and by inspiring parodies. In the eighteenth century, she inspired writers like Matthew Lewis (1775 – 1818) and the Marquis de Sade (1740–1814), who praised her work but produced more intensely violent fiction. Radcliffe is known for having spawned a large number of lesser imitators of the "Radcliffe School", such as Harriet Lee and Catherine Cuthbertson. Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) defined her fiction as a contrast to Radcliffe and writers like her , especially in "Northanger Abbey" (1817), Austen's parody of "The Mysteries of Udolpho". Scholars have also perceived other apparent allusions to Radcliffe's novels and life in Austen's work. In the early nineteenth century, Radcliffe influenced Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), and Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832). For example, Scott interspersed his work with poems in a similar manner to Radcliffe, and one assessment of her reads, "Scott himself said that her prose was poetry and her poetry was prose. She was, indeed, a prose poet, in both the best and the worst senses of the phrase. The romantic landscape, the  background, is the best thing in all her books; the characters are two dimensional, the plots far fetched and improbable, with 'elaboration of means and futility of result'." Later in the nineteenth century, Charlotte and Emily Brontë continued Radcliffe's Gothic tradition with their novels "Jane Eyre, Villette," and "Wuthering Heights." Radcliffe was also admired by French authors like Honoré de Balzac (1799 – 1850), Victor Hugo (1802 – 1885), Alexandre Dumas (1802 – 1870), and Charles Baudelaire (1821 – 1867). Honoré de Balzac's novel of the supernatural "L'Héritière de Birague" (1822) follows the tradition of Radcliffe's style and parodies it. As  a child the young Fyodor Dostoyevsky was deeply impressed by Radcliffe. In "Winter Notes on Summer Impressions" (1863) he writes, "I used to spend the long winter hours before bed listening (for I could not yet read), agape with ecstasy and terror, as my parents read aloud to me from the novels of Ann Radcliffe. Then I would rave deliriously about them in my sleep." A number of scholars have noted elements of Gothic literature in Dostoyevsky's novels, and some have tried to show direct influence of Radcliffe's work. In 1875, Paul Féval wrote a story starring Radcliffe  as a vampire hunter, titled "La Ville Vampire: Adventure Incroyable de Madame Anne Radcliffe" ("City of Vampires: The Incredible Adventure of Mrs. Anne Radcliffe"), which blends fiction and history. At the last minute a mysterious man on a white horse saves the day, none other than Lord Wellington fresh from the Battle of Waterloo. Film reference. Helen McCrory plays Ann Radcliffe in the 2007 film "Becoming Jane", starring Anne Hathaway as Jane Austen. The film depicts Radcliffe as meeting the young Jane Austen and encouraging her to pursue a literary career. No evidence exists that such a meeting ever occurred