Korean mixed script
Korean mixed script, known in Korean as "hanja honyong" (), "Hanja-seokkeosseugi" (漢字섞어쓰기, 한자섞어쓰기), 'Chinese character mixed usage,' or "gukhanmun honyong" (), 'National (Korean)-Sinic script mixed usage,' is a form of writing the Korean language that uses a mixture of the Korean alphabet or "hangul" () and "hanja" (, ), the Korean name for Chinese characters. The distribution on how to write words usually follows that all native Korean words, including grammatical endings, particles and honorific markers are generally written in "hangul" and never in "hanja". Sino-Korean vocabulary or "hanja-eo" (), either words borrowed from Chinese or created from Sino-Korean  roots, were generally always written in "hanja" although very rare or complex characters were often substituted with "hangul". Although the Korean alphabet was introduced and taught to people beginning in 1446, most literature until the early twentieth century was written in literary Chinese known as "hanmun" (). Although examples of mixed-script writing are as old as "hangul" itself, the mixing of "hangul" and "hanja" together in sentences became the official writing system of the Korean language at the end of the nineteenth century, when reforms ended the primacy of literary Chinese in literature, science and government. This style of writing , in competition with "hangul"-only writing, continued as the formal written version of Korean for most of the twentieth century. The script slowly gave way to "hangul"-only usage in North Korea by 1949, while it continues in South Korea to a limited extent. However, with the decrease in "hanja" education, the number of "hanja" in use has slowly dwindled and in the twenty-first century, very few "hanja" are used at all. In Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China, the local newspaper "Northeast Korean People's Daily" published the "workers and peasants version" which used all-hangul in text, in addition  to the existing "cadre version" that had mixed script to for the convenience of grassroots Korean people. Starting April 20, 1952, the newspaper abolished the "cadre version" and published in hangul only, soon the entire publishing industry adopted the hangul-only style. Development. The development of "hanja-honyong" required two major developments in orthographic traditions of the Korean Peninsula. The first was the adoption of "hanja", around the beginning of the Three Kingdom period of Korea. The second was the introduction of "hangul" in 1446. Section::::"Hanja: Hanmun". Literacy on the Korean Peninsula began with the adoption of literary Chinese () written  in Chinese characters (). The earliest evidence of Korean "hanmun" is an engraving on a sword dated to 222 BC and unearthed from what is now Pyeongyang, with the next earliest example being a stone inscription from 85 AD in Pyeong-annam Province. By the start of the early Three Kingdom period () (57 BC—668 AD), each of the kingdoms of Baekje (), Silla () and Goguryeo (), later shortened to "Goryeo" (), the use of "hanmun" was entrenched as the official written language of the respective royal courts and nobility. Several factors at the start of the Three Kingdom period facilitated the spread of Sinitic  culture and "hanmun" literacy amongst the nobility. The Korean peoples were originally several tribes that had been at the periphery of Chinese civilisation, and naturally were inclined to adopt the more advanced culture and technology of their larger neighbor. From 108 BC to 313 AD, the Chinese Han Dynasty established the Four Commanderies of Han in northern Korea. The spread of Buddhism in Korea also occurred around the 4th century. Another major factor in the adoption of "hanmun" was the adoption of the "gwageo" (), copied from the Chinese imperial examination, open to all freeborn men. Special schools were set up  for the well-to-do and the nobility across Korea to train new scholar officials for civil service. Adopted by Silla and Goryeo, the "gwageo" system was maintained by Goryeo after the unification of Korea until the end of the nineteenth century. The scholarly élite began learning the "hanja" by memorising the "Thousand Character Classic" (), "Three Character Classic" () and "Hundred Family Surnames" (). Passage of the "gwageo" required the thorough ability to read, interpret and compose passages of works such as the "Analects" ((), "Great Learning" (), "Doctrine of the Mean" (), "Mencius" (), "Classic of Poetry" (), "Book of Documents" (), "Classic of Changes" (), "Spring and  Autumn Annals" () and "Book of Rites" (). Other important works include "Sūnzǐ's Art of War" () and "Selections of Refined Literature" (). The Korean scholars were very proficient in literary Chinese. The craftsmen and scholars of Baekje were renowned in Japan, and were eagerly sought as teachers due to their proficiency in "hanmun". Korean scholars also composed all diplomatic records, government records, scientific writings, religious literature and much poetry in "hanmun", demonstrating that the Korean scholars were not just reading Chinese works but were actively composing their own. Well-known examples of Chinese-language literature in Korea include "Three Kingdoms History" (), "Memorabilia  of the Three Kingdoms" (), "New Stories of the Golden Turtle" (), "The Cloud Dream of the Nine" (), "Musical Canon" (), "The Story of Hong Gildong" () and "Licking One's Lips at the Butcher's Door" (). Adaptation of "hanja" to Korean. The Chinese language, however, was quite different from the Korean language, consisting of terse, often monosyllabic words with a strictly analytic, SVO structure in stark contrast to the generally polysyllabic, very synthetic, SOV structure, with various grammatical endings that encoded person, levels of politeness and case. Despite the adoption of literary Chinese as the written language, Chinese never replaced Korean as the  spoken language, even amongst the scholars that had immersed themselves into its study. The first attempts to make literary Chinese texts more accessible to Korean readers were "hanmun" passages written in Korean word order. This would later develop into the "gugyeol" () or 'separated phrases,' system. Chinese texts were broken into meaningful blocks, and in the spaces were inserted "hanja" used to represent the sound of native Korean grammatical endings. As literary Chinese was very terse, leaving much to be understood from context, insertion of occasional verbs and grammatical markers helped to clarify the meaning. For instance, the "hanja" " was used  for its native Korean gloss whereas " was used for its Sino-Korean pronunciation, and combined into " and read "hani" (), 'to do (and so).' Special symbols were sometimes used to aid in the reordering of words in approximation of Korean grammar. It was similar to the "kanbun" () system developed in Japan to render Chinese texts. The system was not a translation of Chinese into Korean, but an attempt to make Korean speakers knowledgeable in "hanja" overcome the difficulties in interpreting Chinese texts. Although it was developed by scholars of the early Goryeo Kingdom (918 - 1392), "gugyeol" was of particular importance during  the Joseon period, extending into the first decade of the twentieth century, since all civil servants were required to be able to read, translate and interpret Confucian texts and commentaries. The first attempt at transcribing Korean in "hanja" was the "idu" (), or 'official reading,' system that began to appear after 500 AD. In this system, the "hanja" were chosen for their equivalent native Korean gloss. For example, the "hanja" " signifies 'no winter' or 'not winter' and has the formal Sino-Korean pronunciation of () "budong", similar to Mandarin "bù dōng". Instead, it was read as "andeul" () which is the Middle Korean  pronunciation of the characters' native gloss and is ancestor to modern "anneunda" (), 'do not' or 'does not.' The various "idu" conventions were developed in the Goryeo period but was particularly associated with the "jung-in" (), the upper middle class of the early Joseon period. A subset of "idu" was known as "hyangchal" (), 'village notes,' and was a form of "idu" particularly associated with the "hyangga" () the old poetry compilations and some new creations preserved in the first half of the Goryeo period when its popularity began to wane. In the "hyangchal" or 'village letters' system, there was free choice in  how a particular "hanja" was used. For example, to indicate the topic of Princess Shenhua, the half-sister of Emperor Jiajing of the Ming Dynasty was recorded as " in "hyangchal" and was read as (), "seonhwa gongju-nim-eun" where " is read in Sino-Korean, as it is a Chinese name and the Sino-Korean term for 'princess' was already adopted as a loan word. The "hanja" ',' however, were read according to their native pronunciation but was not used for its literal meaning signifying 'the prince steals' but the native postpositions () "nim", the honorific marker used after professions and titles, and  eun, the topic marker. In mixed script, this would be rendered as '.' The "idu" and its "hyangchal" variant were similar to the Japanese "man'yogana" () system that would develop much later in Japan. "Idu" and its "hyangchal" variant were mostly replaced by mixed-script writing with "hangul" although "idu" was not officially discontinued until 1894 when reforms abolished its usage in administrative records of civil servants. Even with "idu", most literature and official records were still recorded in literary Chinese until 1910. Promulgation of "Hunminjeong-eum". Introduction. Despite the advent of vernacular writing in Korean using "hanja", these publications remained the  dominion of the literate class, comprising royalty and nobility, Buddhist monks, Confucian scholars, civil servants and members of the upper classes as the ability to read these texts required proficient ability to understand the meaning of the Chinese characters, with both their adopted Sino-Korean pronunciation and their native gloss. To rectify this, King Sejong the Great () summoned a team of scholars to devise a new script for the Korean language, leading to the 1446 promulgation of the "hunminjeong-eum" (), 'correct pronunciation for teaching the people.' The problems surrounding literacy in literary Chinese to the common populace was summarized in  the opening of Sejong's proclamation, written in literary Chinese: Because the speech of this country is different from that of China, it [the spoken language] does not match the [Chinese] letters. Therefore, even if the ignorant want to communicate, many of them in the end cannot state their concerns. Saddened by this, I have [had] 28 letters newly made. It is my wish that all the people may easily learn these letters and that [they] be convenient for daily use. The script is now the primary and most commonplace method to write the Korean language, and is known  as "hangul" () in South Korea, from "han" () but homophonous with Sino-Korean "han" ((), 'Korean,' and the native word "gul" (), 'script.' In North Korea, the script is known as "joseongul" () from "Joseon", an old name of Korea. The promulgation of the indigenous script is celebrated as a national holiday on 9 October in the south and 15 January in the north, respectively. The new script rapidly spread to the segments of the population traditionally denied access to education such as farmers, fishermen, women of the lower classes, rural merchants and young children. Several attempts to ban or over-turn the use  of "hangul" were initiated but failed to halt its spread. These attempts were initiated by several rulers, who discovered disparaging remarks about their reigns, and the upper classes, whose grip on power and influence was predicated upon their ability to read, write and interpret classical Chinese texts and commentaries thereof. The scholarly élite mocked the sole use of "hangul" pseudo-deferentially as "jinseo" ), 'real script.' Other insults such as 'women's script,' 'children's script' and 'farmer's hand' are known anecdotally but are not found in the literature. Spread. Despite the fears of the upper classes and scholarly élite , the introduction of the early "hangul" actually increased proficiency in literary Chinese. New-style "hanja" dictionaries appeared, arranging words according to their alphabetic order when spelled out in "hangul", and showing compound words containing the "hanja" as well as its Sino-Korean and its native, sometimes archaic, pronunciation — a system still in use for many contemporary Korean-language "hanja" dictionaries. The syllable blocks could be written easily between meaningful units of Chinese characters, as annotations, but also began to replace the complex notation of the early "gugyeol" and "idu", including "hyangchal", although "gugyeol" and "idu" were not officially abolished until  the end of the 19th century in part because literary Chinese was still the official written language of the royal court, nobility, governance and diplomacy until its usage was finally abolished in the early twentieth century and its local production mostly ceased by mid-century. The real spread of "hangul" to all elements of Korean society was the late eighteenth century beginning of two literary trends. The ancient "sijo" (), 'seasonal tune,' poetry. Although "sijo", heavily influenced by Chinese Tang Dynasty poetry, was long written in Chinese, authors began writing poems in Korean written solely with "hangul." At the same time , "gasa" (), 'song lyric,' poetry was similarly spread. Korean women of the upper classes created "gasa" by translating or finding inspiration in the old poems, written in literary Chinese, and translating them into Korean, but as the name suggests, were popularly sung. Although Catholic and Protestant missionaries initially attempted to evangelise the Korean Peninsula starting with the nobility using Chinese translations and works, in the early nineteenth century, Bishop Siméon-François Berneux, or "Jang Gyeong-il" () mandated that all publications be written only in "hangul" and all students in the missionary schools were required to use it. Protestant and other Catholic  missionaries followed suit, facilitating the spread of Christianity in Korea, but also created a large corpus of Korean-language material written in "hangul" only. Mixed script or "Hanja-honyong". The practice of mixing "hangul" into "hanja" began as early as the introduction of "hangul". Even King Sejong's promulgation proclamation was written in literary Chinese and "idu" passages to explain the alphabet and mixed passages that help 'ease' the reader into the use of the alphabet. The first novel written in "hangul", "Yongbieocheonga" (), "Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven," is actually mostly written in what would now be considered  mixed-script writing. Another major literary work touted as a masterpiece of "hangul"-based literature, the 1590 translation of "The Analects of Confucius" () by Yi Yulgok () is also written entirely in "hanja-honyong". Many Koreans today attribute "hanja-honyong" to the Japanese occupation of Korea. This is in part due to the visual similarity of Chinese characters interspersed with alphabetic text of Japanese-language texts to Korean-language texts in mixed script, and the numerous assimilation and suppression schemes of the occupational government carried out against the Korean people, language and culture. In fact, "hanja-honyong" was commonplace amongst the royalty , "yangban" () and "jung-in" classes for personal records and informal letters shortly after the introduction of the alphabet, and replaced the routine use of "idu" by the "jung-in". The heyday of "hanja-honyong" arrived with the Gap-o reforms () passed in 1894 - 1896 after the Donghak Peasant Rebellion (). The reforms ended the client status of Korea to the Qing Dynasty emperors, elevating King Gojong to Emperor Gwangmu (), ended the supremacy of literary Chinese and "idu" script, ended the "gwageo" imperial examinations. In place of literary Chinese, the Korean language written in the 'national letters' ()—now understood as an alternate  name for "hangul" but at the time referred to "hanja-honyong"—was now the language of governance. Due to over a thousand years of literary Chinese supremacy, the early "hanja-honyong" texts were written in a stiff, prosaic style, with a preponderance of Sino-Korean terms barely removed from "gugyeol", but the written language was quickly adapted into the current format with a more natural style, using "hanja" only where a Sino-Korean loan word was read in Sino-Korean pronunciation and "hangul" for native words and grammatical particles. One of the most important publications the end of the Joseon period  was the weekly newspaper, "Hanseong Jugang" (), one of the first written in the more natural style several years before the "Gap-o" reforms. The popular newspaper was originally started as a "hanja"-only publication that lasted only a few weeks before they switched formats. During the reforms, Yu Giljun () published his travel diaries, "Seoyu Gyeonmun" () or "Observations on Travels to the West" was a best-seller at this time. The success of "Hanseong Jugang" and "Seoyu Gyeonmun" urged the "literati" to switch to vernacular Korean in "hanja-honyong". Structure. In a typical "hanja-honyong" texts, traditionally all words that were of  Sino-Korean origin, either composed from Chinese character compounds natively or loan words directly from Chinese, were written in "hanja" although particularly rare or complicated "hanja" were often disambiguated with the "hangul" pronunciation and perhaps a gloss of the meaning. Native words, including Korean grammatical postpositions, were written in "hangul." Due to the reforms the close of the Joseon Dynasty, native words were not supposed to be written in "hanja", as they were in the "idu" and "hyangchal" systems which were abolished at this time. Visual processing. In Korean mixed-script writing, especially in formal and academic contexts, the majority  of semantic or 'content' words are generally written in "hanja" whereas most syntax or 'function' is conveyed with grammatical endings, particles and honorifics written in "hangul." Japanese, which continues to use a heavily Chinese character-laden orthography, is read in the same way. The Chinese characters, have different angled strokes and oftentimes more strokes than a typical syllable block of "hangul" letters, and definitely more so than Japanese "kana", enabling readers of both respective languages to process content information very quickly. Korean readers, however, have a few more handicaps than Japanese readers. For instance, although academic, legal, scientific, history and  literature have a higher proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary, Korean has more indigenous vocabulary used for semantic information, so older Korean readers often scan the "hanja" first and then piece together by reading the "hangul" content words to piece the meaning. Japanese avoids this problem by writing most content words with their Sino-Japanese equivalent of "kanji", whereas reading Sino-Korean vocabulary according to their native Korean pronunciation or translation was banned in previous reforms, so "only" a Sino-Korean word can be written in "hanja". The handicaps are avoided by the adoption of spaces inserted between phrases in modern  Korean, limiting phrases, generally, to a content word and a grammatical particles, allowing readers to spot the native Korean content words faster. In reading texts, Koreans are faster at reading out passages written in "hangul" than in mixed script. However, although 'reading' is faster, understanding the texts is facilitated with the use of "hanja" in higher order language to the large number of homophones in the language, such as the continued role of "'hanja" disambiguation' even in "hangul"-only texts. For instance, "daehan" (대한), usually understood in the context of the 'Great Han' (大韓, 대한) or 'Great Korean people,' can also  indicate (大寒,대한) 'big winter,' the coldest part at the end of January and beginning of February, (大旱, 대한) 'severe drought,' (大漢, 대한) 'Great Chinese people,' (大恨, 대한) 'deep resentment,' (對韓, 대한) 'anti-Korean,' (對漢, 대한), 'anti-Chinese,' or (對한) 'about or 'toward.' Readers of technical and academic texts often have to clarify terms for the listener to avoid ambiguity, and most "hanja" are only used when necessary to clear confusion. As can be seen in the example below, the "hanja" in an otherwise mostly native vocabulary song stand out from the "hangul" text, thus appearing almost like bolded and  enlarged text. This was further amplified in older texts, when "hangul" blocks were sometimes written smaller than the surrounding "hanja." Hanja disambiguation. Very few "hanja" are used in modern Korean writing, but are occasionally seen in academic and technical texts and formal publications, such as newspapers, where the rare "hanja" is used as a shorthand in newspaper headlines, especially if the native Korean equivalent is a longer word, or more importantly, to disambiguate the meaning of a word. Sino-Korean words make up over 70% of the Korean language, although only a third of them are in common usage, but  that proportion increases in formal and highbrow publications. A native Korean syllable may have up to 1,300 possible combinations compared to the Sino-Korean inventory of 400. Although Middle Korean developed tones that may have facilitated differentiation of words, this development was lost in the transition to modern Korean, making many words homophones of each other. In Cantonese, whose pronunciation of the characters is similar to the Sino-Korean pronunciation due to its conservative phonology and the ancient age in which these words entered Korean, has several words pronounced : 'new', 'body', 'deity', 'difficult' or 'spicy', 'large clam', 'kidney' and 'to  lament.' Although even in Cantonese , and are true homophones with the pronunciation of with the high tone, each of the other examples are pronounced with a unique tone that distiniguish them from the first three and each other: , and . In Korean, the "hanja-eo" reading of all these characters is and in "hangul" spelling all share and no tone to distinguish them. By the mid-1990s, when even the most conservative newspapers stopped publishing in "hanja-honyong", with most ceasing in the 1980s, and switched to a generally all-"hangul" format, the use of characters to clarify the meaning of a word , "'hanja" disambiguation', is still common, in part due to complaints from older subscribers that were educated in the mixed script and were used to using "hanja" glosses. From this 2018 article from the conservative newspaper "The Chosun Ilbo", two phrases are disambiguated with "hanja": Although in many instances, context can help discern the meaning, and many of the possible variants are obscure or rare characters that would be encountered only in either classical literature or literary Chinese thus limiting choices. In more relaxed publications, where "hanja" disambiguation is less common, Sino-Korean terms are avoided as much as possible, although  this may appear as "dumbed down" material to some readers. Context can often facilitate the meaning of many terms. Many Sino-Korean terms that are rare and only encountered in ancient texts in literary Chinese are almost unknown and would not even be part of the "hanja" taught in education, limiting the number of likely choices. Example. The text below is the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Korea. The first text is written in Hangul; the second is its mixed script version; and the third is its unofficial English translation. We, the people of Korea, proud of  a resplendent history and traditions dating from time immemorial, upholding the cause of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea born of the March First Independence Movement of 1919 and the democratic ideals of the April Revolution of 1960, having assumed the mission of democratic reform and peaceful unification of our homeland and having determined to consolidate national unity with justice, humanitarianism and brotherly love, and to destroy all social vices and injustice, and to afford equal opportunities to every person and provide for the fullest development of individual capabilities in all fields, including political, economic, social and cultural  life by further strengthening the free and democratic basic order conducive to private initiative and public harmony, and to help each person discharge those duties and responsibilities concomitant to freedoms and rights, and to elevate the quality of life for all citizens and contribute to lasting world peace and the common prosperity of mankind and thereby to ensure security, liberty and happiness for ourselves and our posterity forever, do hereby amend, through national referendum following a resolution by the National Assembly, the Constitution, ordained and established on July 12, 1948, and amended eight times subsequently. October 29, 1987 Korean mixed