Honorific speech in Japanese
The Japanese language has a system of honorific speech, referred to as keigo (敬語, literally "respectful language"), parts of speech that show respect. Their use is mandatory in many social situations. Honorifics in Japanese may be used to emphasize social distance or disparity in rank, or to emphasize social intimacy or similarity in rank. Japanese honorific titles, often simply called honorifics, consist of suffixes and prefixes when referring to others in a conversation. The system is very extensive, having its own special vocabulary and grammatical forms to express various levels of respectful, humble, and polite speech . It closely resembles other honorifics systems found in the East Asian cultural sphere, such as the one used in Korean. Introduction. Japanese uses honorific constructions to show or emphasize social rank, social intimacy or similarity in rank. The choice of pronoun used, for example, will express the social relationship between the person speaking and the person being referred to, and Japanese often avoids pronouns entirely in favor of more explicit titles or kinship terms. Honorific speech is often longer, and sometimes much longer, than more direct speech. Some extreme, but not uncommon, examples include the following: When asking a question : the first is casually between friends, the second is a junior person asking a superior in a formal meeting: When asking for cooperation: the first is usual and polite, the latter is very formal, but often found in writing, especially in posters or flyers. This latter example includes two honorific prefixes, nominalization of a verb (for formality), a respectful form, and two humble forms. Types of honorifics. Honorifics in Japanese, or "keigo" (敬語), fall under three main categories: "sonkeigo" (尊敬語), respectful language; "kenjōgo" (謙譲語), humble language (or "modest language"); and "teineigo" (丁寧語), polite language. Linguistically, the former two are referent  honorifics, used for someone being talked about, and the last is an addressee honorific, used for someone being talked to. Sometimes two more categories are also used, for a total of five categories: "teichōgo" (丁重語) "courteous language" and "bikago" (美化語), "word beautification", but more often these are included in the above three: teichōgo as a kind of kenjōgo (humble), bikago as a kind of teineigo (polite)—these two other categories use the same forms as the general categories, but are used in different contexts, hence differentiated by some linguists. Each type of speech has its own vocabulary and verb endings. For  example, the standard form of the verb "to do" is "suru" (). This form is appropriate with family members and close friends. The polite form of "suru", the addressee honorific, is "shimasu". This form is appropriate in most daily interactions. When showing respect, such as when talking about a customer or a superior, however, the respectful word "nasaru" and its polite form "nasaimasu" are used, and when referring to one's own actions or the actions of a group member, the humble word "itasu" and its polite form "itashimasu" are used. These respectful and humble words are referent honorifics, and thus  can coexist with addressee honorific "-masu". Polite language. Polite language, "teineigo", is characterized by the use of the sentence ending "desu" and the verb ending "-masu" and the use of prefixes such as "o-" and "go-" towards neutral objects. Television presenters invariably use polite language, and it is the form of the language first taught to most non-native learners of Japanese. Polite language can be used to refer to one's own actions or those of other people. Respectful language. Respectful language, "sonkeigo", is a special form or alternative word used when talking about superiors and customers. It is  not used to talk about oneself. For example, when a Japanese hairdresser or dentist requests their client to take a seat, they say "o kake ni natte kudasai" to mean "please sit down". However, they would use the verb "suwaru" る rather than "o kake ni naru" to refer to themselves sitting down. The respectful version of language can only be used to refer to others. In general, respectful language is directed at those in positions of power; for example, a superior at work, or a customer. It also implies that the speaker is acting in a professional capacity. It  is characterized by lengthy polite expressions. Common verbs may be replaced by more polite alternative verbs, for example "suru" (do) by "nasaru", or "hanasu" (talk) by "ossharu" when the subject is a person of respect. Some of these transformations are many-to-one: "iku" (go), "kuru" (come), and "iru" (be) all become "irassharu", and "taberu" (eat) and "nomu" (drink) both become "meshiagaru". Verbs may also be changed to respectful forms. One respectful form is a modification of the verb with a prefix and a polite suffix. For example, "yomu" (read) becomes "o-yomi ni naru", with the prefix "o-" added  to the i-form of the verb, and the verb ending "ni naru". The verb ending "-(r)areru" can also be used, such as "yomareru". Nouns also undergo substitution to express respect. The normal Japanese word for person, "hito", 人, becomes "kata", 方, in respectful language. Thus a customer would normally be expected to be referred to as a "kata" rather than a "hito". Humble language. In general, humble language is used when describing one's actions or the actions of a person in one's in-group to others such as customers in business. Humble language tends to imply that  one's actions are taking place in order to assist the other person. Humble language ("kenjōgo") is similar to respectful language, in substituting verbs with other forms. For example: "suru" (do) becomes "itasu", and "morau" (receive) becomes "itadaku". These two verbs are also seen in set phrases such as "dō itashimashite" (you're welcome) and "itadakimasu" (いただきます—a phrase said before eating or drinking). Similar to respectful language, verbs can also change their form by adding a prefix and the verb "suru" or "itasu". For example, "motsu" (carry) becomes "o mochi shimasu". The use of humble forms may imply doing  something for the other person; thus a Japanese person might offer to carry something for someone else by saying "o mochi shimasu". This type of humble form also appears in the set phrase "o matase shimashita", "I am sorry to have kept you waiting", from "mataseru" (make wait) with the addition of "o" and "shimasu". Similarly, "o negai shimasu", "please [do this]", from "negau" (request or hope for), again with the addition of "o" and "shimasu". Even more politely, the form "motasete itadaku" literally means "humbly be allowed to carry". This phrase would be used to express the idea that  I will carry it if you please. The same forms may also be used when the speaker is not the agent, as a courtesy to the listener, as in the common phrase 電車が参ります ("densha ga mairimasu" "a train is arriving") at rail stations. In the case, the announcer him or herself is not arriving, but he or she is simply being courteous. Some linguists distinguish this from kenjōgo (where the speaker is the agent), calling it instead teichōgo (丁重語) "courteous language", and defining it formally as: This category was first proposed by Hiroshi Miyachi (宮地裕). Teichōgo, as an addressee honorific , is always used with the teineigo ("-masu") form, the politeness sequence (using "go" as an example) being 行く, 行きます, 参ります ("iku", "ikimasu", "mairimasu"). In humble language, name suffixes are dropped when referring to people from inside one's group. Thus, Japanese-speaking company executives would introduce themselves and their team by saying "I am Gushiken, the president, and this is Niwa, the CEO." Similarly to respectful language, nouns can also change. The word "hito", 人, meaning "person", becomes "mono", written 者. The humble version is used when referring to oneself or members of one's group, such as one's  company. Word beautification. Word beautification (, , "beautified speech", in also sometimes , , "elegant speech") is the practice of making words more polite or "beautiful". This form of language is employed by the speaker to add refinement to one's manner of speech. This is commonly achieved by adding the prefix or to a word and used in conjunction with the polite form of verbs. In the following example, before and and the polite form of the verb are used to this effect. Generally is used before native Japanese words and is used before Sino-Japanese words, but there are exceptions. In finer  classifications, the above example is classified as word beautification—rather than honorific speech—as the speaker is voicing a "general opinion" regarding tea and rice crackers and is not intentionally deferential towards the "listener". In the following example, the speaker is directly referring to the listener and items received by them and is regarded as honorific language: See the section on honorific prefixes, below, for further discussion. Usage. Business. Honorifics are considered extremely important in a business setting. Training in honorifics usually does not take place at school or university, so company trainees are trained in correct use of honorifics  to customers and superiors. In groups and out groups. When using polite or respectful forms, the point of view of the speaker is shared by the speaker's "in-group" (内 "uchi"), so in-group referents do not take honorifics. For example, members of one's own company are referred to with humble forms when speaking with an external person; similarly, family members of the speaker are referred to humbly when speaking to guests. Similarly, the "out-group" (外 "soto") addressee or referent is always mentioned in the polite style (though not necessarily with honorifics). Mastery of politeness and honorifics  is important for functioning in Japanese society. Not speaking politely enough can be insulting, and speaking too politely can be distancing (and therefore also insulting) or seem sarcastic. Children generally speak using plain informal speech, but they are expected to master politeness and honorifics by the end of their teenage years. Recent trends indicate that the importance of proper politeness is not as high as before, particularly in metropolitan areas. The standards are inconsistently applied towards foreigners, though most textbooks attempt to teach the polite style before considering to teach any of the other styles. Gender differences. Depending on the  situation, women's speech may contain more honorifics than men's. In particular, in informal settings, women are more likely to use polite vocabulary and honorific prefixes, such as to mean "eat rice", whereas men may use less polite vocabulary such as with exactly the same meaning. This is part of a general pattern of speech differences by sex. However, in many settings, such as in customer service, there will be little or no difference between male and female speech. Grammatical overview. Japanese has grammatical functions to express several different pragmatic registers. Not only "politeness" but also "respectfulness", "humility" and  formality can be expressed. Expressing politeness. There are three levels of politeness, "plain" or "direct" ( "futsūtai" or 常体 "jōtai"), "polite" or "distal" (敬体 "keitai" or 丁寧 "teinei"), and "formal" (generally, 敬語 "keigo" or 最敬体 "saikeitai"). Formal and polite can be combined. For example, for the sentence "This is a book", The informal style is used among friends, the distal or polite style by inferiors when addressing superiors and among strangers or casual acquaintances, and the formal style generally in writing or prepared speeches. The plain formal and informal styles of verbs are nearly identical, with a few grammatical differences, such  as the verb "de aru" being used as a formal copula, and the preferential usage of verb stems to connect clauses instead of the "te form". Formal language in Japanese also uses different vocabulary and structures from informal language. In some contexts, where both the imperfective (incomplete: present/future) and perfective (complete: past) tenses are acceptable, the perfective is considered more polite. This is only at the completion of an activity; common examples are ありがとうございました "arigatō gozaimashita" "thank you (for a completed favor)", ご馳走様でした "go-chisō-sama deshita" "it was a feast (for a completed meal)", 失礼しました "shitsurei shimashita" "I  have been rude (when leaving, after a visit)". For example, when entering someone's office, one conventionally says 失礼します "shitsurei shimasu," as the visit is not complete yet, while when exiting one may say either "shitsurei shimasu" or, more politely, 失礼しました "shitsurei shimashita." Many phrases cannot be used in the perfective in this way, as the referent is as yet incomplete. For example, the standard greeting お早うございます "ohayō gozaimasu" "Good morning" (lit. "It is early") cannot be said as ×お早うございました *"ohayō gozaimashita" "It was early", as it is used only during the morning. Expressing respect. Further to this , there is another factor, respect, which is indicated in yet other ways. For each politeness level there are two . These respectful forms are represented by different verb endings. Since verbs come at the end of the sentence in Japanese, most of the factors of formality, politeness, and respect are expressed at the very end of each sentence. The "o-machi-suru" humble forms carry an implication that the waiting or other activity is being (humbly) done by the speaker for the benefit of the person being addressed. Thus a "humble" sentence is unlikely to take a third person subject. For  example, a sentence like "jon ga sensei o o machi suru" (John waits for the teacher) is unlikely to occur. Honorific titles. Honorific suffixes and prefixes are used when referring to others in a conversation. They reflect not only the level of politeness chosen, but also the relative social rank or the degree of intimacy between people. For example, a person might refer to their classmate or work colleague as "Asada-san" ("Mr./Ms. Asada"), but to their little son as "Hideyo-chan" ("lil' Hideyo")"." Referring to somebody without using a honorific is a sign of great informality or intimacy. The  most common honorifics include: Requests. Japanese requests and commands have many set forms depending on who is being addressed by whom. For example, the phrase "yoroshiku o negai shimasu", meaning "I ask your favor" can take various forms. At the bottom of the scale comes which might be used between male friends. Its more polite variant might be used towards less familiar people or to superiors. Going up in politeness, the phrase means the same thing, but is used in business settings. It is possible to go further, replacing the polite "shimasu" with the humble "itashimasu", to get In extremely  formal Japanese, such as that used on New Year's greeting cards, this may be replaced with an even more polite expression When making requests, at the bottom of the politeness scale comes the plain imperative "tabero" or "kue", literally "Eat!", a simple order to be said to an inferior or someone considered to have no choice, such as a prisoner. This form might convey anger. Similarly, the "no/n da" suffix can make an order: "taberu n da", or "kuu n da" "Eat!". To express anger, the suffix "yagaru" also exists: "kuiyagare", an extremely forceful and angry instruction to  eat, expressing contempt for the addressee. Negatives are formed by adding suffix "na": "taberu na" "do not eat", "gomi o suteru na": "do not throw away rubbish". Similarly, the negative of "da", "ja nai", can be used: "taberu n ja nai". More polite, but still strict, is the "nasai" suffix, which attaches to the i-form of the verb. This originates in the polite verb "nasaru". "Tabenasai" thus is an order perhaps given by a parent to a child. This is often colloquially shortened to "na", hence "tabena". This form has no grammatical negative. Requests can also be formed by  adding to the "te" form of a verb. The plainest form adds "kure", an irregular form of the verb "kureru", to the te form. For example, "tabete kure" or "kutte kure": "eat it", less forceful than "tabero". Negatives are made by using the negative "te" form: "tabenaide kure" or "kuwanaide kure" "don't eat it". Going up one scale in politeness, the more polite verb "kudasai" is added. For example, "tabete kudasai". With this polite form, the rough "kū" verb is unlikely to be used. Similarly, "tabenaide kudasai": "please don't eat it". A similar entry on the scale of  politeness is made by using the imperative form of a polite verb. For example, "meshiagaru", the polite verb for "to eat", when turned into "meshiagare", the imperative, becomes the response to the set phrase "itadakimasu". Further, more polite forms are also possible. These involve the "i-form" of the verb rather than the "te form", and an honorific prefix (see honorific prefixes: verbs, below). Beyond simply increased politeness, this form is more formal, and is used when addressing a group, or as a general instruction, rather than directed at a particular person. For example, "tsukau", "use", becomes "o tsukai kudasai : please use this". In the case of phrasal verbs the honorific "o" appears before the entire phrase, not simply the verb, as in , from . Politeness can be carried even further by conjugating kudasaru into its masu form and using the imperative, which becomes "o tsukai kudasaimase." The most polite form of this would probably be along the lines of "o tsukai ni natte itadakimasen deshou ka." "You will probably not bestow the favor of honorably using this?" Language like this, however, is rarely used. Other ways to increase politeness involve indirection of the request: "kore o tsukau you ni o  negai shimasu": "I humbly request that you think about using this". Honorific prefixes. The "bikago" (beautifying) prefixes "o-" (お〜) and "go-" (ご〜) (both written with the character 御- in kanji) are honorific prefixes which are applied to nouns and in some contexts to verbs. In general, "go-" (the on'yomi) precedes Sino-Japanese words (that is, words borrowed from Chinese or made from Sino-Japanese elements), while "o-" (the kun'yomi) precedes native Japanese words. There are many exceptions, however, where the "o-" prefix is used for Sino-Japanese words, including お茶 "o-cha" "tea", お大事に "o-daiji-ni" "get well", お電話  o-denwa "telephone", お稽古 "o-keiko" "practice", お宅 "o-taku" "home/you", and many others. There is also one common exception for the "go-" prefix, ごゆっくり "go-yukkuri" "slowly", where the main word is clearly not of Chinese origin. These prefixes are used for two purposes: to speak respectfully about a stranger or social superior's family, belongings, or actions (as part of 尊敬語, sonkeigo); or to speak in a generally refined or polite way (敬語 "keigo" generally, specifically 美化語, "bikago"). Prefix usage. Although these honorific prefixes are often translated into English as "honorable" ("o-denwa," for example, would be  given as "the honorable telephone") this translation is unwieldy and cannot convey the true feeling of their use in Japanese. These prefixes are essentially untranslatable, but their use indicates a polite respect for the item named or the person to or about whom one is speaking. A shorter translation is "dear"—for example, "o-ko-san", お子さん, translates idiomatically as "your dear child"—and a similar sentiment is expressed in such English expressions as "Would you " care for a spot of" tea?" or "Would you "care for a little" tea?" (as opposed to the plain "Would you "like some" tea?"). As  with honorific word forms and titles, honorific prefixes are used when referring to or speaking with a social superior, or speaking about a superior's actions or possessions, but not usually when referring to oneself or one's own actions or possessions, or those of one's in-group. For example, when referring to one's own order at a restaurant, one would use "chūmon", but when referring to a customer's order, the restaurant staff would use "go-chūmon". Similarly, "kazoku" means "my family," while "go-kazoku" means "your family" (or, broadly speaking, someone else's family). There are  some words which frequently or always take these prefixes, regardless of who is speaking and to whom; these are often ordinary items which may have particular cultural significance, such as tea ("o-cha") and rice ("go-han"). The word "meshi", the Japanese equivalent of Sino-Japanese "go-han", is considered rough and masculine (男性語). The honorific "o-" is also sometimes attached to of native verbs (hence native "o-") to refer to a specific item associated with the verb, as in oshibori (お絞り、絞る) "hot towel", and onigiri/omusubi (お握り、握る and お結び、結ぶ) "rice ball". In rare cases, both a base form and  honorific are in use with different readings. A notable example is 利益 "ri-eki" "benefit, profit (e.g., business)" and 御利益 "go-ri-yaku" "divine favor, grace"; plain "ri-yaku" is sometimes used, but "go-ri-eki" is generally not. The former, an everyday term, uses the usual kan-on reading, while the later, a specialized religious term, uses the older go-on reading. Honorific prefixes can be used for other items, possibly for a comic or sarcastic effect (for example, "o-kokakōra", "honorable Coca-Cola"). Overuse of honorific prefixes may be taken as pretentious or simpering, and, as with other  polite speech, they are more used by women than men. In tea ceremony, common ingredients and equipment always take the honorific "o-" or "go-", including water ("o-mizu"), hot water ("o-yu"), and tea bowls ("o-chawan"). However, these terms are often heard in daily life as well. Foreign loanwords (gairaigo, except those that come from Chinese; see above) seldom take honorifics, but when they do "o-" seems to be preferable to "go-". Examples are "o-bīru" ("bīru": beer), which can sometimes be heard at restaurants, "o-kādo" ("kādo": card, as in credit card or point card), which is often  heard at supermarkets and department stores, and "o-sōsu" ("sōsu": sauce). Verbs. For verbs, a respectful request—or rather a polite command—addressed to a group may be formed by using 御〜, followed by the "masu"-stem (連用形), followed by . For Chinese verbs (kango + "suru"), the prefix is generally pronounced "go-," while for native Japanese verbs the prefix is pronounced "o-." This is generally written in kana. The most commonly heard use is (Chinese verb), which is used pervasively in recorded announcement in Japan (escalators, trains and subways, turning trucks), but other verbs are also used frequently, such as (Japanese  verb). The respectful prefix can also be used in honorific verbs, when speaking about a superior, in which case it is formed by "o-," followed by the "masu"-stem, followed by (suitably conjugated), as in . Female names. "O-" was also commonly used as an honorific prefix to female given names in pre-war Japan, particularly in combination with dropping common suffixes such as -ko (-こ) (-子, literally "child"). For example, would be referred to as , would become , would become , and so on. This was a less polite honorific than "san". For example, a female servant named "Kikuko" would be referred to  as "O-kiku" rather than "Kikuko-san". This usage has disappeared in current Japanese, and has been replaced by using the diminutive suffix "-chan" instead (compare to male "-kun"), as in "Aki-chan" for "Akiko". Rare forms. There is also a rarer prefix "mi-" (kun'yomi), which is mostly used in words related to gods and the emperor, such as "mi-koshi" (御輿, "portable shrine" in Shinto) and "mi-na" (御名, "the Holy Name" in Christianity). However, in this context it is often replaced by 神 ("god", also pronounced "mi-"), and then a further 御 (pronounced お-, "o-") may be added , as in 御神輿 ("o-mi-koshi"). Sometimes the reading is ambiguous—for example, 御霊屋 "mausoleum" may be pronounced either "mi-tama-ya" or "o-tama-ya". When pronounced as "mi-," the prefix is usually written in kanji (unlike "o-" and "go-", which are very frequently hiragana), but in some case it is written in hiragana, with a notable example being "mi-hotoke" (御仏, "Lord Buddha") often being written as み仏, partly to avoid confusion with the incorrect reading *"go-butsu". The honorific prefix generally does not fall in the middle. In compounds, where the honorific would fall in the middle , the honorific is almost always dropped. For example, お茶／御茶 "o-cha" "tea", but 麦茶 "mugi-cha" "barley tea", not ×麦お茶／麦御茶 *"mugi-o-cha". There are exceptions, however, such as 乾御門 "inui-go-mon" "northwest gate (to imperial palace)"; note that 乾門 "inui-mon" "northwest gate (generally)" is also used. Rarely, 御 is used instead as an honorific "suffix," notably in 甥御 "oigo" "your nephew" and 姪御 "meigo" "your niece". The character 御 has other readings, notably "on" (kun'yomi) and "gyo" (on'yomi), as seen in and , but these are not productive (they are not used to form new words, but only  in existing words). Another prefix, pronounced "o-" （お〜） and potentially confused with 御〜 when written in hiragana, is 阿〜 "o-", which also has affectionate connotations, but is a separate term and not productive. It was previously used for endearment for women's names, and today is most notable in 阿多福／阿亀 ("o-ta-fuku," "o-kame", "moon-faced woman, homely woman"), which are frequently written as お多福／お亀, which may be mistaken (partially) for hiragana forms of ×御多福／×御亀. The character 阿 is more frequently pronounced "a," and used especially in words and names from Sanskrit, such as the "a" in the syllable  aum, hence unfamiliar in this use, creating the potential for confusion. In one case, a triple honorific prefix may used, namely in the word "o-mi-o-tsuke," a polite term for miso soup, which is ordinarily referred to as . This may be spelt in kanji in multiple ways, including , but also as (味 = "mi," flavor), and the 御御御〜 spelling may be considered ateji, punning on 御 and 味 both having the reading "mi". English analogs. While English has different registers, its levels of formality and politeness are not as formalized or as clearly defined as in Japanese. However , they can be instructive in gaining a feel for Japanese speech. English imperatives range from very blunt ("Give me the book"), to very indirect and elaborate ("If it's not too much trouble, could you please be so kind as to pass me the book?"—note the use of potential form, as in Japanese). Similarly, changes in word use can make language more flowery or respectful—rather than "Do you know?", one might say "Are you familiar with?" or "Are you acquainted with?", which convey some of the feel of 知る "shiru" versus ご存知だ "go-zonji da". In English, words of  Germanic origin are generally plainer, those from French are generally more flowery (compare "drink" versus "beverage"), and those from Latin are more formal and technical (see Anglish and related articles); similarly in Japanese, words of Japanese origin are plainer, while words of Chinese origin are more formal. These are not hard-and-fast rules, but they give a feel for the gradations. Humble language is less common in modern English, but is found in some contexts, such as guests saying "I am "honored" to be here," (rather than "I am "glad" to be here" or "I am "happy" to be  here") and in various valedictions such as "Sincerely", which were formerly more formal and humble, with such forms as "I am, Sir, your most humble and obedient servant," and the like. Some scholars argue that while honorific usage is necessarily affected by culturally specific values systems, the linguistic principles regulating its usage are not necessarily distinct from those of other languages, including honorific-poor languages such as English. Manual keigo. Some convenience stores and fast-food restaurants teach their young and part-time employees to verbally interact with customers in strictly prescribed ways laid down in instruction manuals. These forms  of speech are known as マニュアル敬語 ("manyuaru keigo", "manual keigo") or バイト敬語 ("baito keigo", "part-timer keigo"). Manual keigo includes forms which would be considered incorrect or at least non-standard in terms of traditional usage (keigo and otherwise). A common example is "udon ni narimasu" (literally "[this] becomes udon", "[this] will be udon") as a polite form of "udon desu" ("[this] is udon"), instead of the standard "udon de gozaimasu" ("[this] is udon (polite)")—this manual keigo form is often criticized on the basis that the udon is not "becoming" anything, and therefore "ni naru" is incorrect, both as keigo  and more generally.