Sino-Indian Agreement, 1954
The 1954 Sino-Indian Agreement, also called the Panchsheel Agreement, officially the Agreement on Trade and Intercourse Between Tibet Region of China and India, was signed by China and India in Peking on 29 April 1954. The preamble of the agreement stated the "panchsheel", or the five principles of peaceful coexistence, that China proposed and India favoured. The agreement reflected the adjustment of the previously existing trade relations between Tibet and India to the changed context of India's decolonisation and China's assertion of suzerainty over Tibet. Bertil Lintner writes that in the agreement, "Tibet  was referred to, for the first time in history, as 'the Tibet Region of China'". The agreement expired on 6 June 1962 as per the original term limit, in the midst of Sino-Indian border tensions. It was not renewed. By October of that year, war broke out between the two sides. Background. The 1954 agreement originates from the Convention of Calcutta, the Treaty of Lhasa, the Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet, the Anglo-Russian Convention, Anglo Chinese trade regulations of 1908 and 1914, alteration of Aitchison treaty in 1938, failure of Tibetan appeal to UN, the  Sino Tibetan Agreement 1951, Sino-India negotiations concerning Tibet, 1951 to 1953, and Sino–India conference on Tibetan trade and intercourse, December 1953 to April 1954. Negotiations regarding inclusion of passes. In December 1953, the Sino–India conference on Tibetan trade and intercourse started. During the negotiations related to which passes to include, Indian diplomats were successful in the inclusion of only six names. India tried putting forward other names, but did not push China and backed away after China showed resistance. The Chinese also objected to the mention of Demchok as one of the passes. According to Claude Arpi , the passes/routes mentioned by Delhi were: Summary of agreement. Preamble. The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence or Panchsheel upon which the articles of the treaty were based are listed as: Articles. Article I of the agreement paved the way for the establishment of Chinese trade agencies at New Delhi, Calcutta and Kalimpong and Indian trade Agencies at Yatung, Gyantse and Gartok. These trade agencies "would enjoy freedom from arrest while exercising their functions" among other privileges. Article II stated that traders of both countries would trade at pre-determined places. "The Government of China agrees to specify Yatung, Gyantse  and Phari as markets for trade. The Government of India agrees that trade may be carried on in India, including places like, Kalimpong, Siliguri and Calcutta, according to customary practice." Also, the "Government of China agrees to specify Gartok, Pulanchung (Taklakot), Gyanima-Khargo, Gyanima-Chakra, Ramura, Dongbra, Puling-Sumdo, Nabra, Shangtse and Tashigong as markets for trade"; and in the future the Government of India shall specify markets "on the basis of equality and reciprocity to do so". Article III covered pilgrimages by religious believers of the two countries outlined certain provisions for pilgrims of both countries. Article IV pointed  out some passes and routes which traders and pilgrims may use: Shipki La pass, Mana pass, Niti pass, Kungri Bingri pass, Dharma pass, and Lipu Lekh pass. Article V covered details related to certificates issued to traders, permitted traders to use other routes that those mentioned in Article IV and border transit procedures. Article VI outlined that "upon ratification by both Governments and shall remain in force for eight (8) years" and the procedure for extension. The agreement was signed , Plenipotentiary of the Government of the Republic of India and Chang Han Fu, Plenipotentiary of the Central People's Government , People's Republic of China. Raghavan was the Indian Ambassador while Chang Han-fu was the Chinese Deputy Foreign Minister. Further, notes were exchanged. Criticism. In retrospect, especially following the 1962 war, the agreement has been seen as a "diplomatic blunder" on the part of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.