Kayastha
Kayastha (also referred to as Kayasth) denotes a cluster of disparate Indian communities broadly categorised by the regions of the Indian subcontinent in which they were traditionally locatedthe Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas of North India, the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus of Maharashtra, the Bengali Kayasthas of Bengal and Karanas of Odisha. All of them were traditionally considered "writing castes", who had historically served the ruling powers as administrators, ministers and record-keepers. The earliest known reference to the term "Kayastha" dates back to the Kushan Empire, when it evolved into a common name for a writer or scribe. In the Sanskrit literature  and inscriptions, it was used to denote the holders of a particular category of offices in the government service. In this context, the term possibly derived from "kaya-" (principal, capital, treasury) and -"stha" (to stay) and perhaps originally stood for an officer of royal treasury, or the revenue department. Over the centuries, the occupational histories of Kayastha communities largely revolved around scribal services. However, these scribes did not simply take dictation but acted in the range of capacities better indicated by the term "secretary". They used their training in law, literature, court language, accounting, litigation and many other areas to  fulfil responsibilities in all these venues. Kayasthas, along with Brahmins, had access to formal education as well as their own system of teaching administration, including accountancy, in the early-medieval India. Modern scholars list them among Indian communities that were traditionally described as "urban-oriented", "upper caste" and part of the "well-educated" pan-Indian elite, alongside Punjabi Khatris, Kashmiri Pandits, Parsis, Nagar Brahmins of Gujarat, Chitpawans and CKPs (Chandrasenya Kayastha Prabhus) of Maharashtra, South-Indian Brahmins including Deshastha Brahmins from Southern parts of India and upper echelons of the Muslim as well as Christian communities that made up the  middle class at the time of Indian independence in 1947. Origins. Etymology. According to Merriam-Webster, the word "Kāyastha" is probably formed from the Sanskrit "kāya" (body), and the suffix "-stha" (standing, being in). As a class of administrators. As evidenced by literary and epigraphical texts, Kayasthas had emerged as a 'class of administrators' between late-ancient and early-mediaeval period of Indian history. Their emergence is explained by modern scholars as a result of growth of state machinery, complication of taxation system and the "rapid expansion of land-grant practice that required professional documenting fixation". The term also finds  mention in an inscription of the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I, dated to 442 , in which "prathama-kāyastha" is used as an administrative designation. The Yājñavalkya Smṛti, also from the Gupta era, and the Vishnu Smriti describe "kayasthas" as record-keepers and accountants, but not as "jāti" . Similarly, the term Kayastha is used in the works of Kshemendra, Kalhana and Bilhana to refer to members of bureaucracy varying from "Gṛhakṛtyamahattama" to the "Aśvaghāsa-kāyastha" . According to Romila Thapar, the offices that demanded formal education including that of a "kayastha" were generally occupied by the ""Brahmins", revenue collectors, treasurers and those concerned  with legal matters". In Buddhist association. According to Chitrarekha Gupta, it is possible that Buddhists, in their effort to create an educated non-Brahmana class, strove to popularize the utility of education and fostered those vocations that required a knowledge of writing. This is corroborated in Udana, where the "lekha-sippa" , was regarded as the highest of all the crafts. It's also backed by the fact that the earliest epigraphical records mentioning "lekhaka" or "kayastha" have been made in association with Buddhism. As an independent guild of professionals. It's also possible that "kayasthas" may have started out as  a separate profession, similar to bankers, merchants, and artisans. As suggested in certain epigraphs, they had a representative in the district-level administration, along with those of bankers and merchants. This is also implied in Mudrarakshasa, where a "kayastha" would work for any man who paid his wages on time. It's possible that secular knowledge, like writing, administration, and jurisprudence, was monopolised by a non-Brahmin professional elite that later came be referred as "kayasthas". History. From classical to early-medieval India. The Kayasthas, at least as an office, played an important role in administering the Gangetic plains from  the Gupta period. The earliest evidence comes from a Mathura inscription of Vasudeva I, composed by a Kayastha Śramaṇa. From this point we find, the term "kayastha" occurring in the inscription of the Gupta Emperor Kumaragupta I as "prathama-kāyastha," as "karaṇa-kāyastha" in Vainayagupta’s inscription, and as "gauḍa-kāyastha" in an Apshadha inscription dated 672 . The occasional references to individuals of the "Karaṇa" caste occupying high government offices are made in inscriptions and literary works too. Razia Banu has suggested that Brahmin and Kayastha migrants were brought to Bengal during the reign of the Gupta Empire to help  manage the state affairs. According to a legend, a Bengali King named "Adisur" had invited Brahmins accompanied by Kayasthas from Kannauj who became an elite sub-group described as Kulin. However, such claims are disputable and even rejected by some scholars. From the ninth-century and perhaps even earlier, Kayasthas had started to consolidate into a distinct caste. This is evident from a epigraphic record dated 871 of the King Amoghavarsha that mentions a branch of Kayasthas referred to as "vālabhya-kāyastha". The author of the Sanskrit work "Udayasundarī-kathā" also referred to himself as "vālabhya-kayāstha" and characterized Kayasthas  as 'ornaments of the Kṣatriyas'. In Soḍḍhala’s account. According to Soḍḍhala"," who claimed to be a Kayastha himself, Kayasthas traced their descent to a younger brother of the Maitrika king, identified as "Śilāditya VI or VII", referred to as "Kalāditya". He narrates that "Kalāditya" had besieged Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty that led to the victory of his elder brother. Subsequently, he was entrusted by Śilāditya to administer his kingdom at the advice of the Goddess "Rāja Lakśmī." Kalāditya has been further described as an incarnation of a "gaṇa" of Shiva called "Kayastha". Late medieval India. In Bengal, during  the reign of the Gupta Empire beginning in the 4th century, when systematic and large-scale colonisation by Indo-Aryan Kayasthas and Brahmins first took place, Kayasthas were brought over by the Guptas to help manage the affairs of state. After the Muslim conquest of India, they mastered Persian, which became the official language of the Mughal courts. Some converted to Islam and formed the Muslim Kayasth community in northern India. Bengali Kayasthas had been the dominant landholding caste prior to the Muslim conquest, and continued this role under Muslim rule. Indeed, Muslim rulers had from a very early time  confirmed the Kayasthas in their ancient role as landholders and political intermediaries. Bengali Kayasthas served as treasury officials and "wazirs" (government ministers) under Mughal rule. Political scientist U. A. B. Razia Akter Banu writes that, partly because of Muslim sultans' satisfaction with them as technocrats, many Bengali Kayasthas in the administration became "zamindars" and "jagirdars". According to Abu al-Fazl, most of the Hindu "zamindars" in Bengal were Kayasthas. Maharaja Pratapaditya, the king of Jessore who declared independence from Mughal rule in the early 17th century, was a Bengali Kayastha. In Sanskrit literature. The "Kayastha" appears as a figure in  Act IX of the Mṛcchakaṭika, where a "sreṣṭhin" and "kāyastha" are shown accompanying a judge ("adhikaraṇika") and assisting him. It's Act V mentions that "Moreover, O friend, a courtesan, an elephant, a "Kayastha", a mendicant, a spy & a donkey - where these dwell, there not even villains can flourish." In Mudrarakshasa, a Kayastha named "Śakaṭadāsa" is a crucial character and one of the trusted men of the Prime Minister of the Nanda King. According to Chitrarekha Gupta, the title "Ārya" added to the name of "Śakaṭadāsa" implies that he was a member of the nobility. Another Kayastha called "Acala" is  the scribe of Chanakya. In early-mediaeval Kashmir too, the term "kayastha" denoted an occupational class whose principal duty, besides carrying on the general administration of the state, consisted in the collection of revenue and taxes. Kshemendra’s "Narmamālā" composed during the reign of Ananta (1028-1063 ) gives a list of contemporary Kayastha officers that included "Gṛhakṛtyadhipati," "Paripālaka", "Mārgapati", "Gañja-divira", "Āsthāna-divira", "Nagara-divira", "Lekhakopādhya" and "Niyogi". Kalhana’s Rājataraṃgiṇī and Bilhana's "Vikramāṅkadevacarita" also mention Kayasthas. It is also mentioned that father of Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota Dynasty, Durlabhavardhan, had held the post of "Aśvaghāsa-kāyastha." Kayasthas  have been authors of several Sanskrit texts too. In Brahmanical literature. Kayasthas have been recorded as a separate caste responsible for writing secular documents and maintaining records in Brahmanical religious writings dating back to the seventh-century. In these texts, some described Kayasthas as Kshatriyas, while others often described them as a 'mixed-origin' caste with Brahmin and Shudra components. This was probably an attempt by the Brahmins to rationalize their rank in the traditional caste hierarchy and perhaps a later invention rather than a historical fact. British India. During the British Raj, Kayasthas continued to proliferate in public administration , qualifying for the highest executive and judicial offices open to Indians. Bengali Kayasthas took on the role occupied by merchant castes in other parts of India and profited from business contacts with the British. In 1911, for example, Bengali Kayasthas and Bengali Brahmins owned 40% of all the Indian-owned mills, mines and factories in Bengal. Modern India. The Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas, Bengali Kayasthas and CKPs were among the Indian communities in 1947, at the time of Indian independence, that constituted the middle class and were traditionally "urban and professional" (following professions like doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, etc.) According to P.  K. Varma, "education was a common thread that bound together this pan Indian elite" and almost all the members of these communities could read and write English and were educated beyond school. The Kayasthas today mostly inhabit central, eastern, northern India, and particularly Bengal. They are considered a Forward Caste, as they do not qualify for any of the reservation benefits allotted to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes that are administered by the Government of India. This classification has increasingly led to feelings of unease and resentment among the Kayasthas, who believe that the communities that  benefit from reservation are gaining political power and employment opportunities at their expense. Thus, particularly since the 1990 report of the Mandal Commission on reservation, Kayastha organisations have been active in areas such as Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal and Orissa. These groups are aligning themselves with various political parties to gain political and economic advantages; by 2009 they were demanding 33 percent reservation in government jobs. Sub-groups. Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas. The Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas of Northern India are named thus because they have a myth of origin that says they descend from the 12 sons of the Hindu god Chitragupta, the  product of his marriages to Devi Shobhavati and Devi Nandini. The suffix "-vanshi" is Sanskrit and translates as "belonging to a particular family dynasty". At least some Chitraguptavanshi subcastes seem to have formed by the 11th or 12th centuries, evidenced by various names being used to describe them in inscriptions. Although at that time, prior to the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, they were generally outnumbered by Brahmins in the Hindu royal courts of northern India, some among these Kayasthas wrote eulogies for the kings. Of the various regional Kayastha communities it was those of north India who remained  most aligned to their role of scribes, whereas in other areas there became more emphasis on commerce. The group of Bhatnagar, Srivastava, Ambashtha and Saxena of Doab were classified by various Indian, British and missionary observers to be the most learned and dominant of the "service castes". Bengali Kayasthas. In eastern India, Bengali Kayasthas are believed to have evolved from a class of officials into a caste between the 5th/6th centuries and 11th/12th centuries, its component elements being putative Kshatriyas and mostly Brahmins. They most likely gained the characteristics of a caste under the Sena dynasty. According to Tej Ram  Sharma, an Indian historian, the Kayasthas of Bengal had not yet developed into a distinct caste during the reign of the Gupta Empire, although the office of the Kayastha (scribe) had been instituted before the beginning of the period, as evidenced from the contemporary "Smritis". Sharma further states: Chandraseniya Prabhu Kayasthas. In Maharashtra, Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus (CKP) claim descent from the warrior Chandrasen. Historically they produced prominent warriors and also held positions such as Deshpandes and Gadkaris (fort holder, an office similar to that of a castellan. Traditionally, the CKPs have the upanayana (thread ceremony) and have been granted the  rights to study the vedas and perform vedic rituals along with the Brahmins. Varna status. As the Kayasthas are a non-cohesive group with regional differences rather than a single caste, their position in the Hindu varna system of ritual classification has not been uniform. This was reflected in Raj era court rulings. Hayden Bellenoit gives details of various Raj era law cases and concludes the varna Kayastha was resolved in those cases by taking into account regional differences and customs followed by the specific community under consideration. Bellenoit disagrees with Rowe, showing that Risley's theories were in fact  used ultimately to classify them as Kshatriyas by the British courts. The first case began in 1860 in Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh with a property dispute where the plaintiff was considered an "illegitimate child" by the defendants, a north-Indian Kayastha family. The British court denied inheritance to the child, citing that Kayasthas are Dvija, "twice-born" or "upper-caste" and that the illegitimate children of Dwijas have no rights to inheritance. In the next case in 1875 in the Allahabad High Court, a north Indian Kayastha widow was denied adoption rights as she was an upper-caste i.e. Dwija woman . However, the aforementioned 1884 adoption case and the 1916 property dispute saw the Calcutta High Court rule that the Bengali Kayasthas were shudras. The Allahabad High Court ruled in 1890 that Kayasthas were Kshatriyas. Hayden Bellenoit concludes from an analysis of those that Even where the shudra designation was adjudged, the Raj courts appear to have sometimes recognised that the Bengali Kayasthas were degraded from an earlier kshatriya status due to intermarrying with both shudras and slaves ('dasa') which resulted in the common Bengali Kayastha surname of 'Das'. The last completed census of the British Raj (1931) classified them as  an "upper caste", i.e. Dwija, and the final British Raj law case involving their varna in 1926 determined them to be Kshatriya. Earlier, in Bihar, in 1811–12, botanist and zoologist Francis Buchanan had recorded the Kayastha of that region as "pure shudra" and accordingly kept them at the par with other producer caste groups like goldsmiths, Ahirs, Kurmis and the Koeris. William Pinch, in his study of Ramanandi Sampradaya in the north describes the emergence of the concept of "pure Shudra" in growing need of physical contact with some of the low caste groups who were producer and seller of  essential commodities or were the provider of services without which the self sufficiency of rural society couldn't persist. However, many of these adopted Vaishnavism in the aim to become Kshatriya. In 1901 Bihar census, Kayasthas of the area were classified along with Brahmins and Rajputs in Bihar as "other castes of twice-born rank" According to Arun Sinha, there was a strong current since the end of the 19th century among Shudras of Bihar to change their status in caste hierarchy and break the monopoly of bipolar elite of Brahmins and Rajputs of having "dvija" status. The education and  economic advancement made by some of the former Shudra castes enabled them to seek the higher prestige and "varna" status. The Kayastha along with the Bhumihars were first among the shudras to attain the recognition as "upper caste" leaving the other aspirational castes to aspire for the same. The Raj era rulings were based largely upon the theories of Herbert Hope Risley, who had conducted extensive studies on castes and tribes of the Bengal Presidency. According to William Rowe, the Kayasthas of Bengal, Bombay and the United Provinces repeatedly challenged this classification by producing a flood of books, pamphlets, family  histories and journals to pressurise the government to recognise them as kshatriya and to reform the caste practices in the directions of sanskritisation and westernisation. Rowe's opinion has been challenged, with arguments that it is based on "factual and interpretative errors", and criticised for making "unquestioned assumptions" about the Kayastha sanskritisation and westernisation movement. In post-Raj assessments, the Bengali Kayasthas, alongside Bengali Brahmins, have been described as the "highest Hindu castes". After the Muslim conquest of India, they absorbed remnants of Bengal's old Hindu ruling dynastiesincluding the Sena, Pala, Chandra, and Varmanand, in this way, became the  region's surrogate kshatriya or "warrior" class. During British rule, the Bengali Kayasthas, the Bengali Brahmins and the Baidyas considered themselves to be "Bhadralok", a term coined in Bengal for the gentry or respectable people. This was based on their perceived refined culture, prestige and education. According to Christian Novetzke, in medieval India, Kayastha in certain parts were considered either as Brahmins or equal to Brahmins. Several religious councils and institutions have subsequently stated the varna status of CKPs as Kshatriya. Notable people. This is a list of notable people from all the subgroups of Kayasthas. See also. Karan Kayastha