Standard Chinese phonology
This article summarizes the phonology (the sound system, or in more general terms, the pronunciation) of Standard Chinese (Standard Mandarin). Standard Chinese phonology is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. Actual production varies widely among speakers, as they introduce elements of their native varieties (although television and radio announcers are chosen for their ability to produce the standard variety). Elements of the sound system include not only the segments – the vowels and consonants – of the language but also the tones that are applied to each syllable. Standard Chinese has four main tones, in addition to a  neutral tone used on weak syllables. This article represents phonetic values using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), noting correspondences chiefly with the Pinyin system for transcription of Chinese text. For correspondences with other systems, see the relevant articles, such as Wade–Giles, Bopomofo (Zhuyin), Gwoyeu Romatzyh, etc., and Romanization of Chinese. Consonants. The following table shows the consonant sounds of Standard Chinese, transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet. The sounds shown in parentheses are sometimes not analyzed as separate phonemes; for more on these, see below. Excluding these, and excluding the glides , , and (for which see below), there are 19  consonant phonemes in the inventory. Between pairs of stops or affricates having the same place of articulation and manner of articulation, the primary distinction is not voiced vs. voiceless (as in French or Russian), but unaspirated vs. aspirated (as in Scottish Gaelic or Icelandic). The unaspirated stops and affricates may however become voiced in weak syllables (see below). Such pairs are represented in the pinyin system mostly using letters which in Romance languages generally denote voiceless/voiced pairs (for example and ), or in Germanic languages often denotes fortis/lenis pairs (for example initial aspirated voiceless/unaspirated voiced pairs such as  and ). However, in pinyin they denote aspirated/unaspirated pairs, for example and are represented with "p" and "b" respectively. More details about the individual consonant sounds are given in the following table. All of the consonants may occur as the initial sound of a syllable, with the exception of (unless the zero initial is assigned to this phoneme; see below). Excepting the rhotic coda, the only consonants that can appear in syllable coda (final) position are and (although may occur as an allophone of before labial consonants in fast speech). Final , may be pronounced without complete oral closure, resulting in  a syllable that in fact ends with a long nasalized vowel. See also , below. Denti-alveolar and retroflex series. The consonants listed in the first table above as denti-alveolar are sometimes described as alveolars, and sometimes as dentals. The affricates and the fricative are particularly often described as dentals; these are generally pronounced with the tongue on the lower teeth. The retroflex consonants (like those of Polish) are actually apical rather than subapical, and so are considered by some authors not to be truly retroflex; they may be more accurately called post-alveolar. Some speakers not from Beijing may  lack the retroflexes in their native dialects, and may thus replace them with dentals. Alveolo-palatal series. The alveolo-palatal consonants (pinyin "j", "q", "x") are standardly pronounced . Some speakers realize them as palatalized dentals , , ; this is claimed to be especially common among children and women, although officially it is regarded as substandard and as a feature specific to the Beijing dialect. In phonological analysis, it is often assumed that, when not followed by one of the high front vowels or , the alveolo-palatals consist of a consonant followed by a palatal glide ( or ). That is, syllables represented in pinyin  as beginning , , , , , (followed by a vowel) are taken to begin , , , , , . The actual pronunciations are more like , , , , , (or for speakers using the dental variants, , , , , , ). This is consistent with the general observation (see under ) that medial glides are realized as palatalization and/or labialization of the preceding consonant (palatalization already being inherent in the case of the palatals). On the above analysis, the alveolo-palatals are in complementary distribution with the dentals , with the velars , and with the retroflexes , as none of these can occur before high front vowels or palatal glides, whereas the alveolo-palatals occur "only" before high front vowels or  palatal glides. Therefore, linguists often prefer to classify not as independent phonemes, but as allophones of one of the other three series. The existence of the above-mentioned dental variants inclines some to prefer to identify the alveolo-palatals with the dentals, but identification with any of the three series is possible (unless the empty rime is identified with , in which case the velars become the only candidate; see below). The Yale and Wade–Giles systems mostly treat the alveolo-palatals as allophones of the retroflexes; Tongyong Pinyin mostly treats them as allophones of the dentals; and Mainland Chinese Braille  treats them as allophones of the velars. In standard pinyin and bopomofo, however, they are represented as a separate sequence. The alveolo-palatals arose historically from a merger of the dentals and velars before high front vowels and glides. Previously, some instances of modern were instead , and others were . The change took place in the last two or three centuries at different times in different areas. This explains why some European transcriptions of Chinese names (especially in postal romanization) contain , , , where an alveolo-palatal might be expected in modern Chinese. Examples are "Peking" for Beijing, "Chungking" for Chongqing, "Fukien" for  Fujian (cf. "Hokkien"), "Tientsin" for Tianjin; Sinkiang" for Xinjiang, and Sian" for Xi'an. The complementary distribution with the retroflex series arose when syllables that had a retroflex consonant followed by a medial glide lost the medial glide. Zero onset. A full syllable such as "ai", in which the vowel is not preceded by any of the standard initial consonants or glides, is said to have a "null initial" or "zero onset". This may be realized as a consonant sound: and are possibilities, as are and in some non-standard varieties. It has been suggested that such an onset be regarded  as a special phoneme, or as an instance of the phoneme , although it can also be treated as no phoneme (absence of onset). By contrast, in the case of the particle "a", which is a weak onsetless syllable, linking occurs with the previous syllable (as described under , below). When a stressed vowel-initial Chinese syllable follows a consonant-final syllable, the consonant does not directly link with the vowel. Instead, the zero onset seems to intervene in between. ("cotton jacket") becomes , . However, in connected speech none of these output forms is natural. Instead, when the words are spoken together the  most natural pronunciation is rather similar to , in which there is no nasal closure or any version of the zero onset, and instead nasalization of the vowel occurs. Glides. The glides , , and sound respectively like the "y" in English "yes", the "(h)u" in French "huit", and the "w" in English "we". (Beijing speakers often replace initial with a labiodental , except when it is followed by .) The glides are commonly analyzed not as independent phonemes, but as consonantal allophones of the high vowels: . This is possible because there is no ambiguity in interpreting a sequence like "yao/-iao" as , and potentially problematic  sequences such as do not occur. The glides may occur in initial position in a syllable. This occurs with in the syllables written "yu", "yuan", "yue", and "yun" in pinyin; with in other syllables written with initial "y" in pinyin ("ya", "yi", etc.); and with in syllables written with initial "w" in pinyin ("wa", "wu", etc.). When a glide is followed by the vowel of which that glide is considered an allophone, the glide may be regarded as epenthetic (automatically inserted), and not as a separate realization of the phoneme. Hence the syllable "yi", pronounced , may be analyzed as consisting  of the single phoneme , and similarly "yin" may be analyzed as , "yu" as , and "wu" as . It is also possible to hear both from the same speaker, even in the same conversation. For example, one may hear the number "one" as either or . The glides can also occur in medial position, that is, after the initial consonant but before the main vowel. Here they are represented in pinyin as vowels: for example, the "i" in "bie" represents , and the "u" in "duan" represents . There are some restrictions on the possible consonant-glide combinations: does not occur after labials (except for  some speakers in "bo", "po", "mo", "fo"); does not occur after retroflexes and velars (or after ); and occurs medially only in "lüe" and "nüe" and after alveolo-palatals (for which see above). A consonant-glide combination at the start of a syllable is articulated as a single sound – the glide is not in fact pronounced after the consonant, but is realized as palatalization , labialization , or both , of the consonant. (The same modifications of initial consonants occur in syllables where they are followed by a high vowel, although normally no glide is considered to be present there. Hence a consonant is  generally palatalized when followed by , labialized when followed by , and both when followed by .) The glides and are also found as the final element in some syllables. These are commonly analyzed as diphthongs rather than vowel-glide sequences. For example, the syllable "bai" is assigned the underlying representation . (In pinyin, the second element is generally written or , but is written as .) Syllabic consonants. The syllables written in pinyin as "zi", "ci", "si", "zhi", "chi", "shi", "ri" may be described as having a syllabic consonant instead of a vowel: Alternatively, the nucleus may be described not as a syllabic consonant, but  as a vowel: Phonologically, these syllables may be analyzed as having their own vowel phoneme, . However, it is possible to merge this with the phoneme (to which it is historically related), since the two are in complementary distribution – provided that the is either left unmerged, or is merged with the velars rather than the retroflex or alveolar series. (That is, , , and all exist, but and do not exist, so there is no problem merging both and at the same time.) Another approach is to regard the syllables assigned above to as having an (underlying) empty nuclear slot ("empty rhyme", Chinese  ), i.e. as not containing a vowel phoneme at all. This is more consistent with the syllabic consonant description of these syllables, and is consistent with the view that phonological representations are minimal (underspecified). When this is the case, sometimes the phoneme is described as shifting from voiceless to voiced, e.g. "sī" becoming . Syllabic consonants may also arise as a result of weak syllable reduction; see below. Syllabic nasal consonants are also heard in certain interjections; pronunciations of such words include , , , , . Vowels. Standard Chinese can be analyzed as having between two to six vowel phonemes. (which may also be analyzed as  underlying glides) are high (close) vowels, is mid whereas is low (open). The precise realization of each vowel depends on its phonetic environment. In particular, the vowel has two broad allophones and (corresponding respectively to pinyin "e" and "o" in most cases). These sounds can be treated as a single underlying phoneme because they are in complementary distribution. (Apparent counterexamples are provided by certain interjections, such as , , , and , but these are normally treated as special cases operating outside the normal phonemic system.) Transcriptions of the vowels' allophones (the ways they are pronounced in particular phonetic environments) differ somewhat between sources . More details about the individual vowel allophones are given in the following table (not including the values that occur with the rhotic coda). The vowel nuclei may be preceded by a glide , and may be followed by a coda . The various combinations of glide, vowel, and coda have different surface manifestations, as shown in the tables below. Any of the three positions may be empty, i.e. occupied by a null meta-phoneme . Five vowel analysis (pinyin-based). The following table provides a typical five vowel analysis according to and . In this analysis, the high vowels are fully phonemic and may  form sequences with the nasal codas . Two vowel analysis (bopomofo-based). Some linguists prefer to reduce the number of vowel phonemes further (at the expense of including underlying glides in their systems). Edwin G. Pulleyblank has proposed a system which includes underlying glides, but no vowels at all. More common are systems with two vowels; for example, in Mantaro Hashimoto's system, there are just two vowel nuclei, . In this analysis, the high vowels are analyzed as glides which surface as vowels before or . Other notes. As a general rule, vowels in open syllables (those which have no coda following  the main vowel) are pronounced long, while others are pronounced short. This does not apply to weak syllables, in which all vowels are short. In Standard Chinese, the vowels and harmonize in backness with the coda. For , it is fronted before and backed before . For , it is fronted before and backed before . Some native Mandarin speakers may pronounce , , and as , , and respectively in the first or second tone. Rhotic coda. Standard Chinese features syllables that end with a rhotic coda . This feature, known in Chinese as "erhua", is particularly characteristic of the Beijing dialect; many other dialects do not use  it as much, and some not at all. It occurs in two cases: The "r" final is pronounced with a relatively lax tongue, and has been described as a "retroflex vowel". In dialects that do not make use of the rhotic coda, it may be omitted in pronunciation, or in some cases a different word may be selected: for example, Beijing "zhèr" "here" and "nàr" "there" may be replaced by the synonyms "zhèli" and "nàli". Syllables. Syllables in Standard Chinese have the maximal form CGVX, traditionally analysed as an "initial" consonant C, a "final", and a tone T. The final  consists of a "medial" G, which may be one of the glides , a vowel V, and a coda X, which may be one of . The vowel and coda may also be grouped as the "rhyme", sometimes spelled "rime". Any of C, G, and X (and V, in some analyses) may be absent. Many of the possible combinations under the above scheme do not actually occur. There are only some 35 final combinations (medial+rime) in actual syllables (see pinyin finals). In all, there are only about 400 different syllables when tone is ignored, and about 1300 when tone is included. This  is a far smaller number of distinct syllables than in a language such as English. Since Chinese syllables usually constitute whole words, or at least morphemes, the smallness of the syllable inventory results in large numbers of homophones. However, in Standard Chinese, the average word length is actually almost exactly two syllables, practically eliminating most homophony issues even when tone is disregarded, especially when context is taken into account as well. (Still, due to the limited phonetic inventory, homophonic puns in Mandarin Chinese are very common and important in Chinese culture.) For a list of all Standard Chinese syllables (excluding  tone and rhotic coda) see the pinyin table or zhuyin table. Full and weak syllables. Syllables can be classified as "full" (or "strong"), and "weak". Weak syllables are usually grammatical markers such as "le", or the second syllables of some compound words (although many other compounds consist of two or more full syllables). A full syllable carries one of the four main tones, and some degree of stress. Weak syllables are unstressed, and have neutral tone. The contrast between full and weak syllables is distinctive; there are many minimal pairs such as "yàoshì" "important matter" and "yàoshi" "key", or "dàyì  main idea" and (with the same characters) "dàyi" "careless", the second word in each case having a weak second syllable. Some linguists consider this contrast to be primarily one of stress, while others regard it as one of tone. For further discussion, see under Neutral tone and Stress, below. There is also a difference in syllable length. Full syllables can be analyzed as having two morae ("heavy"), the vowel being lengthened if there is no coda. Weak syllables, however, have a single mora ("light"), and are pronounced approximately 50% shorter than full syllables. Any weak syllable will usually be an  instance of the same morpheme (and written with the same character) as some corresponding strong syllable; the weak form will often have a modified pronunciation, however, as detailed in the following section. Syllable reduction. Apart from differences in tone, length, and stress, weak syllables are subject to certain other pronunciation changes (reduction). The example of "shénme → shém" also involves assimilation, which is heard even in unreduced syllables in quick speech (for example, in "guǎmbō" for "guǎngbō" "broadcast"). A particular case of assimilation is that of the sentence-final exclamatory particle "a", a weak syllable, which has different characters for  its assimilated forms: Tones. Standard Chinese, like all varieties of Chinese, is tonal. This means that in addition to consonants and vowels, the pitch contour of a syllable is used to distinguish words from each other. Many non-native Chinese speakers have difficulties mastering the tones of each character, but correct tonal pronunciation is essential for intelligibility because of the vast number of words in the language that only differ by tone (i.e. are minimal pairs with respect to tone). Statistically, tones are as important as vowels in Standard Chinese. The following table shows the four main tones of Standard  Chinese, together with the neutral (or fifth) tone. To describe the pitch of the tones, its representing on a five-level scale is used, visualized with Chao tone letters. The values of the pitch for each tone described by Chao are traditionally considered standard, however slight regional and idiolectal variations in tone pronunciation also occur. The Chinese names of the main four tones are respectively "yīnpíng" ("dark level"), "yángpíng" ("light level"), "shǎng" or "shàng" ("rising"), and "qù" ("departing"). As descriptions, they apply rather to the predecessor Middle Chinese tones than to the modern tones; see below. Most romanization systems, including  pinyin, represent the tones as diacritics on the vowels (as does zhuyin), although some, like Wade–Giles, use superscript numbers at the end of each syllable. The tone marks and numbers are rarely used outside of language textbooks: in particular, they are usually absent in public signs, company logos, and so forth. Gwoyeu Romatzyh is a rare example of a system where tones are represented using normal letters of the alphabet (although without a one-to-one correspondence). First tone. First tone is a high-level tone. It is a steady high sound, produced as if it were being sung  instead of spoken. Its pitch is usually 55 or 44, at the same level where the fourth tone starts, or a little lower. Occasionally, slightly rising or falling high pitch ( 54 or 45) is also possible. In a few syllables, the quality of the vowel is changed when it carries first tone; see the vowel table above. Second tone. Second tone is a rising tone. It is usually described as a high-rising ( 35), with the sound that rises from middle to high pitch (like in the English "What?!"). It starts at around 3 or 2 pitch level, and then  rises towards the level of the first tone pitch (5 or 4). It may also start with a falling or flat segment, which is quite short in male speakers (a quarter of the total second tone length), but longer in female speakers, reaching nearly half of the total length of the second tone. This initial dip is more apparent in Southern China Mandarin accent, including Standard Taiwanese Mandarin, where the second tone is also lower and alternatively described as dipping or low-rising with overall contour of 323 (its start is still slightly lower than its final pitch). This tone  is usually one of the most difficult to master for Mandarin learners, as well as the speakers of non-Mandarin Chinese varieties, who often pronounce their second tone close to (full) third tone, especially in the word-final position before a pause. Third tone. Third tone is a low tone. It is also often termed a "dipping tone". This tone is often demonstrated as having a rise in pitch after the low fall; however, third tone syllables that include the rise are significantly longer than other syllables. When a third-tone syllable is not said in isolation, this rise is  normally heard only if it appears at the end of a sentence or before a pause, and then usually only on stressed monosyllables. The third tone without the rise is sometimes called "half third tone". The overall pitch contour of the third tone is traditionally described as 214, but for modern Standard Chinese speakers, the rise, if present, is not that high. The third tone starts lower or around the starting point for the second tone. In Beijing, its value inclines to 213 or 212, while in Taiwan it is usually 312 (Taiwanese Standard Chinese speakers also tend to never  pronounce the rising part in any context). Unlike the other tones, third tone is pronounced with breathiness or murmur. Two consecutive third tones are avoided by changing the first to second tone; see below. Fourth tone. Fourth tone is a falling tone. It features a sharp fall from high to lower pitch (as is heard in curt commands in English, such as "Stop!"). It starts at the same pitch level or higher than the first tone, and then drops to the pitch 1 or 2. In connected speech, when followed by syllables with other full tones, it tends to fall  only from high to mid-level. Similarly to the third tone, the final part is only pronounced before a pause or an unstressed syllable. Two consecutive fourth tones are pronounced in a zigzag pattern, with the first one higher, and the second one lower (˥˧ 53 - ˦˩41). Neutral tone. Also called fifth tone or zeroth tone (in Chinese , literal meaning: "light tone"), the neutral tone is sometimes thought of as a lack of tone. It is associated with weak syllables, which are generally somewhat shorter than tonic syllables. In Standard Chinese, about 15-20% of the syllables in written texts  are considered unstressed, including certain suffixes, clitics, and particles. Second syllables of some disyllabic words are also unstressed in Northern Mandarin accents, but many Mandarin speakers in Southern China tend to preserve their inherent tone. The pitch of a syllable with neutral tone is determined by the tone of the preceding syllable. Chao (1968) considered the neutral tone syllables to not have pitch contour. He introduced special dotted tone letters to denote its pitch. Later studies, however, found that the neutral tone syllables do have pitch contour. The following table shows the pitch at which the neutral tone is pronounced  in Standard Chinese after each of the four main tones. For contoured pitch analysis, first column shows the pitch contour directly after the full tone syllable, and second column shows the pitch contour after another neutral tone syllable. Although the contrast between weak and full syllables is often distinctive, the neutral tone is often not described as a full-fledged tone; some linguists feel that it results from a "spreading out" of the tone on the preceding syllable. This idea is appealing because without it, the neutral tone needs relatively complex tone sandhi rules to be made sense of; indeed , it would have to have four allotones, one for each of the four tones that could precede it. However, the "spreading" theory incompletely characterizes the neutral tone, especially in sequences where more than one neutral-tone syllable is found adjacent. In Modern Standard Mandarin as applied in "A Dictionary of Current Chinese", the second syllable of words with a 'toneless final syllable variant' (重·次輕詞語) can be read with either a neutral tone or with the normal tone. Relationship between Middle Chinese and modern tones. The four tones of Middle Chinese are not in one-to-one correspondence with the modern  tones. The following table shows the development of the traditional tones as reflected in modern Standard Chinese. The development of each tone depends on the initial consonant of the syllable: whether it was a voiceless consonant (denoted in the table by v−), a voiced obstruent (v+), or a sonorant (s). (The voiced–voiceless distinction has been lost in modern Standard Chinese.) Tone sandhi. Pronunciation also varies with context according to the rules of tone sandhi. Some such changes have been noted above in the descriptions of the individual tones; however, the most prominent phenomena of this kind relate to consecutive  sequences of third-tone syllables. There are also a few common words that have variable tone. Third tone sandhi. The principal rule of third tone sandhi is: For example, "lǎoshǔ" 老鼠 ("mouse") is pronounced "láoshǔ" as if it were . It has been investigated whether the rising contour () on the prior syllable is in fact identical to a normal second tone. It has been concluded that it is identical at least in terms of auditory perception. When there are three or more third tones in a row, the situation becomes more complicated since a third tone that precedes a second tone  resulting from third tone sandhi may or may not be subject to sandhi itself. The results may depend on word boundaries, stress, and dialectal variations. General rules for three-syllable third-tone combinations can be formulated as follows: Some linguists have put forward more comprehensive systems of sandhi rules for multiple third tone sequences. For example, it has been proposed that modifications are applied cyclically, initially within rhythmic feet (trochees; see below) and that sandhi "need not apply between two cyclic branches". Tones on special syllables. Special rules apply to the tones heard on the words (or morphemes) "bù" ("not ) and yī" ("one"). For "bù": For "yī": The numbers "qī" ("seven") and "bā" ("eight") sometimes display similar tonal behavior as "yī", but for most modern speakers they are always pronounced with first tone. (All of these numbers, and "bù", were historically Ru tones, and as noted above, that tone does not have predictable reflexes in modern Chinese; this may account for the variation in tone on these words.) Stress, rhythm and intonation. Stress within words ("word stress") is not felt strongly by Chinese speakers, although "contrastive stress" is perceived easily (and functions much the same as in other languages). One  of the reasons for the weaker perception of stress in Chinese may be that variations in the fundamental frequency of speech, which in many other languages serve as a cue for stress, are used in Chinese primarily to realize the tones. Nonetheless, there is still a link between stress and pitch – the "range" of pitch variation (for a given tone) has been observed to be greater on syllables that carry more stress. As discussed above, weak syllables have neutral tone and are unstressed. Although this property can be contrastive, the contrast is interpreted by some as being primarily one of  tone rather than stress. (Some linguists analyze Chinese as lacking word stress entirely.) Apart from this contrast between full and weak syllables, some linguists have also identified differences in levels of stress among full syllables. In some descriptions, a multi-syllable word or compound is said to have the strongest stress on the final syllable, and the next strongest generally on the first syllable. Others, however, reject this analysis, noting that the apparent final-syllable stress can be ascribed purely to natural lengthening of the final syllable of a phrase, and disappears when a word is pronounced within a sentence  rather than in isolation. San Duanmu takes this view, and concludes that it is the first syllable that is most strongly stressed. He also notes a tendency for Chinese to produce trochees – feet consisting of a stressed syllable followed by one (or in this case sometimes more) unstressed syllables. On this view, if the effect of "final-lengthening" is factored out: The positions described here as lacking stress are the positions in which weak (neutral-tone) syllables may occur, although full syllables frequently occur in these positions also. There is a strong tendency for Chinese prose to employ four-syllable  'prosodic words' consisting of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables which are further subdivided into two trochaic feet. This structure, sometimes known as a 'four-character template' (四字格), is particularly prevalent in "chengyu", which are classical idioms that are usually four characters in length. Statistical analysis of "chengyu" and other idiomatic phrases in vernacular texts indicates that the four-syllable prosodic word had become an important metrical consideration by the Wei/Jin dynasties (4th century CE). This preference for trochaic feet may even result in polysyllabic words in which the foot and word (morpheme) boundaries do not align. For example, 'Czechoslovakia ' is stressed as 捷克/斯洛/伐克 and 'Yugoslavia' is stressed as 南斯/拉夫, even though the morpheme boundaries are 捷克/斯洛伐克 'Czech[o]/slovak[ia]' and 南/斯拉夫 'South/slav[ia]', respectively. The preferred stress pattern also has a complex effect on tone sandhi for the various Chinese dialects. This preference for a trochaic metrical structure is also cited as a reason for certain phenomena of word order variation within complex compounds, and for the strong tendency to use disyllabic words rather than monosyllables in certain positions. Many Chinese monosyllables have alternative disyllabic forms with virtually identical meaning – see . Another function of voice pitch  is to carry intonation. Chinese makes frequent use of particles to express certain meanings such as doubt, query, command, etc., reducing the need to use intonation. However, intonation is still present in Chinese (expressing meanings rather similarly as in standard English), although there are varying analyses of how it interacts with the lexical tones. Some linguists describe an additional intonation rise or fall at the end of the last syllable of an utterance, while others have found that the pitch of the entire utterance is raised or lowered according to the desired intonational meaning.