Women in Pakistani politics
Since Pakistan's independence on 14 August 1947, women have been active participants in parliamentary politics. Their representation remained low in the first and second Constituent Assemblies, however the amendments to the Constitution of Pakistan paved way for their increased participation in the parliament. Besides, the progressive laws helped improve their participation in legislative and executive positions over the years. Since 2002, women politicians have notable representation in the federal as well as provincial assemblies. Women as equal citizen of Pakistan are free to contest general elections and to be elected to any public office at  the national, provincial and local levels without any discrimination. They have a liberty to exercise their right to vote in all elections, general or by-polls, which they could since independence and were reprised in the 1956 constitution. They can run for elections directly as well as through women’s reserved quota. There is no legal compulsion on women to hold any highest public office. Pakistan has hosted women as the Prime Minister, Federal Minister, Speaker of the National Assembly, and the Leader of the Opposition, etc. Constitutional and Legislative measures regarding women's representation in Politics. The successive governments  in Pakistan, and the parliamentarians have contributed to ensure women's significant representation in the legislative bodies. For this, the government undertook affirmative measures through introducing several provisions in the Constitution and laws of Pakistan. For instance, The Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 reserved 10 seats for women in the unicameral Parliament with five seats each from East and West Pakistan. The Constitution of Pakistan of 1962 reserved six seats for women in the National Assembly with three seats each from East and West Pakistan. The Constitution of the Pakistan of 1973 reserved 10 seats for women for a period  of ten years from the commencing day of the Constitution or holding of the third general elections to the National Assembly, whichever occurred later. In 1985, ten (10) seats were increased to twenty (20) whereas, the reserved seats for women were increased to sixty (60) in 2002 during the era of General Pervaiz Musharraf. Various provisions of the Constitution of Pakistan 1973 affirm the state's resolve to minimize gender disparity by the elimination of discrimination on the basis of gender and encouraging participation of women in all walks of life. Article 17 (2) of the Constitution provides every citizen  with the right to form or be a member of a political party. Article 34 of the Constitution emphasizes full participation of women in national life and states that “Steps shall be taken to ensure full participation of women in all spheres of national life”. In order to implement the fundamental rights guaranteed in the constitution, substantive amendments in the constitution as well as election laws are made to ensure increased women's participation in political process. For instance, 60 seats for women are reserved in the National Assembly under Article 51 and 17 seats are reserved in the Senate  of Pakistan under Article 59. While, 168 seats for the provincial assemblies i.e. Balochistan (11), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (26), Punjab (66) and Sindh (29) under Article 106 of the Constitution. Similarly, the Elections Act, 2017 directed the political parties to ensure at least five per cent representation of women candidates when fielding candidates for general seats, which is a progressive development to encourage representation of women in legislative bodies. Analysis & Statistics. There is a huge gender gap in terms of voters according to the data released by the Election Commission of Pakistan revealing that there are 64 million males (55%), 51  million females (45%) and (0.002%) transgender voters in Pakistan. According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union ranking, Pakistan ranks 100th in the list of 190 countries in terms of representation of women. Pakistan is ranked at 93 among 153 countries in women’s political empowerment where 20.2% of women are legislators, whereas 12% of women are appointed at ministerial positions, according to the Global Gender Gap Report 2020. According to CSOs alternative report submitted to UN's CEDAW Committee, gender ratios of Cabinet members at the national and provincial levels are: Federal 6:36, Punjab 2:43, Sindh 2:18, while there is no  representation of women in cabinets in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Women chair 2 out of 34 standing committees of the National assembly and 10 out of 50 Senate Committees. The gender ratio among Parliamentary Secretaries is 14:36. Provincial ratios of Standing Committee Chairs are: Balochistan 6:12, KP 3:31, Punjab 10:14, Sindh 2:17. According to a study on Gender Audit of Women’s Political Representation in the Legislative Assemblies in the South Asian countries, Nepal has 32.7% women in the parliament, followed by Afghanistan 27.3% Bangladesh 20.6%, Pakistan 20.2%, Bhutan 14.9%, India 12.6%, Sri Lanka 5.3% and Maldives 4.7%. The highest  ratio of women’s representation in the National Assembly of Pakistan was around 22 percent between 2008 and 2013. However, it is around 19 percent in current legislative assemblies, and no woman has representation in the cabinets of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan. Representation of Women in the National Parliament of Pakistan. History (1947 to 2018). Constituent Assembly and the National Assembly. In the first Constituent Assembly of Pakistan composed of 69 members, two women Begum Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah and Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz served from 1947 to 1954, whereas there was no representation of women in the Second Constituent Assembly which  had 72 members who served from 1955 to 1958. In the 3rd National Assembly from 1962 to 1964, eight (8) women including six on reserved seats and two on general seats were elected as MNAs. They were Begum Shamsun Nahar Mahmood, Begum Hamida Mohammad Ali, Begum Roquyya Anwar, M.A., Begum Serajunnessa Choudhury, Zahara Aziz, Begum Mujeeb-un-nisa Mohammad Akram, Begum Khudeja G.A. Khan, and Begum Zari Sarfaraz. Six (6) women politicians were elected on reserved seats as the members of the 4th National Assembly from 1965 to 1969. They include; Begum Mariam Hashimuddin Ahmed, Begum Razia Faiz, Begum Dolly  Azad, Begum Mujeeb-un-nisa Mohammad Akram, Begum Khudeja Khan, S.I., T.Pk., and Begum Zari Sarfraz. In the 5th National Assembly from 1972 to 1977, six women politicians were elected on reserved seats for women while one woman member, Mrs. Najma Andrews was elected on a reserved seat for minorities after the death of her husband R.M. Andrews, who was the sitting member of the National Assembly. They include; Shireen Wahab Sahiba, Nargis Naim Sandhu, Begum Nasim Jahan, Begum Zahida Sultana, Dr. Mrs. Ashraf Abbasi and Jennifer Jehanzeba Qazi Musa. Ten women were elected on reserved seats, while Begum Naseem  Abdul Wali Khan and Begum Naseem Wali Khan were elected on general seats as a result of general elections held in 1977. The 6th National Assembly did function from 28 March 1977 to 5 July 1977, but ultimately it had to dissolve owing to the political movement against the PPP government on the allegation of rigging in elections. Mrs. Naseem Wali Khan was the first woman to have been elected from the North-West Frontier Province however due to Opposition's boycott she never took oath as a member. In the 7th National Assembly, twenty one women (21) were elected  on reserved seats whereas two women were elected on general seats as MNAs for the term from 1985 to 1988. In the 8th National Assembly for the term (1988-1990), twenty women (20) were elected on reserved seats whereas four women were elected on general seats including Mohtrama Benazir Bhutto who became the first woman Prime Minister of Pakistan. In the 9th National Assembly for the term (1990-1993), Benazir Bhutto and Begum Nusrat Bhutto were the only two women members who were elected on general seats. No woman was elected on the reserved seat due to the sunset clause  in the Constitution where this provision had expired after three election cycles. Four (4) women candidates were elected on general seats to serve as the members of the 10th National Assembly and served for the term from 1993 to 1996 including Benazir who became Prime minister for the second time. Six (6) women politicians were elected on general seats for the 11th National Assembly and served as MNAs for the term from 1997 to 1999. Seventy-four (74) women political representatives including thirteen on general seats, sixty on reserved women seats and one on non-Muslim seat were elected as  MNAs for the 12th National Assembly that completed its five years term i.e. 2002-2007. Seventy-six (76) women candidates including sixteen on general seats and sixty on reserved seats were elected as the members of the 13th National Assembly that served for five years term from 2008 to 2013. Seventy (70) women politicians including nine on general seats, sixty on reserved women seats and one on non-Muslim seat were elected as the members of the 14th National Assembly that served for the complete term of five years i.e. 2013-2018. Senate of Pakistan (1973-2018). Senator Samia Usman  Fatah took oath on 6 August 1973 as the only woman member in the first Senate of Pakistan who served for the term from 1973 to 1975. Senators Asifa Farooqi and Aziza Humayun were elected on general seats and they took oath on 6 August 1975 as the only two women members out of 45 in the Senate for the term (1975-1977). No woman was elected to the Senate for the term from 1985 to 1988. Senator Dr. Noor Jahan Panezai took oath on 21 March 1988 as the only woman member in the Senate of Pakistan for the  term from 1988-1991. She was also elected as the first woman Deputy Chairman Senate in 1991. Dr. Noor Jahan Panezai was the only woman member elected as a Senator for the term from 1991 to 1994. Senators Fiza Junejo and Nasreen Jalil were elected as the members of the Senate for the term (1994-1997). Nasreen Jalil was the only woman member elected as a Senator for the term from 1997 to 2000. As a result of the constitutional amendment that raised the membership of the Senate from 87 to 100 in 2002, 17 women were elected on reserved  seats to serve in the Senate for the term from 2003 to 2006. Twenty-one (21) women including 17 on reserved seats and 4 on general seats were elected as Senators who served for the term from 2003 to 2009. There were nineteen (19) women in the Senate including seventeen elected on reserved seats and two elected on general seats for the term from 2015 to 2018. Current representation (2018 to date). National Assembly (2018-2023). Sixty-nine (69) women out of 342 members are serving in the National Assembly of Pakistan. Of the total 69, sixty (60) women MNAs  were elected on the reserved seats for women, and one (1) was elected on seats reserved for minorities, whereas eight (8) women MNAs were directly elected on general seats in the elections held in 2018. They include; Mehnaz Akber Aziz, Ghulam Bibi Bharwana, Zartaj Gul, Dr. Nafisa Shah, Shazia Marri, Dr. Fehmida Mirza, Shams un Nisa, and Zubaida Jalal Khan. Senate. Senators are elected for six year terms, half of which are elected every three years. Currently there are twenty (20) women members out of a total of 104 Senators. Of these 11 began their term in 2015 while the  remaining 9 began their term in 2018. Of these women, seventeen (17) were elected on reserved seats for women, while two (2) were elected on general seats: Sherry Rehman and Khushbakht Shujaat and the remain one (1) on the seat for technocrats: Engr. Rukhsana Zuberi. Federal Cabinet. Twenty-seven (27) federal ministers are serving at the different ministries of the Government of Pakistan, out of which three (3) women hold the position of federal ministers. Dr. Shireen M. Mazari is heading the Ministry of Human Rights, Zubaida Jalal is serving as Federal Minister for Defence Production, Dr. Fehmida Mirza is  heading the Inter-Provincial Coordination Division, whereas Zartaj Gul is serving as the Minister of State for Climate Change. There are thirty-six (36) parliamentary secretaries who are serving at different ministries and divisions of the government of Pakistan, out of which fourteen (14) positions are held by women. The women MNAs with their portfolios are: Rukhsana Naveed for Climate Change, Rubina Jamil for Defence Production, Wajiha Akram for Federal Education & Professional Training, Andleeb Abbas for Foreign Affairs, Tashfeen Safdar for Housing & Works, Syma Nadeem for Inter-Provincial Coordination, Sobia Kamal Khan for Kashmir Affairs and Gilgit Baltistan, Maleeka Ali  Bukhari for Law and Justice, Dr. Nausheen Hamid for National Health Services, Regulations & Coordination, Ghazala Saifi for National History and Literary Heritage Division, Javaria Zafar Aheer for Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development, Kanwal Shauzab for Planning, Development and Reform, Shunila Ruth for Religious Affairs and Interfaith Harmony, and Aliya Hamza Malik for Textile, Commerce, Industries & Production and Board of Investment. Women heading the Committees of the Parliament. There are thirty-four (34) Standing Committees of the National Assembly, out of which only two (2) are headed by the women MNAs. Kishwar Zehra is serving as the Chairperson of the  Committee on Cabinet Secretariat, whereas Munaza Hassan is the Chairperson of the Committee on Climate Change. Out of the 50 different committees of the Senate, ten (10) are presided over by women members. Of thirty (30) Standing Committees of the Senate, six (6) are headed by women. The women Senators with their portfolios are: Sitara Ayaz for Climate Change, Rahila Magsi for Federal Education, Professional Training, National History & Literary Heritage, Rubina Khalid for Information Technology and Telecommunication, Khushbakht Shujat for National Health Services Regulations and Coordination, Nuzhat Sadiq for Maritime Affairs, and Sassui Palijo for Parliamentary Affairs. Senator Ayesha Raza  Farooq is the chairperson for the Other Committee on Rules of Procedure and Privileges, and Senator Rubina Khalid is serving as the Chair for the Special Committee on Child Protection, while Senator Sherry Rehman is heading two committees including a Special Committee on China Pak Economic Corridor (CPEC) and a Domestic Committee on Climate Change Caucus. Of ten (10) Parliamentary Committees, only three (3) are headed by women MNAs. Shunila Ruth is chairing the committee formed for the Appointment of Chairperson and Members of the National Commission for Human Rights, and Dr. Shireen M. Mazari is the chairperson of the  committee established for the Appointment of Chief Election Commissioner and Members of the Election Commission of Pakistan, whereas Prof. Dr. Mehr Taj Roghani is serving as the Chairperson of the Committee set up for the Appointment of the Chairperson of the National Commission on the Status of Women. Women's Parliamentary Caucus. Women's Parliamentary Caucus (WPC) is a non-partisan informal forum for women parliamentarians of Pakistan. It was established on 21 November 2008 through a unanimous resolution passed by the Women Parliamentarians beyond party lines. Former Speaker National Assembly of Pakistan Dr. Fehmida Mirza is the patron in -chief of the caucus. Dr. Nafisa Shah hailing from Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians was the first Secretary of Women's Parliamentary Caucus. In 2013, after the change in the federal government, MNA Shaista Pervaiz Malik from Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz became the Secretary of Women's Parliamentary Caucus. Following the 2018 general elections, MNA Munaza Hasan from Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf became the third Secretary of the caucus. Performance of Women Parliamentarians in the Parliament of Pakistan. Women parliamentarians have demonstrated strong presence in the legislative bodies. The data relating to legislative business of both the National Assembly and the  Senate show that from 2016–2017, percentage of women legislators' contribution to parliamentary business was remarkably high in the Lower House where nearly two thirds (62%) business was originated by women individually and 3% in collaboration with their male colleagues. In the Upper House, women sponsored 13% parliamentary business individually and 2% jointly with their male counterparts. The current level of women’s representation in the national and provincial legislatures of Pakistan is amongst the top in the region. With 20 percent representation in each house of the Parliament, women parliamentarians contributed 33 percent of parliamentary business (2018–19). Women Parliamentarians moved  39 out of 74 private members' bills, 27 out of 100 resolutions, 51 out of 108 Calling Attention Notices, and 561 out of 1772 questions in both Houses of the Parliament in an attempt to improve livelihood of the masses. Obstacles to women’s effective participation in parliament. Women parliamentarians continue to face numerous obstacles including the prevalent socio-cultural taboos in the society and the high costs of running successful election campaigns that restrict women to contest elections and dominance of familial linkages in awarding party tickets to women. The women legislators elected through indirect mode of election undermine  their credibility and effectiveness as politicians. They are largely ignored in decision-making process within their political parties and during the proceedings of the legislative assemblies for lack of their own electorate or constituency like the male counterparts. The women politicians elected on reserved seats have to face hurdles in their effective and substantive participation in legislative assemblies for lack of experience of canvassing, and lack of understanding of issues, legislation or policies which result in their exclusion from powerful political domains, such as standing committees of legislative bodies and decision-making process within political parties. Women in Pakistani politics