Geþyncðo
Geþyncðo (also Geþyncðu), meaning “Dignities”, is the title given to an Old English legal tract on status and social mobility, probably written by Wulfstan (II), Archbishop of York between 1002 and 1023. It is sometimes known as one of the so-called 'promotion laws', along with "Norðlleoda laga", and both these texts belong to a legal compilation on status, dubbed ‘the "Geþyncðu" group’ by the historian Patrick Wormald. Though the extent to which these reflect reality is a topic of some debate, they constitute one of the most valuable primary documents for an understanding of social status in late  Anglo-Saxon England. The "Geþyncðu" group: manuscripts and texts. Taking the ‘"Geþyncðu" group’ as a whole, Patrick Wormald distinguishes between two classes of manuscripts. The first originates in Worcester and consists of copies of texts in two of Wulfstan's autograph manuscripts: (1) Cambridge, CCC, MS 201 ('D'), which contains all five documents of the group: "Geþyncðo", "Norðleoda laga "(“North-people's law”), "Mircna laga "(“Mercian law”), "Að" (“Oath”) and "Hadbot" (“Compensation for the ordained”); and (2) Corpus 190 ('O'), which preserves only the last three. The second class was produced at a further remove from its original scriptorium. It  is represented by two early 12th-century manuscript families: (a) the "Textus Roffensis", a substantial collection of Old English law-texts with Latin translations, and (b) the various manuscripts of the "Quadripartitus", which offer a vast array of legal texts in Latin translation only. On grounds of style and layout, Wormald argues that the second class of the "Geþyncðu" group goes back to a common exemplar containing a southern redaction of material from Worcester. This material may have reached Rochester via Canterbury. Both "Textus Roffensis" and "Quadripartitus" contain versions of "Geþyncðu" and "Norðleoda laga". As opposed to the law-codes  issued by Anglo-Saxon kings, the five texts offer no official enactments, but they record what the author or compiler understood to have been church law and customary law in certain regions of England, such as Wessex, (West) Mercia, the Danelaw and Northumbria. The core of the group is made up by a number of texts on wergild. Authorship and date. Since 1950, when Dorothy Bethurum's study on the five documents of the group was published, the composition of "Geþyncðu" is usually attributed to Wulfstan (II), Archbishop of York between 1002 and 1023, who was also responsible for drafting  official law-codes for kings Æthelred and Cnut. Wormald dates the text some time between 1008 and 1014, when the "Sermo Lupi ad Anglos" appears to have been written. Contents. The introductory statement strikes a nostalgic chord about a golden age in which society was stratified by law and custom: What follows may well be the most famous line of the text, which lists the requirements of wealth and service by which once a "ceorl" could rise to thegnhood: The text goes on to distinguish between four different types of thegn and their qualifications: at the top stood the thegn  who rode in the king's household band ("hired") and had a 'median thegn' to serve him and to represent him in court with a preliminary oath ("for-að"). A less privileged type is the king's thegn who was without any such representative. On the next level is the median thegn, who likewise held five hides of his own, but served a king's thegn, attended him in the king's hall and was qualified to represent him with an oath. Finally, there was also a lower type of median thegn, who did not (yet) meet these requirements of  land and service. The southern redaction in the "Textus Roffensis" adds two further clauses. One is on the thegn who is promoted to earl "(eorl)" and acquires the rights of an earl, and the other on the merchant who becomes a thegn by virtue of having made three voyages at his own cost. The next clause proceeds with the ecclesiastical component to social promotion. In a general way, it asserts that the scholar who distinguished himself through learning and "took orders", was entitled to more honour and protection, provided that he remained chaste. The final clause suggests that cases of  physical and verbal violence against ecclesiastics and strangers were at all times to be heard at the royal or episcopal court, whoever the suspect might be.