Cobalt-60
Cobalt-60 (Co) is a synthetic radioactive isotope of cobalt with a half-life of 5.2713 years. It is produced artificially in nuclear reactors. Deliberate industrial production depends on neutron activation of bulk samples of the monoisotopic and mononuclidic cobalt isotope . Measurable quantities are also produced as a by-product of typical nuclear power plant operation and may be detected externally when leaks occur. In the latter case (in the absence of added cobalt) the incidentally produced is largely the result of multiple stages of neutron activation of iron isotopes in the reactor's steel structures via the creation of  its precursor. The simplest case of the latter would result from the activation of . undergoes beta decay to the stable isotope nickel-60 (). The activated nickel nucleus emits two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV, hence the overall equation of the nuclear reaction (activation and decay) is: Activity. Corresponding to its half-life, the radioactive activity of one gram of is 44 TBq (about 1100 curies). The "absorbed dose constant" is related to the decay energy and time. For it is equal to 0.35 mSv/(GBq h) at one meter from the source. This allows calculation of the equivalent  dose, which depends on distance and activity. For example, a source with an activity of 2.8 GBq, which is equivalent to 60 μg of pure , generates a dose of 1 mSv at one meter distance within one hour. The swallowing of reduces the distance to a few millimeters, and the same dose is achieved within seconds. Test sources, such as those used for school experiments, have an activity of <100 kBq. Devices for nondestructive material testing use sources with activities of 1 TBq and more. The high γ-energies result in a significant mass difference between and of 0.003  u. This amounts to nearly 20 watts per gram, nearly 30 times larger than that of . Decay. The diagram shows a (simplified) decay scheme of and . The main β-decay transitions are shown. The probability for population of the middle energy level of 2.1 MeV by β-decay is 0.0022%, with a maximum energy of 665.26 keV. Energy transfers between the three levels generate six different gamma-ray frequencies. In the diagram the two important ones are marked. Internal conversion energies are well below the main energy levels. Applications. The main advantage of is that it is a high-intensity  gamma-ray emitter with a relatively long half-life, 5.27 years, compared to other gamma ray sources of similar intensity. The β-decay energy is low and easily shielded; however, the gamma-ray emission lines have energies around 1.3 MeV, and are highly penetrating. The physical properties of cobalt such as resistance to bulk oxidation and low solubility in water give some advantages in safety in the case of a containment breach over some other gamma sources such as caesium-137. The main uses for are: Cobalt has been discussed as a "salting" element to add to nuclear weapons, to produce  a cobalt bomb, an extremely "dirty" weapon which would contaminate large areas with nuclear fallout, rendering them uninhabitable. In one hypothetical design, the tamper of the weapon would be made of . When the bomb exploded, the excess neutrons from the nuclear fission would irradiate the cobalt and transmute it into . No nation is known to have done any serious development of this type of weapon. Occurrence. There is no natural in existence on earth; thus, synthetic is created by bombarding a target with a slow neutron source. Californium-252, moderated through water, can be used for this purpose, as can the  neutron flux in a nuclear reactor. The CANDU reactors can be used to activate , by substituting the control rods with cobalt rods. In the United States, it is now being produced in a BWR at Hope Creek Nuclear Generating Station. The cobalt targets are substituted here for a small number of fuel assemblies. Safety. After entering a living mammal (such as a human being), some of the is excreted in feces. The remainder is taken up by tissues, mainly the liver, kidneys, and bones, where the prolonged exposure to gamma radiation can cause cancer. Over time, the absorbed cobalt is  eliminated in urine. Steel contamination. Cobalt is an element used to make steel. Uncontrolled disposal of in scrap metal is responsible for the radioactivity found in several iron-based products. Circa 1983, construction was finished of 1700 apartments in Taiwan which were built with steel contaminated with cobalt-60. Approximately 10,000 people occupied these buildings during a 9–20 year period. On average, these people unknowingly received a radiation dose of 0.4 Sv. This large group did not suffer a higher incidence of cancer mortality, as the linear no-threshold model would predict, but suffered a lower cancer mortality than the general  Taiwan public. These observations appear to be compatible with the radiation hormesis model. In August 2012, Petco recalled several models of steel pet food bowls after US Customs and Border Protection determined that they were emitting low levels of radiation. The source of the radiation was determined to be that had contaminated the steel. In May 2013 a batch of metal-studded belts sold by online retailer ASOS were confiscated and held in a US radioactive storage facility after testing positive for . Incidents involving medical radiation sources. In the Samut Prakan radiation accident in 2000, a disused radiotherapy head containing  a source was stored at an unsecured location in Bangkok, Thailand and then accidentally sold to scrap collectors. Unaware of the dangers, a junkyard employee dismantled the head and extracted the source, which remained unprotected for a period of days at the junkyard. Ten people, including the scrap collectors and workers at the junkyard, were exposed to high levels of radiation and became ill. Three of the junkyard workers subsequently died as a result of their exposure, which was estimated to be over 6 Gy. Afterward, the source was safely recovered by Thai authorities. In December 2013, a truck carrying  a disused 111 TBq Co teletherapy source from a hospital in Tijuana to a radioactive waste storage center was hijacked at a gas station near Mexico City. The truck was soon recovered, but the thieves had removed the source from its shielding. It was found intact in a nearby field. Despite early reports with lurid headlines asserting that the thieves were "likely doomed", the radiation sickness was mild enough that the suspects were quickly released to police custody, and no one is known to have died from the incident. Parity. In 1957, Chien-Shiung Wu et al. discovered the β -decay process violated parity, implying nature has a handedness. In the Wu experiment her group aligned radioactive nuclei by cooling the source to low temperatures in a magnetic field. Wu's observation was that more β-rays were emitted in the opposite direction to the nuclear spin. This asymmetry violates parity conservation. Suppliers. Argentina, Canada and Russia are the largest suppliers of in the world.