Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
Abū ʿAlī Manṣūr (13 August 985 – 13 February 1021), better known by his regnal name al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh (), was the sixth Fatimid caliph and 16th Ismaili imam (996–1021). Al-Hakim is an important figure in a number of Shia Ismaili sects as well as faiths that derive from Ismailism, such as the world's 15 million Nizaris and 1-2 million Musta'lis, in addition to the 2 million Druze of the Levant. Histories of al-Hakim can prove controversial, as diverse views of his life and legacy exist. Historian Paul Walker writes: "Ultimately , both views of him, the mad and despotic tyrant (like Germanic and Roman despots) irrationally given to killing those around him on a whim, and the ideal supreme ruler, divinely ordained and chosen, whose every action was just and righteous, were to persist, the one among his enemies and those who rebelled against him, and the other in the hearts of true believers, who, while perhaps perplexed by events, nonetheless remained avidly loyal to him to the end." He was known by his critics as the "mad Caliph" or "Nero of Islam". Biography. Born in 985 CE, Abu 'Ali "Mansur  was the first Fatimid ruler to have been born in Egypt. Abu 'Ali Mansur" had been proclaimed as heir-apparent (wali al-'ahd) in 993 CE and succeeded his father Abū Mansūr Nizār al-Azīz bil-Lāh (975–996) at the age of eleven on 14 October 996 with the caliphal title of "al-Hakim Bi-Amr Allah". Al-Ḥākim had blue eyes flecked with reddish gold. Lineage. Al-Ḥākim was born on Thursday, 3 Rābi'u l-Awwal in 985 (375 A.H.). His father, caliph al-'Azīz bil-Lāh, had two consorts. One was an "umm al-walad" who is only known by  the title "as-Sayyidah al-'Azīziyyah" or "al-'Azīzah" (d. 385/995). She was a Melkite Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-'Azīz. Different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by al-'Azīz as an ambassador to Sicily. Al-'Azīzah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, who had a stormy relationship with her half-brother al-Ḥākim and may have had him murdered. Some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that "al-'Azīzah" was also the mother  of Caliph al-Ḥākim, though most historians dismiss this. William of Tyre went so far as to claim that al-Ḥākim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009 was due to his eagerness to disprove taunts that he was a Christian born of a Christian woman. By contrast, the chronicler al-Musabbihi recounts that in 981, al-Ḥākim's Muslim mother sought the aid of an imprisoned Islamic sage named ibn al-Washa and asked him to pray for her son who had fallen ill. The sage wrote the entire Qur'an in the inner surface of  a bowl and bade her wash her son out of it. When al-Ḥākim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude. Her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison. Druze sources claim that al-Ḥākim's mother was the daughter of 'Abdu l-Lāh, one of al-Mu'īzz li Dīn al-Lāh's sons and therefore al-'Azīz's niece. Historians such as Delia Cortese are critical of this claim: Rise to power. In 996, al-Ḥākim's father Caliph al-'Azīz began a trip to visit Syria (which was held by the  Fatimids only by force of arms and was under pressure from the Byzantines). The Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from "stone with pains in the bowels." When he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu'man and General Abū Muhammad al-Hasan ibn 'Ammar to take care of al-Ḥākim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son. Al-Ḥākim later recalled the event: Because it had been unclear whether he would inherit his father's position , this successful transfer of power was a demonstration of the stability of the Fatimid dynasty. Nevertheless, the Kutama Berbers seized the chance to recover their dominant position in the state, which had eroded under al-Aziz due to the influx of Turkish and Daylamite mercenaries from the Islamic East (the "Mashāriqa", "Easterners"). They compelled the underage al-Hakim to dismiss the Christian vizier Ibn Nasturis (who was executed shortly after) and appoint their leader Ibn Ammar to head the government, with the title of "wāsiṭa" ("intermediary") rather than full vizier. Ibn Ammar's rule quickly descended into a Berber tyranny : he immediately began staffing the government with Berbers, who engaged in a virtual pillaging of the state coffers. The Berbers' attempts to exclude the other interest groups from power—not only the Turks and the other ethnic contingents of the army, but also the civilian bureaucracy, whose salary was cut—alienated not only the "Mashāriqa", but alarmed Barjawan as well. Barjawan contacted the Fatimid governor of Damascus, the Turk Manjutakin, and invited him to march onto Egypt and depose Ibn Ammar. Manjutakin accepted, but was defeated by Ibn Ammar's troops under Sulayman ibn Ja'far ibn Falah at Ascalon and  taken prisoner. Barjawan however soon found a new ally, in the person of the Kutama leader Jaysh ibn Samsam, governor of Tripoli, whom Ibn Falah dismissed and replaced with his own brother. Jaysh and Barjawan gathered a following of other dissatisfied Berber leaders, and launched an uprising in Cairo in October 997. Ibn Ammar was forced to flee, and Barjawan replaced him as "wāsiṭa". During his predominance, Barjawan managed to balance the two factions, fulfilling the demands of the "Mashāriqa" while taking care of the Kutama as well. In this vein, he pardoned Ibn Ammar and restored him his monthly  salary of 500 gold dinars. After Bajarwan's murder on 26 March 1000, however, Caliph al-Hakim assumed the reins of government and launched a purge of the Fatimid elites, during which Ibn Ammar and many of the other Kutama leaders were executed. To ensure his own power, Hakim limited the authority and terms of office of his wasitas and viziers, of whom there were more than 15 during the remaining 20 years of his caliphate. Political intrigue. Al-Ḥākim's father had intended the eunuch Barjawan to act as regent until Al-Ḥākim was old enough to rule by  himself. Ibn 'Ammar and the Qadi Muhammad ibn Nu'man were to assist in the guardianship of the new caliph. Instead, al-Hasan ibn 'Ammar (the leader of the Kutama) immediately seized the office of "wasīta" "chief minister" from 'Īsa ibn Nestorius. At the time the office of "sifāra" "secretary of state" was also combined within that office. Ibn 'Ammar then took the title of "Amīn ad-Dawla" "the one trusted in the empire". This was the first time that the term "empire" was associated with the Fatimid state. Political rivalries and movements. Al-Ḥākim's most rigorous and consistent opponent  was the Abbāsid Caliphate in Baghdad, which sought to halt the influence of Ismailism. This competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbāsids claimed that the line al-Ḥākim represented did not legitimately descend from 'Alī. Al-Ḥākim also struggled with the Qarmatiyya rulers of Bahrain, an island in the Persian Gulf as well as territory in Eastern Arabia. His diplomatic and missionary vehicle was the Ismā'īlī "da'wah" "Mission", with its organizational power center in Cairo. Al-Ḥākim's reign was characterized by a general unrest. The Fatimid army was troubled by a rivalry between two  opposing factions, the Turks and the Berbers. Tension grew between the Caliph and his viziers (called "wasīta"s), and near the end of his reign the Druze movement, a religious sect centered around al-Ḥākim, began to form. Members of that sect were reported to address prayers to al-Ḥākim, whom they regarded as "a manifestation of God in His unity." The Baghdad Manifesto. Alarmed by the expansion of the Fatimid dominion, the 'Abbasid caliph Al-Qadir of Baghdad adopted retaliatory measures to halt the spread of Ismailism within the very seat of his realm. In particular, in 1011 he assembled  a number of Sunni and Twelver Shiite scholars at his court and commanded them to declare in a written document that Hakim and his predecessors lacked genuine descent from Ali and Fatima. This so-called Baghdad Manifesto was read out in Friday mosques throughout the 'Abbasid domains accusing the Fatimids of Jewish ancestry. In addition, because of Al-Hakim's alleged Christian mother, he was accused of being over-sympathetic to non-Muslims, giving them more privileges than they should have been given under Islamic rule. Such accusations were manifested through poetry criticizing the Fatimids. Qadir also commissioned several refutations  of Ismaili doctrines, including those written by the Mu'tazili 'Ali b. Sa'id al-Istakri (1013). Foreign affairs. Hakim confronted numerous difficulties and uprisings during his relatively long reign. While he did not lose any important territories in North Africa, the Ismaili communities there were attacked by Sunni fighters led by their influential Maliki jurists. Relations between the Fatimids and the Qarmatians of Bahrain also remained hostile. On the other hand, Hakim's Syrian policy was successful as he managed to extend Fatimid hegemony to the emirate of Aleppo. Above all, the persistent rivalries between the various factions of the Fatimid  armies, especially the Berbers and the Turks, overshadowed the other problems of Hakim's caliphate. Al-Ḥākim upheld diplomatic relations between the Fatimid Empire and many different countries. Skillful diplomacy was needed in establishing a friendly if not neutral basis of relations with the Byzantine Empire, which had expansionary goals in the early 11th century. Perhaps the farthest reaching diplomatic mission of al-Ḥākim's was to Song Dynasty era China. The Fatimid Egyptian sea captain known as Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in Shandong in the year 1008 AD. It was on this mission that he  sought to present to the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song gifts from his ruling Caliph al-Ḥākim. This reestablished diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907. Disappearance and succession. In the final years of his reign, Hakim displayed a growing inclination toward asceticism and withdrew for meditation regularly. On the night of 12/13 February 1021 and at the age of 35, Hakim left for one of his night journeys to the Mokattam hills outside of Cairo, and never returned. A search found only his donkey and bloodstained garments . The disappearance has remained a mystery. His sister Sitt al-Mulk led moves to declare her nephew Al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah as his father's successor as imam-caliph. The heir Al-Hakim had designated was removed from court and al-Mulk was appointed regent for her 16-year-old nephew. After Al-Zahir came of age, Al-Mulk assumed positions within his administration until her death in 1023. Modern historians have assessed whether Al-Mulk may have had a hand in her brother's disappearance, but no historic evidence has emerged that would implicate her. Sobriquet in  Western literature. In Western literature he has been referred to as the "Mad Caliph". This title is largely due to his erratic and oppressive behavior concerning religious minorities under his command, as historian Hunt Janin relates: al-Hakim "was known as the 'Mad Caliph' because of his many cruelties and eccentricities". Historian Michael Bonner points out that the term is also used due to the dramatic difference between al-Hakim and his predecessors and his successors while also pointing out such persecution is an extreme rarity in Islam during this era. "In his capital of Cairo, this unbalanced (and, in  the view of most, mad) caliph raged against the Christians in particular... On the whole such episodes remained exceptional, like the episodes of forced conversion to Islam." Historian Michael Foss also notes this contrast: "For more than three hundred and fifty years, from the time when the Caliph Omar made a treaty with the Patriarch Sophronius until 1009, when mad al-Hakim began attacks on Christians and Jews, the city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land were open to the West, with an easy welcome and the way there was no more dangerous than a journey from Paris to Rome ... Soon [after al-Hakim] the panic was over. In 1037 al-Mustansir came to an amicable agreement with Emperor Michael IV." As one prominent journal has noted, al-Ḥākim has attracted the interest of modern historians more than any other member of the Fatimid dynasty because: The claim that al-Hakim was mad and the version of events around him is disputed as mere propaganda by some scholars, such as Willi Frischaue, who states: "His enemies called him the 'Mad Caliph' but he enhanced Cairo's reputation as a centre of civilization." The writing of historian Heinz Halm attempts to  dispel "those distorted and hostile accounts, stating that the anti-Fatimid tradition tried to make a real monster of this caliph", while P.J. Vatikiotis writes that, "[al-Hakim's] persecution of Christians and Jews and the legislation enacted for that purpose between 1004 and 1020 seem to have been a policy with a justifiable purpose." Al Hakim and Shia Ismailism. Hakim maintained a keen interest in the organization and operation of the Fatimid Ismaili da'wa (preaching) centred in Cairo. Under his reign it was systematically intensified outside the Fatimid dominions, especially in Iraq and Persia. In Iraq, the da'is now  concentrated their efforts on a number of local amirs and influential tribal chiefs with whose support they aimed to uproot the Abbasids. Foremost among the Fatimid da'is of this period operating in the eastern provinces was Hamid al-Din Kirmani, the most accomplished Ismaili theologian-philosopher of the entire Fatimid period. The activities of Kirmani and other da'is soon led to concrete results in Iraq: in 1010 the ruler of Mosul, Kufa and other towns acknowledged the suzerainty of Hakim. The 16th Fatimid imam, caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (996-1021) ordered his da'i, Harun bin Mohammed in Yemen , to give decisions in light of Da'a'im al-Islam only. In 1013 he completed the construction of al-Jāmiʻ al-Anwar begun by his father. Commonly known as "Hākim's Mosque", over time it fell into ruin. In the 1970s, the Dawoodi Bohras, an Ismaili Shia sect, under the leadership of Mohammed Burhanuddin, restored the then-dilapidated mosque, using new building methods and materials while maintaining as many of the architectural and artistic features as possible. Their attempts received strong criticism from some academics, conservators, and art historians who saw the effort as constructing "a new building" rather than restoration . House of Knowledge. In the area of education and learning, one of Hakim's most important contributions was the founding in 1005 of the "Dār al-ʿIlm" (House of Knowledge) or "Dar al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom). A wide range of subjects ranging from the Qur'an and hadith to philosophy and astronomy were taught at the Dār al-ʿIlm, which was equipped with a vast library. During his rule, the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim also provided paper, ink, pens and inkstands free of charge to all those who studied at the famous Dār al-ʿIlm in Cairo. Access to education was made available  to the public and many Fatimid da'is received at least part of their training in this major institution of learning which served the Ismaili da'wa (mission) until the downfall of the Fatimid dynasty. For more than 100 years, Dār al-ʿIlm distinguished itself as a center of learning where astronomers, mathematicians, grammarians, logicians, physicians, philologists, jurists and others conducted research, gave lectures and collaborated. All were welcomed, and it remained unfettered by political pressures or partisan influences. Sessions of Wisdom. Hakim made the education of the Ismailis and the Fatimid da'is a priority; in his time various study sessions ("majalis") were  established in Cairo. Hakim provided financial support and endowments for these educational activities. The private 'wisdom sessions' (majalis al-hikma) devoted to esoteric Ismaili doctrines and reserved exclusively for initiates, now became organized so as to be accessible to different categories of participants. Al Hakim himself often attended these sessions which were held at the Fatimid palace. The name (majalis al-hikma) is still used by the Druze, Nizari and Taiyabi Ismailis as the name of the building in which their religious assembly and worship is carried, often abbreviated as Majlis (session). Druze. Al-Hakim is a central figure in  the history of the Druze religious sect, ad-Darazi one of the first to spread the druze faith proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018. Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts, he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Interreligious relationships. According to the religious scholar Nissim Dana, al-Ḥākim's relationship with other monotheistic religions can be divided into three separate stages. First period. From 996 to 1006 when most of the executive  functions of the Khalif were performed by his advisors, the Shiite al-Ḥākim "behaved like the Shiite khalifs, who he succeeded, exhibiting a hostile attitude with respect to Sunni Muslims, whereas the attitude toward 'People of the Book' – Jews and Christians – was one of relative tolerance, in exchange for the jizya tax." In 1005, al-Ḥākim ordered a public posting of curses against the first three Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) and against Aisha, wife of Muhammad, for denying the caliphate to Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law 'Alī, who according to Shia beliefs, was the rightful prophetic  successor. According to historian Nissîm Dānā, al-Ḥākim ordered that "curses were registered against the warrior Muawiyah I, founder of the Umayyad Caliphate, and against others in the inner circle of Muhammad from the Sahabah - the compatriots of Muhammad in the way of Islam." This was in accordance with Shia practice, as laid out by Muslim scholar Ayatollah Haydari: "the followers of Ahl al-Bayt [Shias] say 'O Allah curse all of the Banu Umayya'." The Shia maintain that out of hatred for 'Alī, Mu'awiyah ordered the Talbiyah not be said (as it was promoted by 'Alī) and ordered people  to curse him (Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas refused to do so). The Shia hold that Mu'awiyah and all of the Umayyad caliphs (with the possible exception of Umar II) were Nasibi who "are the hypocrites for whom hatred of 'Alī is their religion...They don't just hate 'Alī, but they worship Allah and seek closeness to Him by hating 'Alī." After only two years of posting the curses, al-Ḥākim ended the practice. During this era, al-Ḥākim ordered that the inclusion of the phrase "as-salāh khayr min an-nawm" "prayer is preferable to sleep", which followed fajr  prayer, be stopped – he saw it as a Sunni addition. In its place he ordered that "ḥayyi 'alā khayr al-'amal" "come to the best of deeds" should be said after the summons was made. He further forbade the use of two prayers – "Salāt at-Tarāwih" and "Salāt ad-Duha" as they were believed to have been formulated by Sunni sages. Religious minorities and the law of differentiation. In 1004 al-Ḥākim decreed that the Christians could no longer celebrate Epiphany or Easter. He also outlawed the use of wine ("nabidh") and even other intoxicating drinks not made from grapes ("fuqa ) to both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. This produced a hardship for both Christians (who used wine in their religious rites) and Jews (who used it in their religious festivals). In 1005, al-Ḥākim ordered that Jews and Christians follow ghiyār" "the law of differentiation" – in this case, the "mintaq" or "zunnar" "belt" (Greek ζωνάριον) and "'imāmah" "turban", both in black. In addition, Jews must wear a wooden calf necklace and Christians an iron cross. In the public baths, Jews must replace the calf with a bell. In addition, women of the People of the Book had to wear two  different coloured shoes, one red and one black. These remained in place until 1014. Following contemporary Shiite thinking, during this period al-Ḥākim also issued many other restrictive ordinances ("sijillat"). These "sijillat" included outlawing entrance to a public bath with uncovered loins, forbidding women from appearing in public with their faces uncovered, and closing many clubs and places of entertainment. Second period. From 1007 to 1012 "there was a notably tolerant attitude toward the Sunnis and less zeal for Shiite Islam, while the attitude with regard to the 'People of the Book' was hostile." On 18 October 1009, al-Hakim  ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre and its associated buildings, apparently outraged by what he regarded as the fraud practiced by the monks in the "miraculous" Descent of the Holy Fire, celebrated annually at the church during the Easter Vigil. The chronicler Yahia noted that "only those things that were too difficult to demolish were spared." Processions were prohibited, and a few years later all of the convents and churches in Palestine were said to have been destroyed or confiscated. It was only in 1042 that the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX undertook to reconstruct the Holy Sepulchre with the  permission of Al-Hakim's successor. Third period. Al-Ḥākim ultimately allowed the unwilling Christian and Jewish converts to Islam to return to their faith and rebuild their ruined houses of worship. Indeed, from 1012 to 1021 al-Ḥākim While it is clear that Hamza ibn Ahmad was the Caliph's chief "dāʿī"; there are claims that al-Ḥākim believed in his own divinity. Other scholars disagree with this assertion of direct divinity, particularly the Druze themselves, noting that its proponent was ad-Darazi, who (according to some resources) al-Ḥākim executed for "shirk". Letters show that ad-Darazi was  trying to gain control of the "Muwahhidun" movement and this claim was an attempt to gain support from the Caliph, who instead found it heretical. Spouses and children. The mother of al-Ḥākim's heir 'Alī az-Zāhir was the "umm al-walad" Amīna Ruqayya, daughter to the late prince 'Abdu l-Lāh, son of al-Mu'īzz. Some see her as the same as the woman in the prediction reported by al-Hamidi which held "that in 390/1000 al-Ḥākim would choose an orphan girl of good stock brought up his father al-Aziz and that she would become the  mother of his successor." While the chronicler al-Maqrizi claims that al-Ḥākim's stepsister Sitt al-Mulk was hostile to Amīna, other sources say she gave her and her child refuge when they were fleeing al-Ḥākim's persecution. Some sources say al-Ḥākim married the "jariya" (young female servant) known by the title as-Sayyidah but historians are unsure if this is just another name for Amīna. Besides his son, al-Ḥākim had a daughter named Sitt Misr (d. 455/1063) who was said to be a generous patroness and of noble and good character. In literature. The story  of Hakim's life inspired (presumably through Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy) the French author Gérard de Nerval (1808-1855) who recounted his version of it ("Histoire du Calife Hakem": "History of the Caliph Hakem") as an appendix to his "Voyage to the Orient" (1851). He is a major character in "The Prisoner of Al-Hakim" by American novelist Bradley Steffens, which recounts the ten-year imprisonment of Ibn al-Haytham under Al-Hakim's rule. A fictional version of his death is presented in Robert E. Howard's posthumously published short story "Hawks over Egypt". Al-Hakim bi-Amr