Cynodont
The cynodonts () (clade Cynodontia) are a clade of eutheriodont therapsids that first appeared in the Late Permian (approximately 260 Ma), and extensively diversified after the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Cynodonts had a wide variety of lifestyles, including carnivory and herbivory. Mammals are cynodonts, as are their extinct ancestors and close relatives, having evolved from advanced probainognathian cynodonts during the Late Triassic. All other cynodont lines went extinct, with the last known non-mammalian cynodont group, the Tritylodontidae having its youngest records in the Early Cretaceous. Description. Early cynodonts have many of the skeletal characteristics of mammals. The teeth were  fully differentiated and the braincase bulged at the back of the head. Outside of some crown-group mammals (notably the therians), all cynodonts probably laid eggs. The temporal fenestrae were much larger than those of their ancestors, and the widening of the zygomatic arch in a more mammal-like skull would have allowed for more robust jaw musculature. They also have the secondary palate that other primitive therapsids lacked, except the therocephalians, who were the closest relatives of cynodonts. (However, the secondary palate of cynodonts primarily comprises the maxillae and palatines as in mammals, whereas the secondary palate of the  therocephalians primarily comprises the maxillae and the vomer.) The dentary was the largest bone in their lower jaw. The cynodonts probably had some form of warm-blooded metabolism. This has led to many reconstructions of cynodonts as having fur. Being endothermic they may have needed it for thermoregulation, but fossil evidence of their fur (or lack thereof) has been elusive. Modern mammals have Harderian glands secreting lipids to coat their fur, but the telltale imprint of this structure is only found from the primitive mammal "Morganucodon" and onwards. Nonetheless, recent studies on Permian synapsid coprolites show that more basal therapsids  may have had fur, and at any rate fur was already present in Mammaliaformes such as "Castorocauda" and "Megaconus". Early cynodonts had numerous small foramina on their snout bones, similar to reptiles. This suggests that they had immobile, non-muscular lips like those of lizards, and lacked muscular cheeks. As a muscular, mobile face is necessary to perform whisking movements and to avoid damage to whiskers, it is unlikely that early cynodonts had whiskers. In prozostrodontian cynodonts, the group that includes mammals, the foramina are replaced by a single large infraorbital foramen, which indicates that the face had become muscular  and that whiskers would have been present. Derived cynodonts developed epipubic bones. These served to strengthen the torso and support abdominal and hindlimb musculature, aiding them in the development of an erect gait, but at the expense of prolonged pregnancy, forcing these animals to give birth to highly altricial young as in modern marsupials and monotremes. Only placentals, and perhaps "Megazostrodon" and "Erythrotherium", would lose these. A specimen of "Kayentatherium" does indeed demonstrate that at least tritylodontids already had a fundamentally marsupial-like reproductive style, but produced much higher litters at around 38 perinates or possibly eggs. Cynodonts are the  only known synapsid lineage to have produced aerial locomotors, with gliding and flying being known in haramiyidans and various mammal groups. The largest known non-mammalian cynodont is "Scalenodontoides", a traversodontid, which has been estimated to have a maximum skull length of approximately based on a fragmentary specimen. Evolutionary history. The closest relatives of cynodonts are therocephalians, with which they form the clade Eutheriodontia. The earliest cynodonts are known early Lopingian (early Wuchiapingian) aged sediments of the "Tropidostoma" Assemblage Zone, in the Karoo Supergroup of South Africa, belonging to the basal family Charassognathidae. Fossils of Permian cynodonts are relatively rare  outside of South Africa, with the most widely distributed genus being "Procynosuchus," which is known from South Africa, Germany, Tanzania, Zambia, and possibly Russia. Cynodonts expanded rapidly in diversity after the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Post-Early Triassic cynodonts were dominated by members of the advanced clade Eucynodontia, which has two main subdivisions, the predominantly herbivorous Cynognathia and the predominantly carnivorous Probainognathia. During the Early and Middle Triassic, cynodont diversity was dominated by members of Cynognathia, and members of Probainognathia would not become prominent until the Late Triassic (early Norian). Almost all Middle Triassic cynodonts are known from Gondwana, with  only one genus ("Nanogomphodon") having been found in the Northern Hemisphere. Among the most dominant groups of Middle and Late Triassic cynodonts is the herbivorous Traversodontidae, predominantly in Gondwana, which reached a peak diversity in the Late Triassic. Mammaliaformes originated from probainognathian cynodonts during the Late Triassic. Early Mammaliaformes were small bodied insectivores. Only two groups of non-mammaliaform cynodonts existed beyond the end of the Triassic, both belonging to Probainognathia. The first is the insectivorous Tritheledontidae, which briefly lasted into the Early Jurassic. The second is the herbivorous Tritylodontidae, which first appeared in the latest Triassic, which were abundant  and diverse during the Jurassic, predominantly in the Northern Hemisphere, persisted into the Early Cretaceous in Asia. The geologically youngest known tritylodontid is "Fossiomanus" from the 120 million years old Jiufotang Formation of China. During their evolution, the number of cynodont jaw bones reduced. This move towards a single bone for the mandible paved the way for other bones in the jaw, the articular and angular, to migrate to the cranium, where they function as parts of the mammalian hearing system. Cynodonts also developed a secondary palate in the roof of the mouth. This caused air flow from the nostrils  to travel to a position in the back of the mouth instead of directly through it, allowing cynodonts to chew and breathe at the same time. This characteristic is present in all mammals. Taxonomy. Richard Owen named Cynodontia in 1861, which he assigned to Anomodontia as a family. Robert Broom (1913) reranked Cynodontia as an infraorder, since retained by others, including Colbert and Kitching (1977), Carroll (1988), Gauthier "et al." (1989), and Rubidge and Cristian Sidor (2001). Olson (1966) assigned Cynodontia to Theriodontia, Colbert and Kitching (1977) to Theriodontia, and Rubridge and Sidor (2001) to Eutheriodontia. William King Gregory (1910 ), Broom (1913), Carroll (1988), Gauthier "et al." (1989), Hopson and Kitching (2001) and Botha "et al." (2007) all considered Cynodontia as belonging to Therapsida. Botha "et al." (2007) seems to have followed Owen (1861), but without specifying taxonomic rank. Phylogeny. Below is a cladogram from Ruta, Botha-Brink, Mitchell and Benton (2013) showing one hypothesis of cynodont relationships: Distribution. Cynodonts have been found in South America, India, Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe and North America.