Guru
Guru ( , IAST: "guru;" Pali": garu") is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential figure to the disciple (or "shisya" in Sanskrit, literally "seeker [of knowledge or truth"]) or student, with the guru serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student". Whatever language it is written in, Judith Simmer-Brown  explains that a tantric spiritual text is often codified in an obscure twilight language so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a qualified teacher, the guru. A guru is also one's spiritual guide, who helps one to discover the same potentialities that the "guru" has already realized. The oldest references to the concept of "guru" are found in the earliest Vedic texts of Hinduism. The "guru", and "gurukula" – a school run by "guru", were an established tradition in India by the 1st millennium BCE, and these helped compose and transmit the various  Vedas, the Upanishads, texts of various schools of Hindu philosophy, and post-Vedic Shastras ranging from spiritual knowledge to various arts. By about mid 1st millennium CE, archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggest numerous larger institutions of "gurus" existed in India, some near Hindu temples, where guru-shishya tradition helped preserve, create and transmit various fields of knowledge. These gurus led broad ranges of studies including Hindu scriptures, Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting. The tradition of the guru is also found in Jainism, referring to a spiritual preceptor, a role typically served by a Jain ascetic. In  Sikhism, the "guru" tradition has played a key role since its founding in the 15th century, its founder is referred to as Guru Nanak, and its scripture as Guru Granth Sahib. The guru concept has thrived in Vajrayāna Buddhism, where the tantric guru is considered a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated. Definition and etymology. The word "" (Sanskrit: ), a noun, connotes "teacher" in Sanskrit, but in ancient Indian traditions it has contextual meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English. The "guru" is more than someone who teaches specific type of knowledge, and includes in  its scope someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind ("Citta") and Self ("Atman"), who helps mold values (Yamas and Niyamas) and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life." The word has the same meaning in other languages derived from or borrowing words from Sanskrit, such as Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Bengali, Gujarati and Nepali. The Malayalam term Acharyan or Asan is derived from the Sanskrit word Acharya. As a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge  ("jñāna"; also Pali: "ñāna"). As an adjective, it means 'heavy,' or 'weighty,' in the sense of "heavy with knowledge," heavy with spiritual wisdom, "heavy with spiritual weight," "heavy with the good qualities of scriptures and realization," or "heavy with a wealth of knowledge." The word has its roots in the Sanskrit "gri" (to invoke, or to praise), and may have a connection to the word "gur", meaning 'to raise, lift up, or to make an effort'. Sanskrit "guru" is cognate with Latin "gravis" 'heavy; grave, weighty, serious' and Greek βαρύς "barus" 'heavy'. All three derive from the Proto-Indo-European  root "*gʷerə-", specifically from the zero-grade form *"gʷr̥ə-". Female equivalent of gurus are called gurvis. The wife of the guru is the "guru patni" or "guru ma". The guru's son is "guru putra", while the guru's daughter is the "guru putri". Darkness and light. A popular etymological theory considers the term "guru" to be based on the syllables "gu" () and "ru" (), which it claims stands for darkness and "light that dispels it", respectively. The guru is seen as the one who "dispels the darkness of ignorance." Reender Kranenborg disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to  do with the word "guru". He describes this as a folk etymology. Joel Mlecko states, ""Gu" means ignorance, and "Ru" means dispeller," with "guru" meaning the one who "dispels ignorance, all kinds of ignorance", ranging from spiritual to skills such as dancing, music, sports and others. Karen Pechelis states that, in the popular parlance, the "dispeller of darkness, one who points the way" definition for "guru" is common in the Indian tradition. In "Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion", Pierre Riffard makes a distinction between "occult" and "scientific" etymologies, citing as an example of the former the etymology of  'guru' in which the derivation is presented as "gu" ("darkness") and "ru" ('to push away'); the latter he exemplifies by "guru" with the meaning of 'heavy'. In Hinduism. The "Guru" is an ancient and central figure in the traditions of Hinduism. The ultimate liberation, contentment, freedom in the form of moksha and inner perfection is considered achievable in the Hindu belief by two means: with the help of "guru", and with evolution through the process of karma including rebirth in some schools of Hindu philosophy. At an individual level in Hinduism, the Guru is many things, including being a teacher  of skills, a counselor, one who helps in the birth of mind and realization of one's Self (Atma), who instills values and experiential knowledge, an exemplar, an inspiration and who helps guide a student's ("śiṣya") spiritual development. At a social and religious level, the Guru helps continue the religion and Hindu way of life. Guru thus has a historic, reverential and an important role in the Hindu culture. Scriptures. The word "Guru" is mentioned in the earliest layer of Vedic texts. The hymn 4.5.6 of Rigveda, for example, states Joel Mlecko, describes the guru as, "the source and  inspirer of the knowledge of the Self, the essence of reality," for one who seeks. The Upanishads, that is the later layers of the Vedic text, mention "guru". Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 4.4 for example, declares that it is only through "guru" that one attains the knowledge that matters, the insights that lead to Self-knowledge. The Katha Upanisad, in verse 1.2.8 declares the guru as indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge. In chapter 3 of Taittiriya Upanishad, human knowledge is described as that which connects the teacher and the student through the medium of exposition, just like a child  is the connecting link between the father and the mother through the medium of procreation. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the "guru" then urges a student, states Mlecko, to "struggle, discover and experience the Truth, which is the source, stay and end of the universe." The ancient tradition of reverence for the "guru" in Hindu scriptures is apparent in 6.23 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, which equates the need of reverence and devotion for "guru" to be the same as for god, The Bhagavad Gita is a dialogue where Krishna speaks to Arjuna of the role of a guru, and similarly emphasizes  in verse 4.34 that those who know their subject well are eager for good students, and the student can learn from such a "guru" through reverence, service, effort and the process of inquiry. Capabilities, role and methods for helping a student. The 8th century Hindu text "Upadesasahasri" of the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara discusses the role of the guru in assessing and guiding students. In Chapter 1, he states that teacher is the pilot as the student walks in the journey of knowledge, he is the raft as the student rows. The text describes the need, role and characteristics  of a teacher, as follows, Adi Shankara presents a series of examples wherein he asserts that the best way to guide a student is not to give immediate answers, but posit dialogue-driven questions that enable the student to discover and understand the answer. Gurukula and the guru-shishya tradition. Traditionally, the "Guru" would live a simple married life, and accept "shishya" (student, Sanskrit: शिष्य) where he lived. A person would begin a life of study in the Gurukula (the household of the "Guru"). The process of acceptance included proffering firewood and sometimes a gift to the guru, signifying that  the student wants to live with, work and help the "guru" in maintaining the "gurukul", and as an expression of a desire for education in return over several years. At the Gurukul, the working student would study the basic traditional vedic sciences and various practical skills-oriented sastras along with the religious texts contained within the Vedas and Upanishads. The education stage of a youth with a "guru" was referred to as Brahmacharya, and in some parts of India this followed the Upanayana or Vidyarambha rites of passage. The gurukul would be a hut in a forest, or it was , in some cases, a monastery, called a "matha" or "ashram" or "sampradaya" in different parts of India. These had a lineage of gurus, who would study and focus on certain schools of Hindu philosophy or trade, and these were known as guru-shishya "parampara" (teacher-student tradition). This "guru"-driven tradition included arts such as sculpture, poetry and music. Inscriptions from 4th century CE suggest the existence of "gurukuls" around Hindu temples, called "Ghatikas" or "Mathas", where the Vedas were studied. In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called "Calai" or "Salai", and these provided free  boarding and lodging to students and scholars. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggests that ancient and medieval era gurukuls near Hindu temples offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting. The "Guru (teacher) Shishya (disciple) parampara" or guru parampara, occurs where the "knowledge" (in any field) is passed down through the succeeding generations. It is the traditional, residential form of education, where the Shishya remains and learns with his Guru as a family member. The fields of study in traditional guru-sisya parampara were diverse, ranging from Hindu philosophy, martial  arts, music, dance to various Vedangas. Gender and caste. The Hindu texts offer a conflicting view of whether access to "guru" and education was limited to men and to certain "varna" (castes). The Vedas and the Upanishads never mention any restrictions based either on gender or on "varna". The Yajurveda and Atharvaveda texts state that knowledge is for everyone, and offer examples of women and people from all segments of society who are "guru" and participated in vedic studies. The Upanishads assert that one's birth does not determine one's eligibility for spiritual knowledge, only one's effort and  sincerity matters. In theory, the early Dharma-sutras and Dharma-sastras, such as Paraskara Grhyasutra, Gautama Smriti and Yajnavalkya smriti, state all four varnas are eligible to all fields of knowledge; while verses of Manusmriti state that Vedic study is available only to men of three varnas, unavailable to Shudra and women. In practice, state Stella Kramrisch and others, the guru tradition and availability of education extended to all segments of ancient and medieval society. Lise McKean states the "guru" concept has been prevalent over the range of class and caste backgrounds, and the disciples a guru attracts come from  both genders and a range of classes and castes. During the bhakti movement of Hinduism, which started in about mid 1st millennium CE, the "gurus" included women and members of all "varna". Attributes. The Advayataraka Upanishad states that the true teacher is a master in the field of knowledge, well-versed in the Vedas, is free from envy, knows yoga, lives a simple life that of a yogi, has realized the knowledge of the "Atman" (Self). Some scriptures and gurus have warned against false teachers, and have recommended that the spiritual seeker test the guru before accepting him. Swami Vivekananda  said that there are many incompetent gurus, and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless, without desire for money and fame. According to the Indologist Georg Feuerstein, in some traditions of Hinduism, when one reaches the state of Self-knowledge, one's own Self becomes the "guru". In Tantra, states Feuerstein, the guru is the "ferry who leads one across the ocean of existence." A true "guru" guides and counsels a student's spiritual development because, states "Yoga-Bija", endless logic and grammar  leads to confusion, and not contentment. However, various Hindu texts caution prudence and diligence in finding the right "guru", and avoiding the wrong ones. For example, in "Kula-Arnava" text states the following guidance: A true guru is, asserts "Kula-Arnava", one who lives the simple virtuous life he preaches, is stable and firm in his knowledge, master yogi with the knowledge of Self ("Atma Gyaan") and Brahman (ultimate reality). The guru is one who initiates, transmits, guides, illuminates, debates and corrects a student in the journey of knowledge and of self-realization. The attribute of the successful guru is  to help make the disciple into another guru, one who transcends him, and becomes a "guru" unto himself, driven by inner spirituality and principles. In modern Hinduism. In modern neo-Hinduism, Kranenborg states "guru" may refer to entirely different concepts, such as a "spiritual advisor", or someone who performs traditional rituals outside a temple, or an "enlightened master" in the field of tantra or yoga or eastern arts who derives his authority from his experience, or a reference by a group of devotees of a sect to someone considered a god-like "Avatar" by the sect. The tradition of reverence  for "guru" continues in several denominations within modern Hinduism, but rather than being considered as a prophet, the guru is seen as a person who points the way to spirituality, oneness of being, and meaning in life. In Buddhism. In some forms of Buddhism, states Rita Gross, the concept of Guru is of supreme importance. Guru is called as Garu in Pali. The Guru is the teacher, who teaches the spiritual and religious knowledge. Guru can be anyone who teach this knowledge and not generally need to be Acariya or Upajjhaya. Guru can also be a personal teacher. Buddha is  called as Lokagaru, meaning "the teacher of the world". In Vajrayana Buddhism's Tantric teachings, the rituals require the guidance of a guru. The guru is considered essential and to the Buddhist devotee, the guru is the "enlightened teacher and ritual master", states Stephen Berkwitz. The guru is known as the "vajra guru" (literally "diamond guru"). Initiations or ritual empowerments are necessary before the student is permitted to practice a particular tantra, in Vajrayana Buddhist sects found in Tibet and South Asia. The tantras state that the guru is equivalent to Buddha, states Berkwitz, and is a figure to worship  and whose instructions should never be violated. There are Four Kinds of Lama (Guru) or spiritual teacher (Tib. lama nampa shyi) in Tibetan Buddhism: In various Buddhist traditions, there are equivalent words for "guru", which include "Shastri" (teacher), "Kalyana Mitra" (friendly guide, Pali: Kalyāṇa-mittatā), "Acarya" (master), and "Vajra-Acarya" (hierophant). The "guru" is literally understood as "weighty", states Alex Wayman, and it refers to the Buddhist tendency to increase the weight of canons and scriptures with their spiritual studies. In Mahayana Buddhism, a term for Buddha is Bhaisajya guru, which refers to "medicine guru", or "a doctor who cures  suffering with the medicine of his teachings". In Jainism. "Guru" is the spiritual preceptor in Jainism, and typically a role served by Jain ascetics. The "guru" is one of three fundamental "tattva" (categories), the other two being "dharma" (teachings) and "deva" (divinity). The "guru-tattva" is what leads a lay person to the other two "tattva". In some communities of the Śvētāmbara sect of Jainism, a traditional system of "guru-disciple" lineage exists. The "guru" is revered in Jainism ritually with "Guru-vandan" or "Guru-upashti", where respect and offerings are made to the "guru", and the "guru" sprinkles a  small amount of "vaskep" (a scented powder mixture of sandalwood, saffron, and camphor) on the devotee's head with a mantra or blessings. In Sikhism. In Sikhism, "Guru" is the source of all knowledge which is Almighty. In Chopai Sahib, Guru Gobind Singh states about who is the Guru: The Sikh gurus were fundamental to the Sikh religion, however the concept in Sikhism differs from other usages. Sikhism is derived from the Sanskrit word "shishya", or disciple and is all about the relationship between the teacher and a student. The concept of Guru in Sikhism stands on two pillars i.e.  Miri-Piri. 'Piri' means spiritual authority and 'Miri' means temporal authority. Traditionally, the concept of Guru is considered central in Sikhism, and its main scripture is prefixed as a "Guru", called Guru Granth Sahib, the words therein called "Gurbani". In Western culture. As an alternative to established religions in the West, some people in Europe and the US looked to spiritual guides and gurus from India and other countries. Gurus from many denominations traveled to Western Europe and the US and established followings. In particular during the 1960s and 1970s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe  and the US. According to the American sociologist David G. Bromley this was partially due to the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1965 which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the US. According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values. In the Western world, the term is sometimes used in a derogatory way to refer to individuals who have allegedly  exploited their followers' naiveté, particularly in certain cults or groups in the fields of hippie, new religious movements, self-help, and tantra. According to the professor in sociology Stephen A. Kent at the University of Alberta and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in the 1970s young people including hippies turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get "high" without drugs. According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the US then, was because some anti-Vietnam War protesters and  political activists became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means, and as an alternative turned to religious means. One example of such group was the Hare Krishna movement (ISKCON) founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966, many of whose followers voluntarily accepted the demanding lifestyle of bhakti yoga on a full-time basis, in stark contrast to much of the popular culture of the time. Some gurus and the groups they lead attracted opposition from the Anti-Cult Movement. According to Kranenborg (1984), Jesus Christ fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a  guru. Environmental activists are sometimes called "gurus" or "prophets" for embodying a moral or spiritual authority and gathering followers. Examples of environmental gurus are John Muir, Henry David Thoreau, Aldo Leopold, George Perkins Marsh, and David Attenborough. Abidin et al. wrote that environmental gurus "merge the boundaries" between spiritual and scientific authority. Viewpoints. Gurus and the Guru-shishya tradition have been criticized and assessed by secular scholars, theologians, anti-cultists, skeptics, and religious philosophers.