Compressed air
Compressed air is air kept under a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. Compressed air is an important medium for transfer of energy in industrial processes, and is used for power tools such as air hammers, drills, wrenches and others, as well as to atomize paint, to operate air cylinders for automation, and can also be used to propel vehicles. Brakes applied by compressed air made large railway trains safer and more efficient to operate. Compressed air brakes are also found on large highway vehicles. Compressed air is used as a breathing gas by underwater divers. It  may be carried by the diver in a high pressure diving cylinder, or supplied from the surface at lower pressure through an air line or diver's umbilical. Similar arrangements are used in breathing apparatus used by firefighters, mine rescue workers and industrial workers in hazardous atmospheres. In Europe, 10 percent of all industrial electricity consumption is to produce compressed air—amounting to 80 terawatt hours consumption per year. Industrial use of piped compressed air for power transmission was developed in the mid 19th century; unlike steam, compressed air could be piped for long distances without losing pressure due to  condensation. An early major application of compressed air was in the drilling of the Mont Cenis Tunnel in Italy and France in 1861, where a 600 kPa (87 psi) compressed air plant provided power to pneumatic drills, increasing productivity greatly over previous manual drilling methods. Compressed air drills were applied at mines in the United States in the 1870s. George Westinghouse invented air brakes for trains starting in 1869; these brakes considerably improved the safety of rail operations. In the 19th century, Paris had a system of pipes installed for municipal distribution of compressed air to power machines and to  operate generators for lighting. Early air compressors were steam-driven, but in certain locations a trompe could directly obtain compressed air from the force of falling water. Breathing. Air for breathing may be stored at high pressure and gradually released when needed, as in scuba diving, or produced continuously to meet requirements, as in surface-supplied diving. Air for breathing must be free of oil and other contaminants; carbon monoxide, for example, in trace volumetric fractions that might not be dangerous at normal atmospheric pressure may have deadly effects when breathing pressurized air due to proportionally higher partial pressure. Air  compressors, filters, and supply systems intended for breathing air are not generally also used for pneumatic tools or other purposes, as air quality requirements differ. Workers constructing the foundations of bridges or other structures may be working in a pressurized enclosure called a caisson, where water is prevented from entering the open bottom of the enclosure by filling it with air under pressure. It was known as early as the 17th century that workers in diving bells experienced shortness of breath and risked asphyxia, relieved by the release of fresh air into the bell. Such workers also experienced pain and  other symptoms when returning to the surface, as the pressure was relieved. Denis Papin suggested in 1691 that the working time in a diving bell could be extended if fresh air from the surface was continually forced under pressure into the bell. By the 19th century, caissons were regularly used in civil construction, but workers experienced serious, sometimes fatal, symptoms on returning to the surface, a syndrome called caisson disease or decompression sickness. Many workers were killed by the disease on projects such as the Brooklyn Bridge and the Eads Bridge and it was not until the 1890s that it  was understood that workers had to decompress slowly, to prevent the formation of dangerous bubbles in tissues. Air under moderately high pressure, such as is used when diving below about , has an increasing narcotic effect on the nervous system. Nitrogen narcosis is a hazard when diving. For diving much beyond , it is less safe to use air alone and special breathing mixes containing helium are often used. Uses of compressed air. In industry, compressed air is so widely used that it is often regarded as the fourth utility, after electricity, natural gas and water. However, compressed air is more expensive  than the other three utilities when evaluated on a per unit energy delivered basis. Compressed air is used for many purposes, including: Design of systems. Compressor rooms must be designed with ventilation systems to remove waste heat produced by the compressors. Water and oil vapor removal. When air at atmospheric pressure is compressed, it contains much more water vapor than the high-pressure air can hold. Relative humidity is governed by the properties of water and is not affected by air pressure. After compressed air cools, then the vaporized water turns to liquefied water. Cooling the air as it leaves  the compressor will take most of the moisture out before it gets into the piping. Aftercooler, storage tanks, etc. can help the compressed air cool to 104 °F; two-thirds of the water then turns to liquid. Management of the excessive moisture is a requirement of a compressed air distribution system. System designers must ensure that piping maintains a slope, to prevent accumulation of moisture in low parts of the piping system. Drain valves may be installed at multiple points of a large system to allow trapped water to be blown out. Taps from piping headers may be arranged  at the tops of pipes, so that moisture is not carried over into piping branches feeding equipment. Piping sizes are selected to avoid excessive energy loss in the piping system due to excess velocity in straight pipes at times of peak demand, or due to turbulence at pipe fittings. Staggered Automatic Restarts of Multiple Air Compressors when the power is restored. After an electrical power failure, when power is restored staggered starts can avoid tripping main circuit breakers. Modern air compressors have digital controls that can trigger motor restarts at exactly the same split second time, which can trip the  main distribution circuit breaker at the panel that supplies power to each of the air compressors. The digital controls in each air compressor can be separately set to delay the automatic restarts, say by 32 seconds for the #1 unit, and an additional 6 seconds or longer for each additional air compressor. The first 31 seconds of time delay after clean power becomes available is to allow the utility automatic circuit reclosers "Dead Time Intervals" to complete their processes so that are fewer multiple restarts within less than 5 minutes. If the fault is on an adjacent circuit, the customer  may see several brief "dips" (sags) in voltage or intermittent black-out as the heavy fault current flows into the adjacent circuit and is interrupted one or more times. After market devices are available that can be set to avoid rapid short cycling of motor starts and to keep motors off when there is a voltage unbalance, over/under voltage, phase loss, reversal, incorrect sequencing. Those devices can be set to keep motors off until staggered delay on break (0-10 minutes) times have elapsed. By keeping the motor off when there are voltage unbalance, over/under voltage, phase loss , reversal, incorrect sequencing events, by avoiding rapid short cycling of motor starts, those devices reduce motor overload relay trips. Avoiding motor overload relays trips is especially helpful for equipment in unmanned, roof mounted, and remote locations.