Sultana (steamboat)
Sultana was a commercial side-wheel steamboat which exploded and sank on the Mississippi River on April 27, 1865, killing 1,168 people in what remains the worst maritime disaster in United States history. Constructed of wood in 1863 by the John Litherbury Boatyard in Cincinnati, Ohio, "Sultana" was intended for the lower Mississippi cotton trade. The steamer registered 1,719 tons and normally carried a crew of 85. For two years, she ran a regular route between St. Louis and New Orleans and was frequently commissioned to carry troops during the American Civil War. Although designed with a capacity  of only 376 passengers, she was carrying 2,137 when three of the boat's four boilers exploded and caused it to sink near Memphis, Tennessee. The disaster was overshadowed in the press by events surrounding the end of the Civil War, including the killing of President Abraham Lincoln's assassin John Wilkes Booth, and no one was ever held accountable for the tragedy. Construction. Launched on January 3, 1863, "Sultana" was the fifth steamboat to bear the name. Built for speed and capacity, the vessel measured long, wide at the base and wide at the beam, displaced , and had a  draft. Her two side-mounted paddle wheels were driven by four tubular, or fire-tube, boilers. Introduced in 1848, they were capable of generating twice as much steam per fuel load as conventional flue boilers. Each fire-tube boiler was long and in diameter and contained 24 flues, tubes that ran from the firebox to the chimney. The economic advantages of the boilers came with a safety tradeoff. The water levels in a tubular system had to be carefully maintained at all times. The areas between the many flues clogged easily, and the sediment and mineral buildup around the tubes  and boiler sides, especially heavy when the river water used in the system carried much sediment, was difficult to scrape off. Even the slightest dip in water level could cause hot spots leading to metal fatigue, greatly increasing the risk of an explosion. With the typical steamboat construction, made up of layers of highly flammable lightweight wood covered with paint and varnish, any such incident would be likely catastrophic. Disaster. Background. Under the command of Captain James Cass Mason of St. Louis, "Sultana" left St. Louis on April 13, 1865, bound for New Orleans. On the morning of April 15 , she was tied up at Cairo, Illinois, when word reached the city that U.S. President Abraham Lincoln had been shot in Washington, D.C. Immediately, Captain Mason grabbed an armload of Cairo newspapers and headed south to spread the news, knowing that telegraphic communication with the southern states had been almost totally cut off because of the recently-ended American Civil War. Upon reaching Vicksburg, Mississippi, Mason was approached by Captain Reuben Hatch, the chief quartermaster at Vicksburg, with a proposal. Thousands of recently released Union prisoners of war who had been held in the Confederate prison camps at Cahaba and  Andersonville had been brought to a small parole camp outside of Vicksburg to await release to the northern states. The U.S. government would pay US$2.75 per enlisted man and US$8 per officer to any steamboat captain who would take a group north. Knowing that Mason was in need of money, Hatch suggested that he could guarantee Mason a full load of about 1,400 prisoners if Mason would agree to give him a kickback. Hoping to gain much money through this deal, Mason quickly agreed to Hatch's offer. Leaving Vicksburg, "Sultana" traveled downriver to New Orleans, continuing to  spread the news of Lincoln's assassination. On April 21, "Sultana" left New Orleans with about seventy cabin and deck passengers, along with a small amount of livestock. She also carried a crew of 85. About ten hours south of Vicksburg, one of "Sultana" four boilers sprang a leak. Under reduced pressure, the steamboat limped into Vicksburg to get the boiler repaired and to pick up her promised load of prisoners. Faulty boiler repair. While the paroled prisoners, primarily from the states of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee and West Virginia, were brought from the parole camp to "Sultana", a  mechanic was brought down to work on the leaky boiler. Although the mechanic wanted to cut out and replace a ruptured seam, Mason knew that such a job would take a few days and cost him his precious load of prisoners. By the time the repairs would be completed, the prisoners would have been sent home on other boats. Instead, Mason and his chief engineer, Nathan Wintringer, convinced the mechanic to make temporary repairs, hammering back the bulged boiler plate and riveting a patch of lesser thickness over the seam. Instead of taking two or three days, the temporary repair  took only one. During her time in port, and while the repairs were being made, "Sultana" took on the paroled prisoners. Overloaded. Although Hatch had suggested that Mason might get as many as 1,400 released Union prisoners, a mix-up with the parole camp books and suspicion of bribery from other steamboat captains caused the Union officer in charge of the loading, Captain George Augustus Williams, to place every man at the parole camp on board "Sultana", believing the number to be less than 1,500. Although "Sultana" had a legal capacity of only 376, by the time she backed away  from Vicksburg on the night of April 24, she was severely overcrowded with 1,960 paroled prisoners, 22 guards from the 58th Ohio Volunteer Infantry, 70 paying cabin passengers, and 85 crew members, for a total of 2,137 people. Many of the paroled prisoners had been weakened by their incarceration and associated illnesses but had managed to gain some strength while waiting at the parole camp to be officially released. The men were packed into every available space, and the overflow was so severe that in some places, the decks began to creak and sag and had to be supported with  heavy wooden beams. "Sultana" spent two days traveling upriver, fighting against one of the worst spring floods in the river's history. At some places, the river overflowed the banks and spread out three miles wide. Trees along the river bank were almost completely covered, until only the very tops of the trees were visible above the swirling, powerful water. On April 26, "Sultana" stopped at Helena, Arkansas, where photographer Thomas W. Bankes took a picture of the grossly overcrowded vessel. "Sultana" subsequently arrived at Memphis, Tennessee, around 7:00 PM, and the crew began unloading 120 tons (109 tonnes) of  sugar from the hold. Near midnight, "Sultana" left Memphis, leaving behind about 200 men. She then went a short distance upriver to take on a new load of coal from some coal barges, and then at about 1:00 AM started north again. Explosion. At around 2:00 AM on April 27, 1865, when "Sultana" was about north of Memphis, its boilers suddenly exploded. First one boiler exploded, followed a split-second later by two more. The enormous explosion of steam came from the top rear of the boilers and went upward at a 45-degree angle, tearing through the crowded decks  above and completely demolishing the pilothouse. Without a pilot to steer the boat, "Sultana" became a drifting, burning hulk. The terrific explosion flung some of the deck passengers into the water and destroyed a large section of the boat. The twin smokestacks toppled over; the starboard smokestack backwards into the blasted hole, and the port smokestack forward onto the crowded forward section of the upper deck. The forward part of the upper deck was collapsed onto the middle deck, killing and trapping many in the wreckage. Fortunately, the sturdy railings around the twin openings of the main stairway prevented the  upper deck from crushing down completely onto the middle deck. The men located around the twin openings quickly crawled under the wreckage and down the main stairs. Further back, the collapsing decks formed a slope that led down into the exposed furnace boxes. The broken wood caught fire and turned the remaining superstructure into an inferno. Survivors panicked and raced for the safety of the water, but in their weakened condition they soon ran out of strength and began to cling to each other. Whole groups went down together. Rescue attempts. While this fight for survival was taking place, the  southbound steamer "Bostona" (No. 2), built in 1860 but coming downriver on her maiden voyage after being refurbished, arrived at about 2:30 AM, a half hour after the explosion, and rescued scores of survivors. At the same time, dozens of people began to float past the Memphis waterfront, calling for help until they were noticed by the crews of docked steamboats and U.S. warships, who immediately set about rescuing the survivors. Eventually, the hulk of "Sultana" drifted about to the west bank of the river and sank at around 9:00 AM near Mound City and present-day Marion, Arkansas, about  seven hours after the explosion. Other vessels joined the rescue, including the steamers "Silver Spray", "Jenny Lind", and "Pocohontas", the navy ironclad USS "Essex" and the sidewheel gunboat . Passengers who survived the initial explosion had to risk their lives in the icy spring runoff of the Mississippi or burn with the boat. Many died of drowning or hypothermia. Some survivors were plucked from the tops of semi-submerged trees along the Arkansas shore. Bodies of victims continued to be found downriver for months, some as far as Vicksburg. Many bodies were never recovered. Most of "Sultana"s officers, including Captain Mason , were among those who perished. Casualties. The exact death toll is unknown, although the most recent evidence indicates 1,168. On May 19, 1865, less than a month after the disaster, Brigadier General William Hoffman, Commissary General of Prisoners who investigated the disaster, reported an overall loss of soldiers, passengers, and crew of 1,238. In February 1867, the Bureau of Military Justice placed the death toll at 1,100. In 1880, the United States Congress, in conjunction with the War Department, reported the loss of life as 1,259. The official count by the United States Customs Service was 1,547. In 1880, the  War Department placed the number of survivors at 931, but the most recent research places the number at 969. Two Sultana Historians are Jerry O. Potter author of "The Sultana Tragedy" 1992 which totals (2,317 POWS/100 passengers (26 Names known)/85 crew (15 names Known); and Gene Salecker who has written two books on the disaster "Disaster on the Mississippi" 1996 with an estimated 2,222 person on board; his second book published after 26 years of research has written a revised history "Destruction of the Steamboat Sultana:The worst Maratime Disaster in American History" gives figures of 2,130 on The Sultana  of which 1,169 [1,047 POWS/16 Army Guards/49 Passengers/57 crew] died and 961 [906 Pows/6 Army guards/21 passengers/28 crew] survived. The dead soldiers were interred at the Fort Pickering cemetery, located on the south shore of Memphis. A year later, when the U.S. government established the Memphis National Cemetery on the northeast side of the city, the bodies were moved there. Three civilian victims of the wreck of "Sultana" are interred at Elmwood Cemetery in Memphis. Survivors. Since Memphis had been captured by Union forces in 1862 and turned into a supply and recuperation city, roughly 760 survivors were treated by  the latest medical equipment and trained personnel upon being sent to numerous local hospitals. Of this group, there were only 31 deaths between April 28 and June 28. Newspaper accounts indicate that the residents of Memphis had sympathy for the victims despite the ongoing Union occupation. The Chicago Opera Troupe, a minstrel group that had traveled upriver on "Sultana" before getting off at Memphis, staged a benefit performance, while the crew of the gunboat "Essex" raised US$1,000 () In December 1885, the survivors living in the northern states of Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio began attending annual reunions, forming the National  Sultana Survivors' Association. Eventually, the group settled on meeting in the Toledo, Ohio, area. Perhaps inspired by their northern comrades, a southern group of survivors, men from Tennessee and Kentucky, began meeting in 1889 around Knoxville, Tennessee. Both groups met as close to the April 27 anniversary date as possible, corresponded with each other, and shared the title National Sultana Survivors' Association. By the mid-1920s, only a handful of survivors were able to attend the reunions. In 1929, only two men attended the southern reunion. The next year, only one man showed up. The last northern survivor, Private Jordan Barr  of the 15th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment, died on May 16, 1938, at age 93. The last of the southern survivors, and last overall survivor, was Private Charles M. Eldridge of the 3rd Tennessee Cavalry Regiment, who died at his home at age 96 on September 8, 1941, more than 76 years after the disaster. Causes. The official cause of the "Sultana" disaster was determined to be mismanagement of water levels in the boilers, exacerbated by the fact that the vessel was severely overloaded and top-heavy. As the steamboat made her way north following the twists and turns of  the river, she listed severely from side to side. Her four boilers were interconnected and mounted side-by-side so that if the boat tipped sideways, water would tend to run out of the highest boiler. With the fires still going against the empty boiler, this created hot spots. When the boat tipped the other way, water rushing back into the empty boiler would hit the hot spots and flash instantly to steam, creating a sudden surge in pressure. This effect of careening could have been minimized by maintaining high water levels in the boilers. The official inquiry found that  the boilers exploded because of the combined effects of careening, low water levels, and the faulty repair made a few days earlier. The most recent investigation into the cause of the disaster by Pat Jennings, principal engineer of Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company, which came into existence in 1866 because of the "Sultana" explosion, determined that three main factors led to the disaster: 1) The type of metal used in the construction of the boilers – Charcoal Hammered No. 1, which tends to become brittle with prolonged heating and cooling. Charcoal Hammered No. 1 was no longer used for  the manufacture of boilers after 1879. 2) The use of the sediment-laden Mississippi River water to feed the boilers. The sediment tended to settle on the bottom of the boilers or clog between the flues and leave hotspots. 3) The design of the boilers. "Sultana" had tubular boilers filled with 24 horizontal five-inch flues. Being so closely packed within the diameter boilers tended to cause the muddy sediment to form hot pockets and were extremely difficult to clean. Tubular boilers were discontinued from use on steamboats plying the Lower Mississippi after two more steamboats with tubular boilers exploded  shortly after the "Sultana" explosion. Traditional alternative theories. In 1888, a St. Louis resident named William Streetor claimed that his former business partner, Robert Louden, made a confession of having sabotaged "Sultana" by the use of a coal torpedo while they were drinking in a saloon. Louden, a former Confederate agent and saboteur who operated in and around St. Louis, had been responsible for the burning of the steamboat "Ruth". (Thomas Edgeworth Courtenay, the inventor of the coal torpedo, was a former resident of St. Louis and was involved in similar acts of sabotage against Union shipping interests. However, Courtenay 's great-great-grandson, Joseph Thatcher, who wrote a book on Courtenay and the coal torpedo, denies that a coal torpedo was used in the "Sultana" disaster.) Supporting Louden's claim was the fact that what appeared to be a piece of an artillery shell was recovered from the sunken wreck. Louden's claim is controversial, however, and most scholars support the official explanation. The location of the explosion, from the top rear of the boilers and far away from the fireboxes, tends to indicate that Louden's claim of sabotage of an exploding coal torpedo in the firebox was  pure bravado. Two years later after Streetor's account came a claim that 2nd Lt. James Worthington Barrett, an ex-prisoner and passenger on the steamboat, had caused the explosion. Barrett was a veteran of the Mexican–American War and had been captured at the Battle of Franklin. He was injured on "Sultana" and was honorably discharged in May 1865. There is no apparent motive for him to have blown up the boat, especially while on board. In 1903, another person came out with a report that "Sultana" had been sabotaged, by a Tennessee farmer who lived along the river  and cut wood for passing steamboats. After a few Union gunboats filled up their bunkers but refused to pay, the farmer supposedly hollowed out a log, filled it with gunpowder and then left the lethal log on his woodpile. As stated in the 1903 newspaper article, the log was mistakenly taken by "Sultana". However, "Sultana" was a coal-burning boat and not a wood-burner. An episode of the PBS series "History Detectives" that aired on July 2, 2014, reviewed the known evidence, thoroughly disputed a theory of sabotage, and then focused on the question of why "Sultana" was allowed  to be crowded to several times its normal capacity before departure. The report blamed quartermaster Hatch, an individual with a long history of corruption and incompetence, who was able to keep his job through political connections: he was the younger brother of Illinois politician Ozias M. Hatch, an advisor and close friend of President Lincoln. Throughout the war, the elder Hatch had shown incompetence as a quartermaster and competence as a thief, bilking the government out of thousands of dollars. Although brought up on courts-martial charges, Hatch managed to get letters of recommendation from no less reputable personages than  President Lincoln and General Ulysses S. Grant. The letters reside in the National Archives in Washington, D.C. After the disaster, Ozias M. Hatch refused three separate subpoenas to appear before Captain Speed's trial and give testimony. He died in 1871, having escaped justice because of his numerous highly placed patrons—including two presidents. Lack of accountability. In spite of the magnitude of the disaster, no one was ever formally held accountable. Captain Frederick Speed, a Union officer who sent the 1,960 paroled prisoners into Vicksburg from the parole camp, was charged with grossly overcrowding "Sultana" and found guilty. However , the guilty verdict was overturned by the Judge Advocate General of the United States Army on grounds that Speed had been at the parole camp all day and had not personally placed a soldier on board "Sultana". Captain George Williams, who had placed the men on board, was a regular Army officer, and the military refused to go after one of their own. Captain Hatch, who had concocted a bribe with Captain Mason to crowd as many men onto "Sultana" as possible, had quickly quit the service to avoid a court-martial. Captain Mason of "Sultana", who was ultimately responsible  for dangerously overloading his vessel and ordering the faulty repairs to her leaky boiler, had died in the explosion. In the end, no one was ever held accountable for what remains the deadliest maritime disaster in United States history. Legacy. Monuments and historical markers to "Sultana" and her victims have been erected at Memphis, Tennessee; Muncie, Indiana; Marion, Arkansas; Vicksburg, Mississippi; Cincinnati, Ohio; Knoxville, Tennessee; Hillsdale, Michigan and Mansfield, Ohio. Remnants found. In 1982, a local archaeological expedition, led by Memphis attorney Jerry O. Potter, uncovered what was believed to be the wreckage of "Sultana". Blackened wooden deck planks and  timbers were found about under a soybean field on the Arkansas side, about from Memphis. The Mississippi River has changed course several times since the disaster, leaving the wreck under dry land and far from today's river. The main channel now flows about east of its 1865 position. Museum. In 2015, on the 150th anniversary of the disaster, an interim "Sultana" Disaster Museum was opened in Marion, Arkansas, the closest town to the buried remains of the steamboat, across the Mississippi River from Memphis. The museum is only temporary until enough funds can be raised to build a permanent  museum. Featured in the museum are a few relics from "Sultana" such as shaker plates from the boat's furnace, furnace bricks, a few pieces of wood, and some small metal pieces. The museum also features many artifacts from the "Sultana" Survivor's Association, as well as a fourteen-foot model replica of the boat. One entire wall is decorated with the names of every soldier, crewmember and passenger who was on the boat on April 27, 1865.