Yitzhak Reiter
Yitzhak Reiter (born 5 September 1952) is an Israeli political scientist who is full professor of Islamic, Middle East and Israel Studies serving as the Head of Research Authority and Chair of Israel Studies at Ashkelon Academic College. He is also a senior researcher at both the Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research and the Harry S. Truman Institute for Peace Research of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem as well as Editor-In-Chief of "Israel Academic Press". Early life and education. Reiter was born in Rehovot, Israel to Holocaust survivors, his mother from Paszto, Hungary and his father  from Leipzig, Germany. During 1965–1968 he was educated at Kibbutz Givat Haim Meuhad, and in November 1970 he joined the IDF in the Intelligence Corp. He was wounded in the 1973 War on the Egyptian front. He was trained in Islamic civilization, Arabic and Islamic and Middle East studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem from where he graduated with a doctorate (1991), with his thesis specializing on the Islamic Waqf. Career. After four years of work at the L.A. Mayer Museum of Islamic Art working in numismatics, Reiter was recruited to the civil service and during 1978–1987 served as  deputy advisor on Arab Affairs for three Israeli Prime Ministers—Menachem Begin, Yitzhak Shamir and Shimon Peres. He also worked as an administrative director of "Al-Anba", the Israeli Arabic daily newspaper, from 1982–83. He co-founded with Shaul Mishal, the Institute for Israeli Arab Studies at Beit Berl College serving as its director. During 1993–1995 he was nominated by the Israeli government as Chairman of the Public Committee for the Integration of Arabs within the Civil Service. In 2007 he also contributed to forming Israel's Academy for the Arabic Language (Majma` al-Lugha al-Arabiyya). Reiter taught  at the Hebrew University in Islamic Studies from 1988–2003 and Conflict Resolution from 2005–2011. He also taught at Haifa University in 2004/5; IDC in 2005–6 and in 2017. During 2008–2009 he was a Schusterman Fellow teaching at the University of Minnesota in the departments of Political Science and Jewish Studies. Reiter was also a visiting scholar at St. Anthony's College, Oxford University during 2001, The Middle East Institute, Washington D.C. in 2003 and Sydney University during 2003–2004. Reiter also taught in Arabic between 2014–2016 at Al-Qasemi College, Baqa al-Gharbiyye, Israel. Waqf Studies. Reiter's first studies pertained  to the Islamic pious endowments ("waqf") in Palestine under the British Mandate and in Israel. His book "Islamic Endowments in Jerusalem during the British Mandate" presents a comprehensive view of the role of an important institution in Muslim society on the basis of 1,500 legal documents of the "Shari’a" court's "sijillat" between 1918 and 1948 and the archive of the Supreme Muslim Council located in Abu Dis. In his book on "Islamic Institutions in Jerusalem under Jordanian and Israeli Rule", Reiter concluded that Waqf and Shari’a courts succeeded in maintaining their status and sometimes even augmenting it, by transforming  themselves into a stronghold of political defiance of the Israeli government as well as by implementing internal reforms aimed at adapting to the changing circumstances. Reiter also challenges previous conventional approaches, which regarded the purpose of establishing family or private "waqfs" and concluded inaccurately that this mode of endowments was aimed to circumvent Islamic inheritance law. Analyzing "waqf" deeds ("waqfiyyat") and their entitlement stipulations he found that circumventing inheritance law was only a byproduct of the major purpose of founding the family "waqf," which is mainly the belief in pious charity that compensates the endower in the afterworld. The popular  endowers' stipulation to dedicate entitlements to orphan children of the family strengthens the act of charity of "waqf" to meet the above goal of dedication. In his book, "Waqf in Jerusalem during 1948-1990", Reiter found that Islamic institutions have struggled for their existence, and succeeded in maintaining their status and sometimes even augmenting it, by transforming themselves into a stronghold of political defiance of the Israeli government as well as by implementing internal reforms aimed at adapting to changing circumstances. In another study, which dealt with the roots of Hamas movement's myth, according to which "the entire land  of Palestine is a holy "waqf" not to be renounced even by one inch," Reiter found that Hamas leaders were assisted by Jordanian Muslim Brothers' scholars who wrongly mixed and confused the early Islamic institute of "fay"' and the "waqf" institution. Holy places. Reiter's studies on holy places in Palestine and Israel address the dialectical link between sanctity and political centrality and on the following questions: Does a site holy to more than one religious group or denomination serve as a venue for ongoing conflicts, or could tolerance prevail? Would rational considerations of the political and religious actors at  a shared site govern, or a constructed narrative would make it a “sacred value” not to be compromised? In his "Contested Holy Places in Israel-Palestine", Reiter adds to the growing understanding that conflicts in or over holy places differ from other territorial conflicts. He contends that a holy site has a profound meaning, involving human beliefs, strong emotions, “sacred” values and core identity self-perceptions. Therefore, a dispute over such land differs from a “regular” dispute over land. In order to resolve conflicts over holy sites, one must be equipped with an understanding of the cultural, religious, social and  political meaning of the holy place to each of the contesting groups. He discusses the many facets of disputes and the triggers for the outbreak of violence in and around holy sites and analyses fourteen case studies of conflicts over holy sites in Palestine/Israel, including major holy sites such as Al-Haram al-Sharif/ the Temple Mount, the Western Wall and the Cave of the Patriarchs/Al-Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron, in addition to disputes over more minor sites. He then compares these conflicts to similar cases from other regions and provides an analysis of effective and ineffective conflict  mitigation and resolution tools used for dealing with such disputes. Furthermore, the study sheds light on the role of sacred sites in exacerbating local and regional ethnic conflicts. By providing a thorough and systematic analysis of the social, economic, and political conditions that fuel conflicts over holy sites and the conditions that create tolerance or conflict, Reiter concludes by laying down a typology of 15 methods of conflict mitigation, management and resolution, analyzing their efficiency in resolving conflict at shared holy sites. A number of studies pertain to the disputes between Jewish Israelis and Palestinian and Jordanian Muslims regarding the  details of the post 1967 arrangements (also named: Status Quo) and the series of tacit understandings between their institutions in major five areas: sovereignty and control; freedom of access; freedom of worship; administration; security and safeguarding the site's physical and human character. He concludes that following 1967 a modus vivendi developed between the Waqf and Israeli authorities to be names as an unofficial Status Quo, nevertheless a dynamic situation. He also analyzes the balance of power between the parties to the shared holy shrine and their space of maneuvering in negotiating a solution to the conflict concluding that the  1967-1996 temporary mutual arrangements could serve as a stable basis for a future settlement by means of a quasi functional division of powers. His "The Eroding Status Quo: Conflict over Controlling the Temple Mount" portrays the Status-Quo that prevailed at the Temple Mount/Al-Haram al-Sharif since 1967 until it began to be eroded in stages—first in 1996 following Israel's opening of the northern exit to the touristic Western Wall tunnel, then in 2000 following the visit of MK Ariel Sharon to the site when the compound was closed to non–Muslim visitors for about  three years, and the new arrangements at this holy place since it was re-opened in August 2003. Alongside with the understandings achieved throughout the fifty years period since 1967 between Israeli authorities and the Jordanian administered "Waqf". The book presents the dynamics of erosion of what is termed the Status Quo. The violent events at the holy site during 2014–2015 and the new Israeli–Jordanian understandings with the involvement of US Secretary of State are also analyzed and the author critiques the weaknesses of these understandings and makes some recommendations for adjusting them in order to prevent future similar  crises. His study "Contesting Symbolic Landscape in Jerusalem: Jewish/Islamic Conflict over Museum of Tolerance at Mamilla Cemetery" won the Haifa University Prize for best research in geopolitics in 2012. The book addressed the dispute about building a Museum of Tolerance on top of a historical Muslim cemetery, Mamilla. The dispute embodies a microcosm of conflicts over religious and national symbols of cultural heritage as well as Jewish majority-Arab minority tensions within Israel. The study integrates an interdisciplinary approach involving history, identity politics and conflict resolution. His "Jerusalem and Its Role in Islamic Solidarity" deals with the role of  Jerusalem as a central religious-political symbol and the processes by which symbols of faith and sanctity are employed in a political struggle. It examines the current Islamic ethos towards Jerusalem and the affinity between this religious ethos and the political aspirations of the Palestinians and other Arab and Islamic groups. It also compares current Jewish and Muslim narratives and processes of denying and de-legitimizing the affiliation of the other to the holy city and its sacred shrines. It also addresses the question whether religious outlook forms a major barrier for achieving peace in the Israeli-Arab arena. In  a joint study with Lior Lehrs, the authors analyze the conflict over the use of the , a dispute epitomizing the struggle for active representation of a minority in a contested public space and, in this context, the representation of the Arab-Muslim minority in the Israeli urban setting. The study begins by outlining the meeting points between theoretical concepts of conflict resolution and transitional justice methods and the physical, planning and spatial aspects. It then addresses the conflict over the mosque in Beersheba, including an analysis of both sides’ claims, an examination of the factors that have influenced the conflict  over the years, and a review of the efforts that were made to resolve it. It also presents a comparative perspective, introducing similar case studies concluding with a presentation of a conceptual approach which addresses the factors that enable the process of transitional representation. In the conclusion, the authors suggest “transitional representation”—the process of granting active symbolic representation in historic and religious heritage sites of minorities in conflict areas that have not yet completed the shift from violent conflict to stable peace and reconciliation. They offered two sets of factors that influence the process of transitional representation: factors related to  local, regional and international aspects of conflict, and factors related directly to the specific disputed site. His study "Feminism in the Temple: The Struggle of the Women of the Wall to Change the Status Quo" analyzes the struggle of the Women of the Wall](WoW),a minority group of religious, activist, and feminist women challenging the Orthodox, male, hegemonic status quo at Judaism's holiest site—the Western Wall. Since 1988, the group has been holding prayer services every Rosh Hodesh at the Wall with and without interruptions according to its custom—wrapped in colorful "tallitot" and reading aloud from the Torah . This study, based on interviews with the major political actors involved and content analysis of primary documents and publications, presents the action strategies of the various parties involved and analyzes the dispute's conflict resolution methods. It explores a series of questions: first, what has enabled legal and public recognition of a minority group's local custom that challenges the hegemonic status quo at the Western Wall? Second, how has a small group of women succeeded over more powerful forces in breaking the status quo in favor of a gender oriented, pluralistic religious agenda? Third, what are the implications of  these achievements for arrangements at the Wall and other contentious holy places? This case contributes to existing scholarship on religious feminism as well as on shared and divided holy spaces, as the controversy exists not between two religions, but between different streams within Judaism. Implementation of Islamic Law in Israel. By a synthesis between "shari`a" court rulings and interviews with "qadis" and litigants Reiter found that Israeli "qadis" are gradually reforming "shari`a" laws of personal status by accommodating their interpretation to the modern reality of living as a minority in a Western culturally oriented state.Ex. the "qadis" enabled women  to initiate a divorce under the legal principle (or grounding) of marital discord. They also adopted the Western principal of “the benefit of the child” in cases of parental custody. By analyzing the "qadis"' education, and period of tenure Reiter found differences between generations of "qadis" with the most recent who was found to be the most reformist. Jewish-Arab Relations in Israel. Reiter's studies on the Arab society and Jewish-Arab relations in Israel resulted in a number of works.In his "National Minority, Regional Majority]" Reiter used the theory of “interlocking conflict” in criticizing studies that refer  only to the special tension between the Jewish and democratic nature of Israel while ignoring the impact of the regional conflict. In another article Reiter strongly criticized the four manifestos published by Israeli Arab NGOs during 2006–2007 concluding with a vision of how to compromise between Jewish and Arab worldviews and political interests. This was also the result of a three-year academic brainstorming project that he initiated and headed at the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies concluding with a vision of "Inclusive Citizenship". Palestinian-Trans-Jordanian Relations in Jordan. During the 1990s Reiter studied the ethnic-national rift in  Jordan between original Trans-Jordanians and Palestinians, which, according to his findings, was wider and deeper than was commonly thought.Conducting a number of visits to Jordan Reiter conductedan analysis of official Jordanian material from varied sources as well as in-depth interviews were the ground for his conclusions about the different groups. One study highlighted the regime's higher education preferential policy which generated a socio-political transformation in Jordan at the expense of the Palestinians. Another study investigated the sectorial dichotomy between Trans-Jordanians controlling the public sector and the Palestinian Jordanians dominating the private sector. Reiter analyzed  the top 500 companies in Jordan and data provided by the Jordanian Businessmen Association which validated the above dichotomy. Another question discussed in that research was whether the capital accumulated by Palestinian entrepreneurs and bankers resulted in political might. The study found that the Palestinian economic elite are not channeling its financial power to impact on the local politics including their own political rights. Yet, since the beginning of the 21st century the role of the Palestinians in governmental institutions has increased. Political "fatwa"s on War and Peace in Islam. Reiter published a number of studies on the issue of  war and peace in Islam.His book "War Peace and International Relations in Islam" analyzes "fatwas" – rulings of Islamic law – issued by religious sages and clerics on issues of war and peace in regard to the actual or future possibility of concluding a peace agreement between Muslim states and Israel. The analysis highlights Islamic law's adaptation to changing political realities to the modern model of international relations; the changing concept of "jihad" and the current role of political "fatwas". It deals with the "sharia" interpretations regarding war and peace in theory and practice; the Hudaybiyya pact of 628 between  the Prophet Muhammad and the Quraysh infidels; Egyptian fatwas from 1947-1979 regarding peace with Israel; the 1995 debate between the late mufti of Saudi Arabia Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz and the popular Islamist scholar Dr. Yusuf al-Qaradawi over the Oslo Accords; the Hamas "hudna" concept; the debate between Saudi Arabian muftis and Hezbollah sages over Israel's second war in Lebanon (2006); and a comparative study of the agreements that were signed between the Algerian leader Abd al-Qadir and the French in the 1830s. The book details those Muslim religious scholars and leaders who present pragmatic  interpretations and envision the natural relations between the Muslim and non-Muslim worlds as a state of peace; sheds light on the built-in pluralism in Islam; and exposes the need of moderate Arab-Muslim rulers for pragmatic muftis and "fatwas" in order to contend with radical Muslim factions to soften and limit Arab public opposition to signing agreement with Israel, and to enable normal relations with Israel after signing the agreement.