Education in Portugal
Education in Portugal is free and compulsory until the age of 18, when students usually complete their year 12. However, only one of those requirements is necessary. The education is regulated by the State through the Ministry of Education. There is a system of public education and also many private schools at all levels of education. The first Portuguese medieval universities, such as the University of Coimbra, were created in the 13th century, and the national higher education system is fully integrated into the European Higher Education Area. The basic literacy rate of the Portuguese population is  99.44 (99.48% male, 99.38% female, aged 15–24). According to INE (Portuguese Institute for National Statistics), only 3.7 million Portuguese workers (67% of the working active population) completed basic education (81% of the working population attained the lower basic level of education and 12% attained the intermediate level of education). According to the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015, the average Portuguese 15-year-old student, when rated in terms of reading literacy, mathematics and science knowledge, is placed above the OECD's average, at a similar level as those students from Norway, Poland, Denmark and Belgium, with 501 points  (493 is the average). The PISA results of the Portuguese students have been continuously improving, surpassing those of a number of other highly developed western countries like the US, Austria, France and Sweden. However, after the policy changes started in 2016, PISA results dropped. According to the TIMSS studies, Portugal made significant improvements until 2015, when 4th grade Portuguese students passed over traditionally better placed countries such as Finland. After policy changes of 2016, results dropped to scores below those of 2012. History. In the beginnings of the Portuguese nationality, the Christian clergy was the main player in the educational  endeavour. Portuguese universities have existed since 1290. Within the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the Portuguese founded in 1792 the oldest engineering school of Latin America (the Real Academia de Artilharia, Fortificação e Desenho), as well as the oldest medical college of Asia (the Goa Medical College) in 1842. 19th and 20th century. However, by the end of the 19th century the illiteracy rate was over 80 percent and higher education was reserved for a small percentage of the population. 68.1 percent of Portugal's population was still classified as illiterate by the 1930 census. Although the militants of the  First Republic had chosen education as one of their banner causes, the evidence shows that the more democratic First Republic was less successful than the authoritarian "Estado Novo" in expanding elementary education. Under the First Republic, literacy levels in children aged 7 to 14 registered a modest increase from 26 per cent in 1911 to 33 per cent in 1930. Under the "Estado Novo", literacy levels in children aged 7 to 14 increased to 56 per cent in 1940, 77 per cent in 1950 and 97 per cent in 1960. Under Salazar the number of elementary schools grew from 7,000  in 1927 to 10,000 in 1940. While the illiteracy rate under the twenty years of the First Republic had only dropped a modest 9%, under Salazar in twenty years, the illiteracy rate dropped 21%, from 61,8% in 1930 to 40,4% in 1950. In 1940, the regime celebrated the fact that for the first time in Portuguese History, the majority of the population could read and write. Nevertheless Portugal's literacy rate by the 1940s and early 1950s was still low for North American and Western European standards at the time. In 1952 a vast multi-pronged Plan for Popular Education  was launched with the intent of finally extirpate illiteracy and put into school every child of school age. This plan included fines for parents who did not comply, and these were strictly enforced. By the late 1950s Portugal had succeed in pulling itself out of the educational abyss in which it had long found itself: illiteracy among children of school age virtually disappeared. From the 1960s, the country made public education available for all children between the ages of six and twelve, expanded a robust network of industrial and commercial technical schools aimed at intermediate education of future skilled workers  ("ensino médio"), recognized the Portuguese Catholic University in 1971, and by 1973 a wave of new state-run universities were founded across mainland Portugal (the Minho University, the New University of Lisbon, the University of Évora, and the University of Aveiro - Veiga Simão was the Minister in charge for education by then). From the 1960s to the 1974 Carnation Revolution, secondary and university education experienced the fastest growth of Portuguese education's history. After 1974 the number of basic and secondary schools as well as of higher education institutions, increased until the end of the century, sometimes without the necessary  allocation of quality material and qualified human resources. The revolutionary government also endeavored to increase the adult literacy rate. Though children often had high rates of literacy, many adults still could not read or write at the time. There is some evidence the government's measures to increase adult literacy were successful. Education more than basic (4th or 6th grade) wasn't affordable for most Portuguese families, the real democratization of education, specially secondary and higher education, only happened in the 1980s. After mid-2000s programs of modernization of schools (basic and secondary) and the construction of new elementary schools called  educational centres (mostly to reduce the number of overloaded elementary schools, to widespread the 9 AM to 5h30 PM schedule system, because in most overloaded schools there are classes with 8 AM-1 PM schedule and other with 1 PM-6 PM) are being held. The Bologna process for higher education has been adopted since 2006. However the higher-education rate in the country still remains the lowest in the European Union, this rate was around 7% in 2003 (Source: OECD (2003) Education at a Glance and OECD Statistical Compendium), and improved to 11% in 2007 - as compared to Slovakia's and  Slovenia's around 16%; Germany's, Estonia, Spain's and Ireland's 28%; or Belgium's, Netherlands', Denmark's, Finland's, Cyprus's and UK's, over 30% (Source: EuroStat, March 2007). According to the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the average Portuguese 15-years old student was for many years underrated and underachieving in terms of reading literacy, mathematics and science knowledge in the OECD, nearly tied with the Italian and just above countries like Greece, Turkey and Mexico. However, since 2010, PISA results for Portuguese students improved dramatically. The Portuguese Ministry of Education announced a  2010 report published by its office for educational evaluation GAVE (Gabinete de Avaliação do Ministério da Educação) which criticized the results of PISA 2009 report and claimed that the average Portuguese teenage student had profound handicaps in terms of expression, communication and logic, as well as a low performance when asked to solve problems. They also claimed that those fallacies are not exclusive of Portugal but indeed occur in other countries due to the way PISA was designed. Due to the Portuguese sovereign debt crisis in the late 2000s, and the subsequent IMF-EU financial assistance to the Portuguese Republic  from 2011 onward, many universities and other higher education institutions suffered financially. Many were on verge of bankruptcy and were forced to increase its admissions and tuition fees as the budget dwindled and the staff members and bonuses were being reduced. Years of schooling. Students must turn 6 years old until the end of the civil year of entry in 1st year of school. School year calendar. Each school year starts in mid September and ends in mid June. There are three holiday breaks during the year: Christmas break (2 weeks), Carnival break (3 days) and Easter break (2 weeks ). The school year is divided in three terms, usually limited by the following dates: After the end of the 3rd term, there are national exams during June and July for students in 9th, 11th and 12th years, and measurement exams in 2nd, 5th and 8th years. Pre-primary education. Nursery. Children from four months (the usual maternity leave) until they are three years old may frequent a nursery ("Infantário" or "Creche"). The large majority of nurseries are private. Other nurseries are run by the Portuguese Social Security and are partly financed by the state. In these nurseries parents pay according  to their income. Kindergarten. Pre-primary education is optional from the ages of three to five, and is provided in both state-run and private kindergartens schools. State-run kindergartens provision is free of charge. The schools are known as "Jardins de Infância" (Kindergartens). Most international schools offer an international approach to pre-primary learning and follow a curriculum such as the International Baccalaureate. Pre-higher education. Basic Education "(Ensino Básico)" lasts for nine years divided into three stages of four, two and three years respectively. The stages are respectively "1º Ciclo" (1st Cycle), "2º Ciclo" (2nd Cycle) and "3º  Ciclo" (3rd Cycle). Children are required to do two exams at the end of the third stage: Portuguese and Maths. Secondary Education "(Ensino Secundário)"- public, private or cooperative - is compulsory since the school year of 2012/2013 and consists of a three-year cycle after basic education. Access to Secondary Education is made through the Certificate of Basic Education. There are three types of programmes: general programmes, technical/vocational programmes, and artistic programmes, providing instruction in technical, technological, professional fields and in the Portuguese language and culture. Permeability between the programmes is guaranteed. The teaching and practice of technical, technological or  artistic programmes are provided by vocational schools and special schools for education in Arts. Programmes are sanctioned by the "Certificado de Habilitações do Ensino Secundário/Diploma de Ensino Secundário" (Secondary School Credential/Diploma), which is the prerequisite for access to higher education through national access examination. Basic education. In Portugal, Basic Education consists of nine years of schooling divided into three sequential cycles of education of four, two and three years. Children aged six by 15 September must be enrolled in their first school year in that calendar year. In addition, children who reach the age of six between 16  September and 31 December may be authorized to attend the first stage of education, provided a request is submitted by their parents or guardians to the school nearest to their residence (or place of work) during the annual enrollment period. State-run schools are free of charge; private school tuition is refunded by the State in part or fully, when state-run schools in the area are filled to capacity. The first cycle of basic mandatory education covers years 1st-4th, the second cycle years 5th-6th and the third cycle years 7th-9th. The curriculum contains only general education until the 9th  year at which point vocational subjects are introduced. At the end of each cycle, students take national evaluation exams for the subjects of Portuguese Language and Mathematics. Schools do not give (or sell) any books or materials; financial assistance is available for poorer families. The school books are chosen at school's level every four years. 1st Cycle State-run schools are owned by the municipalities; all other State-run schools are owned by the State. At State-run schools, 1st Cycle students and kindergarten students get free mid-morning or mid-afternoon snacks, generally consisting of a 20 cl  milk carton. 1º Ciclo - 1st Cycle. 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th years General subjects: Enrichment Activities: Facultative: 2º Ciclo - 2nd Cycle. 5th and 6th years 3º Ciclo - 3rd Cycle. 7th, 8th and 9th years (*) In the 9th year the student has to choose between Visual Education, Technological Education, Music and Drama, according to the school's availability. Secondary education. It is only after the 9th year of basic schooling that the Portuguese General Education system branches out into different secondary programmes, a higher education-oriented (general secondary programmes), a work-oriented (technological secondary programmes) and an artistic-oriented programme. The  conclusion of secondary education (general, technological or artistic programmes) with passing grades confers a diploma, which will certificate the qualification thus obtained and, in the case of work-oriented programmes the qualification for specific jobs. All General and Technological programmes share the following subjects known as General Formation: General Programmes. Sciences and Technologies Social and Human Sciences Socio-Economic Sciences Visual Arts Secondary school rankings. Every year secondary school rankings are divulged by several newspapers such as Público and Expresso. As of 2020 the ranking according to Agencia Lusa is: Access to higher education. At the end of 11th grade , students have national exams in the two specific subjects of their course. At the end of the 12th grade, the exams are in Portuguese language and the main subject of the course. The access to higher education is made through a national online process, where the students enter the university by priority based on their grades. The average of grades obtained in all subjects (now including Physical Education) represents a part of the application grade to enter university. The other part is based on the grade of the specific exams that the university requests, which are related with the course  the student is applying for. The average of both averages is the application grade to university. That number is between zero and 20; the higher it is, the better the chance to enter the university. Other types of school education. There are also special modalities of school education. The programmes offered by vocational schools, those of the apprenticeship system and those of recurrent studies are considered as a special modality of school education. These programmes are not regular, because they are not included in the mainstream regular progression of the education system to which they are an alternative given that  they were designed to respond to specific educational needs of different target-groups of the population. All of these programmes offer initial vocational and education training, although the recurrent studies also offer general education. Recurrent education consists of non-regular programmes of study or modular or single units because they are not complete training cycles and they are not included in the regular progression of the education system. The recurrent education provides a second opportunity of training for those who did not undertake training at the normal age or who left school early. Recurrent education covers the three cycles of  basic education and the secondary education. The recurrent education is characterized by the flexibility and adaptability to the students’ learning cycle, availability, knowledge and experiences. The recurrent secondary education branches into two types of courses: the general course for those who want to continue their studies and the technical courses that are work-oriented and confer a level III vocational certificate, although they also permit the access to higher education. Any of the secondary courses, vocational courses, apprenticeship courses (level III), recurrent courses and others (artistic and those of technological schools) share a three-dimensional structure (although the importance of  each dimension could vary according to the specific course): a) general / socio-cultural b) specific / scientific c) technical / technological / practical / vocational The Portuguese educational/vocational system is open. This means that once any student finishes his/her basic studies successfully he/she can choose, freely, any kind of course in any training domain/area. Any secondary course completed successfully allows the student apply to any course of higher education, independently of the training domain the student chose in the secondary level of education. However, to ingress university each superior course requires specific exams correspondent to subjects of a knowledge domain . In Portugal, initial vocational education and training can be divided into two main modalities according to the Ministry responsible for the training: a) Initial vocational education and training in the education system (under the regulation of the Ministry of Education): - The technological secondary courses are work-oriented and confer qualification for specific jobs, which correspond to the E.U. level III of vocational qualifications. There are eleven technological courses in the domain of natural sciences, arts, social-economic sciences and humanities; - The vocational schools courses are a special modality of education that has a primary goal: the development of youngsters’ vocational  training. In this type of course the students spend most of their time in practical, technological, technical and artistic training, which allows the development of specific skills indispensable to an occupation. The vocational courses are drawn to give answers to both local and regional labour market needs. These courses function under the regulation of the Ministry of Education, although under the direct initiative and responsibility of civil society institutions, such as municipalities, enterprises, trade unions, etc. The vocational courses are available in the third cycle of basic education (level II) – only a few - and in the secondary education (level III ). - The technical recurrent courses. In the secondary education, the recurrent studies branches into two different types of courses: the general courses and the technical courses. The latter are work-oriented, vocationally oriented to confer a level III vocational certificate; - The courses of initial qualification can be promoted by schools lecturing the third cycle of mandatory education. If it is necessary, schools can establish protocols with other institutions such as municipalities, enterprises or vocational training centres. These courses are open to a) youngsters who have a 9th grade diploma, without any vocational qualification, and who do not intend to continue their  studies; and b) youngsters who, having reached fifteen years of age and attended the 9th grade, did not achieve the basic education certificate. b) Initial vocational education and training in the labour market (under the regulation of the Ministry of Labour and Social Solidarity through the Institute of Employment and Vocational Training): - Apprenticeship system. The apprenticeship courses are part of an initial vocational training system alternating between the school and the workplace, addressing mainly youngsters aged between fifteen and twenty five years who are not included in the mandatory school system. The training process alternates between the professional/vocational (where  the socio-cultural, scientific-technological and the practice training in training context takes place) and the workplace (where the practice training in work context takes place). In the mid-2000s, education policy was reorganised aiming more choice and better quality in vocational technical education. Enhanced and improved technical education programs where implemented in 2007 in an effort to revitalize this sector which had been almost discontinued after the Carnation Revolution of 1974, when many vocational technical schools were administratively upgraded to higher education technical colleges and other were simply closed. This happened despite those vocational technical schools have been generally regarded  as reputed institutions with a record of very high standards in vocational technical education across the decades they were supplying the technical labor needs of the country. Higher education. Overview. Higher education in Portugal is divided into two main subsystems: university and polytechnic. It is provided in autonomous universities, in university institutes, in polytechnic institutes and in separate university or polytechnic schools. The previous institutions can be either public, concordat or private. The university subsystem is intended to have a strong theoretical basis and to be highly research-oriented. The polytechnic subsystem is intended to provides a more practical training  and is profession-oriented. Degrees in some fields such as medicine, law, natural sciences, economics, psychology or veterinary are only offered in the university system. Nursing, preschool education, accounting technician or health care technician degrees are only offered in the polytechnic system. The other fields, including engineering, technology, management, education, agriculture, sports, or humanities are found both in university and polytechnic systems. The oldest university is the University of Coimbra founded in 1290, and the biggest by number of enrolled students is the University of Porto with about 28,000 students. The Catholic University of Portugal, the oldest "non-state-run  university (concordat status), was instituted by decree of the Holy See and is recognized by the Portuguese State since 1971. The current public polytechnic subsystem was founded in the 1980s, but is an evolution of previous systems of higher vocational education that existed before. So, although only integrated in the system in the 1980s, several polytechnic institutions are much older, some having their origins back to the 19th century (examples are the Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa", the " Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto" and the "Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra"). Private higher education institutions cannot operate if  they are not recognized by the Ministry of Education. Access is regulated by the same procedures as those for state higher education institutions. The two systems of higher education (university and polytechnic) are linked and it is possible to transfer from one to the other by extraordinary competition. It is also possible to transfer from a public institution to a private one and vice versa. Admission to public university programmes are often more demanding and selective than to their equivalent in public polytechnic and private institutions. Many specific university institutions and degrees are also regarded as more prestigious and reputed  than their peers from the polytechnic system or from certain less notable university institutions. Traditionally, the Portuguese universities were organized in autonomous schools, each designated "faculdade" (faculty). In the early 20th century, some higher education schools not integrated in universities were designated "instituto superior" (higher institute). When the present polytechnic system was created in the early 1980s, the standard designation adopted for the divisions of the polytechnic institutes was that of "escola superior" (higher school). The change of status and the integration of some institutions in universities or in polytechnics, keeping the original names, meant that presently universities can include  divisions named faculties, higher institutes or schools and polytechnic institutes can include either higher schools or higher institutes. After the mid-2000s, with the approval of new legislation and the Bologna Process any polytechnic or university institution of Portugal, is able to award a first cycle of study, known as "licenciatura" plus a second cycle which confer the master's degree. Before that, this was the rule only for university institutions. Virtually all university institutions award master's degrees as a second cycle of study, but some university departments are offering integrated master's degrees (joint degrees) through a longer single  cycle of study. Some polytechnic institutions offer the second study cycle in cooperation with a partner university. Doctorates are only awarded by the universities. There are also special higher education institutions linked with the military and the police. These specific institutions have generally a good reputation and are popular among the youngsters because its courses are a passport to the military/police career. These state-run institutions are the Air Force Academy, the Military Academy, the Naval School and the "Instituto Superior de Ciências Policiais e Segurança Interna". Over 35% of university-age citizens (20 years old) attend one of  the country's higher education institutions (compared with 50% in the United States and 35% in the OECD countries). Most student costs are supported with public money. However, with the increasing tuition fees a student has to pay to attend a Portuguese state-run higher education institution and the attraction of new types of students (many as part-time students or in evening classes) like employees, businessmen, parents, and pensioners, many departments make a substantial profit from every additional student enrolled in courses, with benefits for the college or university's gross tuition revenue and without loss of educational quality  (teacher per student, computer per student, classroom size per student, etc.). University and polytechnic. Portugal has two main systems of higher education: The Bologna process in Portugal. The Bologna Process was a European reform process aimed at establishing a European Higher Education Area by 2010. It was an unusual process in that it was loosely structured and driven by the 45 countries participating in it in cooperation with a number of international organisations, including the Council of Europe. The reform aim was to create by 2010 a higher education system in Europe, organised in such a way that: Portugal, like  other European States, has conducted educational policies and reforms to accomplish these objectives. This include the reorganization of both university and polytechnic subsystems and the implementation of extensive legal and curricular changes. Since its field application in 2006 it has been widely contested by students (many lost an academic year with the change), and several universities had disrepute the concept by introducing integrated master's degrees in several courses. Degree significance. When Portugal adhered to the Bologna process (implemented in 2006 - 2007), a political decision was taken to maintain the names of some older degrees, but with new significances. This  still causes some confusion, especially in fields like engineering, medicine or law, in which the access to the respective professions was made through a pre-Bologna "licenciatura" but are not accessible by a post-Bologna degree of the same name. In ascending order of importance, the academic degrees and other qualifications are: 1 - "Bacharelato" (Bachelor's degree) - Academic title: "Bacharel" (Bachelour), abbreviation: "Bach.". The holders of a "bacharelato" in some fields could also have specific profissional titles like "enfermeiro" (nurse) or "engenheiro técnico" (engineering technologist). 2 - "Licenciatura" (Licenciate degree) - Academic title: "Licenciado" (Licensee), abbreviation: "Lic.". The holders of a "licenciatura  in some fields could also have specific professional titles like engenheiro" (engineer) or "arquiteto" (architect). Popularly but incorrectly, holders of a "licenciatura" were generically treated as "doutor" (doctor), abbreviated: "Dr.". 3 - "Mestrado" (Master's degree) - Academic title: "Mestre" (Master). The "Mestrado" was not traditional in Portugal, only being introduced in the 1980s, as an intermediate degree between the "licenciatura" and the "doutoramento". 4 - "Pós-Graduação" (Postgraduation) or "Especialização " (Specialization) - Academic title: No specific academic title. The "Pós-Graduação" and the "Especialização" are qualifications but not academic degrees, so their holders keep their previous degrees. 5 - "Doutoramento" (Doctorate) - Academic title: "Doutor  (Doctor). 6 - Agregação" (Aggregation) - Academic title: "Professor Doutor" (Professor Doctor). The "Agregação" is a qualification but not an academic degree, so their holders keep the "Doutor" degree. Admission. Admission to state-run higher education level studies requires either a secondary school credential, "Diploma de Ensino Secundário", given after passing twelve study years, and the required ENES exams. An extraordinary exam process is available to anyone aged 23 or older. Admission to private institutions is at the total discretion of each school. Every higher education institution has also a number of other extraordinary admission processes for sportsmen, international students, foreign students  from the Lusosphere, degree owners from other institutions, students from other institutions (academic transfer), former students (readmission), and course change, which are subject to specific standards and regulations set by each institution or course department. With secondary school credential. Students must have studied the subjects for which they are entering to be prepared for the entrance exams, but they are not required to have previously specialised in any specific area at the secondary school. Students sit for one or more entrance exams, "Concurso nacional" for public institutions or "Concurso local" for private institutions. In addition to passing entrance exams, students  must fulfil particular prerequisites for the chosen course. Enrollment is limited; each year the institution establishes the number of places available. This is called the "numerus clausus". For the public institutions the exam scores count for the final evaluation, which includes the secondary school average marks. Then the students have to choose six institutions/courses they prefer to attend, in preferential order. The ones, who reach the marks needed to attend the desired institution/course, given the attributed vacant, will be admitted. This means that the students could not be admitted at its first or second choice, but be admitted  at the third or even sixth choice. In some cases, those entering polytechnics or nursing and health technologies schools, should have some previous vocational training and preference will be given to applicants from the catchment area of the institution concerned. From the academic year 2005/2006 onwards, access rules have enforced minimum grades of 95 (out of 200) in the national access examinations for all candidates in every sector of public higher education. In practical terms, and unlike what happened in the past, the new rule meant the exclusion of a large number of applicants who otherwise would have been admitted  with negative grades to the less selective courses of some public institutions, and consequently lead to a number of available places for students left vacant every year in many courses. Extraordinary exam process. Even without a complete secondary school education, anyone 23 or above can apply to state-run higher learning institution through the "Exame Extraordinário de Avaliação de Capacidade para Acesso ao Ensino Superior" (extraordinary exam to assess the capacity to enter higher-level studies), also called the "Ad-Hoc" exam. The process consists of the general Portuguese exam, an interview to evaluate motivation and CV, and additional exams  specific to each school and course, obligatorily written and oral. Candidates approved go through a separate "numerus clausus" or enroll directly at the discretion of the school's board. As what happens with the "Concurso Nacional" through the Exames Nacionais do Ensino Secundário (ENES), the Extraordinary Exam Process for over-23-year-old candidates is more demanding and has a much higher selectiveness in public universities than in the public polytechnics. Humanities and other non-mathematical-intensive fields have also much higher admission rates than classical university engineering, economics or medicine. This implies that almost all new students admitted by this  extraordinary process enter a polytechnic institution, private institution, or humanities programmes. Teacher education. Training of pre-primary and primary/basic school teachers Teachers of basic education attend 4-year courses in "Escolas Superiores de Educação" or at the universities to obtain a "Licenciado" degree. The government as passed a law (February/2007) that makes a teacher to have also a " mestre " degree in Basic and Secondary Education. Training of secondary school teachers Teachers of secondary education must hold a "Licenciado" degree and follow courses that last for between four and six years. Studies are sanctioned by a "Licenciado em Ensino" or  a "Licenciatura - Ramo de Formação Educacional", according to the issuing institution. Educators and basic and secondary education teachers, with practice in regular or special education, may obtain a qualification to teach in specialized education. Continuous training for teachers is offered in "Centros de Formação Continua". The government as passed a law (February/2007) that makes a teacher to have also a " mestre " degree in Basic and Secondary Education. Training of higher education teachers Teachers at this level receive no formal professional training, but minimum qualifications are laid down for each category. University: estagiário (Licenciado); (Mestre); professor auxiliar (Doutor); professor associado (Doutor  and five years' service); professor catedrático (Agregação and three years' service). Polytechnics: (Licenciado); professor adjunto (Mestre or DESE); professor coordenador (Doutor and 3-years' service). Non-traditional studies. At present, distance higher education is provided by the Universidade Aberta ("Open University"). Private vs. public. Private Basic and Secondary schools and also private higher education institutions do exist in Portugal and are sometimes elite institutions (like the Universidade Católica Portuguesa in Lisbon and Porto, or some private primary, basic and secondary schools, mainly located in the biggest cities), existing among them many religious or speciality institutions. Many of the best ranked  secondary schools in the country are private schools, as well as some of the worst ranked secondary schools. This secondary schools ranking has been released every year in Portugal, and is based on the student's average grades in the National Examinations which are used for higher education admission. Among the best ranked public and private secondary schools are those of Lisbon, Porto and Coimbra. Schools from littoral areas are better ranked than schools from interior and less populated regions. The worst gap between internal school marks by course and the national examination marks is seen among private schools, with  higher grades attributed by the school to students who perform poorly in the national examinations. Some Portuguese employers and families are of the opinion that the existence of private education institutions, where accessibility is based primarily on ability to pay, is not as fair as the public system and could gloom the meritocracy concept, leading to easier entrance criteria and lower teaching standards. Some private institutions are known for making it easy for students to enter and also to get higher grades - as long as they pay. Others claim that the private systems could prevent a significant portion of Portugal 's population from being able to attend these schools that is also unfair. The quotas imposed on public education institutions to create room for students from former Portuguese colonies, who get automatically a place in those institutions also creates a big problem in terms of fairness, as some of these students can enter with very low grades excluding a portion of the Portuguese born students from studying in the public institutions and first choice courses they want. On the other side there are some people who prefer to attend private institutions because they don't trust in the public educational  infrastructure they have near their residential area. This could be related with overcrowded classes, bad reputation, criminality levels, incidence of ethnic minorities generally considered problematic, lack of quality teaching staff or bad infrastructures in that specific institution. Without large endowments like those received, for example, by many of the US private universities and colleges, and with little tradition of excellence in the sector, the private higher education institutions of Portugal, with a few exceptions, do not have either the financial support or the academic profile to reach the highest teaching and research standards of the major Portuguese public universities. In  addition, a lack of collaboration between the most prominent private sector enterprises and the private universities is also restrictive, and represents another comparative disadvantage between public and private higher education institutions. Traditionally, public system's institutions are regarded in general as having higher quality and accountability, but private institutions have developed quickly after the "25 de Abril" revolution of 1974, and some have today a great reputation. There are both public and private institutions considered of the highest standard and quality. However, a large majority of Portuguese students attend public schools, universities and colleges because it is considerably less expensive  than the private ones, the public system has a much older implantation, and for the other side it covers well the entire territory. There are also some students who simply desire and can afford to attend an elite private institution, even if they have availability to attend one of the largest or most renowned public institutions. A number of scandals and affairs involving private higher education institutions ("Universidade Moderna" (1998), "Universidade Independente" (2007) and "Universidade Internacional" (2009), among others), and a general perception of many of those institutions as having a tendentially relaxed teaching style with less rigorous criteria, have  contributed to their poor reputation which originated a state-run inspection of private higher education institutions in 2007. School violence. The teaching quality of Portuguese learning institutions depends on the population that is receiving the training, their family background support, the teaching staff quality and motivation, the sociocultural environment and the economical development of that population. In some ghettos, especially in Greater Lisbon's suburbs where many immigrants, immigrant descendants from PALOP countries, among some other ethnic minorities, are concentrated, and also areas with higher unemployment rates and other severe social problems, exist schools with generalized high dropout and juvenile  delinquency rates. In Greater Porto, there are no African or other significant immigrant ghettos like in Lisbon, but there is a high dropout and juvenile delinquency rates among nationals from former rural areas, of humble origins or from ethnic minorities from specific districts or quarters. School violence in Portugal is not unique to public schools or the major urban centers. Public and private Portuguese schools have all experienced an increase in school violence. However, due to the general wealth and educational background of private school student's families, and the increased private security measures adopted, private schools have generally a  lower level of violence. Violence in Portuguese schools became an educational issue for the first time during the 1990s, mainly through the persistent complaints of parental associations and teacher claims. However, it must be said that this was not the first time that violence showed itself to be a troubling reality in Portuguese schools: after the 25 de Abril revolution of 1974, the occurrence of violent situations reached its highest point, this was a politically socialized and framed violence, quite different from the kind of violence we can find today. Its origins are very diverse, from poverty to psychological problems . Theft, random or systematic physical aggression, bullying, destruction of properties are realities which become current in many schools. In May 2006, a television program was broadcast on RTP 1, titled "Quando a violência vai à escola" "(When violence goes to school)" by journalist Mafalda Gameiro. Using hidden cameras in the classrooms, the program shows the violent behavior of many young students (aged between 10 and 13 years old) inside the classroom of a very problematic unidentified school, and the chaos and fear often generated by those events. In 2004 and 2005, the Portuguese Ministry of Education reported over 1,200 aggressions  inside Portuguese schools. School safety. "Escola Segura" provides a safety program to 11 thousand schools, it involves 600 police officers a day, 300 cars and 160 motorbikes. Foreign international schools in Portugal. There are some foreign international schools in Portugal, especially in Lisbon and Porto areas, and also in the Algarve region. These places have a large number of settled foreign families from high income countries. In general, they have good reputation. Aljezur International School is a progressive English speaking international secondary school, with an excellent exam result history, and VVIS International School Algarve reports that it has obtained a  100% academic success rate for the last four years for first attempt IGCSE examinations. Other private schools have obtained world-renowned status, including schools such as the Carlucci American International School of Lisbon (CAISL), VVIS International School Algarve, St Julian's School, Oeiras International School, St Dominic's International School, Prime School Trilingual International School and Vilamoura International School. The latest addition to this set, is the Greenes Tutorial College, opening in September 2017, offering a tutorial method of learning. Greene's accepts students from all over the world to study a wide range of A level subjects and for  the Greene's Geoscience Diploma. Portuguese international school in Madeira Island, Portugal. There is one international school in Madeira Island Portugal. Escola da APEL is a non profit private Catholic School, founded 40 years ago in Funchal, with an excellent reputation. It offers the International Bacallaureate Diploma Programme and the Portuguese regular curriculum. Criticism. Education has been a subject of controversy in Portugal due to a number of erratic policies and the state of flux it has experienced by several long periods, particularly between the carnation revolution coup of 1974 to the Bologna process of 2007. There has been also  concerns related to the large dropout rates (mostly in the secondary and higher education systems), and the high multi generational functional illiteracy (48% functional illiterates in Portugal, among the adult population; all over U.S.A. 30 million (14% of adults) are functionally illiterate) and illiteracy rates (7.5% = ~ 800,000 illiterates) - a quite mediocre statistical record when compared with other developed countries of Europe, North America and Eastern Asia. The failure of many private universities and other higher education institutions in providing higher education to students due to generalized lack of quality and rigour has also been a major problem - for  several years those institutions were awarding degrees to thousands of people who were spread into the economically active population. Some higher education institutions, in particular from the private and polytechnic sector, have been regarded as true diploma mills. In the following decades after their creation in the 1970s and 1980s, the polytechnic institutions didn't assume their specific role as tertiary education vocational schools, which were created to award practical diplomas in more technical or basic fields. Non-university intermediate professionals and skilled workers for the industry, agriculture, commerce and other services where needed. As more new public university institutions  were founded or expanded, polytechnics didn't feel comfortable with their subaltern status in the Portuguese higher education system and a desire to be upgraded into university-like institutions grew among the polytechnic institutions' administrations. This desire of emancipation and evolution from polytechnic status to university status, was not followed by better qualified teaching staff, better facilities for teaching or researching, or by a stronger curricula with a more selective admission criteria, comparable with those enforced by almost all public university institutions. Criteria ambiguity and the general lower standards in polytechnic higher education and admission, were fiercely criticised by education  personalities like university rectors, regarding issues like the lack of admission exams in mathematics for polytechnic engineering applicants, and the proliferation of administration and management courses everywhere, many without a proper curriculum in mathematics, statistics and economics-related disciplines. According to studies and reports, in the 1990s and 2000s, a fast growth and proliferation of private higher education and state-run polytechnical institutions with lower educational standards and ambiguous academic integrity, was responsible for unnecessary and uneconomic allocation of resources with no adequate quality output in terms of both new highly qualified graduates and research. In March 2008, a mega -protest hit many Portuguese cities along the country, joining over 85,000 basic and secondary school teachers from all the country in the capital city of Lisbon (March 8), criticizing the Portuguese Minister of Education Maria de Lurdes Rodrigues ("XVII Governo Constitucional" headed by PM José Sócrates) and her new policies, including a new system of teacher's evaluation. In addition, the "XVII Governo Constitucional" (the government headed by PM José Sócrates), created a policy of certification and equivalence of qualifications for adult people with low levels of formal education who want a 4th, 6th, 9th or 12th grade equivalence without  returning to school (for example, through this process, called "Novas Oportunidades", adults (18 years old and older) with the 9th grade might be granted an equivalence to the 12th grade after a process ranging from a part-time 3-month programme or a 1-day per week 8-month programme; those who have less than 9th grade have a similar programme to get the 9th grade certification and can then apply to the 12th grade programme). The curricula do not include any classical high school discipline or a traditional examination process. These diplomas are awarded based on vaguely construed life  experience. Some critics alleged this policy was an effort to make up the poor national statistical indicators on education, with little impact on the quality of the work force's qualification of Portugal in the European Union context.