Journalism during the Marcos dictatorship
Journalism during the Marcos dictatorship in the Philippinesa fourteen year period between the declaration of Martial Law in 1972 until the People Power revolution in February 1986was heavily restricted by Philippine dictator Ferdinand Marcos in order to suppress political opposition and prevent criticism of his administration. Previously considered the most prominent embodiment of press freedom in Asia, various Philippine mass media were shut down very suddenly in the early hours of September 23, 1972 when Marcos' forces began implementing Martial Law. The clampdown included 7 television stations, 16 national daily newspapers, 11 weekly magazines, 66  community newspapers, and 292 radio stations; as well as public utilities such as the companies running utilities such as electricity, telephones, and air travel. The most prominent television and newspaper reporters, publishers, columnists, and media owners were among the 400 people jailed in the first hours of Martial Law, with more getting caught in Marcos' dragnet in later days. Newspapers owned by Marcos cronies such as Roberto Benedicto were the only ones allowed to publish in the immediate aftermath of the declaration, and media companies taken over by Marcos' close associates became the dominant media outlets, eventually becoming referred to  as the "crony press." In later years pressure from the international community and from the Catholic Church forced Marcos to allow the publication of some newspapers critical of his administration, although Marcos made sure he could shut them down "just like that." These publications were referred to as the "alternative press," or, because they were irritations Marcos could swat down with ease, the "mosquito press." Key turning points in the history of Philippine journalism during this time included: the establishment of WE Forum in 1977 and of Ang Pahayagang Malaya in 1981; the landmark coverage murder of Macli-ing Dulag , a leader of indigenous opposition to the Chico River Dam Project; the 1982 expose of Ferdinand Marcos' fake military medals which led to the closure of WE forum and the jailing of its prominent columnists; and the 1984 murder of leading Mindanao journalist Alex Orcullo in Davao City. Two radio stations - Radyo Veritas 846 and DZRJ-AM, disguised as "Radyo Bandido" - played a pivotal role in the ouster of Ferdinand Marcos, by airing Archbishop of Manila Jaime Cardinal Sin's request for Filipinos to go to EDSA highway and prevent Marcos from killing the leaders of a failed coup attempt , and then keeping local and international audiences updated about the events of the People Power Revolution which happened soon after. Media shutdown during martial law implementation. While Marcos claims to have signed Presidential Proclamation No. 1081 and putting the Philippines under Martial Law on September 21, the proclamation was only publicly announced on the evening of September 23, preceded by a wave of arrests that began shortly before midnight on September 22. Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile would later say that the first wave of arrests focused on political figures and journalists because "in the initial stages, we must emasculate  all the leaders in order to control the situation." Letters of Instruction No. 1 and No. 1-A. Through Letter of Instruction No. 1, signed on September 22, a day before the public declaration of martial law, Marcos ordered the military take over of the assets of privately-owned media companies. The letter was written in view of what Marcos called a national emergency, in which existed a "criminal conspiracy to seize political and state power." All privately-owned newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and other mass media were ordered to be taken over and controlled so as to prevent their  use for purposes that sought to undermine the government. The letter was addressed to Press Secretary Francisco Tatad and Secretary of National Defense Juan Ponce Enrile. On September 28, Marcos issued Letter of Instruction No. 1-A, ordering the armed forces to seize and sequester facilities owned by ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation and Associated Broadcasting Corporation, two of the largest broadcasting companies in the Philippines. The principal officers of both corporations, according to the letter, were actively engaged in activities subverting the government. Marcos also accused both of allowing the dissemination of deliberately skewed, exaggerated, and false information with a  view towards subverting the government and promoting the Communist Party of the Philippines. The takeover included all facilities owned and operated by the two corporations, including their TV and radio subsidiaries in the cities of Davao, Cebu, Laoag, and Dagupan. The facilities of ABS-CBN were later transferred to Marcos crony Roberto Benedicto's Kanlaon Broadcasting System (or KBS, now operating as Radio Philippines Network), and still later to the government-owned Maharlika Broadcasting Station. Arrests of Media Workers. By the dawn of September 23, 100 of the 400 individuals on Marcos' "Priority Arrest List" were in detention centers, including  Manila Times publisher Chino Roces, Newspaper editors Amando Doronilla of the "Daily Mirror", Luis Mauricio of the "Philippine Graphic", Teodoro Locsin Sr. of the "Philippine Free Press", and Rolando Fadul of the vernacular broadsheet "Taliba". Also arrested were reporters Robert Ordoñez of the "Philippine Herald", Rosalinda Galang of the "Manila Times"; columnists Ernesto Granada of the "Manila Chronicle" and Maximo Soliven of the "Manila Times", and Luis Beltran and Ruben Cusipag of the "Evening News". Church publications are also not allowed to operate. Among the publications closed were the "Signs of the Times" published by the Association of Major Religious  Superiors of the Philippines and "The Communicator" published by the Jesuits. Several radio stations operated by the Catholic Church and United Church of Christ in the Philippines in Bukidnon and Davao were shut also down. "Philippines Free Press" associate editor Napoleon Rama and ABS-CBN broadcaster Jose Mari Velez also happened to be delegates to the 1971 Constitutional Convention, and were among the 11 outspoken convention delegates to be arrested. (The others included Heherson Alvarez, Alejandro Lichuaco, Voltaire Garcia, and Teofisto Guingona Jr.) By the morning of September 23, 1972, martial law forces had successfully implemented a media lockdown, with  only outlets owned or controlled by the government allowed to operate. In the afternoon, Benedicto-owned television channel KBS-9 went back on air playing episodes of Hanna-Barbera's "Wacky Races" cartoon series, which was interrupted at 3:00 PM, when Press Secretary Francisco Tatad went on air to read Proclamation No. 1081, through which Marcos declared martial law. Ferdinand Marcos himself went on air at 7:17 that evening to formalize the announcement. The following morning, on September 24, the headline of Benedicto's "Daily Express" announced "FM Declares Martial Law" – the only national newspaper to come out in the immediate  aftermath of martial law. (The Mindanao Tribune, which had not received notification of the media lockdown, had been able to put out an edition by the evening of September 23.) The declaration shut down 7 television stations, 16 national daily newspapers, 11 weekly magazines, 66 community newspapers, and 292 radio stations; as well as public utilities such as Meralco, PLDT, and the then-existing Philippine Airlines. Censorship under Ferdinand Marcos. Although some of the press was eventually allowed to reopen their doors, news was heavily regulated and censored. All publications, including those from foreign news outfits, had to be approved  by the Department of Public Information. Department Order No. 1 required all news outlets to assist in the administration of martial law by only reporting news that had positive national value. Presidential Decree No. 191 require all news agencies to get clearance from the Media Advisory Council (MAC) before publishing or airing any content. Society news, editorial commentary, and content critical to the Philippine government were among those banned. The government seized control of privately owned media. Only "Daily Express" and "Bulletin Today" (now operating as Manila Bulletin) were allowed to resume operations among those publications that existed prior to  Martial Law. The regulations bred self-censorship among members of the press, which were traditionally adversarial towards the government. The foreign press' access to information was also heavily regulated. Foreign journalists critical of the regime were often expelled or had their visas denied. Marcos accused Arnold Zeitlin of the Associated Press of ‘malicious and false reporting’ during his coverage of the fighting between the government forces and Muslim Filipino separatists in Jolo, Sulu. Zeitlin was expelled from the Philippines in 1976. A year later, the government denied the visa application of Bernard Wideman, a news correspondent of "The Washington Post  and Far Eastern Economic Review". Wideman covered Marcos' seizure of privately-owned companies like Philippine Airlines and Philippine Cellophane Film Corporation. Wideman's expulsion was eventually reversed by the Immigration Commission. The government also censored other forms of media outside of print, radio, and television. Books such as Primitivo Mijares' The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos and Carmen Navarro Pedrosa's The Untold Story of Imelda Marcos are banned. Film was censored through the Board of Censors for Moving Pictures (BCMP). Letter of Instruction No. 13 issued on September 29, 1972, prohibited films perceived to incite subversion and  rebellion, glorify criminals, show the use of prohibited drugs, and undermine the people’s confidence in the government. It also sought to ban any film that, to the judgment of the BCMP, was not aligned with the spirit of Proclamation 1081. Media and communications-related issuances. The following is a list of Presidential Decrees, Letters of Instruction, and other official issuances that shaped the mass media landscape of the period, arranged by year of signing or release. The mosquito press. In later years, pressure from the international community and from the Catholic Church forced Marcos to allow the publication of  some newspapers critical of his administration, although Marcos made sure he could shut them down "just like that." These publications were referred to as the "alternative press," or, because they were irritations Marcos could swat down with ease, the "mosquito press." Among these publications that form part of the mosquito press were Joe Burgos' "WE Forum" and "Pahayagang Malaya;" "Veritas," edited by Felix Bautista and Melinda de Jesus; Raul and Leticia Locsin's "Business Day" (present-day "Business World"); Eugenia Apostol and Leticia Magsanoc's "Inquirer" and "Mr. and Ms. Magazine". Xerox journalism. The phenomenon of samizdat or xerox journalism  also proliferated, which involved the dissemination of news clippings, usually from publications abroad that were not checked by the government's censors. These often proliferated through Filipino journalists working for foreign news outfits. Macli-ing Dulag murder coverage. The murder of Kalinga leader Macli-ing Dulag, who led the indigenous people of the Cordillera in protesting Marcos' Chico River Dam Project, became a turning point in the history of Martial Law, because for the first time since the press crackdown during the declaration of Martial Law in 1972, the mainstream Philippine press joined the mosquito press in confronting the issue  of military arrests on civilians under Martial Law. Murders of Jacobo Amatong and Alex Orcullo. The public outrage resulting from the death of prominent Mindanaoan journalist Alex Orcullo in Davao City on October 19, 1984 became an important rallying point of the fight against the Marcos dictatorship in Mindanao, resonating with the assassination of Ninoy Aquino in Luzon the year before. On the Zamboanga Peninsula, the September 24, 1984 murder of Mindanao Observer publisher Jacobo Amatong had a similar effect. Role of radio stations in the People Power Revolution. Radyo Veritas 846. With opposition forces already poised to go to  the streets after massive cheating during the 1986 Presidential Election, Catholic Church-run radio station Radyo Veritas 846 aired a call from Archbishop of Manila Jaime Cardinal Sin for Filipinos to go to EDSA highway and prevent Marcos from killing the leaders of a failed coup attempt - an appeal which triggered the People Power Revolution. Radyo Veritas kept local and international audiences informed of events relating to the revolution, but was assaulted by Marcos' soldiers on Feb. 23 and 24 1986, leading to its shutdown and the injury of some of its staff members. Radyo Bandido. After Radyo Veritas was  shut down by Marcos' soldiers, a small group led by Jesuit priest Fr. James Reuter, SJ and actress June Keithley took over the transmitter of DZRJ-AM, changed its frequencies to mask their location, and broadcast as "Radyo Bandido" (Bandit Radio), continuing to report on the events of the revolution and eventually announcing that Marcos had run away from the seat of power in Malacañang Palace, ending his 21 years in power, and 14 years as dictator of the Philippines.