Pedestrian crossings in the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has specific types of pedestrian crossing. History. The first pedestrian crossing signal was erected in Bridge Street, Westminster, London, in December 1868. It was the idea of John Peake Knight, a railway engineer, who thought that it would provide a means to safely allow pedestrians to cross this busy thoroughfare. The signal consisted of a semaphore arm (manufactured by Saxby and Farmer, who were railway signaling makers), which was raised and lowered manually by a police constable who would rotate a handle on the side of the pole. The semaphore arms  were augmented by gas illuminated lights at the top (green and red) to increase visibility of the signal at night. However, in January 1869, the gas used to illuminate the lights at the top leaked and caused an explosion, injuring the police operator. No further work was done on signalled pedestrian crossings until fifty years later. In the early 20th century, car traffic increased dramatically. A reader of "The Times" wrote to the editor in 1911:"Could you do something to help the pedestrian to recover the old margin of safety on our common streets and roads? It is heartrending to  read of the fearful deaths taking place. If a pedestrian now has even one hesitation or failure the chance of escape from a dreadful death is now much less than when all vehicles were much slower. There is, too, in the motor traffic an evident desire not to slow down before the last moment. It is surely a scandal that on the common ways there should be undue apprehension in the minds of the weakest users of them. While the streets and roads are for all, of necessity the pedestrians, and the feeblest of these, should receive the supreme consideration ." Types. Informal crossings. Pedestrian refuges are uncontrolled crossings with two dropped kerbs and a central traffic island, protected by kerbs. The island allows pedestrians to cross the road one direction of traffic at a time, which can be quicker and safer (they decrease pedestrian accidents by around 40%) than a lack of crossing. Additionally, they can narrow the road (refuges slow vehicle speeds by 6%) and prevent vehicles overtaking (as vehicles must normally pass the island on the left on a two-way road). However, they do not afford pedestrians priority, meaning pedestrians may have a longer wait than a  controlled crossing. They can also create pinch points, which can be dangerous for cyclists. Courtesy crossings are uncontrolled crossings with coloured surfacing or some other non-formal suggestion that pedestrians may cross. They aim to encourage concentrated pedestrian crossings and to encourage drivers to let pedestrians cross the roads out of courtesy, rather than obligation. The inclusion of stripes (e.g. in paving), the presence of narrowing and visual narrowings of the road positively affect courtesy. Zebra crossings. Zebra crossings are a type of controlled crossing indicated by white longitudinal bars across the carriageway and upright flashing globes, known as 'belisha ' beacons. Zebra crossings can be used on roads where the 85th percentile speed is not above 35mph. The minimum width for a crossing is 2.4 m. At a zebra crossing, pedestrians should wait for traffic from both directions to stop before moving onto the crossing. Drivers are legally required give way when someone is crossing the road at a zebra crossing. Signal-controlled crossings. Pelican crossings, puffin crossings and pedex crossings are all types of controlled crossing controlled by traffic signals for pedestrians and drivers. These types of crossings can be used where vehicle speeds are high, where there  are a lot of vulnerable pedestrians, where vehicle flows or pedestrian flows are high or where the road layout could cause uncertainty. At these crossings, there will be at least two signal heads facing each direction of vehicular traffic, as well as signal heads and call buttons for pedestrians. The crossings can be staggered to shorten crossing times, mainly for the benefit of vehicular traffic flow. While pelican crossings are no longer permitted to be installed in Great Britain (they are in Northern Ireland), pedex crossings allow the continued use of farside pedestrian signals. Defunct crossing types. Defunct crossings include : Pedestrian signals. There are two common types of pedestrian signal in the UK: nearside and farside. Nearside signals are incorporated into the push button, while farside signals are located at the other end of the crossing, facing the pedestrian across the road. Both types are permitted, and highway authorities can install either as they wish, though not both at the same installation. Nearside signal units will normally be one unit, however a repeater unit may be provided higher up where there are lots of pedestrians, as nearside signals can be more easily blocked. Farside signal heads will normally contain two  signals: a red man and a green man signal. Furthermore, on the nearside there will be a push button unit, which normally contains the text "PEDESTRIANS push button and wait for signal opposite" as well as a pictoral guide to the crossing symbols. Markings. Look right, look left. Road markings with the text "Look right" and "Look left" are sometimes used at pedestrian crossings to indicate to pedestrians the direction from which traffic will approach. Common uses may be a pedestrian island on a one way street or where a contraflow bus lane is in use. At times these markings  have been painted incorrectly, which can create confusing situations for pedestrians. For example, on a street in Islington, the words "look right" were painted, although the accompanying arrow pointed left and traffic approached from the left. Installation cost. Average installation costs are as follows. Note that the costs are based on no existing crossing, it will cost less in other cases (e.g. upgrading a puffin to a toucan). The use of crossings by non-pedestrians. There are situations where other users may need to cross the road alongside pedestrians, in which case it may be practicable to use a multi -user crossing. Parallel crossings are formed by placing a cycle track next to the bars in the zebra crossing, and allow cyclists to ride across the crossing, which they are not normally permitted to do. Toucan crossings are a type of controlled, signalised crossing which can be used simultaneously by pedestrians and cyclists, as cyclists cannot use the signal-controlled pedestrian crossings. Toucan crossings generally should not be staggered. Finally, a parallel crossing can be signalised by placing cycle track(s) in parallel to a puffin or pedex crossing. This is known as a sparrow crossing. Equestrian crossings can be  used by horse riders. They can be sited in parallel to toucan and pedestrian facilities. For those pedestrians with disabilities. All new and updated crossings in the UK, including informal crossings must cater for those with disabilities. They do this is a number of different ways. Dropped kerb: A ramp should be provided to assist pedestrians to cross the road, as people with disabilities, especially wheelchair users, find it difficult to negotiate kerbs. Therefore, a 'dropped kerb', where the kerb is flush with the carriageway, or a raised crossing is normally provided. Tactile blister paving: Blister paving is always used  at controlled and uncontrolled crossings. This is coloured red at controlled crossings (zebras, puffins, signalised junctions) and any other colour which contrasts from the footway surface at uncontrolled crossings. The guidance recommends that pedestrian push buttons be located on the right side of the crossing waiting area. This is because visually impaired people are taught to look for a push button to their right.