The Rhetorical Presidency
The rhetorical presidency is a political communication theory that describes the communication and government style of U.S. presidents in the twentieth century. This theory describes the transition from a presidency that directed rhetoric toward the United States Congress and other government bodies, to one that addresses rhetoric, policy and ideas directly to the public. After political scientists introduced this theory in 1981, Jeffrey K. Tulis authored "The Rhetorical Presidency" in 1987 establishing itself as the first book on the theory. Tulis established three stages in his book how presidential rhetoric evolved throughout the U.S.' history: the ""Old  Way"", the ""Middle Way"" and the ""New Way"". Tulis's book sparked much debate over the historical evolution of presidential rhetoric. Presidential rhetoric integrates both verbal and visual rhetoric practices to gather the support of the public. History. The term "rhetorical presidency" was introduced by political scientists James Ceaser, Glen E. Thurow, Jeffrey Tulis, and Joseph Bessette in 1981. Tulis wrote the foundational book on the subject entitled "The Rhetorical Presidency", in 1987. Tulis' book spurred engaged debate on the history and evolution of presidential rhetoric, with Tulis himself later revising positions taken in his book. By relying less on  the traditional methods of communication with Congress, Presidents rely more on the approval of the people as a means of governance. Presidents hope the people put pressure on their members of Congress to side with the President. Development. He claimed that changes in the rhetorical style of the presidency were a symptom of a shift in Americans' underlying conceptions regarding how government should function. Rhetorical presidency cut congressional dominion, influenced the power to fit public policy, and put the president in front with the American people to show the development of leadership as an imperative demeanor of presidential character and  politics. The rhetorical presidency is both a structural theory and a theory of how presidents communicate in the media age. It draws from political science, history and communication studies. Tulis delineates the historical arc of presidential rhetoric in the United States as having three stages: the ""Old Way"", the ""Middle Way"" and the ""New Way"". The Old Way (1789–1900) corresponds with traditional conventions of statecraft and rhetoric addressed to Congress, the courts or visiting dignitaries. Most presidential rhetoric was delivered in writing. The only attempt during this period to use rhetoric to address the whole people was President Andrew Johnson 's Swing Around the Circle, which failed. The Middle Way (1900–1913) marks a hybrid between internal and external appeals on important matters epitomized by the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. He met fierce opposition from his own party in Congress regarding the Hepburn Act, with appeals directly to the people. William McKinley's 1898 speaking tour is argued to be an integral part of developing the ""Middle Way"" that Theodore Roosevelt is mainly credited for. The New Way (1913–present) refers to a presidency which dispenses with traditional statecraft and instead regularly engages the public. Woodrow Wilson employed two types of  rhetoric: the policy speech and the visionary speech. A policy speech explains and defends the president's policy on a certain issue, while the visionary speech articulates a goal for the future and calls the nation towards that goal. Since Wilson, all Presidents have emphasized these tools. Verbal and Visual Rhetoric. Verbal rhetoric used by Presidents is the most common type of presidential rhetoric used. The implication of Woodrow Wilson's policy speeches and visionary speeches laid the groundwork for the following Presidents. The use of the State of the Union Address is an example of Presidents explaining and defending  their own policies to gain the support of the public directly. Using visual images, text and video to influence or persuade an audience is how Presidents utilize visual rhetoric in their own presidential rhetoric. The increasing growth of the mass media has increased the value of visual rhetoric in helping create a positive political image with the people.