Ingvar runestones
The Ingvar Runestones () is the name of around 26 Varangian Runestones that were raised in commemoration of those who died in the Swedish Viking expedition to the Caspian Sea of Ingvar the Far-Travelled. The Ingvar expedition was the single Swedish event that is mentioned on most runestones, and in number, they are only surpassed by the approximately 30 Greece Runestones and the approximately 30 England Runestones. It was a fateful expedition taking place between 1036 and 1041 with many ships. The Vikings came to the south-eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and they appear to have  taken part in the Battle of Sasireti, in Georgia. Few returned, as many died in battle, but most of them, including Ingvar, died of disease. The expedition was also immortalized as a saga in Iceland in the 11th century, the "Yngvars saga víðförla", and in the Georgian chronicle "Kartlis tskhovreba", where king Julfr of the saga corresponds to king Baghrat IV. Beside the Tillinge Runestone in Uppland and a rune stone on Gotland, the Ingvar Runestones are the only remaining runic inscriptions that mention Serkland. Below follows a presentation of the runestones, but additional runestones that are associated with the  expedition are: Sö 360, , U 540, U 785, Vs 1-2, Vs 18 and Vg 184. The nine runestones that mention Serkland can also be grouped as a runestone group of their own, in line with the same guidelines that apply to runestone groups such as the Ingvar Runestones and the England Runestones. The transcriptions into Old Norse are in the Swedish and Danish dialect to facilitate comparison with the inscriptions, while the English translation provided by Rundata gives the names in the de facto standard dialect (the Icelandic and Norwegian dialect): Uppland. U 439. This runestone in runestone style  Fp and is one of the Serkland runestones. It was located at Steninge Palace, but it is now lost. Johan Bureus, one of the first prominent Swedish runologists, visited Steninge on May 8, 1595, and made a drawing of the runestone which stood by the jetty. Only 50 years later it had disappeared and in a letter written in 1645 it was explained that the stone had been used in the construction of a new stone jetty. The inscription contained an Old Norse poem. Of the names in the text, Sæbiorn means "sea bear," Hærlæif means "warrior love relic" or  beloved warrior, and Þorgærðr is the name of a goddess, Þorgerðr, which combines the god name Thor and "gerðr", the latter word meaning "fenced in." Ingvar, the leader of the expedition, has a name meaning "the god Ing's warrior." This runestone is attributed to the runemaster Äskil. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: U 644. This runestone in style Fp is located at Ekilla bro. It is raised in memory of the same man as U 654, below. The same family also raised the runestone U 643 and which reports the death of Andvéttr. Omeljan Pritsak suggests that  he may have died in Vladimir of Novgorod's attack on Constantinople in 1043. The monument is more than 2 metres high, and it was mentioned for the first time in the 17th century during the national revision of historic monuments. It was at the time lying under the stone bridge that crossed the river north of Ekilla. It would remain lying there until 1860, when it was moved with great difficulty by Richard Dybeck. After one failed attempt a crew of 12 men managed to move it out of the water and raise it 25 metres north of the  bridge, where it still remains. Next to it, there are two barrows and a monument of raised stones. There were formerly two other runestones at the bridge, but they were moved to Ekolsund in the early 19th century. One of them speaks of the same family as U 644, and it is raised after Andvéttr and his sons Gunnleifr and Kárr (one of the sons has the same name as his grandfather and the other one has the same name as his uncle). The inscription is finished with a Christian prayer, which shows that the family was Christian. It is  of note that "andinni" ("the spirit") is in the definite form, as this is a grammatic category that does not appear in Old Norse until the end of the Viking Age. It would remain rare even in the medieval Swedish provincial laws. The same form was used on a lost runestone in the vicinity, which, however, was not made by the same runemaster, which suggest that there were two runemasters in the region using the same linguistic innovation. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: U 654. The Varpsund runestone is in style Fp. It is almost three metres tall , and it is located on a promontory between Stora Ullfjärden ("Great fjord of Ullr") and Ryssviken ("Bay of the Russians") so as to be well visible for both those travelling on land and those travelling by water. It contains an Old Norse poem. The runestone was depicted as early as 1599 by Johannes Bureus, and in the 17th century on a drawing by Johan Hadorph and Johan Leitz. Unfortunately, the names of two of the brothers who are mentioned on the stone were already lost at that time. Luckily, the brothers raised a second stone (U 644, above) at Ekilla  Bro a few kilometres to the south of Varpsund, which is why scholars are certain that their names were Andvéttr and Blesi. The runemaster's name is partially superficially carved and the last rune has disappeared, but it was probably Alrikr. It is a characteristic of this runemaster that the r-rune is used where the R-rune should be. Moreover, the u-rune is probably used on this stone for an u-umlauted "a". These are dialect traits typical of the Old Norse dialect of Iceland and Norway (Old West Norse). The inscription mentions the knarr, which was a  larger seagoing trading vessel with ample cargo space. The knarr is mentioned in five other Viking Age runestones, two in Södermanland and three in Uppland. A sixth inscription is found in the medieval church of Sakshaug in the fjord of Trondheim, Norway, where someone has carved the image of a knarr and written in runes "there was a knarr outside". The same family also raised the runestone U 643 and which reports the death of Andvéttr. Omeljan Pritsak suggests that he may have died in Vladimir of Novgorod's attack on Constantinople in 1043. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English  translation: U 661. This stone is in style Fp. It is located c. 500 metres south-west of the church of Råby in a gravefield with c. 175 registered pre-historic monuments. Among these monuments, there are many raised stones, mostly in stone circles, 34 barrows and a triangular cairn. The runestone contains an Old Norse poem. The runestone was examined in the early 17th century by Johannes Bureus and it was included in his book "Monumenta Sveo-Gothica Hactenus Expulta". The artwork of the stone is in line with many of the other Ingvar runestones, but it is debated  whether they were made by the same runemaster or not. It is of note that the u-rune appears to be used for an u-umlauted "a", an umlaut which existed in Sweden, but was typical of the dialect of Iceland and Norway (Old West Norse). Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: U 778. This stone is in runestone style Fp and was carved by the runemaster Áskell. It is located in the porch of the church of Svinnegarn. It contains an Old Norse poem. The text refers to the "lið" of Ingvar. This word, translated by Rundata as  retinue, is often used in reference to the Þingalið, the Scandinavian forces that served the English kings from 1013–1066, and is used that way on runestone U 668. It has been suggested that "lið" could also refer to a "collection of ships." Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: U 837. This stone is located in Alsta, Nysätra. It was discovered in the 1940s by a local boy, and an unsuccessful search was initiated to find the remaining parts. It is presently located in the forest about 100 metres from the road. Its identity as an Ingvar runestone is based  on the remaining runes -rs + liþ, which agree with ikuars × liþ ("Ingvar's retinue") on runestone U 778. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: U 1143. This stone is located at the church of Tierp. It is tentatively categorized as style Pr1. Although very worn today, the text of the inscription is known from a drawing made by Johan Peringskiöld. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: U Fv1992;157. This stone in style Fp was reported by road construction workers on April 6, 1990. A runologist arrived and noted that it was missing some parts. It was  also lying with text upwards and it had probably been dug up and moved by machinery the previous winter from somewhere in the vicinity. The existence of lichen showed that it had not been completely covered by soil. Later in the month, an archaeological excavation uncovered two missing pieces of the stone. On the 23rd it was moved to the museum of Sigtuna and on May 16, it was transported to a stonemason who mended the stone. The stone is a light grey and finely grained granite, and it is 2.30 m tall and 1.73 m wide. The runemaster does  not appear to have prepared the surface much and so the surface is quite coarse, but still the runes are legible. It was made by the same runemaster as the Ingvar runestone U 439 and probably the Ingvar runestone U 661. It is the only Ingvar runestone that talks of the construction of a bridge. The excavation had established that the stone had been located beside a road, and there was once a creek at the location across which the bridge had passed. The reference to bridge-building in the runic text is fairly common in rune stones during this  time period and are interpreted as Christian references related to the soul passing the bridge into the afterlife. At this time, the Catholic Church sponsored the building of roads and bridges through the use of indulgences in return for intercession for the soul. There are many examples of these bridge stones dated from the 11th century, including runic inscriptions Sö 101, U 489, and U 617. Since it could not be reerected at its original location, the Swedish Civil Aviation Administration arranged so that it could be installed in the new terminal 2 for domestic flights. It was inaugurated in  the terminal with a solemn ceremony by the Civil Aviation Administration on May 17, 1992. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Södermanland. Sö 9. This stone is located in Lifsinge and it is in style Fp. The runemaster used the imagery of the cross in the center to emphasize salvation; the text meaning "may God help Ulfr's soul" surrounds the cross. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 96. This stone in style Fp is located at the church of Jäder. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 105. This stone in style Fp is located  in Högstena, Södermanland. It was raised by Holmviðr in memory of his son Þorbjörn. Based on other runestones, the wider family connections of those mentioned on this runestone has been reconstructed as follows: Holmviðr was a wealthy landowner who also appears on the . He was married to Gýriðr, the sister of Sigfastr, the owner of Snottsta, who is mentioned on runestones U 623 and U 331, but for further information on the family saga of Sigfastr and his descendants, see the articles Gerlög and Inga, and Estrid. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 107. This stone was originally  located in Balsta. It was moved to Eskilstuna in the 17th century, and then moved to Gredby in 1930 adjacent to Sö 108 and Sö 109. It is tentatively categorized as style Pr2. The name Skarfr from the inscription translates as "cormorant." Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 108. This stone in style Fp is located in Gredby. The father's name Ulf means "wolf," while the son Gunnulf's name combines "gunnr" to make "war-wolf." Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 131. This stone in style RAK is one of the Serkland Runestones, and  it is located in Lundby. When Richard Dybeck visited the grave field in the mid-19th century, someone pointed out a stone which rose only three inches above the ground and which was said to be "written". Dybeck excavated the stone and discovered that it was a runestone with an interesting inscription. In Dybeck's time, there were also the remains of a stone ship next to the runestone. Skarði is a rather unusual name, but it appears in runic inscriptions in Sweden, Norway and Denmark. The name is probably derived from a word for "score" and it probably refers to  someone who is hare lipped. The name Spjóti is also unusual and the unique name Spjót is found on the nearby Kjula Runestone. The word "heðan" ("from here") is only found in one single Viking Age runic inscription. The last part of the inscription is an alliterative poem. This kind of verse appears on several runestones and it is well known from Old West Norse poetry. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 173. In the village of Tystberga there are three raised stones. Two of them are runestones called Sö 173 and , of which the last one has  a cross. Sö 173 is categorized as both style Fp and style Pr2. Both inscriptions are from the 11th century and tell of the same family. They probably refer to Viking expeditions both westwards and eastwards. The location was first described by Lukas Gadd during the nationwide revision of pre-historic monuments that took place in the 17th century. In a paddock at the state owned homestead of Tystberga there was a flat stone lying with runes and next to it there was another flat stone that was leaning. In addition, there was a large square stone surrounded with rows  of smaller stones, which Gadd described as a "fairly large cemetery". Not far from the stones, there were also two giant passage graves, about 20 paces long. There is a depiction of the cross-less stone from the 17th century, made by Johan Hadorph and Johan Peringskiöld. This depiction has helped scholars reconstruct the parts that are damaged today. The runestone was raised anew by Richard Dybeck in 1864. In 1936, Ivar Schnell examined the stone, and he noted that there was a large stone next to it. When this stone was raised, they discovered that it was also a  runestone, and it was probably the one that had been previously described by Lukas Gadd as the "square stone". In the vicinity, Schnell found a destroyed stone without runes which probably was the leaning stone described by Gadd. Since they would hinder agriculture, the three stones were re-erected at a distance of 60 metres, at the side of the road. The stone circle and the other monuments described by Gadd could not be found anymore. The runes mani can be interpreted in two ways, since runic inscriptions never repeat two runes. One possibility is that it refers to Máni , the moon, and the other alternative is the male name "Manni" which is derived from "maðr" ("man"). The runes mus:kia are more challenging and the older interpretation that it was "Mus-Gea" is now rejected. It is probably a nominalization of "myskia" which means "darken" as during sunset, and one scholar has suggested that it could mean "sunset" and "twilight" and refer to e.g. a hair colour. A second theory is that the name refers to the animal bat. It is also disputed whether it is a man's name or a woman's name, but most scholars think  that it refers to a woman. The name "Myskia" appears in a second runic inscription in Södermanland, and it may refer to the same person. The last part of the cross-less inscription is both unusual and partly problematic. The word "ystarla" could without context be interpreted as both "westwards" and "eastwards", but since an "austarla" appears later in the inscription, it is agreed that "ystarla" means "westwards". It is unusual, but not unique, that the "y-rune" () represents the v phoneme. An additional reason for this interpretation is the fact that it would allow the last part of the  inscription to be interpreted as a poem in the meter fornyrðislag. This would explain the use of the rune since "vestarla" permits alliteration with "um vaʀit". It is not known whether "he" refers to Hróðgeirr (Roger) or Holmsteinn, but most think that it is Holmsteinn who had been westwards. The plural ending -"u" in the verb form "dou" shows that both Hróðgeirr and Holmsteinn died in the Ingvar expedition. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 179. The Gripsholm Runestone is one of the Serkland Runestones and it is in style Fp. It is located beside the drive of  Gripsholm Castle together with another runestone from the 11th century, Sö 178, but their original location is unknown. The runestone was discovered in the early 1820s by Wallin, the caretaker of the castle, and it was then forming the threshold of the cellar of the eastern tower of the castle, the so-called "theatre tower". It was under both side walls of the door and also covered with tar, which suggests that it had been part of another construction before being used as construction material for the castle. It would take an additional 100 years before the stone was retrieved  from the castle and could be read in its entirety. The inscription says that it is raised in memory of Haraldr, the brother of Ingvar, and he is believed to have died in the region of the Caspian Sea. A subject that has been vividly discussed is why the runestone is raised only after Haraldr and not after Ingvar, and the most widely accepted explanation is that Tóla was only Harald's mother and that the two men were only half-brothers. It is also possible that there were originally two stones of which one was in memory of Ingvar , but that Ingvar's stone has disappeared. A third possibility is that "brother" refers to brother-in-arms, blood brother, or something similar, and this is a use of the word that appears on one of the runestones in Hällestad in Scania. One theory proposed by Braun connects this stone to the runestones , U 540, and Sö 279, and it holds Ingvar the Far-Travelled to be the son of the Swedish king Emund the Old. The second half of the inscription is in alliterative verse of the form fornyrðislag. The phrase to "feed the eagle" is a kenning which  means "to kill enemies". Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 254. This stone is located in Vansta and it is in style Fp. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 277. This stone is located at the cathedral of Strängnäs, and it is in style Pr2. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 279. This stone is one of the Serkland Runestones and it is located at Strängnäs Cathedral. It is in style Pr2. One theory proposed by Braun connects this stone to the runestones , U 540, and Sö 179, and it holds Ingvar the Far -Travelled to be the son of the Swedish king Emund the Old. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 281. This stone is located at the Strängnäs Cathedral and it is in style Pr2. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 287. This stone was located in Hunhammar, but it has disappeared. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 320. This stone is located in the park of the manor house Stäringe beside the runestone Sö 319. It is in style Fp. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Sö 335. This stone is located at the  church ruin of Ärja and it is in style Fp. It contains the word "skipari" which means "shipmate". This word is found in a second runestone in Södermanland and there are six other attestations in stones from southern Sweden and Denmark. From this usage, it seems that Holmsteinn was a captain of one of the ships of the expedition and Ósníkinn a crew member. The first rune in the inscription is apparently superfluous, and this can be compared with the fact that the name Ingvar is spelled with two initial i-runes. What name was written in the first runes  is not certain, but some scholars have proposed that it was a not hitherto known woman's name "Ulfvi". Another proposal is that it was a misspelling of the name "Ulfr" or the rare name "Ulfvid". The name "Osnikin" appears in half a dozen inscriptions in Uppland and Södermanland and it means, like "osniken" still does in modern Swedish, "generous." Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Västmanland. Vs 19. This stone is located in Berga, Skultuna. It is in style Fp and it is made by the same runemaster as runestone Vs 18. It is dated to the 1040s . The name Gunnvaldr in the inscription combines "gunnr" meaning "war" and "valdr" meaning "wielder" or "keeper," while the name Ormr means "serpent" or "dragon." Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Östergötland. Ög 145. This stone is located at the church of Dagsberg. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: Ög 155. This stone is tentatively categorized as style RAK. It is located in Sylten, and it is the southernmost of the Ingvar runestones. It was known in the 17th century and a drawing by Johan Hadorph, Petrus Helgonius and Petrus Törnewall is preserved. Later, the stone was toppled and  partially covered with soil. In 1896, it was re-erected by the owner of the homestead of Bjällbrunna and moved a small distance. The word "helfningr" (appears in the dative case as the eastern dialectal form "hælfningi") is originally a word for "half" but it could also mean "troop." It only appears in one additional runestone, which is located at the church of Dagsberg in Östergötland (see Ög 145). The i-rune can represent both the "i" and the "e" phonem, which means that the first name can be interpreted both as the woman's name "Þorfríðr" and the man 's name "Þorfreðr". It is consequently not known whether it was the mother or the father who raised the stone. Ásgautr was a common name which appears in about 30 runic inscriptions. Gauti (modern Göte) was, however, rare in the runic inscriptions of the Viking Age and the only additional runestone where it appears is on U 516 (although damaged or unclear inscriptions on runestones Sö 14, G 65, and Norway's N 331 also have words translated as the name Gauti). It is believed to mean an inhabitant of Götaland, i.e. a Geat. The personal name element "Gaut" appears , however, in not only this part of Scandinavia but also in Svealand and in Denmark. Latin transliteration: Runic Swedish transcription: English translation: