Dunkleosteus
Dunkleosteus is an extinct genus of large armored, jawed fishes that existed during the Late Devonian period, about 382–358 million years ago. It consists of ten species, some of which are among the largest placoderms to have ever lived: "D. terrelli", "D. belgicus", "D. denisoni", "D. marsaisi", "D. magnificus", "D. missouriensis", "D. newberryi", "D. amblyodoratus", and "D. raveri". The largest and most well known species is "D. terrelli", which grew up to long and in weight. "Dunkleosteus" could quickly open and close its jaw, like modern-day suction feeders, and had a bite force of at the tip and  at the blade edge. Numerous fossils of the various species have been found in North America, Poland, Belgium, and Morocco. The genus name combines David Dunkle's surname with the Greek word ( 'bone'), literally meaning 'Dunkle's-bone'. Taxonomy. "Dunkleosteus" was named in 1956 to honour David Dunkle (1911–1982), former curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. The type species "D. terrelli" was originally described in 1873 as a species of "Dinichthys", its specific epithet chosen in honor of Jay Terrell, the fossil's discoverer. "Dunkleosteus" is an arthrodire originally placed in the family Dinichthyidae, which is  composed mostly of large, carnivorous fish like "Gorgonichthys". Anderson (2009) suggests, because of its primitive jaw structure, "Dunkleosteus" should be placed outside the family Dinichthyidae, perhaps close to the base of the clade Pachyosteomorpha, near "Eastmanosteus". Carr and Hlavin (2010) resurrect Dunkleosteidae and place "Dunkleosteus", "Eastmanosteus", and a few other genera from Dinichthyidae within it. Dinichthyidae, in turn, is left a monospecific family. Species. At least ten different species of "Dunkleosteus" have been described so far. The type species, "D. terrelli", is the largest, best-known species of the genus, measuring in length. It has a rounded snout. "D. terrelli  fossil remains are found in Upper Frasnian to Upper Famennian Late Devonian strata of the United States (Huron and Cleveland Shale of Ohio, the Conneaut of Pennsylvania, Chattanooga Shale of Tennessee, Lost Burro Formation, California, and possibly Ives breccia of Texas) and Europe. D. belgicus" (?) is known from fragments described from the Famennian of Belgium. The median dorsal plate is characteristic of the genus, but, a plate that was described as a suborbital is anterolateral. "D. denisoni" is known from a small median dorsal plate, typical in appearance for "Dunkleosteus", but much smaller than normal. It is comparable in skull  structure to "D. marsaisi". "D. marsaisi" refers to the "Dunkleosteus" fossils from the Lower Famennian Late Devonian strata of the Atlas Mountains in Morocco. It differs in size, the known skulls averaging a length of and in form to "D. terrelli". In "D. marsaisi", the snout is narrower, and a postpineal fenestra may be present. Many researchers and authorities consider it a synonym of "D. terrelli". H. Schultze regards "D. marsaisi" as a member of "Eastmanosteus". "D. magnificus" is a large placoderm from the Frasnian Rhinestreet Shale of New York. It was originally described as "Dinichthys magnificus" by Hussakof and  Bryant in 1919, then as "" Dinichthys mirabilis"" by Heintz in 1932. Dunkle and Lane moved it to "Dunkleosteus" in 1971. "D. missouriensis" is known from fragments from Frasnian Missouri. Dunkle and Lane regard them as being very similar to "D. terrelli". "D. newberryi" is known primarily from a long infragnathal with a prominent anterior cusp, found in the Frasnian portion of the Genesee Group of New York, and originally described as "Dinichthys newberryi". "D. amblyodoratus" is known from some fragmentary remains from Late Devonian strata of Kettle Point, Canada. The species name means 'blunt spear' and refers to the way  the nuchal and paranuchal plates in the back of the head form the shape of a blunted spearhead. Although it is known only from fragments, it is estimated to have been about long in life. "D. raveri" is a small species, possibly 1 meter long, known from an uncrushed skull roof found in a carbonate concretion from near the bottom of the Huron Shale, of the Famennian Ohio Shale strata. Besides its small size, it had comparatively large eyes. Because "D. raveri" was found in the strata directly below the strata where the remains of "D. terrelli" are found, "D.  raveri" may have given rise to "D. terrelli". The species name commemorates Clarence Raver of Wakeman, Ohio, who discovered the concretion where the holotype was found. Description. The largest species, "D. terrelli", is estimated to have grown up to in length and in weight, making it one of the largest placoderms to have existed. Like other placoderms, "Dunkleosteus" had a two-part bony, armoured exterior, which may have made it a relatively slow but powerful swimmer. Instead of teeth, "Dunkleosteus" possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates which formed a beak-like structure. "Dunkleosteus", together with most other placoderms, may  have also been among the first vertebrates to internalize egg fertilization, as seen in some modern sharks. Some other placoderms have been found with evidence that they may have been viviparous, including what appears to have been an umbilical cord. Mainly the armored frontal sections of specimens have been fossilized, and consequently, the appearance of the other portions of the fish is mostly unknown. In fact, only about 5% of "Dunkleosteus" specimens have more than a quarter of their skeleton preserved. Because of this, many reconstructions of the hindquarters are often based on fossils of smaller arthrodires, such as "Coccosteus , which have preserved hind sections. However, an exceptionally preserved specimen of D. terrelli" preserves ceratotrichia in a pectoral fin, implying that the fin morphology of placoderms was much more variable than previously thought, and was heavily influenced by locomotory requirements. This knowledge, coupled with the knowledge that fish morphology is more heavily influenced by feeding niche than phylogeny, allowed a 2017 study to infer the body shape of "D. terrelli". This new reconstruction gives D. terrelli a much more shark-like profile, including a strong anterior lobe on its tail, in contrast to reconstructions based on other placoderms. The most  famous specimens of "Dunkleosteus" are displayed at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, and others are displayed at the American Museum of Natural History, National Museum of Natural History, State Museum of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg and in the Queensland Museum in Brisbane, Queensland. Diet. "Dunkleosteus terrelli" possessed a four-bar linkage mechanism for jaw opening that incorporated connections between the skull, the thoracic shield, the lower jaw and the jaw muscles joined together by movable joints. This mechanism allowed "D. terrelli" to both achieve a high speed of jaw opening, opening their jaws in 20 milliseconds and completing the whole process  in 50–60 milliseconds (comparable to modern fishes that use suction feeding to assist in prey capture;) and producing high bite forces when closing the jaw, estimated at at the tip and at the blade edge in the largest individuals. The pressures generated in those regions were high enough to puncture or cut through cuticle or dermal armor suggesting that "D. terrelli" was adapted to prey on free-swimming, armored prey such as ammonites and other placoderms. Fossils of "Dunkleosteus" are frequently found with boluses of fish bones, semidigested and partially eaten remains of other fish. As a result, the fossil  record indicates it may have routinely regurgitated prey bones rather than digest them. Mature individuals probably inhabited deep sea locations, like other Placoderms, living in shallow waters during adolescence. Juveniles. Morphological studies on the lower jaws of juveniles of "D. terrelli" reveal they were proportionally as robust as those of adults, indicating they already could produce high bite forces and likely were able to shear into resistant prey tissue similar to adults, albeit on a smaller scale. This pattern is in direct contrast to the condition common in tetrapods in which the jaws of juveniles are more gracile than in  adults. Media depictions. "Dunkleosteus" has occasionally been depicted in various media and games. These include the 2003 BBC TV series "Sea Monsters: A Walking with Dinosaurs Trilogy" and the Animal Planet series "River Monsters" episode "Prehistoric Terror", amongst other depictions. "Dunkleosteus" is one of the fossil types that can be found in the game "". "Dunkleosteus" is one of the playable sharks in the mobile video game "Hungry Shark Evolution". "Dunkleosteus" is featured as a creature in the action-adventure survival video game "". The Fossilized Fish from "Pokémon Sword and Shield" is based off of the "Dunkleosteus", and can be revived  into Dracovish or Arctovish when combined with the Fossilized Drake or Fossilized Dino respectively. The upper halves of these Pokémon bear "Dunkleosteus"-like heads.