Distribution (marketing)
Distribution (or place) is one of the four elements of the marketing mix. Distribution is the process of making a product or service available for the consumer or business user who needs it. This can be done directly by the producer or service provider or using indirect channels with distributors or intermediaries. The other three elements of the marketing mix are product, pricing, and promotion. Decisions about distribution need to be taken in line with a company's overall strategic vision and mission. Developing a coherent distribution plan is a central component of strategic planning. At the strategic  level, there are three broad approaches to distribution, namely mass, selective and exclusive distribution. The number and type of intermediaries selected largely depend on the strategic approach. The overall distribution channel should add value to the consumer. Definition. Distribution is fundamentally concerned with ensuring that products reach target customers in the most direct and cost-efficient manner. In the case of services, distribution is principally concerned with access. Although distribution, as a concept, is relatively simple, in practice distribution management may involve a diverse range of activities and disciplines including detailed logistics, transportation, warehousing, storage, inventory management as well as  channel management including selection of channel members and rewarding distributors. Distribution strategies. Prior to designing a distribution system, the planner needs to determine what the distribution channel is to achieve in broad terms. The overall approach to distributing products or services depends on a number of factors including the type of product, especially perishability; the market served; the geographic scope of operations and the firm's overall mission and vision. The process of setting out a broad statement of the aims and objectives of a distribution channel is a strategic level decision. Strategically, there are three approaches to distribution: Summary  of strategic approaches to distribution Push vs pull strategy. In consumer markets, another key strategic level decision is whether to use a push or pull strategy. In a "push strategy", the marketer uses intensive advertising and incentives aimed at distributors, especially retailers and wholesalers, with the expectation that they will stock the product or brand, and that consumers will purchase it when they see it in stores. In contrast, in a "pull strategy", the marketer promotes the product directly to consumers hoping that they will pressure retailers to stock the product or brand, thereby pulling it through the distribution channel . The choice of a push or pull strategy has important implications for advertising and promotion. In a push strategy, the promotional mix would consist of trade advertising and sales calls while the advertising media would normally be weighted towards trade magazines, exhibitions, and trade shows while a pull strategy would make more extensive use of consumer advertising and sales promotions while the media mix would be weighted towards mass-market media such as newspapers, magazines, television, and radio. Channels and intermediaries. Distribution of products takes place by means of a marketing channel, also known as a distribution channel. A marketing  channel is the people, organizations, and activities necessary to transfer the ownership of goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. It is the way products get to the end-user, the consumer. This is mostly accomplished through merchant retailers or wholesalers or, in the international context, by importers. In certain specialist markets, agents or brokers may become involved in the marketing channel. Typical intermediaries involved in distribution include: Channel design. A firm can design any number of channels they require to reach customers efficiently and effectively. Channels can be distinguished by the number of intermediaries between  producer and consumer. If there are no intermediaries then this is known as a "zero-level" distribution system or direct marketing. A "level one" (sometimes called "one-tier") channel has a single intermediary. A "level two" (alternatively a "two-tier") channel has two intermediaries, and so on. This flow is typically represented as being manufacturer to retailer to consumer, but may involve other types of intermediaries. In practice, distribution systems for perishable goods tend to be shorter - direct or single intermediary, because of the need to reduce the time a product spends in transit or in storage. In other cases , distribution systems can become quite complex involving many levels and different types of intermediaries. Channel mix. In practice, many organizations use a mix of different channels; a direct sales force may call on larger customers. This may be complemented with other agents to cover smaller customers and prospects. When a single organization uses a variety of different channels to reach its markets, this is known as a "multi-channel" distribution network. In addition, online retailing or e-commerce is leading to disintermediation, the removal of intermediaries from a supply chain. Retailing via smartphone or m-commerce is also a growth  area. Managing channels. The firm's marketing department needs to design the most suitable channels for the firm's products, then select appropriate channel members or intermediaries. An organization may need to train staff of intermediaries and motivate the intermediary to sell the firm's products. The firm should monitor the channel's performance over time and modify the channel to enhance performance. Channel motivation. To motivate intermediaries the firm can use positive actions, such as offering higher margins to the intermediary, special deals, premiums and allowances for advertising or display. On the other hand, negative actions may be necessary , such as threatening to cut back on margin, or hold back delivery of product. Care must be exercised when considering negative actions as these may fall foul of regulations and can contribute to a public backlash and a public relations disaster. Channel conflict. Channel conflict can arise when one intermediary's actions prevent another intermediary from achieving their objectives. Vertical channel conflict occurs between the levels within a channel, and horizontal channel conflict occurs between intermediaries at the same level within a channel. Channel conflict is a perennial problem. There are risks that a powerful channel member may coordinate the  interests of the channel for personal gain. Trends in distribution. Channel switching. Channel-switching (not to be confused with zapping or channel surfing on TV) is the action of consumers switching from one type of channel intermediary to a different type of intermediary for their purchases. Examples include switching from brick-and-mortar stores to online catalogues and e-commerce providers; switching from grocery stores to convenience stores or switching from top tier department stores to mass market discount outlets. A number of factors have led to an increase in channel switching behaviour; the growth of e-commerce, the globalization  of markets, the advent of Category killers (such as Officeworks and Kids 'R Us) as well as changes in the legal or statutory environment. For instance, in Australia and New Zealand, following a relaxation of laws prohibiting supermarkets from selling therapeutic goods, consumers are gradually switching away from pharmacies and towards supermarkets for the purchase of minor analgesics, cough and cold preparations and complementary medicines such as vitamins and herbal remedies. For the consumer, channel switching offers a more diverse shopping experience. However, marketers need to be alert to channel switching because of its potential to erode market share. Evidence  of channel switching can suggest that disruptive forces are at play, and that consumer behaviour is undergoing fundamental changes. A consumer may be prompted to switch channels when the product or service can be found at cheaper prices, when superior models become available, when a wider range is offered, or simply because it is more convenient to shop through a different channel (e.g. online or one-stop shopping). As a hedge against market share losses due to switching behaviour, some retailers engage in multi-channel retailing. Customer value. The emergence of a service-dominant logic perspective has focused scholarly attention  on how distribution networks serve to create customer value and to consider how value is co-created by all the players within the distribution chain, including the value created by customers themselves. This emphasis on value-creation is contributing to a change in terminology surrounding distribution processes; "distribution networks" are often termed "value-chains" while "distribution centers" are often termed "customer fulfillment centers." For example, the retail giant Amazon, which utilizes both direct online distribution alongside bricks and mortar stores, now calls its distribution centers "customer fulfillment centers". Although the term, "customer fulfillment center" has been criticized on the grounds  that it is a neologism, its use is becoming increasingly mainstream as it slowly makes its way into introductory marketing textbooks. Disintermediation. Disintermediation occurs when manufacturers or service providers eliminate intermediaries from the distribution network and deal directly with purchasers. Disintermediation is found in industries where radically new types of channel intermediaries displace traditional distributors. The widespread public acceptance of online shopping has been a major trigger for disintermediation in some industries. Certain types of traditional intermediaries are dropping by the wayside.