Charisma
Charisma () is compelling attractiveness or charm that can inspire devotion in others. Scholars in sociology, political science, psychology, and management reserve the term for a type of leadership seen as extraordinary; in these fields, the term "charisma" is used to describe a particular type of leader who uses "values-based, symbolic, and emotion-laden leader signaling". In Christian theology, the term appears as "charism", an endowment or extraordinary power given by the Holy Spirit. Etymology. The English term "charisma" is from the Greek ("khárisma"), which means "favor freely given" or "gift of grace". The term and its plural ("charismata ) derive from (charis"), which means "grace" or indeed "charm" with which it shares the root. Some derivatives from that root (including "grace") have similar meanings to the modern sense of "personality charisma", such as "filled with attractiveness or charm", "kindness", "to bestow a favor or service", or "to be favored or blessed". Moreover, the ancient Greek dialect widely used in Roman times employed these terms without the connotations found in modern religious usage. Ancient Greeks applied personality charisma to their gods; for example, attributing charm, beauty, nature, human creativity or fertility to goddesses they called "Charites" (). Theologians and social scientists  have expanded and modified the original Greek meaning into two distinct senses: "personality charisma" and "divinely conferred charisma". The meaning of "charisma" has become greatly diffused from its original "divinely conferred" meaning, and even from the "personality charisma" meaning in modern English dictionaries, which reduces to a mixture of charm and status. John Potts, who has extensively analyzed the term's history, sums up meanings beneath this diffused common usage:Contemporary charisma maintains, however, the irreducible character ascribed to it by Weber: it retains a mysterious, elusive quality. Media commentators regularly describe charisma as the "X-factor". …The enigmatic character  of charisma also suggests a connection – at least to some degree – to the earliest manifestations of charisma as a spiritual gift. History. Divinely conferred charisma. The Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible record the development of "divinely conferred charisma". In the Hebrew text the idea of charismatic leadership is generally signaled by the use of the noun "hen" (favor) or the verb "hanan" (to show favor). The Greek term for "charisma" (grace or favor), and its root "charis" (grace) replaced the Hebrew terms in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (the Septuagint). Throughout, "the paradigmatic image of the charismatic  hero is the figure who has received God's favor". In other words, "divinely conferred charisma" applied to highly revered figures. Thus, Eastern Mediterranean Jews in the had notions of "charis" and "charisma" that embraced the range of meanings found in Greek culture and the spiritual meanings from the Hebrew Bible. From this linguistic legacy of fused cultures, in 1 Corinthians, Paul the Apostle introduced the meaning that the Holy Spirit bestowed "charism" and "charismata", "the gift of God's grace," upon individuals or groups. For Paul, "[t]here is a clear distinction between charisma and "charis"; charisma is the direct  result of divine "charis" or grace." In the New Testament Epistles, Paul refers to "charisma" or its plural "charismata" seven times in 1 Corinthians, written in Koine (or common) Greek around . He elaborates on his concepts with six references in Romans (c. 56). He makes 3 individual references in 2 Corinthians (c. 56), 1 Timothy, and 2 Timothy (c. 62 – c. 67). The seventeenth and only other mention of "charisma" is in 1 Peter. The gospels, written in the late first century, apply "divinely conferred charisma" to revered figures. Examples are accounts of Jesus' baptism and of his transfiguration, in  which disciples see him as radiant with light, appearing together with Moses and Elijah. Another example is Gabriel's greeting to Mary as "full of grace". In these and other instances early Christians designated certain individuals as possessing "spiritual gifts", and these gifts included "the ability to penetrate the neighbour to the bottom of his heart and spirit and to recognize whether he is dominated by a good or by an evil spirit and the gift to help him to freedom from his demon". Believers characterized their revered religious figures as having "a higher perfection… a special "Charisma"". Then, with  the establishment of the Christian Church, "the old charismatic gifts and free offerings were transformed into a hierarchical sacerdotal system". The focus on the institution rather than divinely inspired individuals increasingly dominated religious thought and life, and that focus went unchanged for centuries. Additional changes began in the 17th century when church leaders, notably in the Latin tradition, accented "individual gifts [and] particular talents imparted by God or the Holy Spirit." The 19th century brought an increasing shift in emphasis toward individual and spiritual aspects of charisma; Protestant and some Catholic theologians narrowed the concept to superlative, out-of-the -ordinary, and virtuoso gifts. Simultaneously, the term became alienated from the much wider meaning that early Christians had attached to it. Still, the narrowed term projected back to the earlier period "A systematically reflected and highly differentiated understanding of charisma was often unconsciously infused into the Scriptures and writings of the church fathers, so that these texts were no longer read through the eyes of the authors". These dialectic meanings influenced notable changes in Pentecostalism in the late 19th century, and charismatic movements in some mainline churches in the mid-20th century. The discussion in the 21st Century Religion section explores  what "charisma" means in these and other religious groups. Personality charisma. The basis for modern secular usage comes from German sociologist Max Weber. He discovered the term in the work of Rudolph Sohm, a German church historian whose 1892 "Kirchenrecht" was immediately recognized in Germany as an epoch-making work. It also stimulated a debate between Sohm and leading theologians and religion scholars, which lasted more than twenty years and stimulated a rich polemical literature. The debate and literature had made "charisma" a popular term when Weber used it in "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" and in  his "Sociology of Religion". Perhaps because he assumed that readers already understood the idea, Weber's early writings lacked definition or explanation of the concept. In the collection of his works, "Economy and Society" edited by his wife, he identified the term as a prime example of action he labeled "value-rational," in distinction from and opposition to action he labeled "Instrumentally rational." Because he applied meanings for "charisma" similar to Sohm, who had affirmed the purely charismatic nature of early Christianity, Weber's "charisma" would have coincided with the "divinely conferred charisma" sense defined above in Sohm's work . Weber introduced the "personality charisma" sense when he applied "charisma" to designate a form of authority. To explain charismatic authority he developed his classic definition:Charisma is a certain quality of an individual personality by virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These as such are not accessible to the ordinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader. Here Weber extends the concept of  charisma beyond supernatural to superhuman and even to exceptional powers and qualities. Sociologist Paul Joosse examined Weber's famous definition, and found that:through simple yet profoundly consequential phrases such as “are considered” and “is treated,” charisma becomes a relational, attributable, and at last a properly sociological concept... For Weber, the locus of power is in the led, who actively (if perhaps unconsciously) invest their leaders with social authority. In other words, Weber indicates that it is followers who attribute the individual with powers, emphasizing that "the recognition on the part of those subject to authority" is decisive for the  validity of charisma. Weber died in 1920 leaving "disordered, fragmentary manuscripts without even the guidance of a plan or table of the proposed contents". One unfinished manuscript contained his above quoted definition of "charisma". It took over a quarter century for his work to be translated into English. With regard to charisma, Weber's formulations are generally regarded as having revived the concept from its deep theological obscurity. However, even with the admirable translations and prefaces of his entire works, many scholars have found Weber's formulations ambiguous. For the past half-century they have debated the meaning of many  Weberian concepts, including the meaning of "charisma," the role of followers, and the degree of a supernatural component. Modern perspectives of charisma. Although sociologists have been most active in applying Weber's ideas, researchers in evolution, management, and organizational behavior including John Antonakis and his colleagues, have reignited interest in charisma with respect to defining the term in unambiguous ways, finding ways to experimentally manipulate charisma, and to estimate the causal effects of charisma on performance outcomes in work and political settings. Others have recently replicated these and similar results. They showed too that charisma, both its verbal and nonverbal  aspects can be learned. Recently, evolutionary psychologists have used game theory and costly signaling theory to study the functions of charismatic leadership in the evolution of human cooperation. Popular notions of charisma. According to Olivia Fox Cabane, charisma is a sought-after quality in a variety of fields including business, employment, and leadership and can be learned and practiced. She believes it is not entirely an inherent quality but rather a set of non-verbal behaviours which when learned, can become instinctive and can also be turned on and off by the person practising them. Characterized by what Cabane calls  the quality of "presence" which she defines as "moment to moment awareness of what's happening", charisma can be increased step by step by cultivating certain behaviours that enhance "presence". ; Although in lay circles there is a common belief that nonverbal behaviour matters more than verbal behavior, scientific research, however, shows that verbal charisma is more important than is nonverbal behavior.