Periculoso
Periculoso (named for its Latin incipit, meaning "dangerous") was a papal decretal of Pope Boniface VIII issued in 1298, that required the claustration of Catholic nuns. It is often incorrectly referred to as a papal bull. Canonical status. "Periculoso" was later incorporated into the "Liber Sextus", a compilation of papal legislation. Many of the specific requirements of "Periculoso" were often disobeyed in practice, and "Councils and bishops struggled manfully to put into force" its teachings for the next three centuries. The decretal was first confirmed in 1309 by the encyclical "Apostolicae sedis" of Pope Clement V. Three 16th century  papal bulls were also promulgated to reinforce the basic principles of "Periculoso": "Circa pastoralis" (1566) and "Decori et honestati" (1570) of Pope Pius V and "Deo sacris" (1572) of Pope Gregory XIII. The Council of Trent (1563) in its final session reiterated the commandments of the decretal and added new and stiff sanctions for violators. By the time of the Council, the decretals dictates had largely become synonymous with traditional conceptions of nunhood; for example, the Council referred to enclosure as the "primary obligation for nuns". Some contemporary commentators regarded the regulations of "Periculoso" as either repetitive with or derivative  of existing monastic vows; others considered it far stricter than the prevailing social contract between nuns and the ecclesiastical hierarchy at the time. Content and application. "Periculoso" attempted both to "standardize" the lives of nuns from different houses and orders around the practice of "enclosure" and to demarcate distinctions between nuns and monks. The severity of the enforcement of the directive varied considerably across Europe, in part because the strict enforcement of the practice of enclosure would have "undermine[d] the economic stability" of many convents because of the way they generated revenue and solicited contributions within their communities. "Periculoso" states : One of the main rationales for enclosure in the directive was the alleged licentiousness of many nuns; However, empirical inquiries into the prevalence of sexually active nuns reveal that most were involved with priests already incorporated into the convent or with male agents whose presence was required as a result of enclosure. Such results are consistent with contemporary criticism of the decretal, for example by Humbert de Romans, the Master General of the Dominican Order. For its part, "Periculoso" was conscious to some degree of the financial predicaments of many monasteries, and required the careful monitoring of the size of  convents in an attempt to ensure that they did not outgrow their financial supports. In the wake of the promulgation of the decretal, walls, locked doors, and barred and grated windows became nearly (but not completely) ubiquitous in monasteries. Architectural divisions became prominent markers of the regulation of the shared space that remained (such as chapels). However, the delay of the implementation of claustration in some areas was dramatic; for example, in Lower Saxony, the enclosure of female monastic communities did not become prominent until the mid-fifteenth century (due to the efforts of Johannes Busch). According to Lowe, Venice  was the only state in the Italian peninsula which did not eventually implement the decretal due to a dispute between the patriarch of Grado and the pope over the nuns of S. Maria Celeste. One side effect of the decretal was the rapid urbanization of European monasteries, often to locations near city gates, due to economic necessity. Interpretation. Elizabeth Makowski interprets the document as an attempt to "safeguard nuns from themselves; to diminish, if not completely remove, worldly temptations". Makowski further views "Periculoso" as a means of "controlling female religiosity" in the face of movements such as the Guglielmites which  had begun to challenge papal supremacy and advocate radical roles for women in the 13th century. Brundage and Makowski conclude that "Periculoso" made enclosure "an end in itself to which other values of religious life were increasingly subordinated". Similarly, Rapley argues that "'celibacy for the kingdom,' became little by little, and exclusively for women, an end in itself to which all feminine religious life had to be subordinated. The document has been interpreted as a "watershed in the history of female monasticism". Departing from earlier (informal) traditions of enclosure, "Periculoso" focuses on the nuns' own "propensity for sinful behavior" rather  than the dangers of the external world. Some commentators have argued that "Periculoso" was meant only to have a symbolic impact; others that its intent was additionally to change the material conditions in nunneries across Europe. Indeed, the decretal itself contends that "it is pointless indeed to make laws unless someone be designated to enforce them" (in the case of "Periculoso", the prelates were so designated). English canonist John of Ayton commented that the decretal was merely a "dead letter" and that there was "scare any mortal man who could do this". Of course, episcopal records abound of bishops who  did in fact attempt to enforce the decretal, both successfully and unsuccessfully.