Marquesan language
Marquesan is a collection of East-Central Polynesian dialects, of the Marquesic group, spoken in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia. They are usually classified into two groups, North Marquesan and South Marquesan, roughly along geographic lines. Phonology. The most striking feature of the Marquesan languages is their almost universal replacement of the or of other Polynesian languages by a (glottal stop). Like other Polynesian languages, the phonology of Marquesan languages is characterized by a scarcity of consonants and a comparative abundance of vowels. The consonant phonemes are: Of this small number of consonants, is found only in  eastern Nuku Hiva (Tai Pi Marquesan), and is found only in South Marquesan dialects. In writing, the phoneme is written , and is written , the okina. Unlike Samoan, the is not an isolated nasal: it is found only in conjunction with a following . So, whereas the Samoan word for "bay" is , pronounced , it is in Tai Pi Marquesan, and is pronounced . This word is useful to demonstrate one of the more predictable regular consonantal differences between the northern and southern dialects: in North Marquesan, the word is , and in South Marquesan, it is . The phoneme is represented with the letter , however  it is realized phonetically as , , or , depending on the following vowel. The vowel phonemes are the same as in other Polynesian languages, long and short versions of each: Morpho-syntax. Noun and verb phrases. Verbal particles are placed before the verb they modify. A noun phrase in Marquesan is any phrase beginning with either a case marker or a determiner. Case markers or prepositions always precede the determiners, which in turn precede the number markers. As such, they all precede the noun they modify. There are 11 personal pronouns which are distinguished by singular, dual, and plural. As well as  that, there are two other personal pronouns which distinguish possession. Complex sentences use verbal nouns in subordinate clauses. Possession. Margaret Mutu & Ben Teìkitutoua (2002) present descriptions and examples of possession in Ùa Pou (a north Marquesan dialect). All examples in this section are taken from their work. See notes for more information. Possession in Marquesan is marked by prepositional particles affixed to the noun phrase which they modify. These prepositional particles relate the phrase as a whole to other parts of the sentence or discourse and therefore can be considered centrifugal particles. Possession is essentially different from the other types  of adposition modification in that it marks a relationship between two noun phrases as opposed to that between the verbal phrase and the noun phrase. There are four possession markers in Marquesan. They are the prepositions: "a", "o", "na" and "no." Possessive prepositions "a" and "o" translate as 'of' while "na" and "no" are attributive, possessive prepositions which translate either as 'belong to, of' or 'for'. Section::::"a" and "o" possessive prepositions. In these examples, we see the relation of two noun phases with the use of the possessive prepositions "a" and "o." The preposition is affixed to the possessor noun  phrase which in turn dominates the possessed phrase. Section::::"na" and "no" attributive, possessive prepositions. In these examples, we see the relation of constituents which form a noun phrase. This is an example of attributive, alienable possession. Dominant vs subordinate possession. Marquesan distinguishes between two contrastive types of possession. The first can be described in very broad terms as possession in which the possessor is dominant, active, superior, or in control of the possessed. "A" and "na" mark this type of possession: On the other hand, "o" and "no" indicate possession where the possessor is subordinate, passive, inferior to, or lacking  in control over the possessed: Locative phrases. Locative constructions in Marquesan follow this pattern (elements in parentheses are optional): This locative syntactic pattern is common among Polynesian languages. Dialect diversity. North Marquesan is spoken in the northern islands (Nuku Hiva, Ua Pou, and Ua Huka), and South Marquesan in the southern islands (Hiva Oa, Tahuata, and Fatu Hiva). In Ua Huka, which was almost entirely depopulated in the 19th century and repopulated with people from both the Northern and Southern Marquesas, the language shares traits of both North Marquesan and South Marquesan. Comparative data on the various dialects of Marquesan  can be found in the "Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia" (Charpentier & François 2015). The most noticeable differences between the varieties are Northern Marquesan in some words where South Marquesan has or (glottal stop), and in all words where South Marquesan has . The table below compares a selection of words in various dialectal varieties of Marquesan, according to the "Linguistic Atlas of French Polynesia", with their pronunciation in the IPA. Tahitian is also added for comparison. The northern dialects fall roughly into four groups: The southern dialects fall roughly into three groups: North Marquesan exhibits some original characteristics. While some Polynesian  languages maintained the velar nasal , many have lost the distinction between the nasals and , merging both into . North Marquesan, like South Island Māori dialects of New Zealand, prefers . Another feature is that, while some Polynesian languages replace *k with , North Marquesan has retained it. (Tahitian and formal Samoan have no whatsoever, and the in modern Hawaiian is pronounced either [k] or [t] and derives from Polynesian *t.) The dialects of Ua Huka are often incorrectly classified as North Marquesan; they are instead transitional. While the island is in the northern Marquesas group, the dialects show more morphological and phonological affinities  with South Marquesan. The North Marquesan dialects are sometimes considered two separate languages: North Marquesan and Tai Pi Marquesan, the latter being spoken in the valleys of the eastern third of the island of Nuku Hiva, in the ancient province of Tai Pi. Puka-Pukan, spoken in Puka-Puka and the Disappointment Islands in northeastern Tuamotu, is a dialect of South Marquesan, and should not be confused with the homonymous Pukapukan language spoken in Pukapuka, one of the Cook Islands.