Fangcheng (mathematics)
Fangcheng (sometimes written as fang-cheng or fang cheng) () is the title of the eighth chapter of the Chinese mathematical classic Jiuzhang suanshu (The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art) composed by several generations of scholars who flourished during the period from the 10th to the 2nd century BC. This text is one of the earliest surviving mathematical texts from China. Several historians of Chinese mathematics have observed that the term "fangcheng" is not easy to translate exactly. However, as a first approximation it has been translated as "rectangular arrays" or "square arrays". The term is also used  to refer to a particular procedure for solving a certain class of problems discussed in Chapter 8 of The Nine Chapters book. The procedure referred to by the term "fangcheng" and explained in the eighth chapter of The Nine Chapters, is essentially a procedure to find the solution of systems of "n" equations in "n" unknowns and is equivalent to certain similar procedures in modern linear algebra. The earliest recorded "fangcheng" procedure is similar to what we now call Gaussian elimination. The "fangcheng" procedure was popular in ancient China and was transmitted to Japan. It is possible that this procedure  was transmitted to Europe also and served as precursors of the modern theory of matrices, Gaussian elimination, and determinants. It is well known that there was not much work on linear algebra in Greece or Europe prior to Gottfried Leibniz's studies of elimination and determinants, beginning in 1678. Moreover, Leibniz was a Sinophile and was interested in the translations of such Chinese texts as were available to him. On the meaning of "fangcheng". There is no ambiguity in the meaning of the first character "fang". It means "rectangle" or "square." But different interpretations are given to the second character  cheng: Since the end of the 19th century, in Chinese mathematical literature the term "fangcheng" has been used to denote an "equation." However, as already been noted, the traditional meaning of the term is very different from "equation." Contents of the chapter titled "Fangcheng". The eighth chapter titled "Fangcheng" of the "Nine Chapters" book contains 18 problems. (There are a total of 288 problems in the whole book.) Each of these 18 problems reduces to a problem of solving a system of simultaneous linear equations. Except for one problem, namely Problem 13, all the problems are determinate in the sense  that the number of unknowns is same as the number of equations. There are problems involving 2, 3, 4 and 5 unknowns. The table below shows how many unknowns are there in the various problems: Table showing the number of unknowns and number of equations in the various problems in Chapter 8 of "Nine Chapters" The presentations of all the 18 problems (except Problem 1 and Problem 3) follow a common pattern: On Problem 1. The presentation of Problem 1 contains a description (not a crisp indication) of the procedure for obtaining the solution. The procedure has been referred to  as "fangcheng shu", which means ""fangcheng" procedure." The remaining problems all give the instruction "follow the "fangcheng"" procedure sometimes followed by the instruction to use the "procedure for positive and negative numbers". On Problem 3. There is also a special procedure, called "procedure for positive and negative numbers" ("zheng fu shu") for handling negative numbers. This procedure is explained as part of the method for solving Problem 3. On Problem 13. In the collection of these 18 problems Problem 13 is very special. In it there are 6 unknowns but only 5 equations and so Problem 13 is indeterminate and  does not have a unique solution. This is the earliest known reference to a system of linear equations in which the number of unknowns exceeds the number of equations. As per a suggestion of Jean-Claude Martzloff, a historian of Chinese mathematics, Roger Hart has named this problem "the well problem."