COMMERCIAL BIODIESELPRODUCTION IN SOUTH AFRICA: A PRELIMINARY ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDY by Mirco Nolte Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ENGINEERING (CHEMICAL ENGINEERING) in the Department of Process Engineering at the University of Stellenbosch Supervised by Professor Leon Lorenzen STELLENBOSCH MARCH 2007 2.
Declaration of Originality iDeclaration of OriginalityI, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own originalwork and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it at any university for adegree.Signature: Date: Copyright © 2007 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved 3.
Abstract iiAbstractBiodiesel, a fatty acid alkyl ester, derived from the transesterfication of vegetable oil, isconsidered a renewable fuel that can be used as a replacement for fossil diesel. The urgencyfor biofuel production in South Africa is motivated by the vulnerability of crude oil prices,high unemployment, climate change concerns and the need for the growing economy to useits resources in a sustainable manner.The technical feasibility of biodiesel production has been proven and this study investigatesits preliminary economic feasibility in South Africa by looking at the market, financial andagricultural feasibility of commercial biodiesel production.The market feasibilityThe potential market size for biodiesel in South Africa is about 1 billion litres if it is toreplace 10% of its diesel consumption by 2010. However, governmental legislation andpolicies are needed to create a predictable and growing market for biodiesel in South Africa.These policies or regulations could be in the form of subsidising feedstock for biodieselproduction, subsidising the biodiesel itself, using government purchasing power, mandatoryblending legislation, tax incentives or price compensation agreements.The financial feasibilityCalculations to asses the financial feasibility of commercial biodiesel production are based ona 2500 kg/h (22.5 million litres/annum) containerized plant. This size is based on findings ofAmigun & von Blottnitz (2005) that the optimum biodiesel plant size in South Africa rangesbetween 1500 and 3000 kg/h. Two types of plants were considered, namely a seed extractionbiodiesel production (SEBP) plant using locally produced oilseeds as feedstock and a crudeoil biodiesel production (COBP) plant using imported crude vegetable oil as feedstock.The capital investment for a SEBP plant ranges between R110 and R145 million while aCOBP plant would require a capital investment of about R45 to R50 million. These amountsinclude a working capital of about R35 million due to money that is fixed in a 3 month stocksupply. 4.
Abstract iiiThe calculated biodiesel manufacturing costs of the two types of plants for various feed stocksat current prices (30 August 2006) are shown in Table 1:Table 1: Manufacturing costs of biodiesel for various feed stocks SEBP Plant COBP Plant Local Feedstock Manufacturing Imported Feedstock Manufacturing Cost Cost Canola R4.81/litre Palm Oil R6.62/litre Sunflower seeds R6.67/litre Soybean Oil R6.89/litre Soybeans R6.70/litre Sunflower Oil R7.48/litre Rapeseed Oil R9.28/litreFeedstock and raw material contribute to about 80% of the manufacturing cost while transportcosts are the second biggest contributor. These results point to the fact that the plant locationis very important in order to minimize production costs. Thus, commercial biodieselproduction should not be centralized, but should rather happen through greater number ofrelatively small plants located in oilseed producing regions. (South Africa would requireabout 46 plants each producing 2500 kg/h to produce 10% of its diesel by 2010).The sensitivity analyses showed that the manufacturing costs of a SEBP plant are verysensitive to changes in oilseed and oilcake prices while the manufacturing costs of a COBPplant are very sensitive to a change in crude vegetable oil price. The fluctuating nature of theagricultural commodity prices makes biodiesel manufacturing costs unpredictable. Soybeanbiodiesel costs are the most sensitive to price changes while sunflower biodiesel costs are theleast affected.An increase in glycerol price would decrease the manufacturing costs of biodiesel by about 12cents/litre for every R1000/ton increase in price. Glycerol prices are currently too low toconsider in the calculations due to a global oversupply as a result of biodiesel production.The break even price of biodiesel is calculated by adding R1.01/litre fuel tax to themanufacturing cost, which means that biodiesel produced from oilseeds (except canola) willnot be able to compete with the current price of fossil diesel (30 August 2006) withoutsubsidies or legislation. 5.
Abstract ivThe agricultural feasibilityProducing 10% of South Africa’s diesel using oilseeds would require a major productionincrease. Keeping the area ratio of the oilseeds constant during such an increase and using all3 types of oilseeds for biodiesel production would have the following agriculturalimplications:Table 2: Agricultural implication of producing about 1 billion litres of biodiesel Thousand tons/ thousand ha Current Additional Increase ( - resources needed fold) Sunflower Production 620 1900 4.0 Soybean Production 270 1500 6.4 Canola Production 44 100 3.3 Total Production 934 3500 4.7 Sunflower Area 460 1600 4.5 Soybean Area 150 900 7.7 Canola Area 40 100 3.6 Total Area 650 2600 5.2Biodiesel production will also increase the local oilcake supply which means South Africawill change from being a net-importer of oilcake (730 thousand tons/year) to a net-exporter ofoilcake (1.7 million tons/year).Land availability for such a production increase is not a problem which means that theagricultural resources and potential market are available to produce and absorb 10% of thecountries diesel in the form of biodiesel. However, at the moment the commercial productionof biodiesel does not seem financially feasible without any government imposed legislation orsubsidies. 6.
Opsomming vOpsommingBiodiesel, ‘n hernubare brandstof wat uit groente olie vervaardig word, is ‘n moontlikeplaasvervanger vir petroleum diesel. Biodiesel vervaardiging in Suid Afrika word aangespoordeur hoë kru olie pryse, hoë werkloosheid syfers, toenemende bewustheid van klimaatveranderings en druk op ‘n groeiende ekonomie om sy bronne volhoubaar te gebruik.Die vervaardiging van biodiesel is relatief maklik en hierdie studie is ‘n voorlopige ondersoekin die ekonomiese lewensvatbaarheid van komersiële biodiesel produksie in Suid Afrika deurte kyk na die mark, finansiële en landbou lewensvatbaarheid daarvan.Die mark lewensvatbaarheidDie potensiële grote vir ‘n biodiesel mark in Suid Afrika is omtrent 1 miljard liter indien dit10% van sy petroleum diesel teen 2010 wil vervang, maar wetgewing sal nodig wees om ‘nvoorspelbare en groeiende mark te skep. Hierdie wetgewing kan in die vorm van subsidiesvir boere of biodiesel produsente wees, gebruik maak van regerings koopkrag, verpligtendeinmeng maatreëls, belasting voordele of prys vergoeding ooreenkomste.Die finansiële lewensvatbaarheidBerekeninge om die finansiële lewensvatbaarheid te bepaal is op ‘n 2500 kg/uur (22.5 miljardliter/jaar) gedoen. Hierdie aanleg grote is gebaseer op inligting verkry deur Amigun & vonBlottnitz (2005) wat sê dat die optimale grote biodiesel aanleg in Suid Afrika tussen 1500 en3000 kg/uur is. Daar is na twee tiepe aanlegte gekyk, naamlik na ‘n saad ekstraksie biodieselvervaardigings (SEBP) aanleg wat plaaslike oliesade as voer materiaal gebruik en ‘n kru oliebiodiesel vervaardigings (COBP) aanleg wat ingevoerde groente olie as voer materiaalgebruik.‘n SEBP aanleg het ‘n kapitale belegging van tussen R100 en R145 miljoen nodig terwyl ‘nCOBP aanleg slegs tussen R45 en R50 miljoen nodig het. Hierdie bydrae sluit werkendekapitaal van omtrent R35 miljoen in wat vas is in 3 maande se voer materiaal kostes.Die onderstaande tabel wys die vervaardigings kostes vir albei tiepe aanlegte en verskillendevoer materiale. 7.
Opsomming vi SEBP Aanleg COBP Aanleg Lokaale Voer Vervaardigings Ingevoerde Voer Vervaardigings Materiaal Koste Materiaal Koste Kanola R4.81/litre Palm Olie R6.62/litre Sonneblom saad R6.67/litre Sojaboon Olie R6.89/litre Sojabone R6.70/litre Sonneblom Olie R7.48/litre Raapsaad Olie R9.28/litreOmtrent 80% van die kostes is voer materiaal terwyl vervoer kostes die tweede hoogstebydraer is. Hierdie resultaat wys na die feit dat die aanleg ligging ‘n baie belangrike rol speelom vervaardigins kostes te minimeer. Dus word die stelling gemaak dat komersiële biodieselvervaardiging nie in ‘n paar sentrale aanlegte moet plaasvind nie, maar eerder in ‘n klompverspreide relatief kleiner aanlegte moet plaasvind. Hierdie kleiner aanlegte sal in dieoliesaad produserende streke versprei moet wees. (Suid Afrika sal omtrent 46 aanlegte nodighê wat elk 2500 kg/uur produseer om 10% van sy diesel teen 2010 te kan vervaardig).Die sensitiwiteits analiese het gewys dat die kostes van ‘n SEBP aanleg baie sensitief virveranderings in oliesaad en oliekoek pryse is. Die kostes van ‘n COBP aanleg is baiesensitief vir veranderinge in groente olie pryse. Wisselvallige landbou pryse maak die kostesvan biodiesel baie wisselvallig en onvoorspelbaar. Sojaboon biodiesel kostes is diesensitiefste vir prys veranderings terwyl sonneblom saad die minste geaffekteer word deursulke prys veranderings.Vir elke R1000/ton wat die glyserol prys styg sal die vervaardigings kostes van biodiesel met12 sent/liter daal. Die glyserol prys is op die oomblik te laag om in ag te neem weens ‘noormaat glyserol in die wêreld mark as gevolg van biodiesel produksie.Die gelykbreek prys van biodiesel word uitgewerk deur R1.01/liter brandstof belasting by dievervaardigings kostes by te tel. Op die oomblik (30 Augustus 2006) kan biodiesel vanoliesade (behalwe kanola) nie met die petroleum diesel prys meeding nie sonder enigesubsidies of wetgewing.Die landbou lewensvatbaarheidDie landbou implikasies om 10% van die land se diesel uit oliesade te vervaardig word in dieonderstaande tabel uiteengesit. Hierdie resultate is gebaseer op die feit dat al drie oliesade 8.
Opsomming viigebruik word vir biodiesel vervaardiging en dat die oppervlak verhouding van die drieoliesade konstant bly soos die produksie vermeerder. Duisend ton/ duisend ha Huidiglik Additionele Vermeerder ( bronne benodig -maal) Sonneblom saad Produksie 620 1900 4.0 Sojaboon Produksie 270 1500 6.4 Kanola Produksie 44 100 3.3 Totale Produksie 934 3500 4.7 Sonneblom Oppervlak 460 1600 4.5 Sojaboon Oppervlak 150 900 7.7 Kanola Oppervlak 40 100 3.6 Totale Oppervlak 650 2600 5.2Biodiesel vervaardiging sal ook die plaaslike oliekoek produksie vermeerder sodat SuidAfrika sal verander van ‘n netto-invoerder (730 duisend ton/jaar) tot ‘n netto-uitvoerder (1.7miljoen ton/jaar) van olikoek.Land beskikbaarheid vir so ‘n vermeerderde produksie is nie ‘n probleem nie wat beteken datSuid Afrika wel die landbou bronne en potensiële mark het om 10% van sy diesel tevervaardig en te absorbeer in die vorm van biodiesel. Uit `n finansiële oogpunt lyk dit egterasof die komersiële vervaardiging van biodiesel in Suid Afrika nie lewensvatbaar sal wees,sonder enige wetgewings of subsidies, nie. 9.
Acknowledgements viiiAcknowledgementsI would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Leon Lorenzen, for a really interestingresearch topic and also for all his assistance and support throughout the year.I would also like to thank everybody who helped me with obtaining the information I neededfor my study, people that I would like to give special mention to are, Amigun Bamikole fromUCT, Terry Booysen from Biodiesel One, Estelle le Roux from Bester Grain & FeedExchange and Melumzi Nontangana from the Cape Town City Council.Also a special thanks to all my friends, especially Anja and Carel, for the good times duringthe year.I would also like to acknowledge the funding that I received for my research from the NRF.Lastly I would like to thank my parents for all the support during all my years at Stellenboschand the Lord God for all the abilities and opportunities He provided me with. 10.
Index ixIndex1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Project Motivation 1 1.2 Project Objective 2 1.3 Project Definition and Scope 2 1.4 Thesis Structure 42 Background on Biodiesel................................................................................................ 6 2.1 Definition 6 2.2 Production Process 6 2.2.1 Vegetable Oil Extraction 7 2.2.2 Oil Pre-treatment 7 2.2.3 Transesterfication 8 2.2.4 Separation and Purification 9 2.3 Raw Materials 11 2.3.1 Oil Crops and Vegetable Oils 11 2.3.2 Alcohol 12 2.3.3 Catalyst 13 2.4 Fuel Properties and Quality Standards 13 2.4.1 Fuel Properties 13 2.4.2 Quality Standards 15 2.5 Biodiesel Use 16 2.5.1 Advantages of biodiesel use 17 2.5.2 Disadvantages of biodiesel use 17 2.6 World Biodiesel Production 18 11.
Index x3 Biodiesel in South Africa.............................................................................................. 20 3.1 The Current South African Energy Situation 20 3.2 Driving Forces of Biodiesel and Biofuels in South Africa 20 3.3 The Current Biofuel Situation in South African 214 The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 23 4.1 Market Feasibility 24 4.1.1 Potential biodiesel market size 24 4.1.2 Policies for developing the biodiesel market 25 4.1.3 The role of the government 28 4.2 Financial Feasibility 29 4.2.1 Basis and scope of calculation 29 4.2.2 Assumptions 31 4.2.3 Plant size and location 33 4.2.4 Biodiesel plant description 34 4.2.5 Capital investment of a SEBP and COBP plant 38 4.2.6 Manufacturing costs of a SEBP plant 42 4.2.7 Price sensitivity analyses of a SEBP plant 47 4.2.8 Profitability of a SEBP plant 53 4.2.9 Manufacturing costs of a COBP plant 61 4.2.10 Price sensitivity analyses of a COBP plant 65 4.2.11 Profitability of a COBP plant 66 4.2.12 SEBP plant vs. COBP plant 69 4.3 Agricultural Feasibility 73 4.3.1 Oil crop production in South Africa 73 4.3.2 Agricultural resources required for commercial biodiesel production 76 4.3.3 Farming for biodiesel 83 12.
Index xi 4.3.4 Benefits of farming for biodiesel 855 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 886 Recommendations......................................................................................................... 927 References...................................................................................................................... 938 Appendices..................................................................................................................... 96 Appendix A: South African Diesel Consumption 96 Appendix B: Calculations 97 Appendix C: Plant Description 101 Appendix D: Densities 104 Appendix E: Prices used in Calculations 105 Appendix F: Manufacturing Cost Calculations & Results 107 Appendix G: Sensitivity Analyses Calculations & Results 112 Appendix H: Profitability Calculations & Results 114 Appendix I: South African Agricultural Statistics 121 Appendix J: Local crop prices vs. import and export parity 124 13.
List of Figures xiiList of FiguresFIGURE 1: MIND MAP SHOWING A BROAD OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ....................................................................... 4FIGURE 2: REACTION MECHANISM FOR TRANSESTERFICATION OF TRIGLYCERIDES WITH METHANOL ...................... 6FIGURE 3: SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF THE ‘EARTH TO ENGINE’ PROCESS........................................................... 7FIGURE 4: TYPICAL BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PROCESS ACCORDING TO MITTELBACH (2005)................................. 11FIGURE 5: WORLD BIODIESEL PRODUCTION, 1991 – 2005 (WORLD WATCH INSTITUTE, 2006).............................. 19FIGURE 6: BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PROCESSES FOR TWO TYPES OF PLANTS .......................................................... 31FIGURE 7: A SIMPLIFIED PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A COBP PLANT .................................................................. 35FIGURE 8: A SIMPLIFIED PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A SEBP PLANT ................................................................... 37FIGURE 9: GRAPH SHOWING THE CAPITAL INVESTMENT NEEDED FOR A BIODIESEL PLANT ..................................... 41FIGURE 10: MANUFACTURING COSTS OF A SEBP PLANT USING DIFFERENT FEED STOCKS ..................................... 45FIGURE 11: ‘NET FEEDSTOCK COSTS’ PER TON BIODIESEL OF THE DIFFERENT FEED STOCKS .................................. 46FIGURE 12: PIE CHART SHOWING COST CONTRIBUTION TO TOTAL MANUFACTURING COST OF A SEBP PLANT ....... 47FIGURE 13: MANUFACTURING COST SENSITIVITY TO THE FEEDSTOCK PRICES ....................................................... 48FIGURE 14: MANUFACTURING COST SENSITIVITY TO THE METHANOL PRICE .......................................................... 49FIGURE 15: MANUFACTURING COST SENSITIVITY TO THE EXTRACTION COST ........................................................ 51FIGURE 16: MANUFACTURING COST SENSITIVITY TO THE OILCAKE PRICES ............................................................ 52FIGURE 17: BREAK-EVEN PRICE OF BIODIESEL COMPARED TO FOSSIL DIESEL ........................................................ 54FIGURE 18: RORI VS. BIODIESEL SELLING PRICE FOR VARIOUS FEED STOCKS ....................................................... 57FIGURE 19: PROFITABILITY OF BIODIESEL AT VARIOUS OILSEED AND OILCAKE PRICES ......................................... 60FIGURE 20: MANUFACTURING COST FOR DIFFERENT FEED STOCKS USED IN A COBP PLANT ................................. 63FIGURE 21: PIE CHART SHOWING COST CONTRIBUTION TO THE TOTAL MANUFACTURING COST OF A COBP PLANT 65FIGURE 22: MANUFACTURING COST SENSITIVITY OF COBP PLANT TO VEGETABLE OIL AND METHANOL PRICES ... 66FIGURE 23: BREAK-EVEN COSTS OF VARIOUS IMPORTED CRUDE VEGETABLE OILS BIODIESEL ............................... 67FIGURE 24: RORI OF DIFFERENT FEEDSTOCK COBP PLANTS AT VARIOUS BIODIESEL SELLING PRICES .................. 68FIGURE 25: PROFITABILITY OF BIODIESEL FOR DIFFERENT VEGETABLE OIL PRICES ................................................ 69FIGURE 26: HISTORIC PRODUCTION AND PLANTED AREA FOR SUNFLOWER, SOYBEANS AND CANOLA IN SA.......... 75FIGURE 27: TOTAL AREA PLANTED TO THE MAIN SOUTH AFRICAN CROPS ............................................................. 82FIGURE 28: SOUTH AFRICAN OILCAKE CONSUMPTION IN 2004/05 ......................................................................... 86 14.
List of Tables xiiiList of TablesTABLE 1: MANUFACTURING COSTS OF BIODIESEL FOR VARIOUS FEED STOCKS ........................................................ 1TABLE 2: AGRICULTURAL IMPLICATION OF PRODUCING ABOUT 1 BILLION LITRES OF BIODIESEL............................ IVTABLE 3: COMPARISON BETWEEN ALKALI AND ACID CATALYSED TRANSESTERFICATION ....................................... 9TABLE 4: SOUTH AFRICA’S MAJOR CROPS ............................................................................................................. 12TABLE 5: PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM AND BIODIESEL .......................................................................................... 15TABLE 6: TOP FIVE BIODIESEL PRODUCERS IN 2005 ............................................................................................... 19TABLE 7: FUTURE BIODIESEL NEEDED TO REPLACE FRACTION OF FOSSIL DIESEL IN SOUTH AFRICA ..................... 24TABLE 8: POTENTIAL OILSEEDS USED FOR COMMERCIAL BIODIESEL PRODUCTION ................................................ 29TABLE 9: POTENTIAL CRUDE OILS USED FOR COMMERCIAL BIODIESEL PRODUCTION ............................................. 30TABLE 10: OIL AND CAKE YIELDS FOR HEXANE OILSEED EXTRACTION .................................................................. 32TABLE 11: MASS BALANCE OF THE 2,500 KG/H BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PLANT USING CRUDE OIL ........................ 36TABLE 12: MASS BALANCE OF THE 2,500 KG/H BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PLANT USING OILSEEDS .......................... 38TABLE 13: FIXED CAPITAL COST FOR A BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PLANT................................................................. 39TABLE 14: WORKING CAPITAL FOR DIFFERENT FEED STOCKS FOR A SEBP AND COBP PLANT .............................. 40TABLE 15: TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT FOR BIODIESEL PLANTS IN SOUTH AFRICA ............................................. 41TABLE 16: CURRENT COMMODITY PRICES USED FOR COST CALCULATIONS OF SEBP PLANT ................................. 43TABLE 17: MANUFACTURING COSTS OF A SEBP PLANT USING CANOLA AS FEEDSTOCK ........................................ 43TABLE 18: MANUFACTURING COSTS OF A SEBP PLANT USING SOYBEANS AS FEEDSTOCK .................................... 44TABLE 19: MANUFACTURING COSTS OF A SEBP PLANT USING SUNFLOWER SEEDS AS FEEDSTOCK ....................... 44TABLE 20: INFLUENCE OF GLYCEROL SELLING PRICE ON THE MANUFACTURING COST ........................................... 50TABLE 21: THE PROFITABILITY OF A CANOLA SEBP PLANT FOR VARIOUS BIODIESEL SELLING PRICES .................. 56TABLE 22: THE PROFITABILITY OF A SOYBEAN SEBP PLANT FOR VARIOUS BIODIESEL SELLING PRICES ................ 56TABLE 23: THE PROFITABILITY OF A SUNFLOWER SEED SEBP PLANT FOR VARIOUS BIODIESEL SELLING PRICES ... 56TABLE 24: CURRENT COMMODITY PRICES USED FOR COST CALCULATIONS OF COBP PLANT ................................ 62TABLE 25: VEGETABLE OIL FEEDSTOCK COSTS FOR A COBP PLANT...................................................................... 62TABLE 26: REMAINING MANUFACTURING COSTS OF A COBP PLANT ..................................................................... 63TABLE 27: COMPARISON OF A SEBP PLANT TO A COBP PLANT ............................................................................ 70TABLE 28: SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION INCREASE NEEDED TO SUPPLY 10% OF SOUTH AFRICA’S DIESEL ................ 77TABLE 29: SOYBEAN PRODUCTION INCREASE NEEDED TO SUPPLY 10% OF SOUTH AFRICA’S DIESEL .................... 78TABLE 30: TOTAL OILSEEDS PRODUCTION INCREASE NEEDED TO SUPPLY 10% OF SOUTH AFRICA’S DIESEL ......... 79TABLE 31: IMPACT OF SCENARIO 3 ON OILCAKE SUPPLY IN SOUTH AFRICA .......................................................... 80TABLE 32: OILSEED PRODUCTION COMPARISON BETWEEN THE 3 SCENARIOS ........................................................ 80TABLE 33: OILSEED AREA COMPARISON BETWEEN THE 3 SCENARIOS .................................................................... 81 15.
Index of Abbreviations xivIndex of AbbreviationsASGISA Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South AfricaB05 Fuel blend containing 5% biodiesel and 95% fossil dieselB10 Fuel blend containing 10% biodiesel and 90% fossil dieselB100 Pure biodieselCEF Central Energy FundCFPP Cold filter plugging pointCOBP Crude oil biodiesel productionDME Department of Minerals and EnergyFAME Fatty acid methyl ester (Biodiesel)FAPRI Food and Agricultural Policy Research InstituteFFA Free fatty acidFOB Free on boardFOR Free on railGAIN Global Agricultural Information NetworkGHG Greenhouse-gasRORI Rate of return on investmentSABA Southern African Biofuel AssociationSAGIS South African Grain Information SystemSARS South African Revenue ServiceSEBP Seed extraction biodiesel productionVAT Value added tax 16.
Introduction 11 IntroductionChapter 1IntroductionVegetable oils and their derivatives (such as methyl esters), commonly referred to asbiodiesel, are prominent candidates as alternative diesel fuels. They have advanced frombeing purely experimental fuels to initial stages of commercialization in a number ofcountries. The use of vegetable oil in diesel engines is not a new concept; Rudolf Diesel,reportedly used groundnut (peanut) oil as a fuel for demonstration purposes in 1900 (Nitske &Wilson, 1965). There are however, a number of problems associated with using straightvegetable oil as a fuel for diesel engines such as high viscosity, injector coking and enginedeposits. These problems can be solved to a certain degree by converting the vegetable oilsinto their methyl esters. This is done by means of the transesterfication reaction and theresulting product, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), is also commonly known as biodiesel.Biodiesel is technically competitive to conventional fossil diesel but relatively cheap fossildiesel prices have made the technology economically unfeasible for almost a century.However, recent high and rising world crude oil prices and claims that the world oil reservesare diminishing and environmental and political pressure have caused an urge in thedevelopment of the technology of biodiesel production.1.1 Project MotivationIn view of the rising crude oil prices, forecasted shortages of fossil fuels, climate change, andthe need for new income and employment opportunities in rural areas, biofuels have takencentre stage in policy debates in South Africa. The technical feasibility of biodieselproduction has proven to be viable as biodiesel markets are currently growing exponentiallyin a number of countries. However, the question remains whether commercial biodieselproduction will be economically feasible in South Africa? 17.
Introduction 21.2 Project ObjectiveA great deal about biodiesel has been said in the South African media. Many reportswelcoming biodiesel as the fuel of the future while others have warned that the future ofbiodiesel does not look as promising as made out to be.The objective of this study is to give an unbiased view of the following topics concerningbiodiesel production in South Africa: 1. Is there a market for biodiesel in South Africa or can a market be created? 2. The costs involved with biodiesel production using various feed stocks at their current prices. These costs are based on an optimal sized commercial production plant. 3. Can biodiesel compete with the price of fossil diesel or should its market be driven by legislation? 4. Does South Africa have the agricultural resources to produce 10% of its diesel in the near future from oilseeds or would it be cheaper to import feedstock for biodiesel production?1.3 Project Definition and ScopeThis project is a preliminary economic feasibility study looking into the commercialproduction of biodiesel in South Africa. It is defined as a preliminary study due to the factthat biodiesel production is still in its initial stages in South Africa and that commercialproduction has yet to start.The economic feasibility is narrowed down by examining the market, financial andagricultural feasibility of commercial biodiesel production in South Africa.The market feasibility looks at the potential size of the biodiesel market in South Africa andpossible legislation to create such a market in South Africa. It also looks at the role of thegovernment in the development of the biodiesel industry.The financial feasibility looks at the capital and manufacturing costs associated withbiodiesel production. Cost calculations are based on two types of plants with a production 18.
Introduction 3capacity of 2500kg/h. The choice of this size of plant is explained in section 4.2.3. A SEBPplant produces biodiesel from oilseeds and a COBP plant uses crude vegetable oil, obtainedfrom oilseeds crushers, as feedstock. The section also compares the cost of biodieselproduction from the three main oilseeds in South Africa, namely sunflower seeds, soybeansand canola. Cost calculations are based on the current commodity prices (30 August 2006)and the results of price fluctuations are incorporated into the sensitivity analyses (-25% to+25%). The financial feasibility also includes profitability calculations and results based onvarious biodiesel selling prices.Finally the agricultural feasibility investigates whether South Africa has the agriculturalresources to support commercial biodiesel production. It also looks at the effects and benefitsof biodiesel production on the local agricultural sector.This study defines commercial production of biodiesel as 10% of the fossil dieselconsumption in South Africa. This definition is based on discussions that the governmentmight enforce a mandatory blend of 10% biodiesel into its fossil diesel (B10). Even if thisfigure is lower, at about 5% (B05), it is assumed that biodiesel from so called ‘backyard-producers’ will inevitably enter the market. This assumption is based on the fact that the taxregime excludes small scale producers from all fuel tax and levies if they produce less than300000 litres per annum. This tax regime would make it more profitable for farmers toproduce their own biodiesel on their farm.For the purpose of this study, biodiesel is considered a methyl ester produced from vegetableoil by means of transesterfication. This is the same definition that the South African StandardSANS 1935 Automotive diesel fuel standard gives for biodiesel.It is also assumed that all the stakeholders involved in the biodiesel production chain operateon an independent basis: The commercial biodiesel producer buys its feedstock from farmersor crushers at the market price and sells its product to the distributors in order to make aprofit. This means that farmers producing biodiesel from their own crops are not consideredin this study because it looks at the biodiesel industry as a whole. 19.
Introduction 41.4 Thesis StructureA mind map used to approach this study is seen in Figure 1. Preliminary Economic Feasibility Study of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa Objectives for Study Production Process Raw Materials Fuel Properties & Quality Background on Biodiesel Standards Advantages & Disadvantages Global Production Current Energy Situation Biodiesel in South Africa Biodiesel Driving Forces Current Biofuel Situation Economic Feasibility Market Financial Agricultural Conclusions & RecommendationsFigure 1: Mind map showing a broad overview of the study 20.
Introduction 5Below is a very brief outline of the thesis:Chapter 1 gives an introduction and broad outline of the study and defines it and itsobjectives.Chapter 2 gives a brief background on biodiesel; discussing the production process, possibleraw materials, the properties of biodiesel and the advantages and disadvantages of its use.The final section of this chapter looks at the global biodiesel production.Chapter 3 looks at the driving forces of biofuels and the current biodiesel situation in SouthAfrica.Chapter 4 is an initial investigation into the economic feasibility of commercial biodieselproduction in South Africa. The chapter is divided into three sections, namely the marketfeasibility, the financial feasibility and the agricultural feasibility of commercial biodieselproduction.Chapter 5 concludes all the findings of the study.Chapter 6 has some recommendations based on the findings of this study. 21.
Background on Biodiesel 62 Background on BiodieselChapter 2Background on Biodiesel2.1 DefinitionAccording to Friedrich (2003), biodiesel is defined as the fatty acid alkyl ester derived fromthe transesterfication of vegetable oils or animal fats. Thus it is the product obtained when avegetable oil or animal fat (triglyceride) reacts with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst.Glycerol is produced as a by-product (Figure 2).In South Africa biodiesel is restricted by the SANS 1935 automotive standard to being a fattyacid methyl ester (FAME) derived only from vegetable oils (The South African Bureau ofStandards, 2006). This means that either oilseeds or their subsequent crude vegetable oil canbe used for the production of biodiesel or FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) in South Africa.Figure 2: Reaction mechanism for transesterfication of triglycerides with methanol2.2 Production ProcessThe vegetable oil used to make biodiesel has to be extracted from its oil crop and in somecases pre-treated before it can undergo transesterfication to produce a mixture of biodiesel and 22.
Background on Biodiesel 7glycerol. These products and unreacted reactants have to be separated and purified to obtainthe final product of biodiesel.Figure 3 is a simplified schematic presentation of the ‘earth to engine process’. The processesinvolved are discussed in greater detail in the following sections. Crude Pre-treated Glycerol Vegetable Crude & Oil Crop Vegetable Oil Vegetable Oil Biodiesel Separation Biodiesel Oil Pre- Trans- Oil & Treatment esterfication Extraction Purification Protein Oilcake GlycerolFigure 3: Schematic presentation of the ‘earth to engine’ process2.2.1 Vegetable Oil ExtractionVegetable oil extraction from oilseeds can be done by either chemical or physical extraction.Chemical extraction uses solvent extracts while physical extraction uses a number of differenttypes of mechanical extraction methods such as expeller, screw or ram press. Chemicalextraction produces higher yields, is quicker and less expensive and is used for large scaleextraction processes (Wikipedia, 2006). Oil extraction of oilseeds also produces an oilcake(or meal) which is considered a valuable livestock feed product.2.2.2 Oil Pre-treatmentMost crude vegetable oils, with the exception of palm and soybean oil, can be fed directly tothe transesterfication process without any pre-treatment. Due to their high phosphatidescontent, palm and soybean oil need to be degummed. This refers to the removal ofphosphatides (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005). Phosphatides raise the level ofphosphorous in the fuel which could cause the deactivation of the exhaust catalyst (Tyson etal., 2004). Oils with a high free fatty acid (FFA) content, >5%, need to undergodeacidification (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005). This entails the removal of excessivefree fatty acids in the oil to less than 1mg KOH/g equivalent. These free fatty acids reducethe catalyst, especially alkaline, activity and hinder the glycerol and biodiesel separationprocess. The degumming and deacidification processes can be conducted concurrently byadding an alkali catalyst such as NaOH which reacts with the FFA to form soap and in the 23.
Background on Biodiesel 8presence of hot water causes the phosphatides to swell (Tyson et al., 2004). Both theseproducts can be precipitated. If the acid number of the oil is very high, such as in wastevegetable oils, an acid catalyzed pre-esterfication of the free fatty acids with methanol orethanol is recommended (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005).The final pre-treatment step is dehydration, to remove all traces of water in the oil. Traces ofwater in the oil decrease the conversion of alkaline catalyzed transesterfication and harm theacid catalyzed reaction. Dehydration is done either by low pressure distillation or by passinga stream of nitrogen through the oil (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005).2.2.3 TransesterficationTransesterfication is the chemical reaction whereby the glycerine is removed from thetriglyceride (vegetable oil) by reacting it with an alcohol to form an ester (biodiesel) andglycerol as by-product. If methanol is used in the reaction, the resulting product is a methylester and ethanol will produce an ethyl ester. Figure 2 illustrates the typical transesterficationreaction of triglyceride and methanol. The approximate proportion of each reactant andproduct is also shown (Biodiesel Education, 2006).An excess of alcohol shifts the equilibrium to the right hand side of the reversible reaction.Methanol is the preferred alcohol used for the reaction on large scale; this statement isdiscussed in section 2.3.2.Regardless of which alcohol is used, some form of catalyst has to be present to achieve highyields under relatively mild conditions. The two most common process options are eitheracid or alkali catalysed transesterfication reaction. Table 3 gives a comparison of the twodifferent processes (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005).Not surprisingly, alkaline catalysis is by far the most commonly used reaction type forbiodiesel production (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005). It is very important for the reactionmixture to be homogenized during the initial stages of the process so that thetransesterfication can proceed properly. This can be achieved by either vigorous mixing, lowfrequency ultrasonic irradiation or by using a common solvent. Once a sufficient amount ofmethyl esters and partial glycerides has been formed, they serve as a common solvent foralcohol and oil; this is no longer a problem (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005). 24.
Background on Biodiesel 9Table 3: Comparison between alkali and acid catalysed transesterficationCatalysis Alkaline AcidExample • KOH, NaOH, LiOH • H2SO4Advantages • Lower alcohol:oil ratio 3-5:1 • Not sensitive to free fatty acids (mol) in feedstock • Lower reaction temperature & pressure for high yield • Faster reaction time • Less corrosive to equipment means lower capital costsDisadvantages • Very sensitive to free fatty • Requires higher temperature, acids in feedstock – needs more pressure & volume of alcohol pre-treatment of waste oils • Slower reaction times • Corrosive material • Very sensitive to water in feedstock2.2.4 Separation and PurificationAfter the transesterfication step the glycerol layer has to be separated form the reactionmixture. Phase separation occurs spontaneously if methanol is used in alkali catalyzedtransesterfication. To accelerate the phase separation one of the following might provehelpful: Adding water, extra glycerol or hexane to the mixture, cooling the reaction mixture orextraction of the esters by centrifugation. Once the glycerol and ester phases have beenseparated, each phase needs to be purified.Methanol is recovered from the ester phase by vacuum distillation.Removal of glycerol and partial glycerides from the ester phase is achieved by water oracid solution washing. However, this method is not recommended by Mittelbach andRemschmidt (2005) because of ester losses due to hydrolysis. They state that glycerol andglycerides should be removed by converting into triglycerides with the reverse 25.
Background on Biodiesel 10transesterfication reaction. These triglycerides can then be easily removed from the esterphase and recycled back to the feed of the transesterfication reactor. This reverse reaction isachieved by adding an alkaline catalyst and heating the mixture to a temperature of 80 to100°C. The methanol released during the reaction can be recovered by distillation.Removal of free fatty acids from the ester phase, if necessary, is done by distillation asmethyl ester has a lower boiling point than FFA. Due to the catalyst’s solubility in water, it isremoved during the water washing stage. However, if traces of catalyst remain in the esterphase, Mittelbach and Remschmidt (2005) suggest contacting the ester phase with cationexchange resin under anhydrous conditions to remove the catalyst from the ester phase oralternatively adsorbents such as silica gel or synthetic magnesium silicate can be added.Purification of the glycerol phase also needs to take place due to the fact that the glycerolphase contains fatty acids, soaps and traces of the desired FAME. The first step is to addphosphoric acid to decompose the soaps into FFA which are insoluble in glycerol and form aseparate phase which is then separated (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005). If KOH wasused as a catalyst during transesterfication, potassium dihydrogen phosphate is producedwhich can be used as fertilizer (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005). Otherwise the resultingseparated solids have to be considered as waste products. The resulting FFA can either beesterfied with sulphuric acid and ethanol or contacted with FAME and alkaline glycerol fortwo hours at 200°C to produce triglycerides. Both these products can be recycled back intothe feed of the transesterfication reactor (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005). A schematicdiagram of biodiesel production process according to Mittelbach and Remschmidt (2005) isseen in Figure 4. 26.
Background on Biodiesel 11 Figure 4: Typical biodiesel production process according to Mittelbach (2005)2.3 Raw Materials2.3.1 Oil Crops and Vegetable OilsAny type of oilseed or its subsequent vegetable oil can be processed into biodiesel. Wastevegetable oil (WVO) is also a commonly used feedstock, but due to its high FFA content it isnormally pre-mixed with a low FFA content crude vegetable oil or has to undergo pre-treatment. WVO is not considered for commercial biodiesel production as there is no securesupply of this feedstock for commercial biodiesel production.Table 4 shows the major crops that are produced in South Africa with their 2005/06production, harvest area, yield (SAGIS, 2006) and potential oil yield per hectare.Results show that groundnuts have the highest oil yield per hectare but due to the low annualproduction and the high price of groundnuts, they are not an ideal oilseed for commercialbiodiesel production. The canola production is lower than groundnut production in SouthAfrica but a lower canola price may make it a potential crop for biodiesel production, eventhough it would only be able to contribute to a small part of the necessary feedstock.Sunflower seeds show a decent oil yield per hectare and are currently the main oilseedproduced in South Africa which makes it the primary candidate for commercial biodiesel 27.
Background on Biodiesel 12production. Soybeans have a lower oil yield per hectare but are also produced on largeenough scale to be considered for biodiesel production. Based on the facts above, the cost ofbiodiesel production is examined for the following oilseeds: Sunflower seeds, soybeans andcanola.Table 4: South Africa’s major crops Crop Oil Yield Area Harvested Production Yield Oil Yield kg/ton Thousand Ha Thousand Tons Tons/ha kg/ha Maize 50 3,223 11,716 3.63 182 Wheat - 805 1,905 2.37 - Sunflower 380 460 620 1.35 513 Soy beans 180 150 272 1.82 328 Sorghum - 260 86 3.01 - Dry beans - 48 72 1.5 - Groundnuts 420 40 64 1.6 672 Canola 400 44 40 1.1 440 Cotton seed 130 23 32 1.36 177The main crude vegetable oils used for biodiesel production in the world at the moment aresoybean oil (USA), rapeseed oil (Europe) and palm oil (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005).As the properties of the different oils differ, so do the properties of their succeeding methylesters. Section 2.4.1 gives a brief overview of the properties of the most common vegetableoil methyl esters.2.3.2 AlcoholMethanol is the most common alcohol used for transesterfication because of its low price andhigh reactivity compared to longer chain alcohols (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005).Alkali catalyzed methanolysis can be conducted at moderate conditions to obtain a high yield.Another advantage that methanol has over ethanol is that it can easily be obtained in its pureform. This is of great importance as even traces of water drastically affect the reaction rate ofthe transesterfication reaction.The stoichiometry of the reaction requires 3 mol of alcohol per 1 mol triglyceride (seeequation in Figure 2), but in order to shift the equilibrium of the reaction to the right handside, an excess amount of alcohol is used. Usually the suggested molar ratio of 6:1 methanol 28.
Background on Biodiesel 13to vegetable oil in alkali catalysis is not exceeded (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005). Acidcatalysis however, requires molar ratios of methanol to vegetable oil of up to 30:1.Although ethanolysis is considered more environmentally friendly, as ethanol can beproduced by fermentation, and gives the biodiesel a higher cetane number, it is more energyconsuming and creates problems for the product separation process.2.3.3 CatalystThe different catalyst options and their benefits and drawbacks have been discussed in section2.2.3. The optimum concentration alkali catalyst is about 0.5-1.0% by weight of oil(Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005).2.4 Fuel Properties and Quality Standards2.4.1 Fuel PropertiesBiodiesel and petroleum diesel vastly differ in their chemical composition. These differencesgive biodiesel different physical and chemical properties. The composition and properties ofthe biodiesel depend on the feedstock used in the manufacturing process.The cetane number is an indication of a fuels readiness to auto ignite after it has beeninjected into the diesel engine. Diesel fuels are required to have a cetane number higher than40 and most refineries produce diesel with cetane numbers between 40 and 45. Biodiesel hasa higher cetane number between 46 and 60 (depending on the feedstock used) which shortensthe ignition delay in the engine which improves the combustion characteristics (BiodieselEducation, 2006).The flashpoint of a fuel is the temperature at which the vapour above the fuel becomesflammable. Petroleum-based diesels have flashpoints of 50°C to 80°C which makes themintrinsically safe. Biodiesel has a flashpoint of over 160°C which means that the fire hazardassociated with transportation, storage and usage of biodiesel is much less than with othercommonly used fuels (Biodiesel Education, 2006).Lubricity can be defined as: “The property of a lubricant that causes a difference in frictionunder conditions of boundary lubrication when all the known factors except the lubricant 29.
Background on Biodiesel 14itself are the same. Lower friction means higher lubricity” (Friedrich, 2003). Removing thesulphur from petroleum diesel, as required by recent world regulations, has decreased thelubricity of the fuel. Pure biodiesel and high level blends have excellent lubricity while evensmall amounts of biodiesel to fossil diesel has a dramatic effect on the lubricity of the fuel(Biodiesel Education, 2006).The sulphur content of fossil diesel has to be below 50 ppm since the beginning of 2005(SAPIA, 2006) as high sulphur contents in fuels have been associated with negative healtheffects and an increased service frequency on vehicles. Biodiesel is essentially seen assulphur free when made from fresh vegetable oil. Biodiesel made from WVO might containtraces of sulphur and would have to be tested to fall into regulatory limits (Mittelbach andRemschmidt, 2005).Cold temperature properties are measures of the behaviour of the fuel under low ambienttemperatures. These are especially important in countries where the temperature is known todrop below 5°C. The cloud point denotes the temperature at which the first visible crystalsare formed. The pour point is the lowest temperature to which the sample may be cooledwhile still retaining its fluidity. The cold-filter plugging point (CFPP) is considered a goodindicator of operability limits of the fuel (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005).The heating value, also known as the heat of combustion, of biodiesel depends on the oilsource. On a mass basis fossil diesel has a higher heating value; about 13% higher than thatof biodiesel, but due to the higher density of biodiesel, the disadvantage of biodiesel is onlyabout 8% lower on a volumetric basis. This means that for the same injection volumes,engines burning biodiesel have slightly lower power and torque. If injection volumes arechanged for biodiesel, the same power and torque can be achieved. Flexi-fuel vehicles useintelligent motors which can detect the type of fuel being used (biodiesel, petroleum diesel ora blend) and automatically adjust the injection parameters (Mittelbach and Remschmidt,2005). An increase of the injection volumes leads to a slightly higher specific fuelconsumption when using biodiesel.It is important to keep in mind that the above properties are those of pure biodiesel. Ifbiodiesel is blended into fossil diesel at 5% or 10%, the properties of the fossil diesel wouldnot be affected to a noticeable extend. It is only the ‘lubricity’ property of the biodiesel that 30.
Background on Biodiesel 15has an effect even if used in very low blends; this property makes biodiesel an ideal additivefor fossil diesel.Table 5 illustrates the fuel properties (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005) of petroleum dieseland the different vegetable oil methyl esters which are discussed in this study.Table 5: Properties of petroleum diesel and biodiesel Fossil Palm oil Canola oil Soybean oil Sunflower diesel ME ME ME oil ME Density [kg/m3] 835 (15) 867 (15) 888 (15) 884 (25) 880 (25) (T in °C) Kinematic [mm2/s] 2.7 4.3-6.3 3.50-5.00 3.05 - 4.08 4.20 – 4.40 viscosity (at 38 °C) Cloud [°C] -15 13 to 16 -3 to 1 -2 to 2 0 to 3 point Pour [°C] -33 - -15 to -9 -3 to -1 -3 point CFFP [°C] -18 9 to 11 -19 to -8 -2 -3 Flash [°C] 50 - 80 155 - 174 153 – 179 141 - 171 164 – 183 point Heating [MJ/kg] 42.7 41.3 40.07 39.8 39.71 value Cetane 47 52 56 50 53 number2.4.2 Quality StandardsQuality standards are prerequisites for the commercial use of any fuel product. They serve asguidelines for the production process, guarantee customers that they are buying high-qualityfuels and provide the authorities with approved tools for the assessment of safety risks andenvironmental pollution (Prankl, 2002).Specifications for biodiesel require particularly close attention due to the large variety ofvegetable oils that can be used for biodiesel production, and the variability in fuelcharacteristics that can occur with fuel produced from this feedstock. Numerous biodiesel 31.
Background on Biodiesel 16standards are currently in force in a number of countries, including the EN 14214 in theEuropean Union and the ASTM D 6751 in the USA (Mittelbach and Remschmidt, 2005).South Africa currently uses the SANS 1935 Automotive diesel fuel standard. This is avoluntary standard for biodiesel which is a slight modification of the EN 14214. According tothe South African Bureau of Standards (Manaka, 2006) the SANS 1935 has the followingweaknesses: • It has a narrow definition of biodiesel, as methyl esters derived only from vegetable oils. It excludes all ethyl esters and esters derived from other oils. • It specifies the iodine number of the biodiesel that is aimed at excluding oils that have a higher value. • Some of the requirements measured by correlated properties which makes the testing against the specifications expensive. • It specifies the properties expected of biodiesel meant to be used directly as a pure fuel without blending. However, without taking into account the dilution effects of blends, it requires that the same requirements be applied to the biodiesel that is meant for blending.With national standards being living documents that are continuously updated, this standardwill most probably change in the near future.2.5 Biodiesel UseBiodiesel can be used in its pure form, also known as neat biodiesel or B100. This is theapproach that provides the most reduction in exhaust particulates, unburned hydrocarbons,and carbon monoxide. It is also the best way to use biodiesel when its non-toxicity andbiodegradability are important. Although neat biodiesel would not be expected to cause anyoperational problems, its solvent properties are at their highest intensity and may causeproblems with loosening of varnish deposits in fuel tanks and lines, degradation of fuel linesbecause some elastomers are not compatible with biodiesel (such as BUNA rubbers), andcause paint removal near fuel fill ports (Biodiesel Education, 2006). 32.
Background on Biodiesel 17Biodiesel can also be used as a blend. Typically this can range from 5% to 50% biodiesel in95% to 50% fossil diesel and is known as B05, B10, etc. depending on the blend. Blendsreduce the cost impact of biodiesel while retaining some of the emissions reductions. Most ofthese reductions appear to be proportional to the percentage of biodiesel used (Friedrich,2003).Biodiesel can also be used as an additive (1%-2%) and is known as B01 or B02. Tests forlubricity have shown that biodiesel is a very effective lubricity enhancer. Even as little as0.25% can have a measurable impact and 1%-2% is enough to convert a very poor lubricityfuel into an acceptable fuel. Although these levels are too low to have any impact on thecetane number of the fuel or the emissions from the engine, the lubricity provides a significantadvantage at a modest cost (Friedrich, 2003).2.5.1 Advantages of biodiesel useUsing biodiesel has the following advantages for consumers (Journey to Forever, 1999): • No engine modification is necessary. Most diesel engines manufactured after 1995 can run on either a blend or on pure biodiesel. • Biodiesel is more environmentally friendly. It burns up to 75% cleaner than conventional fossil diesel as it substantially reduces unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter and eliminates sulphur dioxide emissions in exhaust fumes. And its ozone-forming potential is nearly 50% less than fossil diesel fuel. • Biodiesel is a renewable energy source as it is plant-based and adds no CO2 to the atmosphere. • Biodiesel is considered non-toxic and bio-degradable. • Biodiesel has a high cetane rating which improves engine performance and is a much better lubricant than fossil diesel and can extend engine life.2.5.2 Disadvantages of biodiesel useAlthough the advantages make biodiesel seem very appealing, there are also severaldisadvantages to consider when using biodiesel (Beer and Grant, year unknown): 33.
Background on Biodiesel 18 • Due to the high oxygen content, it produces relatively high NOx levels during combustion. But these can be reduced to below fossil diesel fuel levels by adjusting engine timing and using a catalytic converter. • Storage conditions of biodiesel must be monitored strictly as biodiesel has a lower oxidation stability and oxidation products that may be harmful to vehicle components, could be produced. Contact with humid air must be avoided due to its hygroscopic nature. • The lower volumetric energy density of biodiesel means that more fuel needs to be transported for the same distance travelled. • Biodiesel has a higher cold-filter plugging point temperature than fossil diesel which means it will crystallize into a gel at low temperatures when used in its pure form (see Table 5). • It can cause dilution of engine lubricant oil, requiring more frequent oil change than in standard diesel-fuelled engines. • Biodiesel is a strong solvent and scrubs out all the tars, varnishes, and gums left by fossil diesel in the fuel system which means that the fuel filter will have to be replaced a few times during the initial stages of biodiesel use. • A modified refuelling infrastructure is needed to handle biodiesel, which adds to their total cost.2.6 World Biodiesel ProductionBiodiesel currently accounts for only 10% of the world biofuel production, with ethanolmaking up the rest. Global biodiesel production has expanded nearly fourfold between 2000and 2005 (Figure 5) with the top five producers in 2005 being Germany, France, USA, Italyand Austria (Table 6) (World Watch Institute, 2006).Considering the fact that biofuel, ethanol and biodiesel, production has more than doubled inthe last 5 years while world oil production increased by only 7%, it might be thought thatoverall, biofuels have the potential to substitute petroleum fuels and increase energy securityfor many nations. 34.
Background on Biodiesel 19 Table 6: Top five biodiesel producers in 2005 Production (million litres) Germany 1,920 France 511 United States 290 Italy 227 Austria 83Figure 5: World biodiesel production, 1991 – 2005 (World Watch Institute, 2006) 35.
Biodiesel in South Africa 203 Biodiesel in South AfricaChapter 3Biodiesel in South Africa3.1 The Current South African Energy SituationApproximately 14% of South Africa’s total primary energy supply is imported in the form ofcrude oil. Furthermore South Africa’s liquid fuels are manufactured by feedstock consistingof more than 50% imported crude oil, 30% coal, 10% domestic crude oil and 8% natural gas.This makes South Africa the largest emitter of greenhouse gasses in Africa and one of the toptwenty carbon-intensive countries in the world (Wilson et al., 2005).In 2005 South Africa consumed about 8.1 billion litres of diesel (SAPIA, 2006). This figurehas been increasing at about 5% per annum since 2000. At an average annual increase of 5%per year, South Africa will be consuming about 10 billion litres by 2010 and about 17 billionlitres by 2020 (See Appendix A). Diesel prices have reached new record heights selling atabout R6.80/litre at the coast (2 August 2006) due to an all-time high global oil price causedby various political factors. Taking the volatile crude oil price and fluctuating Rand/Dollarexchange rate into account, a diesel pump price of R10.00 per litre does not seem thatimpossible in the foreseeable future.3.2 Driving Forces of Biodiesel and Biofuels in South AfricaBiofuels could become part of the answer to the above mentioned problems as it would: 1. decrease South Africa’s dependence on fossil fuels and imported oil, 2. promote renewable energy, 3. decrease pollution, and 36.
Biodiesel in South Africa 21 4. assist South Africa in achieving the objectives of the White Paper on Renewable Energy, which states that by 2013, SA should be generating 10,000 GWh of energy from renewable sources (Wilson et al., 2005). 5. Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by South Africa in 2002.3.3 The Current Biofuel Situation in South AfricanAccording to the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) former chief director of energyplanning, Kevin Nasiep, South Africa will have a preliminary biofuels strategy by the end of2006 and is looking at creating a market to use the end product and so reducing SouthAfrica’s reliance on imported oil (Engineering News, 25/04/2006). At a workshop held inJune 2006 (a workshop aiming to establish the way forward for biofuels in South Africa) hestated that “the South African Biofuels Strategy Development has the following objectives: (i)avoidance of the adverse impact on Balance of Payments due to escalating crude oil prices,(ii) protection of the environment, and (iii) job creation potential of biofuels, particularly inthe so-called second economy”. The urgency of this initiative is motivated by thevulnerability of crude oil prices, high unemployment, climate change concerns, the need forthe growing economy to use its resources sustainable and the potential integration of biofuelproduction into the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative of South Africa (ASGISA).ASGISA aims to halve unemployment and poverty by 2014 by stimulating economic growth.Funding for projects and research on renewable energy has been set aside by organizationssuch as the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) and the Department of Science andTechnology (DST). The Southern African Biofuels Association (SABA) was established inApril 2005 as a non-profit organization to support the development of a sustainable biofuelindustry in Southern Africa. SABA is the largest biofuel association in Southern Africa andits members include biofuel producers (such as D1Oils Africa, De Beers Fuel and EthanolAfrica) equipment and technology suppliers (such as Shaval Bio Diesel, Praj Industries, LurgiSA and Thyssen Krupp Engineering), academia (such as Wits University), agriculturalproducer associations (such as Grain SA, SA Cane Growers’ Association and the SouthernAfrican Confederation of Agricultural Unions), financial institutions (such as Absa andStandard Bank), government departments (such as the DME), and state owned organisations(such as the Central Energy Fund). The government has established a task team to develop abiofuel strategy for South Africa by the end 2006. This task team consists of members from 37.
Biodiesel in South Africa 22the Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Land Affairs, Mineralsand Energy, Trade and Industry, National Treasury and The Presidency.Currently no blending mandates or incentives regarding the production or use of biofuels havebeen implemented by government. There is however, a voluntary fuel standard for biodiesel,the SANS 1935 Automotive diesel fuel standard, in South Africa (Section 2.4.2).The South African Revenue Service (SARS) has stated that the fuel tax and levies onbiodiesel are as follows: 60c fuel levy, 36.5c road accident fund and 4c customs and excise,which makes it R1.01/litre biodiesel. According to the South African Customs and ExciseAct of 1964, Amendment DAR/19 scheduled with effect from 1 April 2006, biodieselproducers are considered commercial manufacturers, which need to register their businesswith SARS, if they produce more than 300000 litres biodiesel per year (SARS website, 2006).Since the introduction of this tax regime, the demand for small scale biodiesel plants hasincreased; showing that producers rather opt for smaller production to decrease theirproduction cost by avoiding the fuel tax and levies.Friedrich (2003) describes a three-stage biodiesel industry development as follows: • Phase I consists of the very first ideas and thoughts of biodiesel being used as a fuel until the actual adaptation of the ideas on the part of the decision maker who are then motivated to put these ideas into practice. The end of phase I (and beginning of phase II) is the political decision to invest money and other resources into biodiesel research. • Phase II is characterized by research efforts, pilot projects, setting of frame conditions and financially supported technical trials. • Countries in phase III show a biodiesel economy based primarily on a feasible economic production, distribution and use of biodiesel, and a self supportive biodiesel economy.According to this classification, South Africa would be considered a “phase II-country”. Inorder to progress to phase III, the production of biodiesel will have to be economicallyfeasible to all stakeholders in the industry; from the farmer to the consumer of biodiesel. 38.
The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 234 The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South AfricaChapter 4The Preliminary Feasibility of CommercialBiodiesel Production in South AfricaThe preliminary economic feasibility of commercial biodiesel production is investigated byexamining the following: 1. The market feasibility of biodiesel in South Africa: examines whether there is a market for biodiesel in South Africa and how to successfully form and sustain an expanding biodiesel market by creating a regulation and policy environment. 2. The financial feasibility of biodiesel production: investigates the costs of biodiesel production in South Africa and the major factors affecting this. This is done by looking at two different optimal sized plants (Seed extraction biodiesel production and Crude oil biodiesel production) and examining their capital and manufacturing costs. The influence of agricultural commodity price changes on the manufacturing cost is also examined. 3. The agricultural feasibility: considers the current agricultural situation in South Africa regarding its oilseed production capacity, market prices and oil crop demand and considers whether the South African agriculture would be able to support commercial biodiesel production.This study focuses solely on commercial biodiesel production. It is assumed that all thestakeholders operate on an independent basis: the commercial biodiesel producer buys itsfeedstock from farmers or oilseed crushers at the market price and sells its product to thedistributors in order to make a profit. This study does not consider producers that produce 39.
The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 24less than 300000 litres per annum or produce biodiesel from their own oilseeds as it onlylooks at the biodiesel industry as a whole.4.1 Market Feasibility4.1.1 Potential biodiesel market sizeThe biodiesel market potential is defined by the size of the existing fossil diesel market.Although there is no principal technical limitation for replacing fossil diesel by biodiesel;feedstock availability in South Africa could become a limiting factor (See Section 4.3).The number of diesel vehicles on South African roads has increased drastically the last fewyears and with that the South African diesel consumption has increased by more than 5.5%annually since 2002 (See Appendix A). By 2010 South Africa will be consuming about 10billion litres of diesel per annum and by 2020 this will have risen to about 17 billion litres peryear, assuming a conservative annual consumption increase of 5%.South Africa would need to produce about 1 billion litres of biodiesel by 2010 to replace 10%of its fossil diesel consumption. 2010 can be seen as a reasonable goal seeing that the WhitePaper Act and AGISA targets are set for 2013 and 2014, respectively.Table 7: Future biodiesel needed to replace fraction of fossil diesel in South AfricaFraction of fossil Future prediction based on an annual 5% increasediesel to be replaced (million litres) 2006 2010 2015 2020 1% 85 104 132 169 5% 426 518 661 844 10% 852 1036 1322 1687Another criterion to define the market size of biodiesel is the amount of vehicles with givenbiodiesel warranties. The exact amount of these vehicles in South Africa is unknown but aguideline can be used, stating that vehicles manufactured after 1995 should be able to run onat least a blend of biodiesel. Although a blend of 10% biodiesel should not affect the runningof a diesel car, vehicle owners would be very hesitant to use such a blend if their vehicle doesnot have a biodiesel warranty. This issue will have to be addressed by phasing in the use ofbiodiesel while ‘biodiesel-incompatible’ vehicles are gradually phased out. 40.
The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 25It is clear that there is a definite potential market for biodiesel in South Africa but this is notall that the biodiesel industry needs to become a major player in the South African economy.In order to accelerate an expansion of biofuel production, the government should createpolicies which focus on creating a predictable and growing market for biofuels in SouthAfrica.4.1.2 Policies for developing the biodiesel marketThe development of a biodiesel industry requires a framework of laws and regulations tostimulate demand. Possible laws and regulations that can be implemented by the governmentinclude: • Tax incentives. These have been used effectively in Brazil, Germany and the United States to enhance biofuel production and reduce biofuel prices at the pump. To create a more competitive market for biodiesel in South Africa, the tax on biodiesel, for commercial producers, is currently 101.5 cents/litre while the tax on fossil diesel is 141.5 cents/litre. Only time will tell whether these tax incentives are enough for biodiesel to break into the competitive fuel market. • Use government purchasing power. The enormous purchasing power of the government could be used to expand the biodiesel market by, for example, letting regional governments switch entire fleets (municipal, transport, etc.) to vehicles that run on biodiesel. • Setting and adhering to fuel quality standards. South Africa currently has the SANS 1935 automotive diesel fuel standard in place which is at the moment still a voluntary standard for biodiesel producers. This standard needs to remain up to date with leading international standards, such as the EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751, and needs to be enforced at all levels of production. This is important for consumer confidence and will gain increased importance as international trade in biodiesel expands. Automakers also need assurance of consistent fuel characteristics so they can honour vehicle warranties. Strict enforcement of biodiesel regulations should also eliminate so called ‘cowboy-blenders’ which do great damage to the reputation of biodiesel. 41.
The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 26 • Facilitate public-private partnerships. Public-private partnerships have resulted in important technological breakthroughs in numerous countries and can play a vital role in advancing next-generation technologies. • Increase public awareness. Consumer demand could be a powerful driver of the South African biodiesel market. Strategies to increase public awareness and comfort level with biodiesel need to be implemented. These could include various forms of public education, radio discussions, television advertising and signage along highways. Another option to follow could be to prohibit companies from advertising any fossil fuels. Public concerns regarding possible environmental impacts of biodiesel feedstock cultivation must also be addressed if biodiesel is to gain broad public acceptance. • Subsidies and blending mandates. Policies regarding subsidies and blending mandates are still very controversial in South Africa at this stage. The problem with subsidies are that they are very difficult to discontinue once they have been created which means that should they be implemented, they need to be strategically phased out once the biodiesel industry has been established. Blending mandates could also become problematic as it is impossible to enforce a minimum percentage of biodiesel blends without knowing the production capacity of South Africa. By placing an upper limit on the percentage of biodiesel blend (for example 20%) one eliminates any negative effects of biodiesel that does not totally adhere to the quality standards, but at the same time restricts the biodiesel production industry. Mandatory blending policies would have to be coupled to a deadline set out by the government which could set aims such as a mandatory blend of 1% by 2009, 5% by 2015 and 10% by 2020. • Price compensation agreement. Up to 1994 the government of South Africa had an agreement with SASOL that if the crude oil price went below a certain level and SASOL was unable to compete with the fuel prices in the country, the state would subsidise them, in order for them to continue production at a reasonable profit. If the crude oil price went above a certain level and SASOL was able to produce fuel for much less than the South African fuel price, SASOL would pay an agreed amount to the state for every litre sold. Such a ‘slide-scale’ agreement between the South African government and biofuel producers would develop its young biofuel market by 42.
The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 27 reducing the risk involved and therefore creating a steady market amidst fluctuating feedstock and crude oil prices. • Kyoto Protocol ‘carbon credit system’. PriceWaterhouseCoopers recently became the first organization in Africa to be authorized by the United Nations to audit carbon credits under its Kyoto Protocol on climate change (Engineering News, 3/7/2006). Carbon credits are aimed at encouraging developing countries to reduce or lessen the effects of emission of greenhouse-gases, such as carbon dioxide, which is blamed for global warming. They are purchased by organisations in developed countries unable to meet the emission reduction targets committed to under the Kyoto Protocol. This not only limits the impact of emission cuts in the developed world, but also provides an incentive for developing countries to implement clean technologies. Carbon credits are based on organisations undertaking Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects. These CDM’s involve a number of stakeholders, for example, in the case of biodiesel production this could include the farmer and biodiesel producer. The South African government has to approve all CDM projects via a Designated National Entity (DNE), which is housed in the Department of Minerals and Energy. Once a project is validated, registered and implemented, the actual emission reductions are verified and the credits are issued. These carbon credits can then be sold as a commodity and serve as a source of income to the company. Implementation of this policy should be advantageous to and attract numerous stakeholders into the South African biodiesel industry. • Import tariffs on biofuels. As world biofuel production increases it will become an international commodity. Placing an import tariff on biofuels would protect the local market by preventing overseas countries from dumping their relatively cheap biodiesel in South Africa. Countries such as the USA can produce biodiesel for relatively cheap due to their farming subsidies and resulting low oilseed prices. • Rebate on the customs duty on imported feed stocks. SASOL made a proposal that the import duty on soybeans be reduced so that imported feedstock can be used for biodiesel production. The reasoning behind this is to ensure that South Africa would have enough feedstock during the initial stages of biodiesel production. But the results of such a rebate might be more damaging than good to the South African agriculture as this would open the door for cheaper imported oilseeds. This would 43.
The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 28 force down the local price and could even put a halt to local oilseed production. The import tariffs were implemented to protect the local farmers from cheap imported crops from countries such as the USA where farming is heavily subsidised. Biodiesel should be a totally local produced product for all its benefits to be realized. Even if this would take longer to reach certain production targets, it would at least benefit the total local economy.4.1.3 The role of the governmentBesides the frameworks of laws and regulations that can be implemented by the governmentto stimulate the biodiesel and biofuel market, it also needs to give the necessary financialsupport to research and development of energy from biomass technologies.It is important that the government realises the role that biodiesel, and all biomass for thatmatter, play in the realisation of its goals set out in the White Paper Act on RenewableEnergy, which states that by 2013, South Africa should be generating 10 000 GWh of energyfrom renewable sources (Wilson et al., 2005). Realising this and other benefits, biodiesel andbiofuels should benefit from higher priority, of currently available renewable energytechnologies, regarding policies and financing from the South African government.Finally the South African government needs to realise the role it has to play to create athriving and lasting biofuel industry in the country because nowhere in the world has asuccessful biofuels industry been established without the support of the government.To have a successful start, the ‘infant’ biodiesel industry requires a ‘pulling-action’ from thegovernment rather than a ‘pushing-action’ by the involved stakeholders. This ‘pulling-action’can be summed up as follows: Step 1: Removing confusion regarding biodiesel and biofuels and demonstrate government support to various technological and business plans. Step 2: Implement policies and incentives to produce feedstock and facilitate an infant biofuel industry by creating a local market for these fuels. Step 3: Accelerate the growth of an established biofuel industry and free biofuel market by phasing out all subsidies and keeping policies up to date with situations. 44.
The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 29By releasing a biofuel strategy with certain objectives by the end of October 2006 and alreadyfunding some pilot research projects in the country, it seems that the government is starting toplay its part in the establishment of a permanent biofuel industry in South Africa. Althoughthis is essential, it is only the start and various other factors still play a major role in theeconomic feasibility of commercial production of biodiesel.4.2 Financial FeasibilityOn a national level the profitability of biodiesel production, especially during the early stagesof the industry development, largely depends on legislation implemented by the state. But asthe industry moves into a free market situation it needs to be able to maintain its profitabilityas subsidies and incentives are strategically withdrawn. It is at this stage that the productionof biodiesel has to be financially feasible. Thus, firstly, would biodiesel be able to competewith the fossil diesel price or would mandatory blending legislation be necessary to create aforced market for biodiesel? And secondly, at what cost does biodiesel production becomefeasible for various types of feed stocks?4.2.1 Basis and scope of calculationThe financial feasibility of biodiesel production is based on an optimum size biodieselproduction plant in South Africa. The fixed capital cost and working capital for such a plantare calculated and discussed. The manufacturing costs and the profitability of biodieselproduction from various types of feed stocks are also calculated, compared and discussed.Two types of biodiesel production plants are considered for the calculations: 1. Seed Extraction Biodiesel Production (SEBP) Plant: The SEBP plant uses oilseeds for the production of biodiesel. This requires the biodiesel producer to buy oilseeds from local farmers at the market price, extracting the oil from the oilseeds and processing it into biodiesel. The oilcake resulting from the oil extraction is sold for livestock feed at market price depending on the protein content. Referring to section 2.3.1, the cost and profitability of biodiesel production using the following oilseeds are investigated: Table 8: Potential oilseeds used for commercial biodiesel production 45.
The Preliminary Feasibility of Commercial Biodiesel Production in South Africa 30 Oilseed Price (August 2006) Source R/ton Canola 1 900 Bester Feed & Grain Exchange Soybeans 1 950 SAGIS Sunflower seeds 2 220 SAGIS These oilseeds are currently produced in South Africa and calculations are based on their current (August 2006) local prices (Appendix E). With oilseed prices varying greatly, results for different prices are included in the oilseed price sensitivity analyses. 2. Crude Oil Biodiesel Production (COBP) Plant: The COBP plant produces biodiesel from crude vegetable oil. It is different from the SEBP plant in the way that it does not have a oilseed extractor and biodiesel producers would have to buy crude oil from oilseed crushers to produce biodiesel. This type of plant adds oilseed crushers as a link between the farmers and biodiesel producers into the production chain. World oilseed trade is in oil and oilcake and South Africa currently imports about two thirds of its vegetable oil (GAIN, 2006). If South Africa would not be able to produce the necessary feedstock, it would have to be imported in the form of crude vegetable oil meaning that more COBP plants would be necessary. Based on current world production and price, the following potential crude vegetable oils are investigated during this study to determine the costs and profitability of biodiesel production: Table 9: Potential crude oils used for commercial biodiesel production Oilseed FOB Price (August 2006) FOR Price Source US$/ton R/ton Palm Oil 468 5 220 Oil World & Ocean Freight Soybean oil 502 5 500 Oil World & Ocean Freight Sunflower oil 575 6 100 Oil World & Ocean Freight Rapeseed oil 794 7 920 Oil World & Ocean Freight Due to the fact that South Africa currently imports most of its vegetable oils, the calculations are based on imported crude oil prices (August 2006). This is done in order not to underestimate the cost of the feedstock and so that this study also Recommended