Gauss's continued fraction
In complex analysis, Gauss's continued fraction is a particular class of continued fractions derived from hypergeometric functions. It was one of the first analytic continued fractions known to mathematics, and it can be used to represent several important elementary functions, as well as some of the more complicated transcendental functions. History. Lambert published several examples of continued fractions in this form in 1768, and both Euler and Lagrange investigated similar constructions, but it was Carl Friedrich Gauss who utilized the algebra described in the next section to deduce the general form of this continued fraction , in 1813. Although Gauss gave the form of this continued fraction, he did not give a proof of its convergence properties. Bernhard Riemann and L.W. Thomé obtained partial results, but the final word on the region in which this continued fraction converges was not given until 1901, by Edward Burr Van Vleck. Derivation. Let formula_1 be a sequence of analytic functions so that for all formula_3, where each formula_4 is a constant. Then Setting formula_6 So Repeating this ad infinitum produces the continued fraction expression In Gauss's continued fraction, the functions formula_10 are hypergeometric functions of the form formula_11 , formula_12, and formula_13, and the equations formula_14 arise as identities between functions where the parameters differ by integer amounts. These identities can be proven in several ways, for example by expanding out the series and comparing coefficients, or by taking the derivative in several ways and eliminating it from the equations generated. The series F. The simplest case involves Starting with the identity we may take giving or This expansion converges to the meromorphic function defined by the ratio of the two convergent series (provided, of course, that "a" is neither zero nor a negative integer). The series F. The  next case involves for which the two identities are used alternately. Let etc. This gives formula_14 where formula_29, producing or Similarly or Since formula_34, setting "a" to 0 and replacing "b" + 1 with "b" in the first continued fraction gives a simplified special case: The series F. The final case involves Again, two identities are used alternately. These are essentially the same identity with "a" and "b" interchanged. Let etc. This gives formula_14 where formula_45, producing or Since formula_48, setting "a" to 0 and replacing "c" + 1 with "c" gives a simplified special case of the continued fraction : Convergence properties. In this section, the cases where one or more of the parameters is a negative integer are excluded, since in these cases either the hypergeometric series are undefined or that they are polynomials so the continued fraction terminates. Other trivial exceptions are excluded as well. In the cases formula_11 and formula_12, the series converge everywhere so the fraction on the left hand side is a meromorphic function. The continued fractions on the right hand side will converge uniformly on any closed and bounded set that contains no poles of this function. In the case formula_13, the radius of  convergence of the series is 1 and the fraction on the left hand side is a meromorphic function within this circle. The continued fractions on the right hand side will converge to the function everywhere inside this circle. Outside the circle, the continued fraction represents the analytic continuation of the function to the complex plane with the positive real axis, from to the point at infinity removed. In most cases is a branch point and the line from to positive infinity is a branch cut for this function. The continued fraction converges to a meromorphic function on this domain, and  it converges uniformly on any closed and bounded subset of this domain that does not contain any poles. Applications. The series "F". We have so This particular expansion is known as Lambert's continued fraction and dates back to 1768. It easily follows that The expansion of tanh can be used to prove that "e" is irrational for every integer "n" (which is alas not enough to prove that "e" is transcendental). The expansion of tan was used by both Lambert and Legendre to prove that π is irrational. The Bessel function formula_57 can be written from which it follows  These formulas are also valid for every complex "z". The series F. Since formula_60, formula_61 With some manipulation, this can be used to prove the simple continued fraction representation of "e", The error function erf ("z"), given by can also be computed in terms of Kummer's hypergeometric function: By applying the continued fraction of Gauss, a useful expansion valid for every complex number "z" can be obtained: A similar argument can be made to derive continued fraction expansions for the Fresnel integrals, for the Dawson function, and for the incomplete gamma function. A simpler version of the argument yields  two useful continued fraction expansions of the exponential function. The series F. From It is easily shown that the Taylor series expansion of arctan "z" in a neighborhood of zero is given by The continued fraction of Gauss can be applied to this identity, yielding the expansion which converges to the principal branch of the inverse tangent function on the cut complex plane, with the cut extending along the imaginary axis from "i" to the point at infinity, and from −"i" to the point at infinity. This particular continued fraction converges fairly quickly when "z" = 1, giving the value  π/4 to seven decimal places by the ninth convergent. The corresponding series converges much more slowly, with more than a million terms needed to yield seven decimal places of accuracy. Variations of this argument can be used to produce continued fraction expansions for the natural logarithm, the arcsin function, and the generalized binomial series.