Chancellor
Chancellor () is a title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the or lattice work screens of a basilica or law court, which separated the judge and counsel from the audience. A chancellor's office is called a chancellery or chancery. The word is now used in the titles of many various officers in various settings (government, education, religion). Nowadays the term is most often used to describe: Governmental positions. Head of government. Austria. The Chancellor of Austria, denominated ' for males and  ' for females ("Federal Chancellor"), is the title of the head of the Government of Austria. The current Chancellor of Austria is Karl Nehammer. Germany. The Chancellor of Germany or ' (official German title which means "Federal Chancellor") is the title for the head of government in Germany (' being the feminine form). In German politics, the ' position is equivalent to that of a prime minister and is elected by the ' ("Federal Diet", the directly elected federal parliament) every four years on the beginning of the electoral period after general elections. Between general elections, the Federal Chancellor (together with the whole cabinet) can  only be removed from office by a ' ("constructive motion of no confidence"), which consists in the candidacy of an opposition candidate for the office of Chancellor in the '. If this candidate gets a majority of the entire membership of the ", he or she will be sworn in immediately as new Federal Chancellor. The current German " is Olaf Scholz of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) The former German Empire, the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany had the equivalent position of ' ("Reich Chancellor") as the head of the executive. Between 1871 and 1918, the Chancellor was appointed by the German  Emperor. During the Weimar Republic (1919-1933), the Chancellor was chosen by the "Reichspräsident" ("Reich President") and stood under his authority. This continued (formally) during the first two years of the Nazi regime until the death of President Paul von Hindenburg in 1934. Between 1934 and 1945, Adolf Hitler was dictatorial head of state "and" government of Nazi Germany, being officially titled "'" (literally "Leader and Reich Chancellor"). Switzerland. Swiss Confederation. In Switzerland, the Federal Chancellor (, , ) is not the political head of government, but rather its administrative head as the Chief of Staff of the Swiss Federal Government. He or she  is elected by the Swiss Federal Assembly (, , ) to head the Federal Chancellery () — the general staff of the seven-member executive Federal Council, the Swiss federal government. The Chancellor participates in the meetings of the seven Federal Councilors with a consultative vote and prepares the reports on policy and activities of the council to parliament (assembly). The chancellery is responsible for the publication of all federal laws. Swiss cantons. In most Swiss cantons there is a State Chancellor who heads the central administrative unit of the cantonal government. In the Canton of Geneva, the first documents attesting to the existence of  a Chancellor go back to the 12th century. In the 16th century the Chancery is officially described as the permanent secretariat of the executive and legislature. The first of these functions still constitutes an important part of its activities in Geneva and other cantons. In the Canton of Berne, the Chancellor is elected by the Grand Council (i.e. Parliament) and has the task of supporting the Grand Council and the Executive Council in carrying out their tasks. The Chancellor directs the staff of the Executive Council, supports the President of the Government and the Executive Council in the performance of  their duties, and usually participates as an advisor to the President of the Grand Council in Grand Council sessions. Foreign minister and diplomatic official. In most countries of Latin America, the equivalents to "chancellor" ("Canciller" in Spanish and "Chanceler" in Portuguese) are commonly used to refer to the post of foreign minister. It is often used as a synonym to the full titles of the ministers of foreign affairs. Likewise, the ministry of foreign affairs in Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas is referred to as the "Cancillería" or in Portuguese-speaking Brazil as "Chancelaria". However, in Spain the term  canciller refers to a civil servant in the Spanish diplomatic service responsible for technical issues relating to foreign affairs. As to the German foreign service, the term "Kanzler" (chancellor) refers to the administrative head of a diplomatic mission. Functions related to justice and the law. Finland. In Finland the Chancellor of Justice (', ') supervises the legality of actions taken by the government and monitors the implementation of basic civil liberties. In this special function the chancellor also sits in the Finnish Cabinet, the Finnish Council of State. Sweden. In Sweden the Chancellor of Justice or ' acts as the Solicitor General for  the Swedish Government. The office was introduced by Charles XII of Sweden in 1713. Historically there was also a Lord High Chancellor or ' as the most senior member of the Privy Council of Sweden. There is in addition to this a University Chancellor or "", who leads the National Agency for Higher Education. United Kingdom. In the legal system of the United Kingdom, the term can refer to two officials: Some states in the United States. Some U.S. states, like Delaware, Tennessee, and Mississippi, still maintain a separate Court of Chancery with jurisdiction over equity cases. Judges who sit on those  courts are called chancellors. Other governmental positions. Denmark. In Denmark, the office of chancellor (or royal chancellor) seems to have appeared in the 12th century, and until 1660 it was the title of the leader of the state administration (a kind of a "Home Office" but often with foreign political duties). Often he appeared to be the real leader of the government. From 1660 until 1848, the title continued as "Grand Chancellor" or "President of the Danish Chancellery", and was replaced in 1730 by the title "Minister of Domestic Affairs". Estonia. In Estonia, a Chancellor (') directs the work of a  ministry and coordinates institutions subject to the ministry. A ministry can also have one or several Vice-Chancellors ("Asekantsler"), who fulfill the duties of the Chancellor, when they are absent. The Chancellor of Justice (', currently Ülle Madise) supervises the legality of actions taken by the government and monitors the implementation of basic civil liberties. United Kingdom. Several posts carry the title of Chancellor in the United Kingdom: United States. In the United States, the only "chancellor" established by the federal government is the Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution, a largely ceremonial office held by the Chief Justice of the United  States. As the Smithsonian is a research and museum system, its use of the title is perhaps best thought of as akin to a university's chancellor. Ecclesiastical position. The chancellor is the principal record-keeper of a diocese or eparchy, or their equivalent. The chancellor is a notary, so that he may certify official documents, and often has other duties at the discretion of the bishop of the diocese: he may be in charge of some aspect of finances or of managing the personnel connected with diocesan offices, although his delegated authority cannot extend to vicars of the  diocesan bishop, such as vicars general, episcopal vicars or judicial vicars. His office is within the "chancery". Vice-chancellors may be appointed to assist the chancellor in busy chanceries. Normally, the chancellor is a priest or deacon, although in some circumstances a layperson may be appointed to the post. In the eparchial curia a chancellor is to be appointed who is to be a presbyter (priest) or deacon and whose principal obligation, unless otherwise established by the particular law, is to see that the acts of the curia are gathered and arranged as well as preserved in the archives of  the eparchial curia. In England, the Consistory courts of the Church of England are each presided over by a Chancellor of the Diocese. In the United Methodist Church, each Annual Conference has a Conference Chancellor, who is the Annual Conference's legal adviser and representative. While the Annual Conference usually hires outside professional counsel in matters that require legal representation, that hiring and representation is done under the supervision, and with the consent, of the Conference Chancellor. Educational position. A chancellor is the leader (either ceremonial or executive) of many public and private universities and related institutions. The heads of  the New York City Department of Education and the District of Columbia Public Schools, who run the municipally-operated public schools in those jurisdictions, carry the title of Chancellor. New York State also has a Chancellor of the University of the State of New York, the body that licenses and regulates all educational and research institutions in the state and many professions (not to be confused with the State University of New York, an actual institution of higher learning). In a few instances, the term chancellor applies to a student or faculty member in a high school or an institution  of higher learning who is either appointed or elected as chancellor to preside on the highest ranking judicial board or tribunal. They handle non-academic matters such as violations of behavior. In Germany many heads of university administration carry the title ' (Chancellor) while the academical heads carry the title ' (Rector). In order to avoid any misunderstanding, the head of the German Federal Government is therefore usually called by the official title ' (Federal Chancellor).