Rukhmabai
Rukhmabai (22 November 1864 – 25 September 1955) was an Indian physician and feminist. She is best known for being one of the first practicing women doctors in colonial India as well as being involved in a landmark legal case involving her marriage as a child bride between 1884 and 1888. The case raised significant public debate across several topics, which most prominently included law vs tradition, social reform vs conservatism and feminism in both British-ruled India and England. This ultimately contributed to the "Age of Consent Act" in 1891. Early life. Rukhmabai was born to Janardhan Pandurang and  Jayantibai in a Marathi family. Her father passed away when she was aged two and her mother seventeen. Six years after her husband's demise, Jayantibai married the widower Dr Sakharam Arjun who was an eminent physician and social activist in Bombay. Remarriage of widows was permitted among the "Suthar" (carpenter) community - the caste to which the couple belonged. Two and a half years later, 11-year-old Rukhmabai was married to the 19 year old Dadaji Bhikaji, a cousin of her step-father. It was agreed that deviating from the contemporary social norms, Dadaji would stay with Rukhmabai's  family as a "gharjawai" and be fully provided for by them. The expectation was for him to acquire education in due course and "become a good man". Six months into the marriage, Rukhmabai having reached puberty, the traditional event of "Garbhadhan" was held signalling the time for ritual consummation of marriage. But Dr Sakharam Arjun, being an eminent physician of reformist tendencies, did not permit early consummation. This displeased Bhikaji, now aged 20, who also resented the attempts of Rukhmabai's family to make him ""a good man"". In addition to his aversion for education, the compulsion to go to  sixth standard of school at an age when he should have been at the university was particularly distressing. In the meanwhile, Bhikaji lost his mother and against the advise of Sakharam Arjun, took to living with his maternal uncle Narayan Dhurmaji. The environment of Dhurmaji's home pushed Bhikaji further into a life of indolence and waywardness. He eventually accumulated debts which he hoped to clear using the property that accompanied Rukhmabai into the house. Rukhmabai refused to move in to the household of Dhurmaji to live with Bhikaji, a decision supported by her step-father. In contrast, in the  same years Rukhmabai studied at home using books from a Free Church Mission library. Because of her father's association with religious and social reformers she also came into contact with prominent names like Vishnu Shastri Pandit, a strong proponent of women's causes in Western India at the time, along with European men and women exposing her to liberal reformism. With her mother, she also regularly attended the weekly meetings of the Prarthanä Samäj and Arya Mahilä Samäj. Section::::"Restitution of conjugal rights" case by Bhikaji. In March 1884, Bhikaji sent a legal notice to Sakharam Arjun via his lawyers  Chalk and Walker, asking him to desist preventing Rukhmabai from joining him. Eventually Sakharam Arjun sought legal help and via lawyers Payne-Gilbert, and Sayani provided grounds for Rukhmabai's refusal to join Bhikaji. In 1885, the case of Bhikaji seeking "restitution of conjugal rights" titled ""Bhikaji vs. Rukhmabai, 1885"" came up for hearing and the judgement was passed by Justice Robert Hill Pinhey. Pinhey stated that English precedents on restitution did not apply to the case as the English law applied to consenting adults. He also found fault with the English law cases and found no precedent in Hindu  law. He declared that Rukhmabai had been wed in her "helpless infancy" and that he could not compel a young lady. Justice Pinhey retired soon after. In 1886, the case was brought up for retrial. Rukhmabai's counsels included J.D. Inverarity Jr. and Kashinath Trimbak Telang. The case drew criticisms from various sections of the society, in some cases claims that the law did not respect the sanctity of Hindu customs. Specifically, criticism of Justice Pinhey's decision came from the "Native Opinion", an Anglo-Marathi weekly run by Vishwanath Narayan Mandlik (1833–89) who supported Bhikaji. A Pune weekly  run by Balgangadhar Tilak, the "Mahratta", wrote that Justice Pinhey did not understand the spirit of Hindu laws and that he sought reforms by "violent means". In the meantime, a series of articles appearing before and during the trial, in the "Times of India" penned under the pseudonym "a Hindu Lady" also caused public reactions. Later on it was revealed that the author was none other than Rukhmabai. The public debate revolved around multiple points of contention - Hindu versus English Law, reform from the inside versus outside and whether ancient customs deserved respect or not. The first appeal against the  case was made on 18 March 1886 and was upheld by Chief Justice Sir Charles Sargent and Justice L.H. Bayley. On 4 March 1887, Justice Farran, using interpretations of Hindu laws, ordered Rukhmabai to ""go live with her husband or face six months of imprisonment"". Rukhmabai responded that she would rather face imprisonment than obey the verdict. This resulted in further upheaval and social debate. Balgangadhar Tilak wrote in the "Kesari" that Rukhmabai's defiance was the result of an English education and declared that Hinduism was in danger. On the other hand, Max Müller responded writing that the legal  route was not the solution to the problem of Rukhmabai's case and that it was Rukhmabai's education that had made her the best judge of her own choices. Dissolution of Marriage. After the series of court cases which resulted in the affirmation of the marriage, she appealed to Queen Victoria. It has been claimed that Queen Victoria overruled the court and dissolved the marriage. However no primary documentary evidence has been provided to support Queen Victoria's direct intervention in the case. In July 1888, a settlement was reached with Bhikaji and he relinquished his claim on Rukhmabai  for a payment of two thousand rupees. Bhikaji remarried in 1889 and Rukhmabai went on to become a widely revered feminist and medical practitioner. Influence on Age of Consent Act, 1891. The case generated a great deal of debate both within India and England. It drew written commentaries from reformers like Behramji Malabari (1853-1912), Balgangadhar Tilak, journalistic opinion pieces from prominent names like Rudyard Kipling and broader feminist discussions in British women's magazines. Ultimately, the publicity and debate generated by this case helped influence the enactment of the "Age of Consent Act" in 1891, which changed the age  of consent from 10 to 12 years across British India. Career. Rukhmabai received support from the likes of Dr. Edith Pechey (then working at the Cama Hospital) who not only encouraged her but helped raise funds for her further education. Other supporters included Shivajirao Holkar who donated 500 Rupees for ""demonstrating courage to intervene against traditions"", suffrage activists like Eva McLaren and Walter McLaren, the Countess of Dufferin's Fund for Supplying Medical Aid to the Women of India, Adelaide Manning and others who helped establish "The Rukhmabai Defence Committee" to help gather fund towards supporting her cause of continuing  education. In 1889, Rukhmabai set sail to study medicine in England. In 1894, she received her Doctor of Medicine from the London School of Medicine for Women having also studied at the Royal Free Hospital. Doctors Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi were the first Indian women to have received medical degrees in 1886. But only Dr. Ganguly went on to practice medicine, making Rukhmabai the second woman to both receive a medical degree and practice medicine. In 1895, she returned to India and worked as the Chief Medical Officer at the Women's Hospital in Surat. In 1918, she  turned down the offer of a role in the Woman's Medical Service, opting instead to work at the Zenana (Woman's) State Hospital in Rajkot until her retirement in 1929. She established the Red Cross Society at Rajkot. Rukhmabai chose to settle in Bombay after her retirement. Later life. In 1904 after the death of Bhikaji, Rukhmabai chose to start dressing in a white sari as per Hindu traditions of widowhood. In 1929 after her retirement, she publishing a pamphlet titled ""Purdah - the need for its abolition"" arguing that young widows were being denied the chance to actively contribute  to Indian society. Death. Rukhmabai died, aged 90, from lung cancer on 25 September 1955.