Charyapada
The Charyapada (IAST: Caryapāda, Assamese/Bengali: চর্যাপদ) is a collection of mystical poems, songs of realization in the Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism from the tantric tradition in Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. It was written between the 8th and 12th centuries in an Abahatta that was the ancestor of the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Odia, Magahi, Maithili, and many other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, and it is said to be the oldest collection of verses written in those languages. "Charyāpada" written in the script resembles the most closest form of Assamese language used today. A palm-leaf manuscript of the  Charyāpada was rediscovered in the early 20th century by Haraprasad Shastri at the Nepal Royal Court Library. The "Charyapada" was also preserved in the Tibetan Buddhist canon. As songs of realization, the "Caryāpada" were intended to be sung. These songs of realisation were spontaneously composed verses that expressed a practitioner's experience of the enlightened state. Miranda Shaw describes how songs of realization were an element of the ritual gathering of practitioners in a ganachakra: Discovery. The rediscovery of the Charyapada is credited to Haraprasad Shastri, a 19th-century Sanskrit scholar and historian of Bengali literature who, during his third  visit to Nepal in 1907, chanced upon 50 verses at the Royal library of the Nepalese kings. Written on trimmed palm leaves of 12.8×0.9 inches in a language often referred to as sāndhyabhāṣa or twilight language, a semantic predecessor of modern Bengali, the collection came to be called "Charyapada" and also Charyagiti by some. At that time, Shastri was a librarian of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, and was engaged in a self-assigned mission to trace and track ancient Bengali manuscripts. His first and second trips to Nepal in 1897 and 1898 met with some success, as he was  able to collect a number of folkloric tales written in Pali and Sanskrit. However, after he rediscovered the treasure manuscripts in 1907, he published this collections in a single volume in 1916. According to some historians, there may very likely have been at least 51 original verses which were lost due to absence of proper preservation. Based on the original Tibetan translation, the book was originally called Charyagitikosh and had 100 verses. The scrolls discovered by Shastri contained selected verses. Manuscripts. The original palm-leaf manuscript of the Charyapada, or "Caryācaryāviniścaya", spanning 47 padas (verses) along with a Sanskrit commentary , was edited by Shastri and published from Bangiya Sahitya Parishad as a part of his "Hajar Bacharer Purano Bangala Bhasay Bauddhagan O Doha" (Buddhist Songs and Couplets) in 1916 under the name of "Charyacharyavinishchayah". This manuscript is presently preserved at the National Archives of Nepal. Prabodhchandra Bagchi later published a manuscript of a Tibetan translation containing 50 verses. The Tibetan translation provided additional information, including that the Sanskrit commentary in the manuscript, known as "Charyagiti-koshavrtti," was written by Munidatta. It also mentions that the original text was translated by Shilachari and its commentary by Munidatta was translated by Chandrakirti  or Kirtichandra. Poets. The manuscript of the Charyapada discovered by Haraprasad Shastri from Nepal consists of 47 padas (verses). The title-page, the colophon, and pages 36, 37, 38, 39, and 66 (containing padas 24, 25, and 48 and their commentary) were missing in this manuscript. The 47 verses of this manuscript were composed by 22 of the Mahasiddhas (750 and 1150 CE), or Siddhacharyas, whose names are mentioned at the beginning of each pada (except the first pada). Some parts of the manuscripts are lost; however, in the Tibetan Buddhist Canon, a translation of 50 padas is found, which  includes padas 24, 25, and 48, and the complete pada 23. Pada 25 was written by the Siddhacharya poet Tantripāda, whose work was previously missing. In his commentary on pada 10, Munidatta mentions the name of another Siddhacharya poet, Ladidombipāda, but no pada written by him has been discovered so far. The names of the Siddhacharyas in Sanskrit (or its Tibetan language equivalent), and the raga in which the verse was to be sung, are mentioned prior to each pada. The Sanskrit names of the Siddhacharya poets were likely assigned to each pada by the commentator Munidatta. Modern scholars doubt  whether these assignments are proper, on the basis of the internal evidences and other literary sources. Controversies also exist among scholars as to the original names of the Siddhacharyas. The poets and their works as mentioned in the text are as follows: Nature. The language of the Charyapada is rather symbolic in nature. So in many cases the literal meaning of a word does not make any sense. As a result, every poem has a descriptive or narrative surface meaning but also encodes tantric Buddhist teachings. Some experts believe this was to conceal sacred knowledge from the uninitiated, while others  hold that it was to avoid religious persecution. Attempts have been made to decipher the secret tantric meanings of the Charyapada. Period. Haraprasad Shastri, who rediscovered the Charyapada, conjectured that it was written during the 10th century. However, according to Suniti Kumar Chatterji, it was composed between 10th and 12th century. Prabodh Chandra Bagchi upholds this view. Sukumar Sen, while supporting this view, also states that the Charyapada could have been written between the 11th and 14th centuries. However, Muhammad Shahidullah was of the opinion that the Charyapada dates back to an even earlier time. He maintained that it was  likely to have been composed between 7th and 11th century. Rahul Sankrityayan thought that the Charyapada was probably written between 8th and 11th century. Language. Haraprasad Shastri, in his introduction to the "Charyacharya-vinishchaya," referred to the enigmatic language of its verses as "twilight language" (Sanskrit: "Sandhya-bhasha"), or "Alo-andhari" (half-expressed and half-concealed) based on the Sanskrit commentary of Munidatta. Vidhushekhara Shastri, on the basis of evidence from a number of Buddhist texts, later referred to this language as 'Intentional Language' (Sanskrit: "Sandha-bhasha"). The padas were written by poets from different regions, and it is natural  that they would display linguistic affinities from these regions. Different scholars have noted the affinities of the language of the "Charyapada" with Assamese, Odia, Bengali, and Maithili. Affinities with Assamese. Luipa was from Kamarupa and wrote two "charyas". Sarahapa, another poet, is said to have been from Rani, a place close to present-day Guwahati. Some of the affinities with Assamese are: Negatives – the negative particle in Assamese comes ahead of the verb: "na jãi" (No. 2, 15, 20, 29); "na jivami" (No. 4); "na chadaa", "na jani", "na disaa" (No. 6). "Charya" 15 has 9 such forms. Present participles  – the suffix "-ante" is used as in Assamese of the Vaishnava period: "jvante" (while living, No. 22); "sunante" (while listening, No. 30) etc. Incomplete verb forms – suffixes "-i" and "-iya" used in modern and Early Assamese respectively: "kari" (3, 38); "cumbi" (4); "maria" (11); "laia" (28) etc. Present indefinite verb forms – "-ai": "bhanai" (1); "tarai" (5); "pivai" (6). Future – the "-iva" suffix: "haiba" (5); "kariba" (7). Nominative case ending – case ending in "e": "kumbhire khaa", "core nila" (2). Instrumental case ending – case ending "-e" and "-era": "uju bate gela" (15); "kuthare chijaa" (45). The vocabulary of the Charyapadas includes non-"tatsama  words which are typically Assamese, such as dala" (1), "thira kari" (3, 38), "tai" (4), "uju" (15), "caka" (14) etc. Affinities with Bengali. A large number of Siddhacharyas who wrote the verses of Charyapada were from Bengal. Luipa, Shabarpa, Kukkuripa, Dipankar Srigyan and Bhusukupa were born in different parts of Bengal. Some of the affinities with Bengali are: Genitive "-era", "-ara"; Locative "-te", "-e/A"; Nominative "-Ta"; Present participles – the suffix "-ante and -anta" is used in Middle Bengali; Present indefinite verb "-ai" that transformed into "-e" in modern Bangla; Second Person Suffix "-asi/si" that transformed into "-is" in  modern Bangla; Incomplete verb forms of participles – suffixes "-i" and "-iya" used in modern poetry and Early and Middle Bangla both Post-positional words like "majha", "antara", "sanga"; Past and future bases -"il-", "-ib-"; Nominative case ending – case ending in "e" is prevelant in many dialects in modern Bangla (even certain situations in standard Bangla) as well as middle Bangla; Instrumental case ending – case ending "-e"; Conjunctive indeclinable -"ia"; Conjunctive conditional -"ite"; Passive -"ia-" Substantive roots "ach" and "thak". Affinities with Odia. The beginnings of Odia poetry, along with Bengali and Assamese, coincide with the development of Charya Sahitya, the  literature thus started by Mahayana Buddhist poets. This literature was written in a specific metaphor named "Sandhya Bhasha" and the some poets like Kanhupa are sometimes claimed to be from the territory of Odisha. Although Kanhupa being from Odisha is disputed and often debunked. He has been mentioned as an Indian in fifteen places of the Tengur scriptures. The Tengur also contains one reference to Krishna, a Brahmin from Odisha. However, that reference applies to Mahapundit Krishna, translator and annotator, who, by himself, had not written any book in the original. Thus, it is impossible to determine from the Tengur  scriptures as to which place Krishnacharya had hailed from. Moreover, Krishna or Kanu is a very commonplace name in the subcontinent. In his book ("Ascharya Charyachaya") Karunakar Kar has a disputed mention of Odisha being the origin of Charyapada as the Vajrayana school of Buddhism evolved there and started female worship in Buddhism. Worship of "Matri Dakini" and the practice of "Kaya sadhana" are the outcome of such new culture. Buddhist scholars like Lakshminkara and Padmasambhava were born in Odisha. The ideas and experience of Kaya sadhana and Shakti upasana (worshiping female principle, prevelant in "Shaktism" in East India) which  were created by Adi siddhas and have poetic expressions have traces in the lyrics of Charyapada. These were the first ever found literary documentation of Apabhramsa/Abahattha which is the primitive form of languages of eastern Indian origin. Some of the poets of Charyapada are from this region and their thought and writing style has influenced the poems in early Odia literature which is evidently prominent in the 16th century Odia poetry written majorly in Panchasakha period. The ragas used in Charyapada, especially in the songs written by Mahasiddhas whose origin has been described in Odisha (as per traditional biographies ), bear great affinity with ragas used in the traditional of Odissi music, starting from the Gitagovinda in the 12th century and classical Odia literature from the 14th to 19th centuries. The language of Kanhupa's poetry bears a very strong resemblance to modern Bangla, Assamese and Odia. For example, Padama (Padma:Lotus), Chausatthi (64), Pakhudi (petals) Tahin (there, in that), Charhi (climb/rise), nachai (dances), Dombi (a Bengali or Odia woman belonging to the scheduled caste, Domi/Domni), Bapuri (a Bangla and Odia word for 'poor fellow'; ‘বাপুর, বাপুড়া’) Somewhat modern poetic Bangla would be, “একশো পদ্মে/পদমে চৌষট্টি পাকড়ি /পাখুড়ি। তাহে চড়িয়া/চড়ি নাচে ডোমি বাপুড়ি/বেচারি॥” or The above verse hardly requires any translation to be understood in present-day Bangla or Odia. Modern poetic Bengali version of it will be “হ্যাঁ লো ডোমনি/ডোমি, তোকে/তোয় পুঁছি/জিজ্ঞাসি/শুধাই সদ্ভাবে। আসিস-যাস ডোমি/ডোমনি কাহার নায়/নাওয়ে”. "Your hut stands outside the city" "Oh, untouchable maid" "The bald Brahmin passes sneaking close by" "Oh, my maid, I would make you my companion" "Kanha is a kapali, a yogi" "He is naked and has no disgust" "There is a lotus with sixty-four petals" "Upon that the maid  will climb with this poor self and dance." some of the writing in Jayadeva's Gitagovinda have "Ardhamagadhi padashrita giti" (poetry in "Ardhamagadhi") that is influenced by Charyagiti. Melodies. From the mention of the name of the Rāga (melody) for the each Pada at the beginning of it in the manuscript, it seems that these Padas were actually sung. All 50 Padas were set to the tunes of different Rāgas. The most common Rāga for Charyapada songs was "Patamanjari". While some of these Rāgas are extinct, the names of some of these Rāgas may actually be variant names of popular  Rāgas we know today. Glimpses of social life. Many poems provide a realistic picture of early medieval society in eastern India and Assam (e.g. Kamarupa, by describing different occupations such as hunters, fishermen, boatmen, and potters). Geographical locations, namely Banga and Kamarupa, are referred to in the poems. Two rivers which are named are the Ganga and Yamuna. River Padma is also referred to as a canal. No reference to agriculture is available. References to female prostitution occur as well. The boat was the main mode of transport. Some description of wedding ceremonies are also given. Translations. Produced below is  English translation of the first verse of the Charyapada. It was composed by Buddhist Siddhacharya poet Luipa. <poem> "The body is like the finest tree, with five branches." "Darkness enters the restless mind." "Strengthen the quantity of Great Bliss, says Luyi." "Learn from asking the Guru." "Why does one meditate?" "Surely one dies of happiness or unhappiness." "Set aside binding and fastening in false hope." "Embrace the wings of the Void." "Luyi says : I have seen this in meditation" "Inhalation and exhalation are seated on two stools." "Sarahapāda says :Sarah vonnoti bor sun gohali ki mo Duth Bolande  Bhusukupā says :Apona Mangshe Horina Boiri" Meaning-"Deer is enemy itself by its meat" </poem> This piece has been translated into English by Hasna Jasimuddin Moudud.