Powerful owl
The powerful owl ("Ninox strenua"), a species of owl native to south-eastern and eastern Australia, is the largest owl on the continent. It is found in coastal areas and in the Great Dividing Range, rarely more than inland. The IUCNRed List of Threatened Species also refers to this species as the powerful boobook. An apex predator in its narrow distribution, powerful owls are often opportunists, like most predators, but generally are dedicated to hunting arboreal mammals, in particular small to medium-sized marsupials. Such prey can comprise about three-quarters of their diet. Generally, this species lives  in primary forests with tall, native trees, but can show some habitat flexibility when not nesting. The powerful owl is a typically territorial raptorial bird that maintains a large home range and has long intervals between egg-laying and hatching of clutches. Also, like many types of raptorial birds, they must survive a long stretch to independence in young owls after fledging. Unlike most raptorial birds, however, male powerful owls are larger and stronger than females, so the male takes the dominant position in the mating pair, which extends to food distribution. Description. The powerful owl has a long tail  and a small head, giving it an atypical silhouette for an owl and imparting a more hawk-like appearance than any other large owl. The protruding bill and distinct brow ridges enhance the hawk-like appearance of the species. The facial disc is ill-defined. The upper parts are dark grey-brown, mottled, and barred with whitish. The underparts are white with bold, grey-brown, V-shaped barring. The tail has six narrow white bars contrasting with grey-brown. This species has large yellow eyes, with greyish feathering down to the base of the toes and feet of a dull  yellow color. They are aptly named, with very powerful and heavy claws. This owl is the largest species of the "hawk owl" group found in much of Asia and the Australasian region, all included in the genus "Ninox". It can be considered, along with its sister species the rufous owl ("N. rufa"), as Australia's analogue to the genus "Bubo". This species measures in length and spans across the wings. Unlike in a vast majority of owl species, the male is slightly larger than the female on average. Body mass in males has been reported at , with 13 males averaging  , while females can weigh from , with an average in 9 females of . Among all the owls in the world, the powerful owl is the ninth longest from bill-to-tail, the tenth heaviest and the eighth longest winged. Its body mass is about the same on average as the great horned owl ("Bubo virginianus"), but it has a proportionately much longer tail and wings than that species. The wing chord length further illustrates slight sexual dimorphism in favor of the male, with the male measuring and the female measuring . The tail can be or more in length, the fifth longest  of any owl with only the great grey ("Strix nebulosa") and ural owls ("Strix uralensis") having proportionately longer tails. As a relatively geographically restricted species, there are no subspecies and no known geographic variation in the powerful owl. In comparison to the barking owl ("Ninox connivens"), it is much larger and lacks that species' white-spotted smoky-brown coloration on the upperparts and dark grey to rusty streaks on a whitish background on the underside. The other larger and relatively powerful owl found in Australia, the rufous owl, is not found in the same range in the wild so poses  no identification problem. Voice. The male powerful owl's song is an impressive low, rather mournful-sounding and far-carrying double-hoot, "whoo-hooo", each note lasting a few seconds at least, broken up by a brief silence and the second note being usually higher pitched than the first. The female has a similar call, but has a higher-pitched voice. Duets are frequently heard at the onset of breeding. Unpaired males frequently call much more regularly than paired ones. Distribution and habitat. Their range is from Eungella and the Dawson River in Queensland south to the central highlands of  Victoria and west to Mount Burr in South Australia, with the range terminating around Portland, Victoria. The habitat of the powerful owl is tall, humid forests ranging through to some drier woodlands in northern Victoria and the western slopes of New South Wales and Queensland. They can be found in wooded mountain gullies, forested ravines, wetter, heavily timbered subcoastal ranges, coastal forests and woodland, and coastal scrub. They prefer wetter, more timbered areas such as sclerophyll forests. Although usually associated with subcoastal forest, they can be found on inland mountain slopes occasionally. This is especially the case with young owls  after dispersal before they can establish their own breeding territories. Recent mapping work has shown that streams between ridges covered with "Eucalyptus" forest are often prime habitat for this species. They also occasionally range into plantations, mainly of pine or native tree species, and urban and rural parks and gardens. Behaviour. The powerful owl lives permanently in breeding pairs once in adulthood. They have been observed roosting singly, in pairs, and in family groups of three or four. They frequently roost during the day on branches in tall, open trees, often while still holding the prey caught the prior night . Several perches are used, and may be occupied intermittently for years at a time. The powerful owl typically flies in a slow and deliberate way on its large wings. Diet. The powerful owl is the top nocturnal predator of the forests and woodlands in its range. About 75% of the diet of the powerful owl is made up of arboreal mammals. Its diet consists largely of arboreal marsupials such as the greater glider ("Petauroides volans"), ringtail possums (Pseudocheiridae), brushtail possums ("Trichosurus" spp.), koala ("Phascolarctos cinereus"), sugar glider ("Petaurus breviceps"), and feathertail gliders ("Acrobates pygmaeus"). These prey species vary extensively in  body size, from the feathertail possum, which has an adult weight merely of to the koala, which is considerably larger in southern Australia, typically weighing . However, the powerful owl, while it has killed even adult koalas, only seldom takes the full-sized adults of the koala and even in some other mid-to-large prey species, such as the brushtail possums or the ringtail possums, of about half that weight, small and young individuals are typically (but not always) represented as the individuals caught. Only 15% of the ringtail possums caught in one food study were full-grown adults. The  greater glider and the common ringtail possum ("Pseudocheirus peregrinus"), both weighing from in maturity, and the smaller sugar glider, weighing , are the most prominent prey species in the powerful owl's diet in most regions. The significance of individual species in the diet is dictated by the local abundance of prey. The average estimated prey weight per one study was approximately . However, another two studies stated the mean prey weight as and . Not infrequently, prey weight averages between 50 and 100%, whereas in most other raptors, including large owls, there seems to be a "rule" that most prey weighs 20 % or less of the raptors' own weight. The mean weight of prey for powerful owls can be up to 10 times greater relative to their body weight than the mean prey weight of similarly sized northern owls, such as great grey or great horned owls. Not infrequently taken are the black ("Pteropus alecto") and grey-headed flying foxes ("Pteropus poliocephalus"), the largest of Australian bats, although smaller bats have also been killed. Introduced mammals, namely rats ("Rattus" spp.), European hare ("Lepus europaeus") and European rabbits ("Oryctolagus cuniculus"), especially the abundant young of the latter after their litters disperse, are also  hunted. Opportunistic as are most predators and owls, given the chance the powerful owl will also prey on nocturnal birds such as the tawny frogmouth ("Podargus strigoides"). Roosting diurnal birds are also taken such as various cockatoos and parrots (around a dozen species thus far recorded), Australian brushturkey ("Alectura lathami"), dusky moorhen ("Gallinula tenebrosa"), white-faced herons ("Egretta novaehollandiae"), crested pigeon ("Ocyphaps lophotes"), wonga pigeon ("Leucosarcia melanoleuca"), kookaburras ("Dacelo" spp.), superb lyrebird ("Menura novaehollandiae"), olive-backed oriole ("Oriolus sagittatus"), Australian magpie ("Gymnorhina tibicen"), currawongs ("Strepera" spp.), honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) and crows and ravens ("Corvus" spp.). In one study, the most frequently  killed bird prey species were pied currawong ("Strepera graculina") and crimson rosella ("Platycercus elegans") and avian prey taken as a whole was estimated to average . Rarely, other birds of prey have been killed and eaten, including large accipiters such as brown goshawks ("Accipiter fasciatus") and grey goshawks ("Accipiter novaehollandiae"). Insects may supplement the diet and are typically taken on the wing. Rarely, lizards and snakes are also captured. The vast majority of prey is taken from trees, often in or near the tree canopy, including unlikely items such as rock-wallabies ("Petrogale" spp.) that sometimes take refuge in trees. This  species generally glides from perch to perch, watching for prey activity in surrounding trees until potential prey is detected. If the prey becomes aware of the owl too soon, a tail-chase may ensue, but many prey species (even diurnal ones such as large passerines) can successfully evade the large predator. Due to the size and power of its talons, death may be instantaneous even for large prey when the owl embeds its talons; however, some prey can still survive even after initial contact if they can escape before the owl makes its "killing grip". Powerful owls frequently take apart  prey and consume it piecemeal. At daytime perches, it occasionally wakes to consume food until leaving the roost in the evening. The three largest "Ninox" owls are the only owls known to exhibit the behaviour of mantling over food while roosting during the day. One theory is that the male regularly holds onto the prey during the day, thus can control distribution of food to the family in keeping with his dominant size, whereas in most owls, females are larger and more dominant, thus the male could not display such behaviour as keeping food from his larger mate. Caching of  part-eaten prey remains has been recorded, although caching of prey is a far more common behaviour in barking owls. In a study comparing their diets with those of co-existing greater sooty owls ("Tyto tenebricosa") and Australian masked owls ("Tyto novaehollandiae"), these two smaller owls focused on smaller prey on average and ate more small terrestrial mammalian prey rather than the arboreal mammalian prey favoured most exclusively by the powerful owl. However, some overlap in the diet was recorded between all tree species, and a certain level of competition was predicted, in which the powerful owl would presumably be  dominant. Breeding. The powerful owl breeds in the Australian winter, with breeding occurring mainly in May and June and brooding at the nest into September. The breeding behaviour of powerful and rufous owls appears to be highly similar. The breeding territory of powerful owls is large. Even when food is abundant, territories are at least . When food is scarce, territories tend to be larger. Typically, nests of breeding pairs are found from apart. Males have been recorded fighting over breeding rights to females and territories. The nest is most often a large hollow in a tree. Nests have been recorded  at above the ground but are most often at least high. The nesting material includes decaying debris and leaf litter. Eggs are oval and dull white. The clutch is most often two, but occasionally includes only one egg, and rarely three are laid. The egg averages about . The eggs are typically laid directly on the rotten wooden floor of the nesting cavity, owls do not build a nest. Egg-laying intervals are up to 4 days between the first and second egg, an unusually long interval for an owl. The females appears to do all incubation and the incubating stage  is 36 to 38 days. The male does all hunting and sometimes aggressively defends the nesting during the brooding stage. In other owls that show aggression towards humans during nesting, the female usually is the main aggressor, although in other owls the females are larger with stronger strikes, whereas in the powerful owl, the males are the larger and more powerful sex. Occasionally, females may abandon their nest if disturbed. In general, the slightly smaller rufous and notably smaller barking owl both display more frequent and more spiritedly aggressive nest defense than the powerful owl does. Young powerful owls are  mostly off-white with a greyish-brown mask and grey on the wings and coverts, obviously distinct from the adult plumage. The young fledge at 6 to 8 weeks. However, the young typically accompany and are fed by their parents for several months even into the stage that they can fly well, the total dependence period usually lasting 5 to 9 months before independence, and sometimes into the next breeding season. Although practically no predators of this species exist, except in very rare, anecdotal instances, wedge-tailed eagles ("Aquila rapax") and powerful owls have been recorded killing each other in  territorial and breeding skirmishes. Also, they are often victim to and occasionally even injured by heavy mobbing by larger passerines such as currawongs, magpies, and crows and ravens. In one case, a pair of Australian ravens ("Corvus coronoides") attacked and killed a powerful owl, likely to defend themselves and their nest. Conservation status. Powerful owls are not listed as threatened on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. However, their conservation status varies from state to state in Australia. For example: These owls do not do as well in heavily developed areas or in monocultures even if the  plantation is made up of a native tree. This is largely because its prey is dependent on native and diverse forests.