Fiji Hindi
Fiji Hindi (Devanagari: ; Kaithi: 𑂣𑂺𑂱𑂔𑂲⸱𑂯𑂱𑂁𑂠𑂲) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by Indo-Fijians, though a few speak other languages at home. It is an Eastern Hindi language, considered to be a dialect of Awadhi that has also been subject to considerable influence by Bhojpuri, other Bihari dialects, and Hindustani. It has also borrowed some words from the English and Fijian languages. Many words unique to Fiji Hindi have been created to cater for the new environment that Indo-Fijians now live in. First-generation Indians in Fiji, who used the language as a "lingua franca" in Fiji , referred to it as "Fiji Baat", "Fiji talk". It is closely related to Caribbean Hindustani and the Bhojpuri-Hindustani language spoken in Mauritius and South Africa. It is largely mutually intellegible with the languages of Bhojpuri, Magahi, etc. of Bihar and the dialects of Hindi of eastern Uttar Pradesh, but differs in phonetics and vocabulary with Modern Standard Hindi. History. These are the percentages of each language and dialect spoken by indentured labourers who came to Fiji. Indian indentured labourers mainly spoke dialects from the Hindi Belt. Initially, the majority of labourers came to Fiji from districts of central and  eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, while a small percentage hailed from North-West Frontier and South India such as Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Over time, a distinct Indo-Aryan language with an Eastern Hindi substratum developed in Fiji, combining elements of the Hindi languages spoken in these areas with some native Fijian and English. The development of Fiji Hindi was accelerated by the need for labourers speaking different languages to work together and by the practice of leaving young children in early versions of day-care centers during working hours. Percy  Wright, who lived in Fiji during the indenture period, wrote: Other writers, including Burton (1914) and Lenwood (1917), made similar observations. By the late 1920s all Fiji Indian children born in Fiji learned Fiji Hindi, which became the common language in Fiji of North and South Indians alike. Status. Later, approximately 15,000 Indian indentured labourers, who were mainly speakers of Dravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam), were brought from South India. By this time Fiji Hindi was well established as the lingua franca of Indo-Fijians and the Southern Indian labourers had to learn it to communicate with the  more numerous Northern Indians and their European overseers. After the end of the indenture system, Indians who spoke Gujarati and Punjabi arrived in Fiji as free immigrants. A few Indo-Fijians speak Tamil, Telugu, and Gujarati at home, but all are fluently conversant and able to communicate using Fiji Hindi. The census reports of 1956 and 1966 shows the extent to which Fiji Hindi (referred to as 'Hindustani' in the census) was being spoken in Indo-Fijian households. Hindu schools teach the Devanagri script while the Muslim schools teach the Nastaliq script. Fiji Hindi is also understood and even spoken  by Indigenous Fijians in areas of Fiji where there are large Indo-Fijian communities. A pidgin form of the language is used by rural ethnic Fijians, as well as Chinese on the islands, while Pidgin Fijian is spoken by Indo-Fijians. Following the recent political upheaval in Fiji, many Indo-Fijians have emigrated to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States, where they have largely maintained their traditional Indo-Fijian culture, language, and religion. Some writers have begun to use Fiji Hindi, until very recently a spoken language only, as a literary language. The Bible has now been translated  into Fiji Hindi, and the University of the South Pacific has recently begun offering courses in the language. It is usually written in the Latin script though Devanāgarī has also been used. A Fiji Hindi movie has also been produced depicting Indo-Fijian life and is based on a play by local playwright, Raymond Pillai. Phonology. The phonemes of Fiji Hindi are very similar to Standard Hindi, but there are some important distinctions. As in the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialects of the Hindi Belt spoken in rural India, mainly Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh — the consonant is replaced with (for  example, "saadi" instead of "shaadi") and replaced with (for example, "bid-es" instead of "videsh"). There is also a tendency to ignore the differences between the consonants and (In Fiji Hindi a fruit is "fal" instead of "phal") and between and (in Fiji Hindi land is "jameen" instead of "zameen"). The consonant is used in Fiji Hindi for the nasal sounds , and in Standard Hindi. These features are common in the Eastern Hindi dialects. Some other characteristics of Fiji Hindi which is similar to Bhojpuri and Awadhi are: Morphology. Verb. Etymology. In Fiji Hindi verb forms have been influenced by  a number of Hindi dialects in India. First and second person forms of verbs in Fiji Hindi are the same, there is no gender distinction and number distinction is only in the third person past tense. Although, gender is used in third person past tense by the usage of "raha" for a male versus "rahi" for a female. The use of the first and second person imperfective suffixes "-taa", "-at" are of Awadhi origin. Example: तुम मन्दिर जाता हैं / तुम मन्दिर जात हैं। "tum Mandir jaata hai/tum Mandir jaat hai." (You are going to the Temple). While the third  person imperfective suffix "-e" is of Bhojpuri origin. Example: ई बिल्ली मच्छरी खावे हैं। "Ee billi macchari KHAWE hai." (This cat is eating a fish). The third person perfective suffixes (for transitive verbs) "-is" and "-in" are also derived from Awadhi. Example: किसान गन्ना काटीस रहा। "Kisaan ganna katees raha." (The farmer cut the sugarcane). पण्डित लोगन रामायण पढ़ीन रहा/पण्डित लोगन रामायण पढ़े रहीन। "Pandit logan Ramayan padheen raha/padhe raheen." (The priests read the Ramayana). The third person definite future suffix "-ii" is found in both Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Example: प्रधानमंत्री हमलोग के पैसा दई। "Pradhanamantri humlog ke  paisa daii" (The prime minister will give us money). The influence of Hindustani is evident in the first and second person perfective suffix "-aa" and the first and second person future suffix "-ega". Example: हम करा। तुम करेगा। "Hum karaa, tum karega." (I did, you will do). The origin of the imperative suffix "-o" can be traced to the Magahi dialect. Example: तुम अपन मुह खोलो। "Tum apan muh khulo." (You open your mouth). Spoken in the Gaya and Patna districts, which provided a sizeable proportion of the first indentured labourers from Northern India to Fiji. Fiji Hindi has developed  its own polite imperative suffix "-naa". Example: आप घर के सफा कर लेना। "Aap ghar ke sapha kar Lena." (You clean the house (polite)). The suffix "-be", from Bhojpuri, is used in Fiji Hindi in emphatic sentences. Another suffix originating from Awadhi is "-it". Example: ई लोगन पानी काहे नहीं पीत हैं। "Ee logan paani kahey nahi peet hai." (Why aren't these people drinking water?), but is at present going out of use. Tenses. Fiji Hindi tenses are relatively similar to tenses in Standard Hindi. Bhojpuri and Awadhi influence the Fiji Hindi tenses. Fijian loan words. Indo-Fijians now  use native Fijian words for those things that were not found in their ancestral India but which existed in Fiji. These include most fish names and root crops. For example, "kanade" for mullet (fish) and "kumaala" for sweet potato or yam. Other examples are: Words derived from English. Many English words have also been borrowed into Fiji Hindi with sound changes to fit the Indo-Fijian pronunciation. For example, "" in Fiji Hindi is borrowed from hotel in English. Some words borrowed from English have a specialised meaning, for example, "" in Fiji Hindi means a playing field, "" in Fiji Hindi means  a "work gang", particularly a cane-cutting gang in the sugar cane growing districts and "" in Fiji Hindi specifically means a female teacher. There are also unique Fijian Hindi words created from English words, for example, "" taken from cane-top means slap or associated with beating. Semantic shifts. Indian languages. Many words of Hindustani origin have shifted meaning in Fiji Hindi. These are due to either innovations in Fiji or continued use of the old meaning in Fiji Hindi when the word is either not used in Standard Hindi anymore or has evolved a different meaning altogether. Some examples are : English. Many words of English origin have shifted meaning in Fiji Hindi. Counting. Though broadly based on standard Hindi, counting in Fiji Hindi reflects a number of cross-language and dialectal influences acquired in the past 125 years. The pronunciation for numbers between one and ten show slight inflections, seemingly inspired by Eastern Hindi dialects such as Bhojpuri. The number two, consequently, is () in standard Hindi, while in Fiji Hindi it is "dui" (), just as it is in Bhojpuri. Words for numbers between 10 and 99 present a significant difference between standard and Fiji Hindi. While, as in other north  Indian languages, words for are formed by mentioning units first and then multiples of ten, Fiji Hindi reverses the order and mentions the tens multiple first and the units next, as is the practice in many European and South-Indian languages. That is to say, while "twenty-one" in Standard Hindi is (), an internal sandhi of "ek aur biis", or "one-and-twenty", in Fiji Hindi the order would be reversed, and simply be "biis aur ek" (), without any additional morpho-phonological alteration. Similarly, while the number thirty-seven in standard Hindi is (), for "saat aur tiis" or "seven-and -thirty", the number would be "tiis aur saat" (), or 'thirty-and-seven' in Fiji Hindi. Additionally, powers of ten beyond ten-thousand, "lakh" (100,000) and "karor" (10 million) are not used in Fiji Hindi. Spread overseas. With political upheavals in Fiji, beginning with the first military coup in 1987, large numbers of Indo-Fijians have since migrated overseas and at present there are significant communities of Indo-Fijian expatriates in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States. Smaller communities also reside on other Pacific Islands and Britain. The last census in each of the countries where Fiji Hindi is  spoken (counting Indo-Fijians who were born in Fiji) provides the following figures: