Edwin F. Bowers
Edwin Frederick Bowers (born 1871), best known as Edwin F. Bowers was an American alternative medicine proponent. Styling himself as a medical doctor, he is known for pioneering reflexology during the early decades of the twentieth century. Career. Bowers with William H. Fitzgerald had invented "Zone therapy", a form of reflexology. In 1917, they collaborated on a book titled "Zone Therapy". It has been widely criticized as there is no evidence it is beneficial for any medical condition and has been dismissed as quackery. Bowers' credentials were called into question. In 1929, the American Medical Association stated : Nutritionist Bernarr Macfadden promoted Bowers as a doctor of medicine. However, physician Morris Fishbein wrote that "Dr. Bowers is not a doctor of medicine, and the only M.D. he has is the one Macfadden gives him." Position on facial hair. In Britain and America of the nineteenth century, male facial hair was considered acceptable or even desirable, with luxurious growth being the ideal. However, as the germ theory of disease became more accepted, the public was urged to eschew items such as long, street-sweeping ladies' dresses and other germ-harboring areas, in order to remove germ contamination. By the  1900s, beards and mustaches themselves were deemed dangerous. In 1916, Bowers contributed an article to "McClure's Magazine", calling for clean-shaven faces: Spiritualism. Bowers was a convinced spiritualist. He had defended the fraudulent medium Frank Decker. In his book "Spiritualism's Challenge", Bowers made incorrect statements about a magician and was threatened with a lawsuit from the Society of American Magicians. He later removed the incorrect statements from his book. Bowers held séances at his home in West End Avenue, New York City. At one of these séances, professional photographer William van der Weyde produced an alleged spirit photograph  of deceased psychical researcher James H. Hyslop. Bowers and other spiritualists were convinced the photograph was genuine. According to Fulton Oursler the photograph was a fake. Weyde had taken a photograph of Hyslop before his death and had a plate in his possession that had never been developed.