Nucleic acid quantitation
In molecular biology, quantitation of nucleic acids is commonly performed to determine the average concentrations of DNA or RNA present in a mixture, as well as their purity. Reactions that use nucleic acids often require particular amounts and purity for optimum performance. To date, there are two main approaches used by scientists to quantitate, or establish the concentration, of nucleic acids (such as DNA or RNA) in a solution. These are spectrophotometric quantification and UV fluorescence tagging in presence of a DNA dye. Spectrophotometric analysis. One of the most commonly used practices to quantitate DNA or RNA  is the use of spectrophotometric analysis using a spectrophotometer. A spectrophotometer is able to determine the average concentrations of the nucleic acids DNA or RNA present in a mixture, as well as their purity. Spectrophotometric analysis is based on the principles that nucleic acids absorb ultraviolet light in a specific pattern. In the case of DNA and RNA, a sample is exposed to ultraviolet light at a wavelength of 260 nanometres (nm) and a photo-detector measures the light that passes through the sample. Some of the ultraviolet light will pass through and some will be absorbed by the DNA  / RNA. The more light absorbed by the sample, the higher the nucleic acid concentration in the sample. The resulting effect is that less light will strike the photodetector and this will produce a higher optical density (OD) Using the Beer–Lambert law it is possible to relate the amount of light absorbed to the concentration of the absorbing molecule. At a wavelength of 260 nm, the average extinction coefficient for double-stranded DNA is 0.020 (μg/ml) cm, for single-stranded DNA it is 0.027 (μg/ml) cm, for single-stranded RNA it is 0.025 (μg/ml) cm and for  short single-stranded oligonucleotides it is dependent on the length and base composition. Thus, an Absorbance (A) of 1 corresponds to a concentration of 50 μg/ml for double-stranded DNA. This method of calculation is valid for up to an A of at least 2. A more accurate extinction coefficient may be needed for oligonucleotides; these can be predicted using the nearest-neighbor model. Calculations. The optical density is generated from equation: In practical terms, a sample that contains no DNA or RNA should not absorb any of the ultraviolet light and therefore produce an OD of 0 Optical  density= Log (100/100)=0 When using spectrophotometric analysis to determine the concentration of DNA or RNA, the Beer–Lambert law is used to determine unknown concentrations without the need for standard curves. In essence, the Beer Lambert Law makes it possible to relate the amount of light absorbed to the concentration of the absorbing molecule. The following absorbance units to nucleic acid concentration conversion factors are used to convert OD to concentration of unknown nucleic acid samples: Conversion factors. When using a 10 mm path length, simply multiply the OD by the conversion factor to determine the concentration. Example, a 2.0  OD dsDNA sample corresponds to a sample with a 100 µg/ml concentration. When using a path length that is shorter than 10mm, the resultant OD will be reduced by a factor of 10/path length. Using the example above with a 3 mm path length, the OD for the 100 µg/ml sample would be reduced to 0.6. To normalize the concentration to a 10mm equivalent, the following is done: 0.6 OD X (10/3) * 50 µg/ml=100 µg/ml Most spectrophotometers allow selection of the nucleic acid type and path length such that resultant concentration is normalized  to the 10 mm path length which is based on the principles of Beer's law. A260 as quantity measurement. The "A260 unit" is used as a quantity measure for nucleic acids. One A260 unit is the amount of nucleic acid contained in 1 mL and producing an OD of 1. The same conversion factors apply, and therefore, in such contexts: Sample purity (260:280 / 260:230 ratios). It is common for nucleic acid samples to be contaminated with other molecules (i.e. proteins, organic compounds, other). The secondary benefit of using spectrophotometric analysis for nucleic acid quantitation is the ability to determine  sample purity using the 260 nm:280 nm calculation. The ratio of the absorbance at 260 and 280 nm (A) is used to assess the purity of nucleic acids. For pure DNA, A is widely considered ~1.8 but has been argued to translate - due to numeric errors in the original Warburg paper - into a mix of 60% protein and 40% DNA. The ratio for pure RNA A is ~2.0. These ratios are commonly used to assess the amount of protein contamination that is left from the nucleic acid isolation process since proteins absorb at 280 nm. The ratio of absorbance at  260 nm vs 280 nm is commonly used to assess DNA contamination of protein solutions, since proteins (in particular, the aromatic amino acids) absorb light at 280 nm. The reverse, however, is not true — it takes a relatively large amount of protein contamination to significantly affect the 260:280 ratio in a nucleic acid solution. 260:280 ratio has high sensitivity for nucleic acid contamination in protein: 260:280 ratio lacks sensitivity for protein contamination in nucleic acids (table shown for RNA, 100% DNA is approximately 1.8): This difference is due to the much higher mass attenuation coefficient nucleic acids have at 260  nm and 280 nm, compared to that of proteins. Because of this, even for relatively high concentrations of protein, the protein contributes relatively little to the 260 and 280 absorbance. While the protein contamination cannot be reliably assessed with a 260:280 ratio, this also means that it contributes little error to DNA quantity estimation. Contamination identification. Examination of sample spectra may be useful in identifying that a problem with sample purity exists. Analysis with fluorescent dye tagging. An alternative method to assess DNA and RNA concentration is to tag the sample with a Fluorescent tag, which is a fluorescent  dye used to measure the intensity of the dyes that bind to nucleic acids and selectively fluoresce when bound (e.g. Ethidium bromide). This method is useful for cases where concentration is too low to accurately assess with spectrophotometry and in cases where contaminants absorbing at 260 nm make accurate quantitation by that method impossible. The benefit of fluorescence quantitation of DNA and RNA is the improved sensitivity over spectrophotometric analysis. Although, that increase in sensitivity comes at the cost of a higher price per sample and a lengthier sample preparation process. There are two main ways to approach this. "Spotting