Allorhizobium vitis
Allorhizobium vitis is a plant pathogen that infects grapevines. The species is best known for causing a tumor known as crown gall disease. One of the virulent strains, "A. vitis" S4, is responsible both for crown gall on grapevines and for inducing a hypersensitive response in other plant species. Grapevines that have been affected by crown gall disease produce fewer grapes than unaffected plants. Though not all strains of "A. vitis" are tumorigenic, most strains can damage plant hosts. "A. vitis" shares many genetic and morphological characteristics with several "Agrobacterium" species, including "A. tumefaciens". The two species have  overlapping host ranges, and both "A. vitis" and "A. tumefaciens" may reduce the yield of infected crops. For this reason, research on "A. vitis" focuses on transmission and methods of control. Biology. Identification. "A. vitis" is a Gram-negative bacterium with a thin peptidoglycan layer in its cell wall. The species is aerobic and mesophilic, with individual cells that are rod-shaped and motile. On culture, colonies are round, white, and translucent. Range and environment. The presence of "A. vitis" has been confirmed in Germany, France, Austria, Hungary, South Africa, and the United States. Crown gall disease outbreaks in Europe  and North America in the mid-1980s have been linked to "A. vitis", and the species has continued to survive in those regions. Additionally, a survey conducted in China from 2003 to 2009 identified strains of "A. vitis" on blighted banana plants. Genetic traits. Chromosome and plasmids. The genome of "A. vitis" consists of two circular chromosomes and five plasmids. It is 6.32 Mb long and encodes 5549 proteins. Four rRNA operons have been identified. Tumorigenic strains contain a Ti plasmid (pTi). Ti plasmids in galls produce various opines that are then secreted from the gall. In a vitis, pTi codes  for octopine and/or cucumopine. Tumorigenic strains also contain a plasmid that allows the bacterium to utilize tartrate. Classification. "A. vitis" was formerly referred to as "Agrobacterium" biovar III. Originally, the species included only biovar III strains found in grape hosts. Since then, "A. vitis" has been redefined to include all biovar III strains. It can be distinguished from biovars I and II, "A. tumefaciens" and "A. rhizogenes", on the basis of its hosts and pathogenicity. Fatty acid analysis also reveals differences between "A. vitis" and other strains of tumorigenic bacteria. "A. vitis" has also been classified in the genus "Rhizobium . A 1999 study suggested that A. vitis" is more closely related to "Rhizobium galegae" than to other "Agrobacterium" species, based on genetic sequence comparison. In 2001, Young "et al." proposed that "A. vitis" be reclassified as "Rhizobium vitis". More recently, "A. vitis" was transferred to the genus "Allorhizobium". Pathogenicity. Hosts. Grapevines are the plants most commonly infected with "A. vitis". Though "A. vitis" may cause hypersensitive response in other plant species, crown gall disease induced by tumorigenic "A. vitis" is unique to grapevines. All strains of "A. vitis" induce grape root necrosis. Because "A. vitis" may remain latent, not all  infected plants show symptoms. An intraspecific taxon of "A. vitis" has been isolated from banana leaves in China. "A. vitis" may also infect tomato plants, and has been shown to cause leaf panel collapse in tobacco. Transmission. The Ti plasmid is responsible for transmission of crown gall disease in plants infected with "A. vitis". Tumorigenic "A. vitis" transfers its Ti plasmid to other bacteria, and transfers T-DNA into plants. Virulence genes encoded by the Ti plasmid generate single-strand T-DNA molecules, which in turn are transferred to healthy hosts. Disorganized cell division occurs in infected hosts, leading to  gall development instead of the formation of healthy vascular tissue. Propagation of diseased wood often transmits "A. vitis". Injuries to a grapevine caused by cutting or freezing may also make the plant more susceptible to crown gall infection. However, galls grow only on trunks or canes, and do not appear on the roots of infected plants. In Agriculture. Crown gall disease. When "A. vitis" causes crown gall disease, several symptoms and tests can be used to identify its presence. On grapevines, young galls appear as soft green bumps, which later become brown and rough. Galls do not appear on all  grapevines in which "A. vitis" is present. Steps can be taken to control crown gall disease and reduce the risk of infection. Injured sites on vines, such as those caused by freezing or cutting injuries, are especially susceptible to infection. Planting in frost-prone areas or areas with poor drainage should therefore be avoided. Reducing other grapevine stressors, such as nutrient deprivation and low soil pH, also limits susceptibility. Additionally, some cultivars are resistant to crown gall disease. "Vitis vinifera" is generally susceptible to crown gall disease, but resistant grape species can be planted preferentially. Other diseases. Grape necrosis is  a common symptom of "A. vitis" infection, caused by both tumorigenic and non-tumorigenic bacteria strains. Tobacco leaf panel collapse can be induced by the non-tumorigenic F2/5 strain of "A. vitis". While the strain of "A. vitis" found in grapevines, "A. vitis pv. vitis", is responsible for most diseases, banana leaf blights have been linked to "A. vitis pv. musae". Nonpathogenic strains. Strains of bacteria can be used as biological control agents to limit the growth of pathogenic "A. vitis". Grapevine roots that have been soaked in a suspension containing the inhibitory strain are less susceptible than those that  have not. Several ACC deaminase-producing species found in the rhizosphere inhibit "A. vitis" tumor production in tomato plants. Non-tumorigenic strains of "A. vitis" (F2/5, ARK-1, and VAR03-1) have been shown to limit crown gall formation. In investigations involving these strains, F2/5 still induced necrosis but ARK-1 did not.