Lepidoptera migration
Many populations of Lepidoptera (butterflies or moths) migrate, sometimes long distances, to and from areas which are only suitable for part of the year. Lepidopterans migrate on all continents except Antarctica, including from or within subtropical and tropical areas. By migrating, these species can avoid unfavorable circumstances, including weather, food shortage, or over-population. In some lepidopteran species, all individuals migrate; in others, only some migrate. The best-known lepidopteran migration is that of the eastern population of the monarch butterfly which migrates from southern Canada to wintering sites in central Mexico. In late winter/early spring, the  adult monarchs leave the Transvolcanic mountain range in Mexico for a more northern climate. Mating occurs and the females begin seeking out milkweed to lay their eggs, usually first in northern Mexico and southern Texas. The caterpillars hatch and develop into adults that move north, where more offspring can go as far as central Canada until next migratory cycle. The Danaids in South India are prominent migrants, between the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats. Three species will be involved in this, namely "Tirumala septentrionis", "Euploea core", and "Euploea sylvester". Sometimes they are joined by lemon pansy ("Junonia lemonias"), common emigrant  ("Catopsilia pomona"), tawny coster ("Acraea terpsicore") and blue tiger ("Tirumala limniace"). Definition. Migration in Lepidoptera means a regular, predictable movement of a population from one place to another, determined by the seasons. There is no unambiguous definition of "migratory butterfly" or "migratory moth", and this also applies to proposals to divide them into classes. Migration means different things to behavioral scientists and ecologists. The former emphasize the act of moving whereas the latter discriminate between whether the movement has been ecologically significant or not. Migration may be viewed as "a behavioural process with ecological consequences". Migration in Lepidoptera takes place  in two of the three modes of migration identified by Johnson (Johnson, 1969). In the first mode (also Johnson's first), the Lepidoptera move in one direction in their short life-span and do not return. An example is the pierid butterfly, "Ascia monuste", which breeds in Florida but sometimes migrates along the coast up to 160 kilometers to breed in more suitable areas. In the second mode (Johnson's third), migration takes place to a place of hibernation or aestivation where they undergo diapause and the same generation survives to return. The classic example is that of the nymphalid  monarch butterfly ("Danuas plexippus"). Adventive. Species that are recorded in unexpected areas (adventive species) are not considered to be migratory species, because these did not leave their habitat on their own strength. Examples are species that are imported as egg or caterpillar alongside of their host plants or individuals that were reared by a collector but have escaped. An example of an introduced species is "Galleria mellonella", which is found all over the world, because it is reared as food for captive birds and reptiles. At times it is difficult to decide if a species is adventive or migratory. Migratory  species like "Chrysodeixis chalcites" and "Helicoverpa armigera" would be able to reach western Europe on their own, but are also common in greenhouses. Seasonal migration. Lepidoptera migration is often seasonal. With species of which all individuals migrate, the population moves between areas in the summer and winter season or the dry and wet season. For species of which only part of the population migrates, seasonal migration is hard to determine. They can maintain themselves in part of their habitat but also reach areas where they cannot establish a permanent population. They only live there in the season that is  most favorable for the species. Some of the species have the habit of returning to their permanent residence at the end of the season. Difference with bird migration. An important difference with bird migration is that an individual butterfly or moth usually migrates in one direction, while birds migrate back and forth multiple times within their lifespan. This is due to the short lifespan as an imago. Amazingly the monarch receives no navigation instruction for the migration from their parents, unlike birds. Species that migrate back and forth, usually do so in different generations. There are however, some exceptions: Flight  behaviour. Migratory Lepidoptera are, in most cases, excellent flyers. Species like "Vanessa atalanta" are capable of managing a fierce headwind. In case of headwind, they usually fly low and are more goal-oriented. During migration, some species can be found at high altitudes, ranging to up to two kilometers. This is especially noteworthy for day-flying species like "Vanessa atalanta", since the temperatures on these altitudes are low and day-flying species depend on the outside temperature to stay warm. It is thought that "Vanessa atalanta" produces enough body warmth during flight since it has also been recorded migrating at  night. In the case of transcontinental migration where distances are large, the flying speed of the butterfly (of the order of 3 metres per second or less) is inadequate for timely completion of journey. The migration is carried out by relying on heavy winds; a persistent wind speed of 10 metres per second being able to provide a displacement of 300 to 400 kilometers in a single day. For example, the painted lady ("Vanessa cardui") migrates from Africa to Spain aided by tail winds. That the migratory species are good flyers, is not the same as saying they are robust  flyers. The small diamondback moth is also a migratory species that migrates 3,000 kilometers and can be found up to altitudes of 100 meters or more. Navigation. To be able to migrate over long distances, species must be able to navigate. There are several ways they do this. Landscape: Lepidoptera use coastal lines, mountains, but also roads to orient themselves. Above sea it has been observed that the flight direction is much more accurate if the landscape on the coast is still visible. Celestial navigation: Butterflies are known to be capable of navigation with the help of the sun. They  can also navigate by using polarized light. The polarization of the sun's light changes with the angle of the rays, hence they can also navigate with cloudy weather. There are indications that they can even make corrections depending on the time on a day. Diamondback moths are known to fly in a straight trajectory which is not dependent on the angle of the sun's rays. Tests have been performed to interfere with the biological clock of certain species by keeping them in the dark and then observing if they would choose for other flight paths. The conclusion was  that some species did, and others did not. Research on monarchs demonstrates that with removal of antennae, the location of the circadian clock, individuals do not localize in any one direction during flight as they do with antennae intact. Night flyers cannot use sun light for navigation. Most of these species rely on the moon and stars instead. Earth's magnetic field: A number of moths use the Earth's magnetic field to navigate, as a study of the stray heart and dart suggests. Another study, this time of the migratory behaviour of the silver Y, showed that this  species, even at high altitudes, can correct its course with changing winds, and prefers flying with favourable winds, which suggests a great sense of direction. A study in Panama of "Aphrissa statira," which migrate in large groups annually, found that this species loses its navigational capacity when exposed to a magnetic field, suggesting they use the Earth's magnetic field to determine their direction of flight in migration. Areas where migratory butterflies and moths can be found. Migratory Lepidoptera can be found on all continents, migrating within or from the Tropics and Subtropics. North, they can be found up to  Spitsbergen, above the Arctic Circle. Some migratory Lepidoptera have spread over most of the world. Some of these are pest insects, such as the diamondback moth, "Helicoverpa armigera", and "Trichoplusia ni". Examples of migratory Lepidoptera. Example species: "Macroglossum stellatarum". "Macroglossum stellatarum" is a moth that is recorded in the subtropical part of the Palearctic realm year round. In summer, the species disperses north up to Scandinavia and Iceland. In winter it migrates further south, deeper into Africa and to the Indian subcontinent. In the Netherlands and Belgium, there are 100 to 200 records per year in an average year. In  warm summers however, like 2005 and 2006, several thousand are recorded. In mild winters, small numbers can survive this far north, but these numbers are insufficient to call it a real population. Causes. Usually, butterflies and moths migrate to escape from potentially harmful circumstances. Examples of this are a shortage of proper food plants, an unfavorable climate, like cold or extreme rain or overpopulation. Migration and evolution. A phenomenon like migration is an evolutionary development. By migrating, the species has survived the process of natural selection. There are a number of advantages and disadvantages to migration. An example of this  is the protozoan "Ophryocystis elektroscirrha" a parasite of the monarch. Severely infected individuals are weak, unable to expand their wings, or unable to eclose, and have shortened lifespans, but parasite levels vary in populations. This is not the case in laboratory or commercial rearing, where after a few generations, all individuals can be infected. Infection with this parasite creates an effect known as culling whereby migrating monarchs that are infected are less likely to complete the migration. This results in overwintering populations with lower parasite loads. Recording. Butterflies (and to a lesser extent moths) migrating in large numbers are a  noteworthy sight, which is easy to observe and track. There are several historic records about migrating butterflies. There are records dating back to 1100 about migrating butterflies (probably a "Pieris" species) from Bavaria to the Duchy of Saxony and from 1248 about the migration of yellow butterflies in Japan. When flying at high altitudes, spotting migrating butterflies or moths can be hard. Low flying species are easily spotted or caught using a light trap. When individuals fly too high for these methods, air balloons equipped with nets are used at times. Alternatively, radar is used to monitor migration. Another registration  technique, is marking the wings with tiny stickers, a technique comparable with bird ringing. This technique has not proven to be very successful though. Advances in technology might make it possible to equip individuals with micro transmitters in the future. Migration and climate change. Global warming has caused an increase of migratory butterflies and moths that reach north-western European countries like the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom. Research in the United Kingdom confirms that an increasing number of migrants reach the country. Because one would expect that migratory species can adapt to new circumstances quite well, the researches  warn for new species that can have a negative impact on native species and possible damage to both health (species like the oak processionary) and agriculture.