Olivenza
Olivenza () or Olivença () is a town located in southwestern Spain, near the Portuguese border, on a historically disputed section of the Portugal–Spain border. Its territory is administered by Spain as a municipality belonging to the province of Badajoz, and to the wider autonomous community of Extremadura. The town of Olivença was under Portuguese sovereignty almost continuously between 1297 (Treaty of Alcañices) and 1801, when it was occupied by Spain during the War of the Oranges and ceded that year under the Treaty of Badajoz. Spain has since administered the territory (now split into two municipalities, Olivenza and also  Táliga), whilst Portugal invokes the self-revocation of the Treaty of Badajoz, plus the Treaty of Vienna of 1815, to claim the return of the territory. In spite of the territorial dispute between Portugal and Spain, the issue has not been a sensitive matter in the relations between these two countries. Olivenza and other neighbouring Spanish (La Codosera, Alburquerque and Badajoz) and Portuguese (Arronches, Campo Maior, Estremoz, Portalegre and Elvas) towns reached an agreement in 2008 to create a euroregion. Geography. Olivenza is located on the left (east) bank of the Guadiana river, at an equal distance of south of  Elvas in Portugal and Badajoz in Spain. The territory is triangular, with a smaller side resting on the Guadiana and the opposite vertex entering south-east and surrounded by Spanish territory. Besides the city, the municipality of Olivenza also includes other minor villages: (), (), (), (), (), and (). The catchment area which drains Olivenza consists of irregular water streams regularly drying up in the Summer. The Olivenza river—whose water is dammed up in the reservoir of Piedra Aguda, opened in 1956 and with a capacity of 16.3 hm—discharges into the Guadiana, leaving the city to its west and, then, south. Closer to  the city (which is sandwiched in between the course of the lesser creeks of the Arroyo de la Charca and the Arroyo de la Higuera), there is an artificial pond, the "charca" of Ramapallas. History. It is possible the settlement did not exist during the Muslim period. A 1278 document refers the place as 'populated again', but this is not conclusive. Badajoz and its surrounding territory (including the lands around Olivenza) were conquered by Alfonso IX of León in 1230. Taken away from the "alfoz" of Badajoz, the Knights Templars had occupied the territory already by 1258, founding an "encomienda  in Olivenza integrated in the Bailiwick of Jerez de los Caballeros. They proceeded to build a castle and a church as core of the hamlet, following the templar model of repopulation. The second half of the 13th century saw continuous territorial disputes between the Order of the Temple and the council of Badajoz over the lands north of the Fragamuñoz creek, and the municipal militias of Badajoz invaded Cheles, Alconchel and Barcarrota in 1272, although those territories were retroceded to the Order by means of a 1277 settlement. Soon later, by 1278, Alfonso X recognised the jurisdiction of the Council 	Olivenza
27713994	of Badajoz and the Diocese over Olivenza, putting an end to the Templar control over the hamlet. Amid a situation of unrest in the Crown of Castile in the wake of the death of King Sancho IV, King Dinis of Portugal forced King Ferdinand IV to sign the Treaty of Alcañices in 1297 and cede, amongst other possessions, Olivenza to the Kingdom of Portugal. On 4 January 1298, Dinis granted Olivenza a foral" (charter) similar to that of Elvas. Following the start of the war between Castile and Portugal in 1640 (variously known as Secession, Aclamation, Restoration or Portuguese Independence  War), Olivenza was taken in 1657 by forces loyal to the Hispanic Monarchy led by Neapolitan governor Francesco Tuttavilla, Duke of San Germán after a long siege. By means of the 1668 Treaty of Lisbon, Olivenza was returned to the Kingdom of Portugal. In the context of the War of the Spanish Succession, the Ajuda Bridge was used for the retreat of the Anglo-Portuguese army after they were crushed at the Battle of La Gudiña in May 1709. The victorious Spanish Bourbon army led by the Marquis de Bay ordered its destruction to prevent the Portuguese used it again . In the wake of the Portuguese refusal to enter an alliance with France and Spain against Britain, the brief War of the Oranges began in 1801, with the French troops marching on Portugal, then followed by Spanish troops. Olivenza capitulated to the Spanish army led by Godoy on 20 May 1801. The 1801 Treaty of Badajoz putting an end to the war returned to Portugal the occupied towns except those on the left bank of the Guadiana river (the territory of Olivenza), which were ceded to Spain, including its inhabitants, on a 'perpetual' basis. The Treaty also stipulated that the  breach of any of its articles would lead to its cancellation. The municipality lost an important chunk of its population from 1960 to 1975, with many working-age migrants moving to other Spanish cities (Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, Lleida) in the wake of the implementation of the Stabilization Plans but also moving abroad to countries such as Switzerland, Germany and France. Demographics. Total population is 11,871 (2021). The total area is . Like the surrounding regions, population density is low, at 11 inhabitants per km. There are still traces of Portuguese culture and language in the people, although the younger generation speak  Spanish more fluently. Between 1801 and 1939, almost nothing changed in Olivença even after almost 150 years under Spanish administration: the inhabitants spoke and sung in Portuguese and in that piece of land between two countries, they only cared about living like their ancestors that had always lives there. It was after 1940s, that a gradual language acculturation shift towards Spanish as native language took place under the dictatorship of Franco that sought to erase any sign of the Portuguese culture and identity from the region by banning the Portuguese language from being spoken in public up until the 70s , renaming of streets and infrastructures and even renaming people themselves to a more Spanish form of their names. . The population tried resisting and kept informally using their old names and as way to resist "the invaders" as some describe. As of 2018, 1,500 inhabitants (about 12% of the population) are bilingual Portuguese-Spanish (Mostly among those born before 1950s). This intense strategy of acculturation and stigmatization of Portuguese culture under dictatorship to annex territory had its impact. As time went on, Portuguese started being seen as the language of the past, and Spanish as the language of the present and  future. Portugal started existing only inside the homes and hearts on inhabitants in secret. An unofficial census carried out among the citizens of Olivenza, overwhelmingly stated that the citizens of this town feel more Spanish than Portuguese, and most of them want to keep being in Spain, although it is unclear if that is truly because of a feeling of Spanish identity nursed by the dictatorship period or because of Portugal's current economic condition. However, it must also be noted that even in the twenty-first century, after Franco dictatorship, several who tried to stand for their heritage and  culture were declared "persona non grata" and some were accused of "disrespecting the Spanish flag" for protecting the Portuguese language. . As a result of the Spanish occupation and control of the territory as well as restrictive measures towards Portuguese cultural heritage in the region, most inhabitants are not as connected to their Portuguese background as deeply anymore and the cultural and linguistic bond between the older generation and the new generation was fragmented by older policy. Since 2021, more than 1,300 inhabitants (8% of the town's population) have asked for a dual citizenship. As of 2018, 1,500 inhabitants (about  12% of the population) are bilingial Portuguese-Spanish (Mostly among those born before 1950s). The Council of Europe is aware of this situation and has expressed concern over the subalternation of the Portuguese language as a result of the Spanish measures while in control of the territory and the need to protect minority regional languages like Portuguese in Olivença. The language has started being taught to children again. Olivença (or Olivenza) is slowly reembracing the Portuguese heritage after decades of cultural control by the Spanish, with several inhabitants finally comfortable reclaiming citizenship, many stereotypically architecturally looking Portuguese streets regaining their  old Portuguese names and enabling residents to finally vote in Portuguese elections again in 2019. All the events of Olivença up until today tell a story of why there is still distrust between European countries when allies betray their neighbours and coerce them into being partially annexed, a government who tried to wash over an entire people culturally and fragment cultural ties even inside the family units to create de facto legitimacy over a territory it had no legal claim over and the use of poor inhabitants as political pawns to gain territory. This matter is still unresolved as it  causes tension for both countries, who have sought to avoid threatening their amicable relations. Some inhabitants are uncertain whether or not the territory will return to Portugal again and follow international law. Regarding the other citizens of both countries, most Spanish do not seem to be very aware of this situation at all, and it seems to have been dealt this way mostly by the Spanish government will, while Portuguese citizens are more aware and resentful of this situation and they still refuse to relinquish Olivença to Spain to this day. Landmarks. In 1964, Olivenza became one of the first  municipalities in the province of Badajoz that earned a heritage protection status of "conjunto histórico-artístico" for their historic cores. The report for the declaration cited that the city of Olivenza, "surrounded by a beautiful landscape of pasture and farmland, dominated by the imposing castle's keep", "offers a number of buildings, enclosures and places of notable importance in the monumental aspect". Some landmarks include the church of Saint Mary of the Castle (, ), Holy Ghost Chapel (, ), Saint Mary Magdalene Church (, , considered a masterwork of Portuguese Manueline architecture), Saint John of God Monastery (, ), the keep (, ), and the ruins of the Our  Lady of Help Bridge (, , destroyed in 1709 and never rebuilt). Claims of sovereignty. Portugal does not recognise Spanish sovereignty over the territory, based on the rulings of the 1815 Congress of Vienna. Spain accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivença and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and this question remains unresolved and Portugal holds a claim over it. Olivenza was under Portuguese sovereignty from 1297. During the War of the Oranges, French and Spanish troops, under the command of Manuel de Godoy, took the town on May 20, 1801. In the aftermath of that conflict , the Treaty of Badajoz was signed, with the Olivenza territory remaining a part of Spain. Under International Law, however, the treaty is void since Portugal was coerced into signing it, meaning it does not show the deliberate intent and "free will" necessary for treaty validity under international law and the subsequent position of Portugal after 200 years of not recognising it as a legitimate part of Spain seems to confirm exactly that. Spain claims ‘de jure’ sovereignty over Olivenza on the grounds that the Treaty of Badajoz still stands and has never been revoked, thus making the case that the  border between the two countries in the region of Olivenza should be demarcated as said by the treaty. Portugal claims "de jure" sovereignty over Olivenza on the grounds of the cancellation of the Treaty of Badajoz, since it was revoked by its own terms. The breach of any of its articles would lead to its cancellation, and that happened when Spain invaded Portugal in the Peninsular War of 1807. Portugal further bases its case on Article 105 of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 (which Spain signed in 1817) that states that the winning countries are ""committed to employ the  mightiest conciliatory effort to return Olivenza to Portuguese authority"" and that the winning countries ""recognize that the return of Olivenza and its territories must be done"". Thus, the border between the two countries in the region of Olivenza should be demarcated by the Treaty of Alcanizes of 1297 and that the duty acknowledged by Spain to give back the region must be carried out. Spain interprets Article 105 as not being mandatory on demanding Spain to return Olivenza to Portugal, thus not revoking the Treaty of Badajoz. Even though Portugal has never made a formal claim to the territory after  the Treaty of Vienna, it has not directly acknowledged Spanish sovereignty over Olivença either but has funded several projects connected to the region instead of the Spanish Government. Portuguese military maps do not show the border at that area, implying it to be undefined. Also, the latest road connection between Olivenza and Portugal (entirely paid by the Portuguese state, although it involved the building of a bridge over the Guadiana, an international river) has no indication of the Portuguese border, again implying an undefined status. There is no research on the opinion of the inhabitants of Olivenza about their status . Spanish public opinion is not generally aware of the Portuguese claim on Olivenza. On the other hand, awareness in Portugal has been increasing under the efforts of pressure groups to have the question raised and debated in public.