Sabinet | Volume 2009, Issue 3
Issue 3, 2009 Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg - Volume 2009,
Die par delictum-reël en die National Credit Act
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 417 –435 (2009)
Een van die geldigheidsvereistes vir &apos;n kontrak is geoorloofdheid. Skrywers in Suid-Afrika is dit nie met mekaar eens oor die indelings wat gevolg moet word om ongeoorloofdheid te beskryf nie. Wat die Suid-Afrikaanse reg betref, word gewoonlik gesê dat &apos;n kontrak ongeldig is indien dit in stryd is met &apos;n wetteregtelike verbod of die gemenereg. Sekere skrywers ondersteun &apos;n verdere verfyning en verstaan onder gemeenregtelik ongeoorloofde kontrakte daardie afsprake tussen partye wat teen die openbare belang of die goeie sedes is. Indien &apos;n mens dit nou heel volledig wil stel sodat alle kontrakte wat regtens verbode is in een mandjie gesit word, sou dit nie verkeerd wees om te sê dat &apos;n kontrak ongeoorloof is indien dit óf deur &apos;n bepaalde reël van die gemenereg verbied word, ëf deur een of ander wet taboe verklaar is, ëf teen die goeie sedes (contra bonos mores) is, ëf teen die openbare beleid indruis.
The Par Delictum rule and the National Credit Act
This article deals with the impact of the National Credit Act 34 of 2005 on the application of the par delictum rule in the case of unlawful credit agreements and unlawful provisions in credit agreements. In order to provide the necessary background a review was undertaken of the application of the par delictum rule and its influence on enrichment actions in Belgian, English and South African law. The point of departure in Belgian law is that performance rendered in terms of a void contract, even an unlawful contract, should be returned to the party who performed. A court has a discretion, however, to refuse to make an order for return of the performance if public policy so requires. In English law the par delictum rule is, on the face of things, strictly applied but numerous exceptions were made over the years. Writers on English law have pleaded for a more principled approach that would give courts a wider discretion. In South African law the par delictum rule is alive and well but exceptions have been made to do simple justice between man and man. The courts are, rightly, of the opinion that it is impossible to work with hard and fast rules. Circumstances differ from case to case and a court has to determine in each case what the dictates of public policy are. The National Credit Act introduced certain harsh rules that may, and will, lead to inequitable results. Certain shortcomings in the act and interpretation problems occasioned by inelegant or downright untidy drafting are pointed out and submissions are made for amendments to sections 89 and 90 of the act.
Towards effective judicial review of state commercial activity
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 436 –449 (2009)
In alle ander gevalle behoort regsekerheid in die handhawing van die transaksie bo tersydestelling gestel te word. Voorwaardelike tersydestelling, met die staatsorgaan se eie herevaluering van die betrokke besluit as voorwaarde, kan ook sinvol tersydestelling beperk. By tersydestelling van tenderprosedures moet die geldigheid van die daaropvolgende staatskontrak versigtig benader word. Dit volg nie noodwendig outomaties dat sodanige tersydestelling ook die kontrak vernietig nie. Vergoeding is nie &apos;n gepaste remedie by hersiening van kommersiële staatsoptrede nie. &apos;n Litigant behoort eerder op privaatregtelike gronde &apos;n hof te nader indien skadevergoeding verlang word voortspruitend uit kommersiële staatsoptrede. Uiteindelik kan &apos;n besinning oor remedies nie net help om die behoorlike rol van howe in hersiening van kommersiële staatsoptrede uit te werk nie, maar ook om te verstaan wat die reg tot regverdige administratiewe optrede in artikel 33 van die grondwet in hierdie konteks beteken.
Bewoningsreg (habitatio) - verval dit weens versteuring (vernietiging) van die bouwerk?
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 450 –469 (2009)
Sedert menseheugenis word om verskeie redes gebruik gemaak van &apos;n reg ten gunste van &apos;n bepaalde reghebbende om die saak van &apos;n ander onder andere vir eersgenoemde se bewoning te benut. By ontstentenis van &apos;n regsgrondslag sou &apos;n eiegeregtigde aanmatiging van gebruiksvoordele ten aansien van &apos;n ander se saak minstens tot konflik aanleiding gee, soos wat die bekende plakkersake hier te lande of die probleme met die "krakers" in Nederland bevestig.
Does the Habitatio lapse with the destruction of the dwelling structure?
Habitatio has since time immemorial been recognized as one of the personal servitudes, in addition to usufruct and use. All personal servitudes have been classified, since Roman times, with praedial servitudes, as limited real rights. In spite of the personal servitude&apos;s connection to a particular person (it cannot be transferred or inherited) it is for all other purposes a real right and, as such, legally recognized property which is protected as an asset by private law remedies. All real rights have a res as object. The object of the right to habitatio (right of free residence) is the land which is subject to the limited real right of habitatio. That is why it is registered against the title deed of the land with cadastral precision as to which part of the land is subject to the habitatio. When this approach is adopted, it would, with respect, be inconsistent to accept that when eg the house burns down or is otherwise demolished, the right falls away. The true test should be whether it has become impossible to rebuild because, as a result of the mutation to the land itself the land had become unable to support any structure which can be utilised as a dwelling. This would be supported by the Digest text underlying this thinking: "Rei mutatione interire usum fructum placet" (D 7 4 5 2).
Geweldsmisdade en die hervorming van die dronkenskapverweer
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 470 –483 (2009)
Dit is algemeen bekend dat misdaad een van Suid-Afrika se grootste probleme is. Daar is na alle waarskynlikheid nie &apos;n enkele groep misdade wat die algemene bevolking so ernstig bedreig, soveel misnoeë veroorsaak en die emosies teen die huidige stafregsisteem in Suid-Afrika so negatief stem, as geweldsmisdade nie. Die mees voor die hand liggende geweldsmisdade is moord, aanranding in al sy vorme (insluitende seksuele aanranding), strafbare manslag voorspruitende uit &apos;n aanranding, verkragting, roof, saakbeskadiging en in &apos;n mate ook abduksie. Van owerheidskant word erken dat misdaad &apos;n groot probleem is. Dikwels word, in ietwat emosionele verklarings in die loop van die politieke debat, verklaar dat die regering "oorlog teen misdaad" verklaar het en dat daar van owerheidsweë "zero tolerance" vir misdaad in die algemeen en geweldsmisdaad in die besonder is. By geleentheid is mense ook al uitgenooi om met voorstelle te kom oor hoe om misdaad meer effektief te bekamp.
Crimes of violence and the amendment of the defence of intoxication
Violent crime is presently a great threat to every member of the South African community. It is an anomaly that, in spite of efforts and calls to combat violent crime by every possible means, a person who commits a violent crime while intoxicated to the extent that he or she lacks the intention required for liability, can rely on such intoxication as a complete defence to a charge of having committed the violent crime. In this respect South African law differs markedly from other jurisdictions within the Anglo-American legal family. In these jurisdictions intoxication at most amounts to a partial defence. In this article it is argued that the time has now arrived to deliberalise the present rules relating to the effect of voluntary intoxication on criminal liability. Furthermore, it is argued that the liberal dispensation introduced into our law by the Chretien decision in 1981 should be amended so that the rules relating to the effect of intoxication correspond once more in broad outline to the rules which applied before this decision was delivered and to the rules applying in other Anglo-American jurisdictions. The law on this topic should be guided by public policy and not the demands of strict logical theory.
The regulation of distributions to shareholders in the Companies Act 2008
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 484 –501 (2009)
The term distribution is used to refer to payments to shareholders either as a return on share capital or as a return of share capital. Shareholders have an expectation, but not a right, to receive a return on the capital they contributed to the company by sharing in its profits during its existence. They also have a residual or reversionary interest in the company&apos;s net assets upon its dissolution, but no right to repayment of their contributions while the company exists. This means that any distribution to shareholders during the existence of a company amounts to a gratuitous disposition by the company. Company law regulates distributions in order to ensure firstly that the rights of creditors are not endangered and secondly that shareholders are not disadvantaged by disproportionate payments either within a single class of shareholders or among different classes.
Die regulering van uitkerings aan aandeelhouers in die maatskappywet 2008
Die begrip uitkering sluit betalings aan aandeelhouers in, hetsy as opbrengs op of as terugbetaling van hul kapitaalbydraes. Uitkerings word gereguleer ter beskerming van skuldeisers sowel as aandeelhouers. In hierdie artikel word die omskrywing van die begrip uitkering beskou en die voorvereistes kortliks bespreek. Daarna word die afdwingbaarheid van gemagtigde maar onuitgevoerde uitkerings oorweeg, gevolg deur &apos;n analise van die aanspreeklikheid van sowel direkteure as aandeelhouers ten opsigte van ontoelaatbare uitkerings.
Die Maatskappywet 2008 voorsien &apos;n omvattende definisie van die begrip uitkering en stel dieselfde vereistes vir alle uitkerings, hoewel daar addisionele vereistes vir die terugkoop van aandele geld. Uitkerings kan gemaak word by wyse van die oordrag van geld of eiendom, die aangaan van &apos;n verpligting deur die maatskappy of die kwytskelding van &apos;n skuld of verpligting deur die maatskappy. Verskeie probleme rondom die omskrywing word uitgelig, waaronder die uitsluiting van betalings ingevolge die nuwe waardasieremedie en die uitbreiding van die regulering van uitkerings na transaksies binne groepsverband.
Benewens nakoming van die solvensie- en likiditeitstoets en goedkeuring deur die direksie, word &apos;n formele erkenning deur die direksie dat die solvensie- en likiditeitsvereistes suksesvol oorweeg is as voorvereiste vir uitkerings gestel. Die wetgewer gee egter nie behoorlik gevolg aan die onderskeid tussen die goedkeuringsbesluit en die solvensie- en likiditeitserkenning nie. Daarom word die aanspreeklikheid van direkteure bepaal deur deelname aan die goedkeuringsbesluit eerder as die solvensie- en likiditeitserkenning, hoewel aanspreeklikheid uitsluitlik ten opsigte van nie-nakoming van die finansiële beperkings opgelê word.
Die afdwingbaarheid van gemagtigde uitkerings word weer bepaal deur die bestaan van &apos;n geldige solvensie- en likiditeitserkenning, hoewel ek reken dat dit meer gepas sou wees om die werklike solvensie en likiditeit van die maatskappy ten tye van betaling as maatstaf te gebruik.
Alhoewel die aanspreeklikheid van aandeelhouers ten opsigte van ongemagtigde uitkerings nie statutêr gereël word nie, behoort hul volgens gemeenregtelike beginsels aanspreeklik te wees vir teruggawe. &apos;n Statutêre vrystelling vir aandeelhouers wat in goeie trou uitkerings ontvang wat strydig met die finansiële beperkings gemaak is, word nie aanbeveel nie.
Schuldsanering voor particulieren in België - beschouwingen bij tien jaar "collectieve schuldenregeling"
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 502 –515 (2009)
De Belgische collectieve schuldenregeling is tien jaar oud. De regeling werd, door de op 1 Januari 1999 in werking getreden wet van 5 Juli 1998 betreffende de collectieve schuldenregeling en de mogelijkheid van de verkoop uit de hand van de in beslag genomen onroerende goederen, in het Gerechtelijk Wetboek verankerd. De wetgever had met de collectieve schuldenregeling een tweeledig doel voor ogen. Enerzijds het aanreiken van een "fresh start" - in de vorm van een menswaardig leven - aan zij die het hoofd niet meer kunnen bieden aan een overmatige schuldenlast. Anderzijds ervoor te zorgen dat deze schuldenaren - in de mate van het mogelijke - hun schulden alsnog kunnen aanzuiveren.
Some considerations of the years of collective debt settlement fro consumers in Belgium
On 1 January 1999 the Belgian act of 5 July 1998 on collective debt settlement entered into force. For the debtor who faces excessive debts, the Belgian legislator has created a procedure that allows him to redress his financial situation and at the same time offers him, as well as his family, a fresh start. The procedure was modified by two statutes of 13 December 2005.
The objective of this article is to familiarize the South African reader with this procedure. The purpose is not a technical analysis, but an insight into the pros and cons of the system. The authors also analyze the social choices made by the Belgian legislator in creating a collective debt settlement device. The point of departure is a 2003 study on Consumer Over indebtedness and Consumer Law in the European Union. The conclusion of this (comparative) report is the formulation of some recommended principles with which every reliable curative collective debt settlement device for consumers should comply. This article tests the conformity of the Belgian device with these principles.
Belgian law has a legitimate and solidary collective debt settlement device for consumers. The act of 5 July 1998, which provides an objective and subjective condition, establishes broad access to the procedure. The procedure also contains a complete or partial remission of debt. Besides the paying back of debts, a (amicable or judicial) settlement plan also can provide for accompanying measures (eg budgetary control) that try to concretize the idea of a fresh start.
With respect to the settlement plan, the Belgian legislator prefers an amicable plan. This is a plan proposed by the debt mediator (in most cases an attorney) to the debtor and the creditors. Because of its amicable nature, the features of this plan can be very broad. Only when an amicable solution cannot be reached will the judge impose a (more restricted) settlement plan.
An important aspect of the Belgian procedure is the high level of protection it affords to the goods and the income of the debtor. This undoubtedly has to do with guaranteeing a dignified existence for the debtor and his family and achieving the objective of a fresh start. To protect the creditors (and, by extension, society) the settlement plan has to provide for a remission of debt within a reasonable timespan. The law establishes a time limit of five years in respect of a judicial plan only. In some exceptional cases - and especially to guarantee the aforementioned dignified existence - this time limit may be extended.
The authors note that the Belgian procedure has evolved over the last ten years, and conclude that its success in practice depends not only on the quality of the legislative framework, but also on the cooperation and commitment of all participants. In this respect an important role is reserved for the debt mediator, a key player in the procedure.
Perspectives on extending protection to atypical workers, including workers in the informal economy, in developing countries
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 516 –547 (2009)
Employees in the traditional full-time employment paradigm are well protected in South Africa and most other countries in the Southern African region. However, current regulation is largely unable to protect workers employed in the new forms of non-standard employment, and in many instances this is the case due to the restrictive interpretation of who qualifies as an "employee". "Atypical", "non-standard", or even "marginal" are terms used to describe these workers.
Privacy taxonomies : aantekeninge
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 548 –554 (2009)
Iain Currie did those interested in the meaning of privacy in section 14 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996 a favour by introducing them to the work of Solove. (See Currie "The concept of privacy in the South African constitution: a reprise" 2008 TSAR 549-557. Currie kindly provided me with copies of two of Solove&apos;s seminal contributions, namely "Conceptualizing privacy" 2002 California Law Review 1088 and "A taxonomy of privacy" 2006 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 477. Solove incorporated these articles in a recently published book titled Understanding Privacy (2008). References to Solove&apos;s work in this note are to Understanding Privacy.)
Review of the recent amendments to the Sectional Title Regulations
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 555 –562 (2009)
Government Notice R1264 (GG 31626 of 28 Nov 2008) introduced a few important amendments to the regulations promulgated under the Sectional Titles Act 95 of 1986. Apart from two technical amendments, an important change is the substitution of regulation 30(1), which lists the rules that the developer can amend on the opening of the sectional title register. Annexure 1 was amended by the substitution of form V, which deals with the notification by the trustees to the registrar of deeds of the amendment of prescribed management or conduct rules. Finally, perhaps the most significant amendments were the changes to four prescribed management rules contained in annexure 8, with the most important being sub-rule 46(1)(b), which newly regulates the appointment and removal of managing agents.
The approach of the courts regarding South African custodian parents going into the diaspora
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 562 –572 (2009)
A relocation of a custodial parent with his or her child seriously impairs a caring andinvolved non-custodial parent&apos;s access to the child. This causes amongst the knottiest and most disturbing problems to confront a court of law when such relocation is disputed.
Sameloop van die Aquiliese en kontraksaksies by suiwer ekonomiese verlies
Holtzhausen v ABSA Bank Ltd 2008 5 SA 630 (HHA) : regspraak
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 573 –577 (2009)
Die actio legis Aquiliae en die kontraksaksie val saam in gevalle waar kontrakbreuk terselfdertyd ook die delik damnum iniuria datum teenoor die getroffe kontraksparty daarstel (sien Kohler Flexible Packaging (Pinetown) (Pty) Ltd v Marianhill Mission Institute 2000 1 SA 141 (D) 144-145). Die Aquiliese aksie is egter slegs naas die kontraksaksie beskikbaar indien die gewraakte optrede, afgesien van kontrakbreuk, ook &apos;n regserkende belang (soos &apos;n saak of persoonlikheidsgoed) wat onafhanklik van die kontrak bestaan, op onregmatige en skuldige wyse aantas (sien bv Lillicrap, Wassenaar and Partners v Pilkington Brothers (SA) (Pty) Ltd 1985 1 SA 475 (A) 496 499; Van Wyk v Lewis 1924 AD 438; Mukheiber v Raath 1999 3 SA 1065 (A) 1069; Correira v Berwind 1986 4 SA 60 (Z) 63-66; Otto v Santam Versekering Bpk 1992 3 SA 615 (O) 623-624; Cathkin Park Hotel v JD Makesch Architects 1993 2 SA 98 (W) 102-103; Tsimatakopoulos v Hemingway, Isaacs & Coetzee CC 1993 4 SA 428 (K) 432-433; Erasmus v Inch 1997 4 SA 584 (W) 594-595; die Kohler Flexible Packaging-saak 144-145; sien ook Van der Walt en Midgley Principles of Delict (2005) 57-59; Neethling, Potgieter en Visser Deliktereg (2006) 252-254).
Prosecuting without fear, favour or prejudice
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 577 –589 (2009)
The national prosecuting authority occasionally makes use of legal practitioners in private practice to prosecute matters on behalf of the state. Section 38 of the National Prosecuting Authority Act 32 of 1998 makes provision for a person with suitable qualifications and experience to be engaged as a prosecutor in specific cases. The prosecution conducted by a person engaged in terms of section 38 of the National Prosecuting Authority Act has to be distinguished from a private prosecution in terms of section 7 of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977. It appears that section 38 is applied in respect of cases where staff attached to the prosecuting authority lack the necessary expertise or skills to conduct the prosecution in a specific case or where staff shortages necessitate such an appointment. Private prosecutions, on the other hand, may only be instituted upon the issuing by a director of public prosecutions of a certificate nolle prosequi and by the categories of private persons as specified in section 7(1)(a) to (d) of the Criminal Procedure Act. The formalities surrounding the appointment of a person engaged in terms of section 38, the requirements for the appointment of such a person as well as the impact of section 38(3) on the fair trial rights of an accused person recently received the attention of the courts in two unreported judgments.
Openbare betrokkenheid by die wetgewende proses : met &apos;n ligte stampie terug aarde toe ... of nie?
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 589 –600 (2009)
Hierdie saak handel oor twee fundamentele kwessies, naamlik verpligte openbare deelname aan die wetgewende proses en die ondergeskiktheid van wetgewende instellings aan die reg, en bou voort op leidinggewende uitsprake wat die howe oor die afgelope aantal jare oor hierdie sake gelewer het. Wat eersgenoemde betref is deursigtigheid, responsiwiteit en verantwoordingpligtigheid onderliggende waardes van die republiek (a 1 van die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika van 1996). Uitgebreide regte op politieke deelname word vir elke volwasse individu in artikel 19 van die grondwet gewaarborg. Elke nasionale en provinsiale wetgewende instelling kan reëls en orders betreffende hulle werksaamhede maak, met behoorlike inagneming van verteenwoordigende en deelnemende demokrasie, verantwoordingpligtigheid, deursigtigheid en openbare betrokkenheid (a 57(1)(b), 70(1)(b) en 116(1)(b)). Dit is &apos;n oogmerk van plaaslike regering om die betrokkenheid van gemeenskappe en gemeenskapsorganisasies in plaaslike regeringsaangeleenthede aan te moedig (a 152(1)(e)). Elke nasionale en provinsiale wetgewende instelling moet openbare betrokkenheid in die wetgewende en ander prosesse van daardie instelling en sy komitees vergemaklik (a 59(1)(a), 72(1)(a) en 118(1)(a)). Daarbenewens maak die Internasionale Konvensie oor Burgerlike en Politieke Regte van 1966 in artikel 25 voorsiening vir &apos;n reg en geleentheid om direk of deur verkose verteenwoordigers aan openbare aangeleenthede deel te neem. Artikel 13 van die African Charter on Human and Peoples&apos; Rights van 1986 herhaal hierdie bepaling : "Every citizen shall have the right to participate freely in the government of his country, either directly or through freely chosen representatives in accordance with the provisions of the law."
Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg 2009, pp 601 –608 (2009)
At issue in this decision was (a) whether it was possible for holders of "unused old order rights" to prove that their rights had been expropriated by the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002; and (b) what procedure is to be followed by an expropriatee in order to enforce payment of compensation in a court of law.