Golden line
The golden line is a type of Latin dactylic hexameter frequently mentioned in Latin classrooms and in contemporary scholarship about Latin poetry, but which apparently began as a verse-composition exercise in schools in early modern Britain. Definition. The golden line is variously defined, but most uses of the term conform to the oldest known definition from Burles' Latin grammar of 1652: These lines have the abVAB structure, in which two adjectives are placed at the beginning of the line and two nouns at the end in an interlocking order. "Pendula" is an adjective modifying "bractea" and "flaventem  is an adjective modifying crinem". Another would be Virgil, "Aeneid" 4.139: Word-by-word the line translates as ""golden" purple fastens "clasp" cloak". The endings on the Latin words indicate their syntactical relationship, whereas English uses word order to do the same task. So a Latin listener or reader would know that "golden" and "clasp" go together even though the words are separated. The term "golden line" and its form originated in Britain, where it was an exercise for composing Latin verses. The first known use, as "aureus versus", is by the Welsh epigrammatist John Owen in a footnote to  his own Latin poem in 1612. The definition quoted above is in an obscure Latin textbook published in England in 1652, which never sold well and of which only four copies are extant today. It appeared in about a dozen citations between 1612 and 1900, including in some American and British Latin Grammars in the 19th and early 20th century. Scholars outside the English-speaking world have only mentioned the golden line since 1955. It is not found in any current handbooks on Latin grammar or metrics except for Mahoney's online "Overview of Latin Syntax" and Panhuis's "Latin  Grammar". The term "golden line" did not exist in Classical antiquity. Classical poets probably did not strive to produce them (but see the "teres versus" in the history section below). S. E. Winbolt, the most thorough commentator on the golden line, described the form as a natural combination of obvious tendencies in Latin hexameter, such as the preference for putting adjectives towards the beginning of the line and nouns at the emphatic end. The golden line is an extreme form of hyperbaton. There are about ten different definitions of the "golden line". Often scholars do not explicitly offer a definition , but instead present statistics or lists of golden lines, from which one must extrapolate their criteria for deeming a verse golden. The so-called "silver line". Although Burles's 1652 definition (see the introduction above) is explicit about the abVAB structure, many scholars also consider lines with this chiastic pattern to be "golden": Perhaps this more inclusive definition is based upon the famous definition offered by the poet John Dryden in his introduction to the "Silvae", "That Verse commonly which they call golden, or two Substantives and two Adjectives with a Verb betwixt them to keep the peace." Wilkinson offered  the humorous definition "silver line" for this variant. Wilkinson also offered another humorous distinction, the "bronze line", but this term has rarely been used since. Criteria for inclusion and exclusion. Different scholars use different definitions of a golden line. Most scholars exclude the less common variants in which one or both nouns precede the verb, gold (aBVAb, AbVaB, ABVab) and silver (aBVbA, AbVBa, ABVba). Some scholars include lines with extra prepositions, adverbs, exclamations, conjunctions, and relative pronouns. For example, Orchard does not offer a definition of the golden line, but his criteria can be extracted from his list of the  golden lines in Aldhelm's "Carmen de virginitate". He allows relative pronouns (2, 4, 112, 221, 288), prepositions (278, 289), conjunctions like "ut" and "dum" (95, 149, 164, 260), exclamations (45), and adverbs (14). He also allows extra adjectives, as in ""Haec suprema"". He includes silver lines (4, 123, 260). He disqualifies inverted or mixed order, where nouns come first (101, 133, 206, 236, 275, 298). He allows participles as the verb in the middle (71, 182), but he does not include the periphrastic verbal form in 271: "Atque futurorum gestura est turma nepotum". Use by classical poets. Statistics illuminate  some long-term trends in the use of the golden line. The following statistical tables are based on one scholar's definitions of golden and "silver" lines (the tables are from Mayer (2002)). with additions of Juvenal, Calpurnius, and Nemesianus from Heikkinen). Table 1 gives the totals for the golden and silver lines in classical poetry, listed in approximate chronological order from Catullus to Statius. Table 2 gives similar figures for a few poets in late antiquity, while Table 3 gives figures for a selection of early medieval poems from the fifth to tenth centuries. In all three tables, the  first column is the total number of verses in the work in question, followed by the number of "golden lines" and "silver lines" in the work. The last three columns give the percentage of golden and silver lines in respect to the total number of verses. Aside from a few exceptions, only poems with more than 200 lines are included, since in shorter poems the percentage figures are arbitrary and can be quite high. See, for example, the combined percentage of 14.29 in the "Apocolocyntosis". Other short poems that are not included on the tables, such as the "Copa", "Moretum , Lydia", and Einsiedeln Eclogues, have rather high combined percentages between 3.45 and 5.26. Table 1 Golden and Silver Lines in Classical Poetry From Table 1 it appears that golden and silver lines occur in varying frequencies throughout the classical period, even within the corpus of a single author. There are no Latin golden or silver lines before Catullus, who uses them in poem 64 to an extent almost unparalleled in classical literature. Lucretius has a few examples. Horace has about 1 in every 300 lines, as does Virgil's "Aeneid". Virgil's earlier works have a higher percentage. Ovid and  Lucan use the golden line about once in every 100 lines. The high percentage of golden lines found in the "Laus Pisonis" and other works of the Neronian period has led some scholars to claim that the form is a mark of Neronian aesthetics. While several scholars have claimed that the golden line is mainly used to close periods and descriptions, the poems do not seem to bear this out. Heikkinen makes the case that the golden line was a conscious feature of classical Latin pastoral poetry, as shown by the high percentages in Vergil's, Calpurnius's, and Nemesianus 's "Eclogues". However, statistics cannot prove that the golden line was a recognized form of classical poetics. Table 2: Golden lines in selected late antique poetry As Table 2 shows, in late antiquity the use of golden lines remains within the general range found in classical times. Of particular interest is their use by Claudian. On the average the golden line is found in every 50 lines of Claudian, but there are considerable differences between works. Table 2 gives his poem with the lowest percentage ("On Honorius's Fourth Consulship") and that with the highest ("On Honorius's Third  Consulship"). Figurative poetry, such as that of Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius and, in Carolingian times, that of Hrabanus Maurus, rarely uses the golden line. These poets use a variety of hexameters praised by Diomedes: rhopalic verses, echo verses, and reciprocal verses. They use the golden line only once or twice, possibly because the form is rather elementary compared to their usual pyrotechnic displays. Use by medieval poets. Table 3: Golden lines in some early medieval poetry Table 3 reveals several interesting tendencies in golden line usage in the early medieval period. The fact that Caelius Sedulius, Aldhelm, and the Hisperica Famina  have a pronounced preference for the form has long been noted. Corippus in the sixth century also uses the golden line significantly more than classical authors. Note that there is not a comparable increase in the silver line: If anything, these authors have fewer silver lines. This trend may be due to the growing fondness for leonine rhymes, which are facilitated by the golden line structure but not by the silver line. Another tendency, seen in Corippus, Sedulius, Aldhelm, and Walther de Speyer, is an extremely large number of golden lines in the beginning of a work, which is not  matched in the rest of the work. Many scholars only tallied figures for the golden line at the beginnings of these poems, and therefore can have inflated numbers. In the first 500 lines of Aldhelm's "Carmen de virginitate", for example, there are 42 golden lines and 7 silver lines, yielding percentages of 8.4 and 1.4 respectively; in the last 500 lines (2405-2904) there are only 20 golden lines and 4 silver lines, yielding percentages of 4 and 0.8 respectively—a reduction by half. Corippus's "Ioannis" and Sedulius's "Paschale" have even more extreme reductions. These skewed percentages  may indicate that the golden line is an ideal that is artfully strived for but which cannot be continuously realized over the course of a long epic. Another possible explanation for the diminished use of golden lines within an author's work (observed already in Virgil; see Table 1) is that, with time, poets may gradually free themselves from the constraints of the form. The golden line may have been taught in the schools as a quick way to elegance, which poets would use with increasing moderation as their experience grew. Two poems that appear to be juvenalia point  to this conclusion. The Hisperica Famina is a bizarre text which is apparently from seventh-century Ireland. It seems to be a collection of school compositions on set themes that have been run together. Of its 612 lines, 144—23.53 percent—have the golden line structure. Most of the lines that are not "golden" are merely too short to have more than three words; or, occasionally, they are too long. These extremely short or long lines are due to the fact that the poem is not written in hexameter. It may be written in some rough stress-based meter, but even  that cannot be stated with certainty. But the ideal model that the composers took for their verses appears to have been the golden line. Walther de Speyer composed his poem on the life of St. Christopher in 984 when he was seventeen. The percentage of golden lines is high, but the number of near-misses is enormous. When you read Walther you get the impression that he was programmed in school to write golden lines. The large number of golden lines in poetry from the sixth through ninth centuries could reflect the combination of several trends, such as the  preference for hyperbaton and the growing popularity of leonine rhymes. The statistics do not (and cannot) prove that the form was ever taught and practiced as a discrete form. Even if the golden line was not a conscious poetic conceit in the classical or medieval period, it might have some utility today as a term of analysis in discussing such poetry. However, the form now appears in canonical English commentaries to authors from Callimachus to Aldhelm and most scholars who refer to the golden line today treat it as an important poetic form of indisputable antiquity. History. The first  person to mention the golden line may be the grammarian Diomedes Grammaticus, in a list of types of Latin hexameters in his "Ars grammatica". This work was written before 500 CE, and it has been plausibly suggested that he wrote after 350 CE. Diomedes' chapter entitled ""De pedibus metricis sive significationum industria"" (Keil 498-500) describes the "teres versus", which has been identified by del Castillo (p. 133) as the golden line: The example verse is a golden line. However, it is difficult to understand what "conjoin a fluent and contiguous phrase" ( "volubilem et cohaerentem continuant dictionem") means and how  exactly it applies to this verse. None of the other ancient metricians use the term "teres versus" or (the Greek form that Diomedes mentions as its equivalent). The only other commentator to mention the "teres versus" was the Renaissance scholar Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484–1558), who did not seem to understand Diomedes. In his book "Poetices Libri Septem" (1964 Stuttgart facsimile reprint of the 1561 Lyon edition, p. 71-72, text in Mayer), Scaliger offers a muddled attempt at understanding Diomedes. He mentions that "Quintilian and others" mention this as a "teres versus": Our manuscripts of Quintilian do not include this  verse of Virgil, but it is the first pure golden line in Virgil and it becomes the most famous golden line citation. Scaliger's use of this example is evidence that someone between Diomedes and him took the term "teres versus" to be similar to a modern golden line. The English fascination with the golden line seems to trace back to Bede. Bede advocated a double hyperbaton, and also the placing of adjectives before nouns. In the examples from each criterion (double hyperbaton and adjectives before nouns) Bede includes at least one golden line, but from his other examples it  is clear that he did not limit these injunctions to the golden line: Bede's remarks in his "De arte metrica" were repeated and made more strict by Renaissance guides to versification, ultimately leading to Burles's description of the golden line. The earliest is the 1484 "De arte metrificandi" of Jacob Wimpfeling: And two years later the" Ars Versificandi" of Conrad Celtes followed Wimpfeling: In 1512 Johannes Despauterius quoted Celtis's remarks verbatim in his "Ars versificatoria" in the section "De componendis carminibus praecepta generalia" and then more narrowly defined excellence in hexameters in the section "De carmine elegiaco : Despauterius here combines Bede's two rules into one general precept of elegance: Two adjectives should be placed before two substantives, the first agreeing with the first. It is not quite the golden line, for there is no provision for a verb in the middle. However, Despauterius quotes the famous example of the golden line, Eclogue" 2.50, as a good example of the type. This line is the first pure golden line in Virgil's works. It is also the example line given in Scaliger above. The same general remarks about epithets are found in John Clarke's 1633 "Manu -ductio ad Artem Carmificam seu Dux Poeticus" (345): The source of Clarke's first example line is unknown, but the same line is also one of Burles's examples of the golden line. Burles's discussion of the golden line is clearly based upon this tradition concerning the position of epithets. Burles's golden line is a narrow application of the principles outlined by Bede almost a millennium earlier. The earliest citations of the golden line term, such as Burles, are in British guides to composing Latin verses, and it seems that the term derives from school assignments in 17th  century Britain and perhaps earlier. Scholars like to believe that their critical approaches to classical poetry are direct and immediate, and that they understand classical literature in its own context or, depending on their critical stance, from the perspective of their own context(s). However, the use of "the golden line" as a critical term in modern scholarship demonstrates the power of the intervening critical tradition. The golden line may originally have been the "teres versus" of Diomedes, but this fact does not legitimate its use as a critical term today. No commentators today count up "versus inlibati", "iniuges", "quinquipartes", or  any of the other bizarre forms assembled by Diomedes. Far more interesting than the appearance of the golden line in ancient and medieval poetry is the use of the term by these modern critics. Today major works and commentaries on canonical poets in Latin and Greek discuss them in light of the golden line, and occasionally even the silver line: Neil Hopkinson's Callimachus, William Anderson's "Metamorphoses", Richard Thomas's "Georgics", Alan Cameron's Claudian, Andy Orchard's Aldhelm. Most of these critics assume or imply that golden lines were deliberate figures, practiced since Hellenistic times and artfully contrived  and composed by the poets in question. This process of scouring the canonical texts for such special verse forms is entirely in the spirit of the ancient lists of Servius, Victorinus, and Diomedes Grammaticus. Thus, in a curious way, the arcane wordplay that fascinated ancient grammarians has—in the English-speaking world, at least—come again to play a role in interpreting and explicating the central works of the classical canon. In non-English scholarship. Although English-speaking scholars have referred to the golden line since 1612, the first non-English scholars to mention the form appear to be around  1955. Non-English-speaking scholars who refer to the golden line in print usually pointedly use the English term: Munari 1955:53-4 "golden lines", Hernández Vista 1963: "golden lines", Thraede p. 51: "die Spielarten der 'golden line.' " Baños p. 762: "el denominado "versus aureus" o golden line" Hellegouarc'h p. 277: "l'origine du 'versus aureus' ou 'golden line.'" Schmitz p. 149 n 113, "der von John Dryden gepraegte Terminus Golden Line." Baños, Enríquez, and Hellegouarc'h all refer exclusively to Wilkinson 215–217 and other English scholars for discussions of the term. Typical would be the French article of Kerlouégan, which never mentions  the term, but which is entirely devoted to the form. Scholars writing in all languages use English "golden line" used together with translations such as "verso áureo" (Spanish, first attested 1961), "verso aureo" (Italian 1974), "goldene Zeile" (German 1977), "vers d’or" (French 1997), "goldener Vers" (German 1997), "gouden vers" (Dutch 1998), "goue versreels" (Afrikaans 2001), χρυσóς στíχоς (Greek 2003), Золотой стих (Russian 2004), "zlaté verše" (Slovak 2007), "verso dourado" (Portuguese 2009) and "vers d’or" (Catalan 2013). However, most scholarship in languages besides English (and by non-native speakers writing in English) has been "versus aureus". Precursors These works are often  cited in golden line literature, but they do not mention the term and are only peripherally connected to the form, except for Kerlouégan: Chronological listing of non-English golden line citations