Even surviving old-growth forests have experienced human-caused changes, including the loss of large grazing animals (for example, woodland bison and eastern elk), the loss of predators (for example, red wolves, gray wolves, and mountain lions), periods of understory livestock grazing (including by feral pigs), recent increases in white-tailed deer populations, invasions by nonindigenous species, and reductions in fire frequency.
(Even surviving old-growth forests; have experienced; human-caused changes, including the loss of large grazing animals (for example, woodland bison and eastern elk)
Even surviving old-growth forests
have experienced
human-caused changes, including the loss of large grazing animals (for example, woodland bison and eastern elk