Patent Document (Category 2):

abbreviations : hmads cells (“ human multipotent adipose - derived stem cells ”); wat (“ white adipose tissue ”); bat (“ brown adipose tissue ”); ppar (“ peroxisome proliferator - activated receptor ”); ppre (“ peroxisome proliferator - responsive element ”); ucp1 (“ uncoupling protein 1 ”); ucp2 (“ uncoupling protein 2 ”); pgc - 1α ( β ) (“ pparγ coactivator α ( β )”); ctbp - 1 (“ c - terminal - binding protein - 1 ”); ar (“ adrenergic receptor ”); cidea (“ cell death - inducing dff45 - like effector a ”); naip (“ neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein ”); ctp - 1b (“ carnitine palmitoyltransferase - 1b ”); pka (“ protein kinase a ”); t3 (“ 3 , 5 , 3 ′- tri - iodothyronine ”); tbp (“ tata - box binding protein ”); prdm16 (“ pr - domain zinc finger protein 16 ”); bax (“ bcl - 2 - associated x protein ”); bcl - 2 (“ b - cell cll / lymphoma - 2 ”). cell culture : preparation and characterization of hmads cell multipotence and self - renewal have been described ( rodriguez , a . m ., et al ., biochem biophys res commun , 2004 . 315 ( 2 ): p . 255 - 63 ; rodriguez , a . m ., et al ., j exp med , 2005 . 201 ( 9 ): p . 1397 - 405 ; zaragosi , l . e . et al ., stem cells , 2006 . 24 ( 11 ): p . 2412 - 9 ; elabd , c , et al ., biochem biophys res commun , 2007 . 361 ( 2 ): p . 342 - 8 ). cells of the hmads - 2 line were established from adipose tissue from the pubic area of a donor aged 5 ; they were used between passages 16 and 35 ( 35 to 100 doublings of the cell population ). the cells were cultured at a density of 4 , 500 cells / cm 2 in dmem ( dulbecco &# 39 ; s modified eagle medium ) enriched with 10 % fetal calf serum , 2 . 5 ng / ml hfgf 2 , 60 μg / ml penicillin and 50 μg / ml streptomycin . after a change of medium every 2 days , when the cells become confluent , hfgf 2 is eliminated and the cells induced to differentiate 2 days later , defining day 0 of differentiation . the adipocyte differentiation medium consists of dmem / h12 ( 1 : 1 , v / v ) enriched with 10 μg / ml transferrin , 0 . 85 μm insulin , 0 . 2 nm t 3 , 1 μm dexamethasone ( dex ) and 500 μm isobutylmethylxanthine ( ibmx ). three days later , the medium is changed ( dex and ibmx omitted ) and rosiglitazone added at the indicated concentrations and days . the medium is then changed every 2 days before using the cells . the determination of glycerol - 3 phosphate dehydrogenase ( gpdh ) activity and lipid staining with oil red 0 have been previously described ( negrel , r . et al ., proc natl acad sci usa , 1978 . 75 ( 12 ): p . 6054 - 8 ; bezy , o ., et al ., j biol chem , 2005 . 280 ( 12 ): p . 11432 - 8 ). rna purification and analysis : rna extraction , the use of reverse transcriptase and determination of mrna levels by real - time quantitative rt - pcr have been described ( zaragosi , l . e et al ., stem cells , 2006 . 24 ( 11 ): p . 2412 - 9 ; elabd , c , et al ., biochem biophys res commun , 2007 . 361 ( 2 ): p . 342 - 8 ; bezy , o ., et al ., j biol chem , 2005 . 280 ( 12 ): p . 11432 - 8 ). expression of the genes of interest was normalized compared with the one of the tbp gene and was quantified using the δct comparative method . the sequences of oligonucleotide primers , obtained using the primer express software ( perkin elmer life sciences ), are described in table 1 below . immunoblot analysis : total cellular lysates are analyzed by immunoblot as previously described ( bezy , o ., et al ., j biol chem , 2005 . 280 ( 12 ): p . 11432 - 8 ). the primary antibodies obtained from the rabbit , anti - human ucp1 and anti - tbp , are products from santa cruz biotechnology ( santa cruz , calif ., usa ) and the secondary antibodies ( conjugated with horseradish peroxidase ) are products from promega ( charbonnières , france ). the “ enhanced chemiluminescence ” system ( millipore , saint - quentin - yvelines , france ) was used for detection . determination of oxygen consumption : oxygen consumption was measured using two - chamber injection respirometer equipped with a peltier thermostat , clark electrodes and integrated magnetic stirrers ( oroboros , innsbruck , austria ). measurements were made at 37 ° c . with constant stirring in a volume of 2 ml of dmem / f12 medium ( 1 : 1 , v / v ) containing 10 % fetal calf serum . before each measurement , the medium present in the chambers was equilibrated with air for 30 min , and then the freshly - trypsinized cells were transferred to this medium . after having reached a stationary respiratory state , atp synthase was inhibited using oligomycin ( 0 . 25 - 0 . 5 mg / l ) and the respiratory activity of the cells titrated in the presence of the uncoupling agent carbonyl cyanide 3 - chlorophenylhydrazone ( cccp ) at optimal concentrations of 1 - 2 μm . the respiratory chain was blocked with 1 μg / ml antimycin a . oxygen consumption was calculated using the datagraph software ( oroboros software ). basal respiratory activity corresponds to oxygen consumption sensitive to antimycin a . respiratory activity was stimulated in the presence of 1 μm isoprenaline added extemporaneously in the injection chamber , with measurements made as described above . statistical analysis : the data are expressed as mean ± sd and are analyzed by the student &# 39 ; s t - test . differences are considered significant for p & lt ; 0 . 05 . ucp1 and brown adipocyte markers are expressed during the hmads cells differentiation as previously described ( rodriguez , a . m ., et al ., biochem biophys res commun , 2004 . 315 ( 2 ): p . 255 - 63 ), the pparγ activation is necessary for adipocytic differentiation of hmads - 2 cells ( fig1 a ). the cells treatment for 6 days with increasing concentrations of rosiglitazone , between days 3 and 9 , leads to lipid accumulation and to the expression of gpdh and pparγ genes . an additional treatment of one week does not change the expression of gpdh and pparγ genes . on day 16 , 20 nm rosiglitazone is sufficient to induce a maximum response , which is consistent with the pparγ affinity for this ligand ( fig1 a - c ). the totality of the results underscores that a 6 - day exposure of hmads - 2 cells to rosiglitazone enables the maximum expression of key white adipocytes markers . on the other hand , such an exposure between days 3 and 9 leads only to a very weak expression of mrna and the ucp1 protein . however , a 20 nm exposure between days 3 and 16 leads to their strong expression ( fig2 a , b ). contrary to ucp1 , a strong expression of ucp2 mrna is still observed on day 9 ; it is increased by a longer exposure ( fig2 c ) and the ucp2 protein is then detected ( b . miroux and c . ricquier , personal communication ). these results suggest that the duration of treatment with rosiglitazone modulates the expression of the ucp1 gene . similarly , expression of the cidea gene , reported as closely associated with that of ucp1 , is increased ( fig2 d ) ( zhou , z ., et al ., nat genet , 2003 . 35 ( 1 ): p . 49 - 56 ). compared with white adipocytes , brown adipocytes have very high mitochondriogenesis ( wilson - fritch , l ., et al ., j clin invest , 2004 . 114 ( 9 ): p . 1281 - 9 ). indeed , the levels of mrna coding for mitochondrial carnitine palmitoyltransferase ( cpt1b ) are strongly increased when hmads - 2 cells switch from the white phenotype to the brown phenotype ( fig2 e ). unexpectedly , levels of pparα , pgc - 1α , pgc - 1β and prdm16 are similar in adipocytes expressing the white or brown phenotypes ( fig6 ). it is known that rodent brown adipocytes are more susceptible to apoptosis than white adipocytes in vitro and in vivo . these adipocytes express both the anti - apoptotic bcl - 2 protein and the pro - apoptotic bax protein ( briscini et al ., febs lett 1998 . 431 , 80 - 84 ; lindquist and rehnmark , j biol chem 1998 . 273 , 30147 - 30156 ; nisoli et al ., cell death differ 2006 . 13 , 2154 - 2156 ). contrary to rodents , human white adipocytes have a high susceptibility to apoptosis which appears to be related to the weak expression of the anti - apoptotic genes bcl - 2 and naip ( papineau et al ., metabolism 2003 . 52 , 987 - 992 ). unexpectedly , the switch of hmads cells from the white phenotype to the brown phenotype is accompanied by an increase in the expression of the anti - apoptotic gene bcl - 2 and a decrease in the expression of the pro - apoptotic bax gene , with the ratio of bcl - 2 to bax passing from 1 to 3 . 7 ( fig7 ), which implies , depending on the species , a different expression pattern of genes associated with apoptosis . insofar as ucp1 ( fig2 ), β3 - adrenergic receptor ( fig3 a ) and β2 - ar receptor ( result not shown ) are expressed when hmads - 2 cells are exposed to rosiglitazone between days 3 and 16 , the functional response to β - agonists was analyzed . as fig3 b and 3c indicate , the expression of ucp1 mrna and ucp1 protein are significantly increased after a stimulation for 6 h with isoproterenol , a pan - agonist for β receptors , and by the compound cl316243 , a selective β3 agonist , at concentrations of 10 - 100 nm . in short , a prolonged chronic activation of pparγ leads to the expression of ucp1 and to the acquisition of a functional response to β agonists . regulation of ucp1 expression occurs in hmads cells previously differentiated into white adipocytes with the previous experiments , it is not possible to know if a long - term treatment of hmads cells is necessary for the acquisition of a brown phenotype , or if a brief exposure to rosiglitazone of hmads cells already differentiated into white adipocytes enables their transdifferentiation . for this purpose , hmads - 2 cells were exposed beforehand to rosiglitazone between days 3 and 9 , the ligand eliminated and then added between days 14 and 16 . the results show that this 2 - day treatment of white adipocytes is sufficient to stimulate the expression of ucp1 , cidea and cpt1b genes ( fig4 a ). this effect is specific to pparγ , the activation of pparβ / δ and pparα by the specific ligands wy14643 and l165041 , respectively , not inducing the expression of the ucp1 protein . the replacement of rosiglitazone by polyunsaturated fatty acids as activators / ligands of ppars ( arachidonic , eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids present at 10 μm ) appears to have no effect on the ucp1 gene expression ( results not shown ). all these observations show that a specific activation of pparγ for a brief period is sufficient for the white adipocytes to acquire a brown adipocyte phenotype . the rosiglitazone effects on ucp1 expression are not restricted to hmads - 2 cells ; they are also observed with hmads - 1 and hmads - cells ( rodriguez , a . m ., et al ., j exp med , 2005 . 201 ( 9 ): p . 1397 - 405 ), which were established from adipose tissue from the umbilical region of a donor aged 31 months and from pre - pubic adipose tissue from a donor aged 4 months , respectively ( fig8 and results not shown ). oxygen consumption and respiratory decoupling of hmads cells differentiated into white and brown adipocytes one major characteristic of brown adipocytes is an intense respiratory activity and an important decoupling of oxidative phosphorylation . oxygen consumption , determined using an oxygen - sensitive electrode ( cannon , b . and j . nedergaard , physiol rev , 2004 . 84 ( 1 ): p . 277 - 359 ) made it possible to measure relative respiration rates . the results show the significant effect of a long - term treatment with rosiglitazone on total and uncoupled respiratory activities . after 20 days of chronic exposure enabling the acquisition of the brown phenotype , compared with the values obtained with hmads - 2 cells exposed between days 3 and 9 and expressing the white phenotype , these two activities are increased by a factor of 3 and 2 . 5 , respectively ( fig5 a and b ). when hmads - 2 cells are differentiated beforehand into white adipocytes , and then treated later between days 16 and 20 with rosiglitazone , the increase in total and uncoupled respiratory activities is reduced but remains quite notable ( fig5 a and b ). an important stimulation of oxygen consumption by a specific β - adrenergic receptor agonist such as isoproterenol is also observed during the acquisition of a brown phenotype ( fig5 c ). these results show that acquisition of the brown phenotype by hmads - 2 cells is accompanied as expected via ucp1 by an increase in oxygen consumption , uncoupling activity and stimulation of respiration by a specific β - adrenergic receptor agonist , demonstrating that the brown adipocytes obtained from hmads cells are functional . the fluorodeoxyglucose - positron - emission technique recently made it possible to show , in healthy adult humans , the presence of active brown adipose tissue in sites distinct from white adipose tissue ( nedergaard , j . et al ., am j physiol endocrinol metab , 2007 . 293 ( 2 ): p . e444 - 52 ). thus , contrary to the consensus that prevailed during recent decades , these important observations suggest the possibility of stimulating the metabolic activity of bat in order to modulate energy expenditure in man . indeed , brown adipose tissue in rodents plays an important role in adaptive thermogenesis , its ablation by transgenesis leading to obesity and a dysfunction being observed in obese rodents ( cannon , b . and j . nedergaard , physiol rev , 2004 . 84 ( 1 ): p . 277 - 359 ; lowell , b . b ., et al ., nature , 1993 . 366 ( 6457 ): p . 740 - 2 ), whereas in man the role of bat remains a subject of debate ( cinti , s ., nutr metab cardiovasc dis , 2006 . 16 ( 8 ): p . 569 - 74 ). pharmacologically speaking , taking into account all these observations , the development of a model of human brown adipocytes should thus prove to be of utmost importance . our results show for the first time that multipotent human stem cells , established from the adipose tissue of young donors and already known to differentiate into white adipocytes ( rodriguez , a . m ., et al ., biochem biophys res commun , 2004 . 315 ( 2 ): p . 255 - 63 ; rodriguez , a . m ., et al ., j exp med , 2005 . 201 ( 9 ): p . 1397 - 405 ), are also capable of giving rise to brown adipocytes . biologically speaking , our results support the hypothesis according to which hmads cells are immature stem cells whose lineage would be upstream of white and brown lineages . once engaged in the brown lineage , hmads cells exhibit all the characteristics of rodent brown adipocytes ; they express the ucp1 , cidea , pgc - 1α , pgc - 1β and prdm16 genes as well as three members of the ppar family . crucially , acquisition of the brown phenotype is accompanied by an important increase in respiratory and uncoupling activities . the positive modulation of ucp1 expression by isoproterenol and the compound cl316243 demonstrates that the signaling pathway generated by j - adrenergic receptors , in particular β3 receptors , is also functional in these cells . up to this date , the presence and role of β3 - adrenergic receptors in man has been much debated ( lafontan , m . and m . berlan , trends pharmacol sci , 2003 . 24 ( 6 ): p . 276 - 83 ). thus , brown adipocytes of young baboons weakly express these receptors but no lipolysis is observed in response to four β3 - adrenergic agonists ( viguerie - bascands , n ., et al ., j clin endocrinol metab , 1996 . 81 ( 1 ): p . 368 - 75 ). in addition , human brown adipocytes immortalized by transgenesis and expressing β3 - adrenergic receptors show only weak lipolytic activity in response to cgp12177a , a partial β3 agonist , and these receptors appear only weakly coupled with adenylate cyclase ( zilberfarb , v ., et al ., j cell sci , 1997 . 110 ( pt 7 ): p . 801 - 7 ; jockers , r ., et al ., endocrinology , 1998 . 139 ( 6 ): p . 2676 - 84 ). in both cases , no stimulation of ucp1 expression and no uncoupling respiratory activity have been reported in response to a specific β3 agonist , contrary to the results of our work . moreover , no stimulation of respiratory activity by a specific β - adrenergic receptor agonist has been reported . rosiglitazone belongs to the family of thiazolidinediones , a class of insulin - sensitizing molecules used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes ( olefsky , j . m . and a . r . saltiel , trends endocrinol metab , 2000 . 11 ( 9 ): p . 362 - 8 ). it promotes terminal adipocyte differentiation by specifically activating pparγ ( rodriguez , a . m ., et al ., biochem biophys res commun , 2004 . 315 ( 2 ): p . 255 - 63 ; tai , t . a ., et al ., j biol chem , 1996 . 271 ( 47 ): p . 29909 - 14 ; forman , b . m ., et al ., cell , 1995 . 83 ( 5 ): p . 803 - 12 ). pparγ activation occurs in white preadipocytes as well as in brown preadipocytes and leads to their differentiation into white and brown adipocytes , respectively ( nedergaard , j ., et al ., biochim biophys acta , 2005 . 1740 ( 2 ): p . 293 - 304 ; petrovic , n . et al ., am j physiol endocrinol metab , ( may 20 , 2008 ). doi : 10 . 1152 / ajpendo . 00035 . 2008 ). notably , in spite of the presence of rosiglitazone and in spite of the fact that activation of the pka pathway by the dex / ibmx “ cocktail ” proves to be indispensable during the first three days of differentiation , this stimulatory effect appears insufficient and only differentiation into white adipocytes occurs . after elimination of dex / ibmx from the culture medium , it is striking to note that the acquisition of a brown adipocyte phenotype by hmads cells no longer depends on the duration of activation on pparγ by rosiglitazone even though pgc - 1α , pgc - 1β and prdm16 are already fully expressed in cells expressing the white phenotype . it is known that in the mouse , prdm16 induces in white adipocytes the expression of ucp1 although activation of pparγ is necessary for the expression of cidea and mitochondrial components ( seale , p ., et al ., cell metab , 2007 . 6 ( 1 ): p . 38 - 54 ). our results are in agreement with these observations and with the presence of a ppar response element in the promoter of the cidea gene ( viswakarma , n ., et al ., j biol chem , 2007 . 282 ( 25 ): p . 18613 - 24 ). however , it can not be excluded that , beyond the expression of prdm16 , pgc - 1α and pgc - 1β , a prolonged exposure to rosiglitazone does not induce other molecular events which are also necessary for the full acquisition of a brown phenotype . a differential transcriptomic analysis between hmads cells treated briefly or for a long time with rosiglitazone should provide answers to this hypothesis . rosiglitazone , while normalizing glycemia and insulinemia , leads to an increase in body weight in animals as well as in many patients ( carmona , m . c ., et al ., int j obes ( land ), 2005 . 29 ( 7 ): p . 864 - 71 ; goldberg , r . b ., curr opin lipidol , 2007 . 18 ( 4 ): p . 435 - 42 ; home , p . d ., et al ., diabet med , 2007 . 24 ( 6 ): p . 626 - 34 ; joosen , a . m ., et al ., diabetes metab res rev , 2006 . 22 ( 3 ): p . 204 - 10 ). our results do not exclude the possibility that , in man , it also can , although insufficiently , increase bat activity observed in a large proportion of healthy individuals ( nedergaard , j . et al ., am j physiol endocrinol metab , 2007 . 293 ( 2 ): p . e444 - 52 ; cypess , a m et al ., n . engl . j . med . 2009 . 360 : p . 1509 - 17 ; saito , m . et al ., diabetes 2009 . publish ahead of print , online april 28 ; van marken lichtenbelt , w . et al ., n . engl . j . med . 2009 . 390 : p . 1500 - 08 ; virtanen , k a et al ., n . engl . j . med . 2009 . 360 : p . 1518 - 1525 ). the contribution of bat to energy expenditure , in the case of non - shivering thermogenesis or induced by a hypercaloric diet , is well established in rodents . in human , the differences in weight gain observed between individuals appear related to differences in their capacity to increase energy expenditure in response to ingesta ( lowell , b . b and e . s . bachman , j biol chem , 2003 . 278 ( 32 ): p . 29385 - 8 ), and the mass of brown adipose tissue is inversely proportional to the mass of white adipose tissue ( saito , m . et al ., diabetes 2009 . publish ahead of print , online april 28 ; virtanen , k a et al ., n . engl . j . med . 2009 . 360 : p . 1518 - 1525 ). if these observations are related to different capacities between individuals to increase the mass and / or the activity of bat , our model of human brown adipocytes should enable screening for molecules capable of increasing the formation and the functions of bat , in particular by stimulating prdm16 expression and respiratory and uncoupling capacities of cells . among the possibilities , an increase in ucp1 expression could be considered by means of the dual activation of the pka pathway via β - adrenergic receptors and via the tgr5 receptor activated by biliary salts ( watanabe , m ., et al ., nature , 2006 . 439 ( 7075 ): p . 484 - 9 ). the materials and methods are those indicated in part i of the examples section above . 1 — recent work showed in mouse i ) the existence of a myogenic signature of brown adipocytes distinct from the one of white adipocytes ( timmons et al ., 2007 ; seale et al ., 2008 , nature 454 : 961 - 967 ) and ii ) the possibility to generate brown adipocytes from white precursors by treatment with bone morphogentic protein 7 ( bmp7 ) ( tseng et al ., 2008 . nature 454 : 1000 - 1004 ) or by transgenesis ( tiraby , c . et al ., j . biol . chem . 2003 . 278 : p . 33370 - 76 ). we have shown that our human hmads cells do not have a muscle signature since they do not express the myf5 gene neither during the proliferation phase , nor during or after their differentiation into adipose cells as in osseous cells . moreover , treatment of hmads cells with bmp7 alone does not enable their differentiation into adipocytes in the absence of rosiglitazone , but rather leads to a weak increase in ucp - 1 protein expression in cells differentiated beforehand into white adipocytes . 2 — the effects of rosiglitazone on the hmads cells differentiation into white and brown adipocytes are mediated by the nuclear receptor pparγ . indeed , adding a pparγ antagonist , the compound gw 9662 , to the differentiation medium prevents on the one hand the differentiation of hmads cells into adipocytes , and on the other hand does not allow expression of the ucp - 1 gene in cells differentiated beforehand into white adipocytes . 3 — compared with white adipocytes , brown adipocytes exhibit a very strong mitochondriogenesis . we showed that the level of mrna coding for mitochondrial carnitine palmitoyltransferase ( ctp1b ) is strongly increased when hmads - 2 cells switch from the white phenotype to the brown phenotype . recent results show that the cytochrome c oxidase activity ( marker of the inner mitochondrial membrane ) is also increased in brown hmads adipocytes compared with white adipocytes , thus strengthening our observations regarding the increase in mitochondriogenesis during the transition from the white phenotype to the brown phenotype . 4 — in rodents , biliary acids from intestinal reabsorption bind to a receptor coupled with g proteins ( tgr5 ) located on the plasma membrane of brown adipocytes . the production of camp stimulates the expression of type ii iodothyronine deiodinase which increases the intracellular concentrations of t3 . the latter then stimulate mitochondrial decoupling via ucp and the dissipation of energy in the form of heat ( watanabe et al ., 2006 ). in human , such a system has never been described . hmads cells express the tgr5 gene during adipocyte differentiation thus making it possible to consider pharmacological studies on respiration decoupling using tgr5 receptor agonist ligands . ailhaud , g ., grimaldi , p ., and negrel , r . 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