trentmkelly/rationalwiki huggingface dataset:
Necessary and sufficient conditions

{{logicnav}}
'''Necessary and sufficient conditions''' is a [[logic|logical]] phrase that describes the relationship between two statements when one statement is true if and only if another statement is true. If a given statement is a necessary condition of another, it must be true for the second statement to be true. If a given statement is a sufficient condition for another statement to be true, the first statement, if satisfied as true, assures the second statement is true.

In physical [[science]] terms, a necessary and sufficient condition is known as the "cause" of an event, and the ensuing event is the "effect" of the prior one. The cause, of course, precedes the effect in [[time]], although under the "necessary and sufficient" constraint, either event's occurrence can be imputed from the occurrence of the other.

In [[mathematics]], "necessary and sufficient" is used to establish an equivalence relation between two statements: if the [[truth]] of one statement is necessary and sufficient for the truth of another statement, then the two statements are equivalent.

A related concept is dispositivity; that the truth of one statement may be either necessary, sufficient or both for the falsehood of another.

==Corollaries of the concepts==
Suppose a statement D, whose truth may be conditional on the truth of three other statements A, B and C (for the sake of argument, consider the list exhaustive). Given the notions of necessity and sufficiency described above, a few rules become clear.

*If exactly one of the statements A, B, or C is a necessary condition, but not a sufficient one, for the truth of D, no single condition among them is sufficient for the truth of D.
*If one or more of the conditions A, B, or C is sufficient but not necessary, then no single condition among the three is necessary for the truth of D.
*If one of the conditions is <b>both</b> necessary and sufficient by itself, sufficiency of the others is immaterial (see the physical science point above).

There is also terminology governing more complex relationships involving necessity and sufficiency:

*If A and B are both necessary but neither one individually, nor the two together, is sufficient for D, A and B may be said to be <b>severally necessary</b> but <b>jointly insufficient</b>.
*If A, B, and C are all necessary and the three together are sufficient for the truth of D, they may be said to be both <b>severally necessary</b> and <b>jointly sufficient</b>.

{{stub|logic}}

[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Philosophy of science]]

Categories: Logic, Philosophy of science
Negative conclusion from affirmative premises

{{sources needed}}
{{logicnav}}{{hatnote|Not to be confused with [[negative proof]] or [[affirmative conclusion from a negative premise]].}}
A '''negative conclusion from affirmative premises''' (also '''illicit affirmative''') occurs when a categorical [[syllogism]] has a negative conclusion, but two affirmative premises.

It is a [[syllogistical fallacy]] and a [[formal fallacy]].

==Forms==
You commit this fallacy if you use either of the following false syllogisms:
{{syl
|2=Some A are B.
|4=Some B are C.
|5=C|6=Some A are not C
}}

{{syl
|2=Some A are B.
|4=Some B are C.
|5=C|6=No A are C.
}}

==See also==
*[[Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise]]

==External links==
*{{wpa|Negative conclusion from affirmative premises}}
*[http://www.logicallyfallacious.com/index.php/logical-fallacies/133-negative-conclusion-from-affirmative-premises NEGATIVE CONCLUSION FROM AFFIRMATIVE PREMISES], [[Logically Fallacious]]
*[http://www.fallacyfiles.org/negfroma.html Negative Conclusion from Affirmative Premisses], [[Fallacy Files]]

{{logfal}}

[[Category:Formal fallacies]]

Categories: Formal fallacies
Neil Cavuto

[[File:Neil_Cavuto.jpg|thumb|left|165px|Neil Cavuto in the position he finds most comfortable -leaning to the right.]]{{pundits}}
'''Neil Cavuto''' (born 1958) is an American political pundit. Previously employed by CNBC, he is currently employed by [[Fox News]] and [[Fox Business Network]]. He hosts ''Your World with Neil Cavuto'' and ''Cavuto on Business'' on FNC. Additionally, he hosts ''Cavuto'' on FBN.<ref name="CavutoFox">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110121133334/http://www.foxnews.com/on-air/personalities/neil-cavuto/bio/#s=a-d Neil Cavuto Biography], Fox News Website.</ref> He is also senior vice president and managing editor of business news for FBN, and therefore to blame for its content and business coverage.

==Political views==
As a Fox News anchor, Neil Cavuto intends to ride the tiger that is the [[Tea Party]] until it gets too hungry.<ref name="CavutoTea">[https://web.archive.org/web/20121030170635/http://foxnewsinsider.com/2012/08/01/neil-talks-to-sarah-palin/ Neil Cavuto Talks Tea Party Politics With Sarah Palin], Fox News Insider.</ref> Without a hint of [[cognitive dissonance]], he also supports the [[neocon]] agenda and uses the term "[[homicide bomber]]". Stop trying to make "fetch" happen, Neil!

[[Stopped clock|Unusually for a Fox pundit]], Cavuto occasionally took [[Donald Trump|Trump]] to task,<ref>[http://variety.com/2017/tv/news/neil-cavuto-fox-business-donald-trump-1202592170/ Neil Cavuto Gets Down to Business When Calling Out President Trump] by Brian Steinberg (October 17, 2017 10:08AM PT) ''Variety''.</ref> the most severe task-taking was a 4-minute opinion piece on May 3, 2018 in which he concluded, "That's your stink. Mr. President, that’s your swamp."<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/05/04/foxs-cavuto-to-trump-thats-your-stink-mr-president-thats-your-swamp/ Fox's Cavuto to Trump: 'That's your stink. Mr. President, that’s your swamp.'] by Meagan Flynn (May 4, 2018 at 4:14 AM) ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kcw8aoGxgss Cavuto: Is Trump giving the media very real ammunition?] (May 3, 2018) Fox News via ''YouTube''.</ref>

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120709024048/http://mediamatters.org/tags/your-world-w-neil-cavuto Neil Cavuto's greatest hits!]

==References==
{{reflist|2|80%}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cavuto, Neil}}
[[Category:Authors]]
[[Category:Journalists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Murdochsphere]]
[[Category:Neoconservatives]]
[[Category:New York]]

Categories: Authors, Journalists, Living people, Murdochsphere, Neoconservatives, New York
Nestorianism

{{christianity}}

'''Nestorianism''' is the belief, originated by '''Nestorius''', the Patriarch of Constantinople (briefly), that [[Christ]] was of two distinct hypostases or natures, one human and one divine. Like most early disputes over [[Christology]], it ended with [[excommunication]]s being handed out like candy.

==Origins to schism==
Nestorius was taught theology at the distinctly [[Biblical literalism|literalist]] School of Antioch, which emphasised the distinctiveness of Christ's human and divine natures. From there, he went on to be appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Theodosius II in 428.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409867/Nestorius Nestorius]</ref> Once in office, he waged a zealous campaign against Arians, Macedonians (the sect, not the nationality), Novatians, and other varieties of [[heretic]], before himself causing an uproar by arguing that the traditional title ''Theotokos'' (literally "bringer forth of God") should not be used for [[Mary]], as it failed to recognize Jesus's human nature, and suggested the title ''Christotokos'' instead.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11138a.htm Novatian and Novatianism]</ref> This reeked of adoptionism to many, and the Patriarch of Alexandria and the [[Pope]] both became involved against the idea of Christ's natures being so loosely united as Nestorius proposed.

==Schism and Church of the East==
In 431 the emperor Theodosius II convened an ecumenical council to resolve the issue: the First {{wpl | Council of Ephesus}}. Though some at the council initially spoke out in favor of Nestorius, the political winds blew as they do, and his teachings were ultimately anathemised. [[Arianism|Sound familiar]]? Afterwards, many Christians who still faithfully held to the Nestorian position fled from the [[Roman Empire]] to Sassanid [[Persia]], and in 486 the {{wpl | Church of the East}}, which had previously renounced foreign authority (i.e. the Pope etc.), officially adopted Nestorius's teachings.<ref name='eb'>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorian Nestorianism]</ref> From Persia, in a classic example of (temporarily) successful evangelism, Nestorianism spread across Asia, reaching as far as [[Mongolia]], [[China]], and [[India]] at the height of its influence in the Middle Ages, before falling apart into a number of [[sect]]s, some of which returned to communion with [[Roman Catholic Church|Rome]].<ref name='eb'/>

==See also==
*[[Heresy]]
*[[Eastern Churches]]
*[[Trinity]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{stub|Christianity|Christianity}}
[[Category:Christian denominations]]

Categories: Christian denominations
Net domestic income

{{economics}}

'''Net domestic income''' (NDI) is form of [[national income accounting]] (NIA) that takes the sum of net incomes earned and costs incurred in the production of net domestic product. It is equal to [[gross domestic income]] less consumption of fixed [[capital]], and it is also equal to [[net domestic product]] less the statistical discrepancy. NDI comprises compensation of employees, [[taxes]] on production and imports less subsidies, and net operating surplus.<ref>"[https://www.bea.gov/help/glossary/net-domestic-income-ndi Net domestic income (NDI)]" ''www.bea.gov.''</ref> NDI is not a common tool used in [[macroeconomics]] for analyzing public policy, given that it is somewhat complicated to calculate and there are a number of well established alternatives in use.

==Formula==
The basic formula is usually written as follows:

<center><big>W+P+i+F+(T-s)</big></center>

Where ''W'' refers to wages and salaries, ''P'' is equal to before tax income of [[Corporation|corporations]], ''i'' refers to interest and [[capital]] gains, ''f'' is all farm and unincorporated business profits, and ''T-s'' refers to [[taxes]] minus any subsidies.<ref>[http://qed.econ.queensu.ca/pub/students/khans/Lecture-3.pdf Lecture 3: National Income Accounting Reference - Chapter 5]</ref>
==See also==
*[[Gross domestic product]] 
*[[Gross national income]]
*[[Net national income]]
==External links==
*[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/W256RC1Q027SBEA Fred:Net Domestic Income]
==References==
{{reflist}}
__NOTOC__
[[category:economics]]

Categories: economics
Net domestic product

{{economics}}
'''Net Domestic Product (NDP)''' is variant of [[National Income Accounting|national income accounting]] equal to the [[Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP) of a nation minus any depreciation of its [[capital]] stock. The depreciated capital is sometimes referred to as the "capital consumption allowance".<ref>Kenton, Will. "[https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/capital-consumption-allowance-cca.asp Capital Consumption Allowance (CCA)]". ''Investopedia.'' </ref> Some economists see NDP as a useful alternative to GDP.<ref>Spant, R. (2003). "[http://www.csls.ca/ipm/7/spant-e.pdf Why net domestic product should replace gross domestic product as a measure of economic growth]." ''International Productivity Monitor'', 39-43.</ref>

==Basics==
NDP's purpose is to consider the depreciation in a nation's capital stock over some time period in order to estimate how much investment is needed to maintain current levels of output.<ref>"[https://www.bea.gov/help/glossary/net-domestic-product-ndp Net domestic product (NDP)" ''www.bea.gov].''</ref>

The formula for calculating NDP is as follows:

<center><big>GDP-D=NDP</big></center>

Where ''GDP'' is Gross Domestic Product, ''D'' is capital depreciation, and ''NDP'' is Net Domestic Product.

===Why it's useful===
As roads wear down, computers break, and machines rust they need to be fixed. An increase in investment spending meant to prop up existing capital, [[Government|public]] or private, does not make anyone better off. Rather, it simply maintains existing production capacity. Suppose there is a big increase in GDP in the late 21<sup>st</sup> century due to spending on things to combat the negatives of [[climate change|global warming]]. All that investment spending to engage in flood control, rebuild burned homes, or relocate factories and power plants won't be making anyone better off, even though conventional GDP statistics how a huge boost in investment. The main issue with NDP is the difficulty in measuring all depreciation.<ref>[https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Glossary:Net_domestic_product_(NDP) Glossary:Net domestic product (NDP)]</ref>

==Net National Product==
A similar concept to NDP. Net National Product subtracts depreciation from Gross National Product.

The formula is as follows 

<center><big>GNP-D=NNP</big></center>

==External links==
*[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/A362RC1A027NBEA Fred: Net Domestic Product]

==References==
{{reflist|2|90%}}

[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Statistics]]

Categories: Economics, Statistics
Net national income

{{Economics}}
'''Net national income''' (NNI) is a type of [[National Income Accounting|national income accounting]] defined as [[Gross National Income|gross national income]] minus the depreciation of fixed [[capital]] assets (dwellings, buildings, machinery, transport equipment and physical infrastructure) through wear and tear and obsolescence.<ref>https://data.oecd.org/natincome/net-national-income.htm</ref> In that sense it is very similar to [[Net Domestic Product]].

==Formula==
The formula for calculating net national income is: NNI = C + I + G + NX + NFF - IT - D

Where C is consumption, I is investment, G is government spending, NX refers to imports minus exports, NFF is net foreign factors, IT are any indirect taxes, and D is capital depreciation.<ref>"[http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/net-national-income.html What is net national income?]" ''BusinessDictionary.com.''</ref> A somewhat obscure variant of NIA it often takes a back seat to more prominent indicators like GDP and GDI. 

==See also==
*[[Gross domestic product]]
*[[Gross domestic income]]
*[[Gross national income]]

==References==
{{reflist|2|90%}}

[[Category:Economics]]

Categories: Economics
Neurolink

{{pseudosciencenav}}
'''Neurolink''' (not to be confused with [[Elon Musk|Neuralink]]) is a little known form of [[medical woo]], founded by Dr. Allan Phillips in [[New Zealand]].<ref>http://www.naturalhealthclinicni.com/-what-is-neurolink.html</ref> The basic [[bullshit|theory]] is that, by tapping on your head while holding something that is sore and interacting with it in various ways, you can trigger parts of your brain and tell them to make it better.<ref>http://www.neurolinkglobal.com/How-Does-NIS-Work_59.aspx</ref> In reality, it is only about as effective as a [[placebo]], with the bonus effect of having strangers touch you a lot. At the very least, they also half-heartedly suggest to use this "in addition" to things that might actually help you (They're more than happy to be an extra strain on your wallet, though!), but say that Neurolink is the only way "optimum sustainability" can be achieved.<ref>http://www.neurolinkglobal.com/Practitioners_11.aspx</ref> If you're intrigued by this [[magic]]al [[cure-all]], you can learn how it all works and magically cure mental disabilities<ref>http://www.neurolinkglobal.com/Learn_480.aspx</ref> that "normal science" (as always) is unable, for a [[Charlatan|presumably low]] unstated fee. Regular 'check-ups' (emphasis theirs) are encouraged, and ''it is important to make sure you continue to operate at maximum potential at all times''.<ref>http://www.neurolinkglobal.com/Patients_10.aspx</ref>

==How it works==
Neurolink is purportedly [[Quantum woo|based on quantum physics]], which is apparently the idea that you can tell the brain to fix every problem the human body has, from diseases like [[cancer]], to mental disabilities like [[Asperger's]] and [[ADHD]].<ref>http://www.neurolinkglobal.com/Science_148.aspx</ref> Their own site lists a bunch of [[technobabble]] to somehow explain this, in a way that would make Dr. Daniel Jackson of Stargate Command blush. Curiously, there are no links to anything backing up their claims, but there is a lot of bold text, and when there's [[green ink|bold text]] afoot, you '''know they're super serious and one hundred percent accurate'''. They even claim to be able to cure animals, and say that the same methods they use on humans can be easily remodeled to work on them,<ref>http://www.neurolinkglobal.com/NIS--Animals_336.aspx</ref> which is incredibly scientific, as one "Thunder the Dog" is eager to testify.<ref>http://www.neurolinkglobal.com/RLThunder_287.aspx</ref>

==See also==
*[[Therapeutic touch]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{stub|alternative medicine}}
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]

Categories: Alternative medicine
Neutral theory

{{Sources needed}}{{Evolution}}
The '''neutral theory of molecular evolution''', proposed in the 1970s by Motō Kimura, is/was a controversial theory that suggests that most mutations in an organism are, on the whole, selectively neutral, making [[genetic drift]] a more powerful mechanism of evolution than natural selection. It downplays the power of selective pressures by asserting that in general evolutionary changes are too minor to result in much actual selective advantage or disadvantage, although it acknowledges that some changes may be overwhelmingly positive or negative. Part of the implication of this is that a species can change substantially through mutation before any major change is seen; some of this holds true with current theories of pseudogenes and [[junk DNA]] mutation.<ref>[https://sandwalk.blogspot.com/2014/02/on-difference-between-neutral-theory.html On the differences between Neutral Theory and random genetic drift] by Larry Moran, ''Sandwalk''</ref>

Neutral theory is not generally considered to represent a complete model of evolution, and does not hold strictly true in all (arguably not even in most) cases, but it adds a great deal to our understanding and ability to model evolutionary changes on a genetic level: Namely, it marked the first major drift<ref group=note>Haha, get it, because neutral theory is all about genetic drift! Haha… anyone? Tough room.</ref> from purely selectionist evolutionary theory, arguing that most mutations confer a selective advantage or disadvantage. It also provides an effective null model for positive selection. It's vital to note that neutral theory is in no way "anti-selection" or "anti-Darwinian"; it simply represents another facet of understanding to the existing model of evolutionary theory.

==Selectionist opposition==
While neutral theory has become the consensus in population genetics, some studies have challenged it. One special example is studies of ''Homo sapiens''genome in comparison to ''Pan trogolodytes'' genome, in which the estimates of adaptive evolution (as the reason of genetic variation) is estimated from 0-45%. <ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3647533/</ref>
One study on ''Capsilla grandiflora'' found that 40% of amino acid substitutions could be non-neutral. A study on ''Drosophilia melanogaster'' found that adaptation plays a role in evolution of small populations too. <ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19882309</ref> Other studies found similar results by sequencing regions of the ''Drosophilia melanogaster'' genome. <ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892965/</ref>
<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11875569?dopt=Abstract</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Evolution]]
{{stub|evolution}}

Categories: Evolution
Neville Chamberlain

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H12967, Münchener Abkommen, Chamberlain.jpg|thumb|right|165px|Chamberlain in Munich. Oh well.]]{{UKpolitics}}
{{Cquote|I hold in my hand a piece of paper.|||Chamberlain after meeting with Hitler, 1938}}
'''Arthur Neville Chamberlain''' {{lived|1869|1940}}, was a member of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative and Unionist Party]], and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] of the [[United Kingdom]] from 1937 to 1940. He had been a Member of Parliament since 1918, and his father was Joseph Chamberlain, himself a prominent politician who served as a government minister and leader of the opposition. As Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1931–37 he advocated a tariff system to protect trade with the [[British Empire]], and badmouthed Wallis Simpson during the 1936 Abdication Crisis.<ref>{{wpa|Neville Chamberlain}}</ref>

==Passing notes with Hitler==
Chamberlain is now remembered chiefly for declaring, upon his return from a meeting with [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1938, "I believe it is peace for our time," while gesturing with a piece of paper. This has left him with the reputation of being an [[Appeasement|appeaser]] in the face of antagonism. Britain [[World War II|declared war]] on [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] in 1939. Chamberlain has been subsequently castigated as a weakling (possibly true) in the face of German aggression (certainly true).<ref>His appeasement, however, has since acted as a warning against [[diplomacy]] to some [[Republican Party|US conservatives]].</ref> What we should bear in mind is that Chamberlain didn't do anything wrong by ''talking'' with Hitler — he erred by giving him half of [[Czechoslovakia]], especially given that no Czech or Slovak was consulted on their opinion on the matter.<ref>To be fair, he [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/104904/Neville-Chamberlain did realize the need for mass rearmament when the cards were down.] But that was probably too late at that point.</ref>

==Ousting==
Following the fall of [[Norway]] to the Nazis in May 1940, he lost a large measure of parliamentary support, and the Labour Party agitated for his resignation as a precondition for entering a coalition government with the Conservatives. He was replaced by [[Winston Churchill]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://youtu.be/rtJ_zbz1NyY Chamberlain declares war on Germany] ([http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/ww2outbreak/7957.shtml?page=txt transcript] of speech)

{{stub|politicians}}
{{BritishPM}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chamberlain, Neville}}

[[Category:British people]]
[[Category:Former Members of Parliament (UK)]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom]]

Categories: British people, Former Members of Parliament (UK), Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom