Monotheism

{{religion}} 
'''Monotheism''' is a form of [[theism]], generally defined as the [[belief]] in a single [[God|deity]] — though it has ''also'' been defined as "the belief that one supreme being exists whose will is sovereign over all other beings".<ref>[https://www.bibleodyssey.org/en/people/related-articles/monotheism-in-the-hebrew-bible.aspx Benjamin Sommer ''Monotheism in the Hebrew Bible'' Bible Odyssey] "Monotheism, then, is the belief that one supreme being exists whose will is sovereign over all other beings. These other beings may include some who live in heaven and who are, in the normal course of events, immortal; but they are subservient to the unique supreme being, unless that being voluntarily relinquishes a measure of control. It is not the number of divine beings that matters to monotheism but the relationships between them. A theology in which no one deity has ultimate power over all aspects of the universe is polytheistic (even if that theology knows only one deity); a theology in which one deity has supreme power is monotheistic (even if it knows other heavenly beings)."</ref>

Similar concepts in practice and somewhat related include:

* [[monolatry]],<ref name=MacDonald>Nathan MacDonald, ''Deuteronomy and the Meaning of "Monotheism"'' (2012), pp. 53-54, Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck (2nd and Revised edition), ISBN 978-3-16-151680-1.</ref> which involves an individual's acceptance that other gods exist but only one Deity is worthy of worship,<ref name=MacDonald />
* [[henotheism]], which places exclusive devotion on a single Deity,<ref name=MacDonald /> venerated as the unique God for a short period of time, usually for liturgical worship.<ref>A. Van Selms, "Temporany Henotheism", ''Symbolae Biblicae et Mesopotamicae'' (FS. F. de Liangre Böhl; [M. Beek-A. Kampen, eds.] Leiden 1974), pp. 341-348.</ref>

Monolatry and henotheism are both forms of monotheism.<ref name=MacDonald /><ref>Heiser, Michael S. [http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1276&context=lts_fac_pubs "Monotheism, Polytheism, Monolatry, or Henotheism? Toward an Assessment of Divine Plurality in the Hebrew Bible"] ''Bulletin for Biblical Research'' 18.1 (2008) 1–30</ref> However, some denominations of Christianity treat monolatry and henotheism as different things from monotheism.<ref>[https://gotquestions.org/henotheism.html What is henotheism / monolatrism / monolatry? ''Got Questions Ministries'']</ref>

The best-known monotheistic religions are the three main [[Abrahamic religions]]: [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]. Other monotheistic religions include [[Eckankar]], [[Bahá'í]] (itself an Abrahamic religion), and [[Sikhism]], and also some sects of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Zoroastrianism]].

[[Monism]] and [[deism]] are not religious systems but [[Philosophy|philosophical schools]], and they both revolve around one basic principle (e.g., [[Reasoning|reason]], [[mind]], [[matter]], [[soul]], etc.) that explains the origin of [[reality]] (which is not regarded as God, anyway); thus, they are not monotheisms.

Monotheism and [[ absolutism|absolutist]] ideas<ref>{{wpa|Absolutism}}</ref> can support one another.<ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Fletcher
| first1 = Paul
| chapter = Trinitarian Politics
| title = Disciplining the Divine: Toward an (im)political Theology
| url = https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0754667162
| location = Farnham, Surrey
| publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
| publication-date = 2009
| page = 103
| doi-broken-date = 
| isbn = 9780754667162
| access-date = 2018-02-28
| quote = [...] a monotheistic theology, a theology which finds its apotheosis in the early-modern conception of absolutist monarchy [...]. [...] the manifestation of monarchical power in its sacred and mundane semblances is not concluded at the threshold of modernity. A more thoroughgoing secularisation of political monotheism is conspicuous in the totalitarianisms of the twentieth century where the sovereign decision of the divine monarch is made wholly and completely immanent in the decisive moment of judgement performed by the earthly sovereign.}}
</ref>
A monopoly on worship, once established, can promote a monopoly on truth, resulting in a mono-ideology<ref>
{{wpa | Mono-ideology}}
</ref>
and all its attendant potential evils.

==Zoroastrianism==
[[Zoroastrianism]] is largely considered the oldest living monotheistic religion, being founded in ancient [[Iran]] perhaps in the 15th to 16th centuries BCE (roughly 3500 years ago) by the prophet Zoroaster. The Zoroastrian God, Ahura Mazda ("Lord of Wisdom"), is a benevolent creator-deity and sky-god. Ahura Mazda and Spenta Mainyu ("creative spirit") is often pitted against the Angra Mainyu ("destructive spirit"), giving the faith a strong good vs. evil narrative. It also features a messiah figure, Saoshyant ("one who brings benefit"), who will bring about the final renovation of the universe in which evil will be destroyed.

Many elements of the Zoroastrian religion influenced later monotheistic religions {{--}} including Judaism, which developed some novel ideas while exposed to prestige cultures during the [[Israel#Babylonian exile | Judeans' exile in Babylon]] (circa 605 BCE onwards).<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Stern
 |first1               = Ephraim
 |editor-last1         = Kratz
 |editor-first1        = Reinhard Gregor
 |editor-last2         = Spieckermann
 |editor-first2        = Hermann
 |date                 = 27 September 2010
 |chapter              = From Many Gods to the One God: The Archaelogical Evidence
 |title                = One God – One Cult – One Nation: Archaeological and Biblical Perspectives
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=oCqSZdoWZMkC
 |series               = Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft ISSN 0934-2575, volume 405
 |location             = Berlin
 |publisher            = Walter de Gruyter
 |page                 = 401
 |isbn                 = 9783110223583
 |access-date          = 4 July 2025
 |quote                = [...] pagan cults ceased to exist among the Judeans, who purified their worship, and Jewish monotheism was at last consolidated. [...] it seems that this development occurred among the Babylonian exiles and was transferred to Israel by the returning exiles [...].
}}
</ref>

==Abrahamic religions==

===Judaism===
[[Judaism]] is a monotheistic religion and condemns idolatry (the worship of Gods other than the Jewish one) as a sin. However, scholars largely agree that Judaism was initially monolatry, centered around [[YHWH]], the god of Israel, before later becoming the solitary God and blending with El, another god.{{cn}} Remnants of this monolatry can be seen in scripture, regarding things such as [[Asherah]]. In the [[Kabbalah]], God is regarded as an infinite, all-encompassing entity (Eyn Sof), but is regarded in numerous emanations (sefirot).

===Christianity===
Whilst Christianity is usually considered a monotheistic religion, but there are some critics who think that it is a matter of debate how "monotheistic" Christianity really is.

==== Polytheistic argument ====
[[Protestantism|Protestant]], [[Calvinism|Reformed]], [[Restorationism|Restorationist]], and [[Christian fundamentalism|Fundamentalist]] Christian Churches or denominations often accuse [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] Christians of [[polytheism]] because of the practice of venerating saints. They especially point to the position of the [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Virgin Mary]] — she is the mother of [[Christ]], has (in Roman Catholicism) been assumed into Heaven, and is the recipient of vast numbers of [[prayer]]s. As a result, these other denominations claim that she is obviously a goddess in all but name, and have been known to bash Catholics as "Mary-worshipers".<ref>[http://www.gty.org/blog/B130227/exposing-the-heresies-of-the-catholic-church-mary-worship "Exposing the Heresies of the Catholic Church: Mary Worship"] ''Grace to You''</ref>

[[Mormonism|Mormons]] too have been frequently criticized by other Christians (mostly Trinitarians) because they don't accept the [[Trinity]] as it was established in the [[Nicene Creed]];<ref>D. C. Peterson and S. D. Ricks, "[https://www.lds.org/ensign/1988/03/comparing-lds-beliefs-with-first-century-christianity?lang=eng Comparing LDS Beliefs with First-Century Christianity]" (March 1988), lds.org</ref><ref name=Givens>T. L. Givens, P. L. Barlow, ''The Oxford Handbook of Mormonism'' (2015), pp. 638-640, NY, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-977836-2.</ref> Mormons are more prone to define their conception of the Godhead as a "social" interrelation between [[Yahweh|God the Father]] (the "Supreme Being" and "Creator"),<ref>"[https://www.lds.org/topics/god-the-father?lang=eng God the Father]", ''True to the Faith'' (2004), 74–76, lds.org</ref> [[Jesus|God the Son]] and [[Holy Ghost]]:<ref name=Givens /><ref name=LDS>G. B. Hinckley, "[https://www.lds.org/liahona/1998/03/the-father-son-and-holy-ghost?lang=eng The Father, Son, and Holy Ghost]" (March 1998), lds.org</ref> they all form the Godhead, but they're also autonomous and distinct Persons;<ref name=Givens /><ref name=LDS /> the Father and the Son have physical bodies, whereas the Holy Ghost has a spiritual one<ref name=Givens /><ref name=LDS /> (this definition of the Triune God has been accused of "Tritheism").<ref name=Givens /> Thus, Mormons are charged with [[heresy]] by some Trinitarian Churches.<ref>{{wpa|God in Mormonism}}</ref>

==== Monotheistic argument ====
However, opponents of this position contend that it is essentially based in a double misunderstanding of the concepts of "god" and of "worship". In particular, saints (and angels) are not worshiped in the same sense as God is, but are rather said to be "venerated". In theological terms, the difference is between ''latria'', or in [[Latin]] ''adoratio'', which describes the worship of God, and ''(hyper-)dulia'', or ''veneratio'', which refers to the honoring or veneration of saints and other worthy people. A 2012 article in ''Free Inquiry'' magazine revealed how ancient [[Hebrew]]s attempted to remove polytheistic notions from the original Hebrew scriptures, yet many remain in the Christian Bible.<ref name="FI2012">{{cite journal| journal = Free Inquiry| volume = 32| issue = 5| year = 2012| pages = 39–45| title = A Tale of Two Tomes| last = Paulkovich| first = Michael B.}}</ref>

Furthermore, there is the matter of the henotheistic form of monotheism which it is believed that ancient Jews practiced,<ref>[https://www.firstthings.com/web-exclusives/2014/01/the-bibles-many-gods Gerald McDermott ''The Bible's many Gods'']</ref> and it is well documented that some sects of Christianity were (and are) [[Monolatrism|monolatristic]].

==== Tripartite argument ====
The "[[Trinity]]" concept has many historical precedents, particularly within the Greco-Roman tradition, where tripartite deities such as [[Hecate]] are well known. A tripartite deity is essentially one god with three aspects or "faces". The perception of god in the Christian tradition could accurately be described as a tripartite deity, with the aspects of Father, Son and Spirit. 

Christians generally reject this description, but within the realms of comparative [[religious studies]] and amongst some theologians, the term is widely regarded as an appropriate description of the "Trinity" concept.<ref>[https://www3.nd.edu/~mrea/papers/Polytheism.pdf "Polytheism and Christian belief" ''Journal of Theological Studies'', NS, Vol. 57, Pt 1, April 2006]</ref>

=== Islam ===
''Tawhid'' is the concept of the indivisible oneness of God, and is one of the most important concepts of Islamic theology. Whilst accepting Jesus as a prophet of the Abrahamic god, Muslims do not accept his divinity, and thus have no concept of "Trinity" present in Christianity. Although technically forbidden by the [[Qu'ran]] and several [[hadith]], the veneration of saints in Islam is extremely common, particularly in countries with a strong Amazigh culture, such as Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria, and also in Egypt, where there there is a strong and long-lasting Coptic tradition of sainthood "inherited" by Egyptian Muslims.

=== Satanism ===
Satanism comes in both theistic and atheistic flavours. Theistic Satanists who worship [[Satan]] as a divine being, would strictly speaking also be regarded as monotheistic (or henotheistic if they also believe in the Christian God), though it is rarely regarded as such. Since theistic Satanism uses Abrahamic mythology for the basis of aspects of its own beliefs, it could be argued that Satanism is also a cousin of the Abrahamic religions, though both Satanists and Abrahamic adherents tend to reject this view. This situation is further confused by the fact that some Satanists use theistic imagery to personify and interact with an atheistic world-view, such as {{wpl|Temple of Set|Setians|.}}

[[The Satanic Temple]], meanwhile, is in fact an atheist organization.

== Atenism ==
Atenism is the belief in the Egyptian solar deity, Aten (Re was actually the sun itself, whilst the Aten was the rays that touch everything and everyone). It was introduced during the reign of the 18th Dynasty pharaoh, Amenhotep III. His son, {{wpl|Akhenaten|Akhenaten}} (his name was originally Amenophis IV)<ref name=Assmann>Jan Assmann, ''Moses the Egyptian'' (1998), Chapter 2, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-58738-3.</ref> effectively turned Aten into the chief God by (pretty much) outlawing all other deities in the Egyptian pantheon, and making the entire country follow a monotheistic religion (initially, Akhenaten made it a monolatry, but it turned monotheistic in his later years). 

In 1939, [[Sigmund Freud]] wrote ''{{wpl|Moses and Monotheism}}'', an essay where he theorized a connection between Akhenaten and [[Moses]]: Moses would have been an Egyptian priest of Akhenaten, which escaped from [[Egypt]] after the pharaoh's death and subsequent prohibition of Atenism; after that, he would have joined a Semitic tribe, the ancient [[Jews|Hebrews]], convert them to Atenism, and finally get killed by them.<ref name=Assmann /> So, according to Freud, Akhenaten's religion inspired the formation of [[Judaism]].<ref>[[Sigmund Freud]], ''The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud'', Volume XXIII (1937-1939), "Moses and monotheism". London: Hogarth Press, 1964.</ref> Freud's theory started an interesting debate among other psychoanalysts, as well as criticism and appraisal from [[Biblical scholarship|Bible scholars]], [[historians]] and [[Egypt|Egyptologists]]. Various academics suggested that Freud's theory on the rise of Jewish monotheism was based on a [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] [[rationalisation]] of the [[Exodus]] (most of it relies on [[Psychoanalysis#The Oedipus complex|Oedipus complex]], father–son conflictual relationship, and parricide),<ref name=Moses>Jan Assmann, ''From Akhenaten to Moses: Ancient Egypt and Religious Change'' (2014), pp. 65-66, The American University in Cairo Press, ISBN 978-977-416-631-0.</ref> with the insertion of an [[Pseudohistory|entirely fictional story]] that would link the Exodus with Akhenaten's fall;<ref name=Assmann /> however, there's no archaeological proof that all this has ever happened.<ref name=Hoffmeier>James K. Hoffmeier, ''Akhenaten and the Origins of Monotheism'' (2015), pp. 245-246, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-979208-5.</ref> For this reason, most biblical scholars and Egyptologists today consider Freud's essay to be "fanciful",<ref name=Hoffmeier /> no more than a "historical novel",<ref name=Assmann /> which he championed, together with Moses' murder, "because he needed the fact for his psychoanalysis of Judaism".<ref name=Moses />

==Other religions==
Among the Andamanese people only one god is recognised, Paluga. However, Paluga is not worshipped, he simply created the universe, then fucked off.<ref>https://www.webindia123.com/territories/andaman/people/intro.htm</ref>

Christian missionaries equated several Aboriginal Australian creator gods with the Christian god, such as Baiame from the Gamilaraay or Bunjil from the Kulin. It remains debatable if this was the case in pre-colonial Australia, especially when you consider that "god" or "deity" as a term to describe Dreaming entities is controversial.

== Varieties of monotheism ==
There is a distinction between '''inclusive monotheism''' and '''exclusive monotheism'''. Inclusive monotheists believe in one ultimate deity, but they are willing to accept many different gods as being different names, forms, aspects, emanations, representatives, servants, etc., of this one ultimate deity.<ref>This is distinct from henotheism which accepts other gods as independent divine beings, this is actually a form of {{wpl|Syncretism|syncretism}}</ref> Inclusive monotheism is compatible with [[polytheism]]; worship of many different gods is seen as a way of worshipping the one God indirectly.<ref>This is similar to how [[Greco-Roman religion]] associated foreign deities with various gods from its own pantheon (syncretism again).</ref> By contrast, exclusive or strict monotheists believe that no other gods than their preferred deity [[No True Scotsman|are real]]. Thus the deities worshipped by other people are either simply non-existent, [[demon]]s masquerading as gods, human [[Magic|sorcerers]] or [[Shyster|conmen]] tricking their believers into worshipping them, and so on and so forth. The worship of other deities is seen as sinful indeed as a cardinal sin. Historically, Judaism, Christianity and Islam have adopted the exclusive monotheist position, though it's clear from the [[Old Testament]] that Judaism started out as a henotheist religion.<ref>For instance the [[Ten Commandments#First Commandment: Idolatry|First Commandment]] quite clearly acknowledges the existence of other gods, but simply insists that YHWH be venerated above all other gods, since He "is a jealous god".</ref> The majority of the followers of these Abrahamic religions remain exclusive monotheists, but some liberal Christians have turned to inclusive monotheism instead.

==Monotheism and authoritarianism==
Monotheism is often{{cn}} seen as related to political [[authoritarianism]]. The idea that we must subjugate ourselves to an all-powerful God is a central part of most monotheistic systems (in contrast, polytheism often allows picking and choosing, and suggests gods will either be in conflict or rule as part of a council or consensus). If God is seen as masculine, this aligns monotheism with [[patriarchy]]. Carol Delaney has written about the myth of Abraham's sacrifice of [[Isaac]] as an exemplar of patriarchal control of society exerting power of life and death.<ref name=diski>[https://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n24/jenny-diski/the-will-of-the-fathers "The Will of the Fathers: Review of ''Abraham on Trial: The Social Legacy of the Biblical Myth'' by Carol Delaney"], Jenny Diski, ''London Review of Books'', Vol. 20 No. 24 · 10 December 1998, pages 24-26.</ref>

The Russian [[anarchist]] Mikhail Bakunin saw the existence of a monotheistic God as the greatest enemy to human freedom:
{{cquote|For, if God is, he is necessarily the eternal, supreme, absolute master, and, if such a master exists, man is a slave; now, if he is a slave, neither justice, nor equality, nor fraternity, nor prosperity are possible for him. In vain, flying in the face of good sense and all the teachings of history, do they represent their God as animated by the tenderest love of human liberty: a master, whoever he may be and however liberal he may desire to show himself, remains none the less always a master. His existence necessarily implies the slavery of all that is beneath him. Therefore, if God existed, only in one way could he serve human liberty - by ceasing to exist. A jealous lover of human liberty, and deeming it the absolute condition of all that we admire and respect in humanity, I reverse the phrase of Voltaire, and say that, ''if God really existed, it would be necessary to abolish him''.<ref>
[https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/godstate/ch02.htm God and the State], Mikhail Bakunin, 1871, Chapter 2.
</ref>}}

== Monotheism and violence ==
A single unique god-figure dominating the forefront of human thinking and awareness may lead to an expectation of partisan [[miracle]]s and to in[[tolerance]] for [[other | the Other]]. Suspicions have emerged that monotheism may promote or become involved in violence,<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = de Haardt
 |first1               = Maaike
 |editor-last1         = de Haardt
 |editor-first1        = Maaike
 |editor-last2         = Korte
 |editor-first2        =  Anna-Marie
 |chapter              = The Whole of Life. Beyond the Boundaries of Monotheism
 |title                = The Boundaries of Monotheism: Interdisciplinary Explorations into the Foundations of Western Monotheism
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc2wCQAAQBAJ
 |series               = Studies in Theology and Religion
 |location             = Leiden
 |publisher            = Brill
 |publication-date     = 2009
 |page                 = 135
 |isbn                 = 9789047426639
 |access-date          = 31 October 2021
 |quote                = Summarizing the main objections against monotheism in these discussions it may be said that there is a postulated relationship between monotheism and violence, between monotheism and the abuse of power and between monotheism and exclusion. Furthermore it is said that monotheism knows no tolerance, no difference and therefore eliminates the 'other/Other'.' [...] it aims to control everything and everybody that is 'other.' [...] Montheism is cruel and forces us to endure and accept suffering. Also, absolute monotheism offers no experiences of divine intimacy and presence.
}} 
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Schwartz
 |first1               = Regina M.
 |author-link1         = Regina Schwartz
 |title                = The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=h3opOI9m6PgC
 |location             = Chicago
 |publisher            = University of Chicago Press
 |publication-date     = 1997
 |page                 = 
 |isbn                 = 9780226742007
 |access-date          = 31 October 2021
 |quote                = 
}} 
</ref>
justifying various [[crusades]], [[jihad]]s, and other Holy Wars as well as personal brutality.

Possible counter-examples of the monotheism-violence nexus include those provided by polytheists: the Mongol Empire, the Aztecs, and the Zulu Empire.

==References==
{{reflist|2|80%}}

[[Category:Paradigms of religion]]
[[Category:Theism]]

Categories: Paradigms of religion, Theism