trentmkelly/rationalwiki huggingface dataset:
Proton

{{Physics}}[[Image:Proton pride.jpg|thumb|A typical Proton, viewed ''in vivo'', actual colours.]]
A '''proton''' is a positively charged [[subatomic particle]] found in the nuclei of [[atom]]s. It has a mass of 1.0073 atomic mass units (amu) and along with the [[neutron]], makes up the vast, vast majority of the mass of an atom - yet only a tiny fraction of the physical space. The number of protons in the nucleus is characteristic of a particular [[element]].

==Subatomic makeup==

Protons consist of three [[quark]]s, making them [[baryon]]s. Two of these are "up" quarks and one is "down". The +2/3 electrical charge of the two up quark and the -1/3 electrical charge of the lone down quark add up to +1 elementary charge for the proton. These quarks are held together by the strong force, a highly powerful attractive force that only extends as far as the nucleus of the atom - which is represented by particles called gluons. With this, one begins to see why particle physics and botany have a lot in common.

==Chemistry==

The "proton" is a key concept in the world of chemistry, particularly acidity. An acid is something with a lot of "free" protons lying around in solution, while a base (the opposite of an acid) mops up these additional "free" protons and reduces their concentration.<ref group=note>Actually, acids steal electrons instead of donating protons, while bases donate electrons instead of stealing protons. This is how [[Quartz|SiO<sub>2</sub>]] or B[[Fluorine|F]]<sub>3</sub> solutions can be acidic without starting a [[Radiation|nuclear reaction]].</ref> The term "free" here is placed in quotes because the protons aren't actually free as in hanging around completely naked; such a situation would be extremely unstable. They are usually chemically bonded to other molecules present, like the solvent. In water, the protons chemically bond to H<sub>2</sub>O to form H<sub>3</sub>O(+).

As any high-school physics or chemistry student knows, protons are red.

==Interesting tidbits==

In the alternate reality of [[Poe's Law|extreme parodist]] [[Sisyphus]], protons are actually demons incarnate - while orbiting [[electron]]s are angels. This view was taken as serious by many bloggers and readers, and confusion over whether Sisyphus was real or parody (or even if people out there genuinely hold similar views ) remains to this day.

In the alternate reality of some Malaysian politicians, a Proton is a huge national success story in the Malaysian automotive industry, building high quality, innovative cars that put the country on the world map, making the population of the left-hand drive world green with envy that the chance to own such a fine brand of automobile is denied them.

==See also==
*[[Neutron]]
*[[Electron]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

[[category:chemistry]]
[[Category:physics]]
[[Category:Fundamental particles]]

Categories: chemistry, physics, Fundamental particles
Protoscience

{{science}}
{{Sources needed}}
{{cquote|Some people seem never able to realise that no great discovery comes forth without attendant clouds of error & half truth. The biological deductions of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] were essentially sound—though they included many minor slips & ignored important factors later discovered.|||[[H. P. Lovecraft]]<ref>[https://github.com/punchmonster/Lovecraft-Letters/blob/master/19360916-Kenneth-Sterling.md Lovecraft's September 1936 Letter to Kenneth Sterling].</ref>}}
'''Protosciences''' are fields of study that existed before the modern [[scientific method]] was established<ref group=note>We can't say for sure when exactly, but a good guess would be 1620 with [[Francis Bacon]]'s ''Novum Organum''.</ref> before developing into proper [[science]]. They were often concerned as much with [[occultism]] or [[religion]] as with natural phenomena. Continuing to hold belief in a protoscience that has been discredited in favor of a modern scientific field is considered [[pseudoscience]]. In a broader sense, much of science could also fall under the term "protoscience". If a field of study is consistent with existing science, but has not yet been tested rigorously by the scientific method, because it is still in its formative years, then that protoscience (read: not-yet-science) is to be distinguished from [[pseudoscience]] (read: never-science). Technically speaking, all science ''could'' be a protoscience: you never know if tomorrow, something new will be found which utterly shakes the foundations of science and creates a [[paradigm shift]] (kind of like what [[radium]] did a century ago).

Examples of past protosciences include:
*[[alchemy]], which developed into [[chemistry]]
*[[astrology]], which developed into [[astronomy]]
*[[heroic medicine]], which was supplanted by modern [[medicine]]
*[[herbalism]] and [[folk remedy|folk remedies]], which developed into pharmacology
*alienism, which developed into [[psychology]] (although [[Thomas Kuhn]] would argue that psychology is still a protoscience){{fact}}

The theory of hypnotism or "animal magnetism" was, for instance, never developed into a science (although modern neurologists do study hypnosis).

Modern protosciences may or may not include things such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[ball lightning]], [[quantum computer|quantum computing]], [[string theory]], [[astrobiology]], and [[memetics]]. By definition, we can only speculate on what these will lead to, as future scientific discoveries must be unknown in the present. Stay tuned.

==See also==
* [[Philosophy]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{stub|History}}

[[Category:Protoscience|*]]
[[category:Science]]
[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]

Categories: Protoscience, Science, History, Pseudoscience
Proud Boys Britannia

#REDIRECT [[Proud Boys#Proud Boys Britannia]]

[[Category:Alt-right]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
[[Category:Hate groups]]
[[Category:Islamophobia]]
[[Category:Men's rights movement]]
[[Category:Nationalism in the UK]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Transphobia]]
[[Category:White supremacy]]

Categories: Alt-right, Fascism, Hate groups, Islamophobia, Men's rights movement, Nationalism in the UK, Racism, Transphobia, White supremacy
Proud Boys UK

#REDIRECT [[Proud Boys#Proud Boys Britannia]]

[[Category:Alt-right]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
[[Category:Hate groups]]
[[Category:Islamophobia]]
[[Category:Men's rights movement]]
[[Category:Nationalism in the UK]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Transphobia]]
[[Category:White supremacy]]

Categories: Alt-right, Fascism, Hate groups, Islamophobia, Men's rights movement, Nationalism in the UK, Racism, Transphobia, White supremacy
Providence Lost: A Critique of Darwinism

{{philosophy}}{{title-italics}}
'''''Providence Lost: A Critique of Darwinism''''' is an anti-evolution book written by [[philosopher]] Richard Spilsbury and published by the Oxford University Press in 1974. The book offers a philosophical critique of the neo-Darwinian view of [[evolution]] which Spilsbury equates with materialism. The book claims that the neo-Darwinian view has turned into a scientific dogma and that naturalistic evolutionary theories fail to explain [[consciousness]], free will, pain, love, language, and the behaviour of humans.<ref>The Library journal book review R.R. Bowker., 1 Jan 1977, p. 345</ref> The book advocates [[human exceptionalism]] and uses arguments very similar to [[creationist]]s. It has been [[quote mine]]d by [[intelligent design]] advocates.<ref>[http://www.discovery.org/a/1598 Providence Lost - And Found? by M.D. Aeschliman]</ref>

==See also==
*''[[Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False]]''

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{crebox}}
{{stub|Creationism}}
[[Category:Books]]
[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Intelligent design creationism]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Categories: Books, Creationism, Intelligent design creationism, Philosophy
Pruebas científicas por el terraplanismo

{{challenge}}
El próximo es una lista de todos las pruebas que la tierra es plana. ¡Buen suerte!

==La lista==
{{crickets}}

===Si puedes inventar algo científicamente válido===
Agarrarás todos por gratis durante su vida.

==Véase también==
{{otherlang
|pagelang=es
|en=Scientific evidence for a flat Earth
|fr=Preuves scientifiques d'une Terre plate}}

[[Category:Flat Earth]]

Categories: Flat Earth
Pruebas científicas por la existencia de dios

{{challenge}}
A continuación hay una compilación de todas las pruebas científicas que demuestran la existencia de una deidad. 

{{crickets}}

==Véase también==
{{otherlang
|pagelang=es
|en=Scientific evidence for God's existence
|fr=Preuves scientifiques de l'existence de Dieu
|ni=神の存在にとっての科学的証拠}}

==Enlaces externos==
* [http://www.godlessgeeks.com/LINKS/GodProof.htm <S>300</S> 667 pruebas de la existencia de dios]

[[Category:Español]]
[[Category:Lists]]
[[Category:Challenge articles]]

Categories: Español, Lists, Challenge articles
Pseudostatistics

{{pseudosciencenav}}
{{cquote|It's like ripping the shiniest part out of a Lamborghini engine and claiming you have the ability to sprint at 300 kilometers per hour.|||''[[Cracked]]''<ref name="cracked">[http://www.cracked.com/blog/8-obvious-signs-statistics-are-lying-to-you/ "8 obvious signs statistics are lying to you"]</ref>}}
{{cquote|Lies, damned lies, and statistics|4=Benjamin Disraeli, or [[Mark Twain]], depending on your preferences}}
'''Pseudostatistics''' is the use of [[statistical]] language, calculations, and numbers to reinforce an argument when the actual statistics used are inappropriate, misapplied, miscalculated, or even [[PIDOOMA|completely made up]]. Pseudostatistics can take many forms, ranging from the obvious "95 percent of all people" clichés that get dropped in [[random]] bar conversations, to complex and subtle misapplications in purportedly scientific works. Many forms of [[pseudoscience]], [[woo]], and [[denialism]] use pseudostatistics to [[Bullshit|bamboozle]] their audience into accepting otherwise obviously flawed arguments and [[logical fallacies]].

==Signs of pseudostatistics==
*Confusion of [[Correlation does not imply causation| correlation with causation]]
*[[Cherry picking|Cherry-pick]]ing of data
*The making of [[category mistake]]s
*Low or non-representative [[sample size]]
*[[Selection bias]]
*Ignorance of any margin of error 

==Examples==
*[[Andrew Schlafly]] loves making [[Conservapedia:Schlafly Statistics|nonsense statistics]] so stupid its almost unbelievable.

==See also==
*[[Bullshit]]
*[[Fox News]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{stub|pseudoscience}}
[[Category:Pseudostatistics| ]]

Categories: Pseudostatistics
Psychic surgery

{{Altmed}}
[[File:Gutierrez3.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Invasively removing the chicken's heart.]]
'''Psychic surgery''' is a form of spiritual [[woo]] commonly practiced in [[Brazil]] and the [[Philippines]] in which a "[[Quack|doctor]]" performs typically unsterilized, invasive surgery on a patient without any surgical instrument whatsoever, and leaves no visible scar. It can be summed up as a non-doctor performing non-surgery.

==What it is==

In reality, psychic surgery involves fraud that makes extensive use of sleight of hand to [[Deceit|deceive]] wealthy Western customers. The material supposedly removed from the patient's body is usually from an animal, and the blood is released from a vial — not from the patient's body — with palming or some other trick. The practice received publicity in 1984 when comedian {{wpl|Andy Kaufman}} paid for psychic surgery in a misguided attempt to remove a [[tumor]]. Negative attention caused psychic surgery to be widely abandoned in favor of other [[Alternative medicine|alternative medicines]].

Psychic surgery is relatively side-effect-free other than possible staining with chicken guts, and loss of earnings… however, the main danger is when seriously ill people such as Andy Kaufman take it seriously. Then it gives [[false hope]] and may stop them from getting proper medical attention. [[Placebo effect]]s may apply.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = McClenon
 |first1               = James
 |date                 = 11 November 2016
 |orig-date            = 1994
 |chapter              = Performing Wondrous Events: ESP, Psychic Surgery, and Firewalking
 |title                = Wondrous Events: Foundations of Religious Belief
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=V1QrEAAAQBAJ
 |series               = Anniversary Collection
 |edition              = new
 |publication-place    = Philadelphia
 |publisher            = University of Pennsylvania Press
 |page                 = 126
 |isbn                 = 9781512804201
 |access-date          = 15 May 2024
 |quote                = ESP exhibitions, psychic surgery, and firewalking exemplify wondrous performances that stimulate placebo effects.
}}
</ref>

==See also==

*[[Gary Mannion]]

==External links==
*[http://www.therapies.com/surgery/ Therapies.com Offering trips for psychic surgery and training courses]
*[http://www.skepdic.com/psurgery.html psychic "surgery"], entry in [[The Skeptic's Dictionary]]
*[http://www.lifepositive.com/spirit/new-age-path/spiritual-healing/psychicsurgery.asp Highly pro-woo biography of woo-meister general Alex L. Orbito]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LjF1sUZEy2U James Randi "performing" psychic surgery] on the Tonight Show with Johnny Carson

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Brazil]]
[[Category:Philippines]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Woo]]

{{stub|alternative medicine}}

Categories: Alternative medicine, Brazil, Philippines, Pseudoscience, Woo
Psychomagic

[[File:Alejandro Jodorowsky.jpg|thumb|right|165px|Alejandro Jodorowsky]] 
{{Altmed}}
{{sources needed}}
'''Psychomagic''' is the name of an alternative therapeutic practice used by filmmaker Alejandro Jodorowsky.<ref>{{wpa|Psychomagic (psychotherapy)|Psychomagic}}</ref>

The technique is alleged to be useful in psychotherapy. It combines [[art]], Eastern philosophies (particularly [[Zen Buddhism]]), [[mysticism]] and modern psychotherapy to allegedly heal patients with emotional problems.

The principle relies on the belief that the [[unconscious]] [[mind]] takes a symbolic act as a fact. So a symbolic act could accordingly help solve some types of non-rational conflicts. These acts are prescribed by the therapist after having studied the patient's personality and family tree.

This practice is shown in the documentary film ''Quantum Men'', starring Cristobal (Axel), son of Alejandro, and directed by Carlos Serrano Azcona.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{stub|alternative medicine}}
[[Category:Living people]]

Categories: Living people
Ptolemy

[[File:Claudius_Ptolemaeus.jpg|thumb|165px|He probably did not look like this]]{{Astronomy|1}}{{Sources needed}}
'''Claudius Ptolemy''' {{lived|c. 100 CE|c. 170 CE}} was an [[astronomy|astronomer]] a long time ago, although in the modern sense of astronomy his designation as an astronomer may be a topic of controversy. In his time, he did some good work, keeping in mind the level of prevailing [[science|scientific]] knowledge, and his research also included [[astrology]], geometry, music theory, geography, and optics.

His most famous work is ''Almagest'' in which he presented a [[geocentrism|geocentric]] model of the solar system. He explained the erratic path of the planets in the sky through a postulate that planets traveled in circles around a central point, in turn, orbiting the [[Earth]] (called an "epicycle"), as moderns would conceive the path of a moon without a planet. In this regard, his cosmological model differed from [[Aristotle]]. The latter imagined the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], and planets each embedded within its crystalline sphere of perfectly hard "[[aether]]" or quintessence.

Ptolemy did pioneering work in trigonometry and geometry. Ironically, his contributions to trigonometry helped [[Copernicus]] verify his heliocentric and counter-Ptolemaic theory.

Ptolemy's theorem remains a useful theorem of geometry. It states that for any cyclic quadrilateral(a four-sided polygon for which all four points are on the circumference of one circle), the product of the lengths one set of opposite sides plus the product of the other set of opposite sides equals the product of the diagonals. In the case of an exact rectangle(all rectangles being cyclic quadrilaterals), this reduces to the more familiar Pythagorean theorem.

There is a crater named in his honor on both the [[Moon]] and [[Mars]].

==References==
{{reflist}}


{{stub|astronomy}}

[[Category:Astronomers]]
[[Category:History of science]]

Categories: Astronomers, History of science
Public domain

{{sources needed}}
[[File:Cc-public domain mark white.svg|right|thumb|165px|The symbol]]
{{law}}
'''Public domain''' refers to information, data, textual or artistic work that is available to the public. In copyright terms, it means the information is freely available for copying and distribution. In broad terms, works that are not covered by [[copyright]], [[patent]] or other form of [[law|legal]] protection are considered to be in the public domain and may be accessed, used, copied and distributed by anyone, with public domain status typically being due to the copyright/patent having expired (with patents lasting fewer years than copyright) or the copyright/patent holder having released it into the public domain intentionally, such as with the CC0 license from Creative Commons (see below). (Note that copyright is automatic in most countries in modern times, so a recent work can be assumed to be copyrighted even if there is no copyright notice (typically a © symbol and the publishing year) present).

==Copyright==
Since copyright and patent laws vary from nation to nation, what is or is not public domain can be confusing. Most of the contents of [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg], for example, are in the public domain in most countries; however, due to differences in copyright regulations across national borders, [http://gutenberg.net.au Gutenberg Australia], though related, has much material that is in the public domain in Australia that is still covered under United States copyright. (Remember to consult your local copyright authorities before loading up on [[George Orwell]] bootlegs.)

Much software, including many free software packages and virtually everything produced by the United States government (see [http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij ImageJ] for one example, a high-quality image editing program written in Java), is public domain; however, most freely distributable software is copyrighted, usually under an [[open source]] license that asserts the creator's copyright while explicitly giving the user many, but not all, of the rights associated with public domain distribution.

Creative Commons, which mostly makes licenses that still use copyright but with less restrictions, has the CC0 public domain dedication for those who want to dedicate their work to the public domain without having to go through longer and more formal procedures. The dedication also provides a loose fallback license for when works that use it cannot be dedicated to the public domain.

==Other legal meanings==
In a broader sense, information or knowledge is "in the public domain" (as opposed to being unknown, a trade secret or whatever) if it is known to or available to the public at all, even if under copyright or other restrictions.

==See also==
*[[Creative Commons]]

==External links==
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Public_domain Summary of public domain from Wikimedia Commons]

[[Category:Copyright]]

Categories: Copyright
Public relations

{{media}}

'''Public relations''' ('''PR''' for short; [[Euphemism|euphemistically]], '''spin''' or '''optics'''<ref>(February 2017). [https://www.merriam-webster.com/wordplay/hot-optics-words-were-watching "A New Meaning of 'Optics'"]. ''Merriam-Webster Dictionary''.</ref>) is the art of making the unacceptable and obnoxious into a fragrant and desirable thing. It can also be described as a refutation of the old saying "you can't polish a [[Shit|turd]]."<ref>
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yiJ9fy1qSFI Mythbusters proves you can indeed polish a turd]
</ref>

The concept and the term "public relations" originated in the [[business]] world — hence the definition of an industry: a [[gang]] of extortionists with a gimmick and a PR agency. (Keen operators acting outside the capitalist nexus had to rely more on clientage/protégés, on private armies<ref>{{wpa | Private army}} </ref> or on patrons ("friends in high places") for support where it mattered.) But PR has evolved such that much of [[politics]] and [[monarchy]] these days is pure public relations.  Noted masters include [[Princess Diana | Lady Diana Spencer]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Ronald Reagan]], and almost any other [[President of the United States]] ([[Jimmy Carter]] being a possible exception to this rule).

As mentioned above, a division of PR is spin. The [[UK]] [[Tony Blair]] government provided a prime example of spinning out of control.

Politicians don't ''[[lie]]'' any more, they just engage in public relations. And they don't change policies any more; they just "spin" them to look more acceptable. 

PR has two main objectives: ''promotion'' and ''damage limitation'':

* Promotion is in effect [[advertising]]; whether of a product, person or organisation. A hitherto unknown person can become famous (and possibly wealthy) purely through the intervention of a PR firm.
* Damage limitation often occurs when a "celebrity" is caught out in some misdemeanor. The PR firm can then spin the reporting of the event or circumstance to place their client in a less bad, or even positive, light

As of 2017 countries such as [[Saudi Arabia]]  pay public-relations firms millions to improve their image in the [[United States]].

==See also==
* [[Edward Bernays]] (1891-1995), who invented{{cn}} the term "public relations" as a euphemism for [[propaganda]]
* [[Frank Luntz]]
* [[Framing]]
* [[Style over substance]]

==External links==
* [http://thefump.com/fump.php?id=1056 "A Song About A Train" by Rob Balder] at thefump.com

[[Category:Political strategery]]
[[Category:Propaganda]]
[[Category:Business]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{stub|Media}}

[[Category:Advertising]]

Categories: Political strategery, Propaganda, Business, Advertising