Napoleon Bonaparte

[[File:Jacques Louis David - Bonaparte franchissant le Grand Saint-Bernard, 20 mai 1800 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|165px|Napleon does a sick wheelie on his horse.]]{{FrenchPolitics}}{{bronze}}
{{cquote|The ideas that underpin our modern world—meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on—were championed, consolidated, codified and geographically extended by Napoleon. To them he added a rational and efficient local administration, an end to rural banditry, the encouragement of science and the arts, the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire.|||Andrew Roberts, British [[historian]].<ref>[https://www.commonlit.org/es/texts/napoleon-bonaparte Napleon Bonaparte: Revolutionary or Tyrant?] ''CommonLit''</ref>}}
'''Napoléon Bonaparte''', born '''''Napoleone di Buonaparte''''' {{lived|1769|1821}}, was a French statesman, [[math]] nerd,<ref name="nbmath">[https://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath270/kmath270.htm Napoleon's Theorem]. ''Math Pages''.</ref> [[science]] enthusiast,<ref name="nbscience">[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/napoleons-lifelong-interest-science-180964485/ Napoleon’s Lifelong Interest in Science]. ''Smithsonian Magazine.''</ref> and military commander of Corsican origin who became Emperor of [[France]] after the [[French Revolution]] and led that country through the tumultuous Napoleonic Wars. He was arguably the first modern [[dictator]].

Napoleon was born in Corsica to a minor noble family. Corsica itself had only been conquered by France a year before Napoleon's birth.<ref>{{wpa|French conquest of Corsica|}}</ref> Napoleon was an artillery officer in the French army when the 1789 Revolution broke out. The subsequent campaigns by the [[United Kingdom]] and its allies against the French [[Republic]] brought Napoleon into national prominence. He came to power in 1799 after orchestrating a ''[[coup d'état]]'' (the "{{wpl|Coup of 18 Brumaire||")}} and ruled France for five years as "First Consul" before the French Senate declared him Emperor. This spawned many bad "can he do it? Of Corsi-can" jokes.{{nofact}}

After winning many stunning victories throughout the '''Napoleonic Wars''', the emperor met his downfall due to his own hubris, as dictators are wont to do. His extended fight against [[guerrilla warfare]] in {{wpl|Iberia}} (1807–1814) and his ill-advised 1812 invasion of [[Russia]] collapsed his conquests and led to his first downfall (1814). Napoleon improbably managed to return from exile, but faced his final defeat during the {{wpl|Battle of Waterloo}} (1815).

Napoleon's greatest influence on the modern world comes through the [[liberal]] reforms he brought to Western Europe. His "Napoleonic Code" replaced the old patchwork of laws and backward customs that Western [[Europe]] inherited from [[feudalism]].<ref>{{wpa|Napoleonic Code|}}</ref> The Napoleonic Code upheld the principles of equality before the law ([[sexism|for men]]), [[Civil rights|civil liberty]], and [[secularism]].<ref>[https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-napoleonic-code/ The Napoleonic Code] ''Lumen Learning''</ref> 

Despite popular [[stereotype]]s, Napoleon was not particularly short, standing at about 5'6" (1.68m), which was a perfectly average height for the time. The widely-cited "short Napoleon" caricature derives from anti-French [[propaganda]] published in [[Britain]] that intentionally conflated the size of the French inch (2.71 cm) and the British inch (2.54 cm), and from the fact that his personal guards were often more than 6 feet tall, making Napoleon seem smaller than he was.<ref>[https://history.howstuffworks.com/history-vs-myth/napoleon-short.htm Was Napoleon really short?] ''HowStuffWorks''</ref><ref>[https://www.thoughtco.com/was-napoleon-bonaparte-short-1221108 Was Napoleon Bonaparte Really Short?]. ''ThoughtCo.''</ref> Furthermore, many of the political and military leaders of Napoleon's time ''were'' taller than he was, so there is at least a kernel of truth to the myth. Nevertheless, a '''Napoleon complex''' refers to a short person compensating for diminutive stature in other ways.

==Napoleon's rise==
===Napoleon's early years===
[[File:Napoleon - 2.jpg|thumb|right|165px|Napoleon as a young adult with long hair.]]
{{cquote|As the nation was perishing I was born. Thirty thousand Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores, drowning the throne of liberty in waves of blood. Such was the odious sight which was the first to strike me.|||Napoleon on the French conquest of Corsica, 1789.<ref>McLynn, Frank (1998). Napoleon. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6247-5. ASIN 0712662472. p. 37.</ref>}}
Napoleon's family was minor nobility of Tuscan origin who had [[immigration|immigrated]] to Corsica in the 16<sup>th</sup> Century.<ref>McLynn, Frank (1998). Napoleon. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6247-5. ASIN 0712662472. p. 2</ref> Napoleon was born in the year after France conquered the island from Genoa.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/zg9kwmn Napoleon Bonaparte: The Little Corporal who built an Empire] "Napoleon was born in Ajaccio, Corsica on 15 August. The occupying French forces who ran the island had acquired it from Genoa ''the year before''."</ref> He was proud to be Italian, claiming that he was "of the race that founds empires."<ref>Gueniffey, Patrice. [https://books.google.it/books/about/Bonaparte.html?id=OqlKCAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y ''Bonaparte'']. Harvard University Press. p. 22.</ref> Like [[Mussolini]] after him, Napoleon was an Italian who spent his young adulthood fighting against the thing he would later create. In Napoleon's case, it was France itself. He was an avowed Corsican nationalist, as his parents had fought against the French conquest of the island before and during his birth.<ref>Cronin, Vincent (1994). ''Napoleon''. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-637521-0. p. 20–21.</ref> Napoleon was unhappy as a teenager (surprise, surprise), and even went so far as to write an essay contemplating the concept of [[suicide]] partially inspired by what he perceived as the weakness of his countrymen in the face of French oppression.<ref>[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/93970818 Napoleon on Suicide.] National Library of Australia.</ref><ref>[https://shannonselin.com/2018/04/napoleon-attempted-suicide/ When Napoleon Attempted Suicide]. Shannon Selin.</ref> He was also a romantic in his youth, and he penned a trashy romance novel called ''Clisson et Eugénie'', based on his real-life relationships.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/5293757/Napoleon-Bonaparte-the-romantic-novelist.html Napoleon Bonaparte – the romantic novelist]. By Chris Irvine. ''The Telegraph''.</ref>

[[Education]] turned Napoleon into a Frenchman. He enrolled in a French military academy run by clergy, where he faced [[bullying]] for being a foreigner.<ref name="napbio">[https://www.notablebiographies.com/Mo-Ni/Napoleon-Bonaparte.html Napoleon Bonaparte Biography].</ref> Despite his [[religious]] education, he was never a true [[Christian]]. Napoleon was instead inspired by [[Enlightenment]]-style [[secularism]]. He said during this part of his life that he was scandalized to learn that "the most virtuous man of antiquity would burn in [[Hell]] for not having practised a religion he knew nothing about."<ref>[http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Emperor_Napoleon.htm Napoleon Bonaparte]. G. Smith, A. Nuñez.</ref> His Enlightenment background also lent itself to a lifelong interest in science.<ref name="nbscience"/> During school, Napoleon excelled at mathematics to the point where his teachers decided that he'd have a fulfilling career in the artillery corps, where math skills were essential.<ref name="nbmath"/> Napoleon also had a geometric theorem named after him, although there's doubt as to whether he was the one who came up with it.<ref>{{wpa|Napoleon's theorem|}}</ref>

===During the Revolutionary Wars===
[[File:Bonaparte 13 vendémiaire Saint Roch.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Napoleon uses artillery to quell the royalists.<br/>"No, ''connard'', the enemy's that way!"]]
{{cquote|I like [[Islam|the Mohammedan religion]] best. It has fewer incredible things in it than ours.|||Napoleon on [[religion]].<ref name="napquotesi"/>}}
After the Revolution broke out, Napoleon went AWOL from the French military to deal with the situation on Corsica. The island was split three ways between the royalists, the revolutionaries, and the nationalists. Napoleon sided with the Revolution, and this forced him to split with his former family friends who favored independence and his own hometown.<ref>[https://shannonselin.com/2015/04/napoleon-and-the-easter-insurrection-in-corsica/ Napoleon and the Easter Insurrection in Corsica]. Shannon Selin.</ref> Pasquale Paoli, the leader of the Corsican nationalists, had turned against the revolutionaries after the execution of France's king.<ref>[https://www.notablebiographies.com/knowledge/Pasquale_Paoli.html Pasquale Paoli].</ref> Paoli's subsequent actions (sabotaging a French campaign in Sardinia)<ref>{{wpa|French expedition to Sardinia|}}</ref> infuriated Napoleon and convinced him to denounce Paoli as a traitor. The Buonaparte family was driven from Corsica in 1793.

In France, Napoleon wrote a pro-republican pamphlet which earned him the attention and respect of Maximilien Robespierre, an influential French politician and architect of the "Reign of Terror".<ref>{{wpa|Le souper de Beaucaire|}}</ref> He subsequently became a commander during the campaign against anti-republican forces in southern France and won his first victory by ejecting the Anglo-Spanish fleet from the city and forts of Toulon.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Toulon Siege of Toulon]. ''Britannica''.</ref> However, Napoleon's career suffered a setback when Robespierre fell from power due to a coup.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Thermidorian-Reaction Thermidorian Reaction]. ''Britannica''.</ref> A [[Catholic]] royalist uprising against the republican government gave Napoleon his chance to retake the spotlight. He took command in Paris and used artillery to launch grapeshot and decimated the royalist army despite being outnumbered six-to-one.<ref>[https://www.warhistoryonline.com/napoleon/toulon-whiff-grapeshot-napoleons-first-successes.html Toulon and the Whiff of Grapeshot: Napoleon’s First Successes]. ''War History Online.''</ref>

In the wake of his successful defense of Paris, the French government assigned Napoleon to the Army of Italy. At this point, Napoleon changed his name from Buonaparte to the more French Bonaparte, realizing then that his future was in France and not in Corsica.<ref>[https://www.thoughtco.com/bonaparte-buonaparte-biography-1221107 Bonaparte / Buonaparte]. ''ThoughtCo.''</ref> In Italy, Napoleon faced the armies of Austria and Sardinia-Piedmont. Luckily for him, the two countries hated each other and their armies refused to coordinate. Napoleon was able to defeat the two armies separately and take northern Italy.<ref name="napitalyi">[https://www.thoughtco.com/napoleon-and-the-italian-campaign-1221692 Napoleon and the Italian Campaign of 1796–7]. ''ThoughtCo.''</ref> Taking initiative, Napoleon negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio, which ceded what is now Belgium to France and annexed most of northern Italy into a newly-formed client state called the Cisalpine Republic.<ref>[https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/campo-formio-treaty Campo Formio, Treaty Of]. ''Encyclopedia.com''</ref> The victorious campaign brought Napoleon fully into the national spotlight. Meanwhile, the vast sums of loot Napoleon managed to extort from the small Italian states helped stabilize France's teetering republican government.<ref name="napitalyi"/>

[[File:Bonaparte ante la Esfinge, por Jean-Léon Gérôme.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A painting of Napoleon visiting the [[Great Sphinx of Giza]].<br/>"What sort of idiots build a sculpture without a nose?"]]

With peace brought to the continent, France turned its attention to its most stubborn foe: Great Britain. With the British navy too powerful to defeat in the Channel, Napoleon instead wanted to fight in the [[Middle East]]. He hoped that establishing a stronghold there could disrupt British trade with their colonies in [[India]]. The Directory, France's new government, went along with it because they were glad for an excuse to keep Napoleon out of France and far away from a chance to launch his own coup.<ref name="napegypt">[https://www.thoughtco.com/napoleons-egyptian-campaign-1221695 Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign]. ''ThoughtCo.''</ref> Napoleon set out for [[Egypt]]. Along with his army, Napoleon brought about 150 of France's best scholars and scientists to study Egyptian culture and history.<ref name="nbscience"/> Among their accomplishments was the discovery of the Rosetta Stone.<ref>[https://napoleon.lindahall.org/rosetta_stone.shtml The Rosetta Stone]. Linda Hall Library.</ref> Napoleon's campaign in Egypt began auspiciously. He defeated the Egyptian army in the Battle of the [[Pyramid]]s and installed a new government in Cairo to abolish feudalism and modernize Egypt.<ref name="napegypt"/> During his campaign, Napoleon outwardly embraced [[Islam]] to ingratiate himself to the Egyptian populace but he remained a staunch secularist.<ref>[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2938 Bonaparte and Islam]. Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte by Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne edited by R.W. Phipps. Vol. 1 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1889) p. 168-169.</ref> Unfortunately for Napoleon, the British navy entered the Mediterranean and destroyed the French, cutting Napoleon off from supplies and forcing him to call off the expedition amid starvation and disease.<ref>[https://www.warhistoryonline.com/napoleon/napoleons-egyptian-campaign.html Disaster In The Desert: Napoleon’s Egyptian Campaign]. ''War History Online.''</ref> Napoleon abandoned his troops and returned home to France on a small boat.

===The Brumaire Coup===
[[File:Bouchot - Le general Bonaparte au Conseil des Cinq-Cents.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Napoleon in Saint-Cloud during the Brumaire Coup, 1799.]]
The Coup of 18 Brumaire marked the end of the French Revolution and brought General Napoleon Bonaparte to power as First Consul of France. While Napoleon was adventuring in Egypt, diplomatic disagreements between the new French government and the various monarchies of Europe led to the outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition. Knowledge of France's defeats and the near loss of everything Napoleon had worked for is what prompted him to return to France so abruptly.<ref> Owen Connelly (2006). Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7. ISBN 978-0742553187. p. 57</ref> The French government at this point was too politically weak to punish France's most famous war hero for deserting his post. 

Napoleon was approached by Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, a member of the Directory, France's five-member ruling body, who convinced him to join a coup against the other members in order to centralize France's executive power.<ref name="brumairei">[https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-first-consul/ The First Consul]. ''Lumen Learning.''</ref> Falsely warning of a Jacobin plot against the government, Sieyès convinced France's legislative bodies to gather in the Palace at Saint-Cloud, placing them away from Paris and surrounded by Bonaparte's loyal soldiers.<ref name="brumaireii">[https://www.britannica.com/event/Coup-of-18-19-Brumaire Coup of 18–19 Brumaire]. ''Britannica''.</ref> Meanwhile, Sieyès intimidated two other members of the Directory into resigning with him, leaving the body neutered with three out of five seats empty.<ref name="brumairei"/> The legislators figured out what Napoleon was up to and chased him away when he tried giving them a speech, but the other plotters salvaged the situation by sending in soldiers to terrorize them into dissolving France's government and establishing a three-member consulate under First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte.<ref name="brumaireii"/>

Napoleon, however, was not about to share power in a triumvirate, and he certainly wasn't going to be a puppet of Sieyès. He spent the following months strengthening his own post as First Consul. This culminated with him proposing a new constitution that would place all executive power under Bonaparte and allow him to rule by decree. Napoleon then rigged the referendum on the new constitution, announcing that 99% of France's voters had approved it.<ref name="napconsul">[https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/napoleons-constitution/ Napoleon’s Constitution]. ''Lumen Learning''.</ref> The constitution would be amended twice. The first time was in 1802, which made Napoleon First Consul for life.<ref name="napconsul"/> The second amendment was in 1804, which established the French Empire and crowned Napoleon as Napoleon I, Emperor of the French and leader of the House Bonaparte.<ref name="napconsul"/> The turbulent French Revolution had ended with France becoming an autocratic dictatorship.

==As First Consul==
[[File:Napoleon Bonaparte as First Consul.jpg|thumb|right|165px|First Consul Napoleon.]]
===Ending the wars===
After assuming leadership of France, Napoleon immediately set about dealing with the ongoing War of the Second Coalition. Although various nations were fighting against France, the bulk of the actual threat came from Austria. Napoleon thus chose a bold strategy of crossing the Alps and narrowly managed to rout the Austrians in northern Italy at the Battle of Marengo.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Marengo Battle of Marengo]. ''Britannica''</ref> Austria made peace a year after in 1801, and Russia voluntarily left the coalition due to its recently crowned [[czar]] deciding that he admired Napoleon.<ref>[http://www.historyhome.co.uk/c-eight/france/coalit2.htm The Second Coalition 1799-1801].</ref>

The United Kingdom, meanwhile, had also grown tired of the constant warfare. Secret talks began, and the result was the 1802 Treaty of Amiens. In it, France agreed to withdraw from central and southern Italy, but they kept northern Italy, the Rhineland, and the Netherlands.<ref>[https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/treaty-amiens The Treaty of Amiens]. ''History Today''.</ref> France thus got the better end of the deal, but the true purpose was to provide both sides with a much-needed breather before resuming hostilities.

With peace achieved and France's economy beginning to recover, Napoleon became by far the most popular of France's post-Revolution leaders up to that point.<ref>Lyons, Martyn (1994). Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution. St. Martin's Press. pp. 111–114.</ref> This is what enabled Napoleon to hold the second referendum to amend the new constitution to make him France's dictator for life.

===The Americas and slavery===
{{cquote|The decision to reestablish slavery isn't just a stain on Napoleon's legacy, it's a crime.|||Louis-Georges Tin, Representative Council of Black Associations (CRAN).<ref name="napslavery">[https://www.dw.com/en/remembering-that-napoleon-reinstated-slavery-in-france/a-57408273 Remembering that Napoleon reinstated slavery]. ''Deutsche Welle.''</ref>}}
[[File:Officier de la Révolution haïtienne.jpg|thumb|right|165px|[[Toussaint Louverture|The freed slave who beat First Consul Napoleon]].]]
With peace (temporarily) achieved across Europe, Napoleon turned his attention to France's [[colonial]] empire. France's colony in [[Haiti]] had risen up against [[racist]] colonial rule and forced the new republican government to abolish [[slavery]]. Napoleon inflamed the situation in 1802 by relegalizing the vile institution, betraying the ideals of the Revolution and condemning over 300,000 people to decades more in bondage until France abolished slavery once more in 1848.<ref name="napslavery"/> He did this in order to revitalize France's colonies in the Caribbean, with the broader goal of reestablishing France as a major colonial power after its defeat to British Empire during the French and Indian War.

Back on Haiti, revolutionary leader [[Toussaint Louverture]] proclaimed himself "Governor-for-Life" and began acting unilaterally to negotiate trade treaties with the United Kingdom and the [[United States]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haitian-Revolution Haitian Revolution]. ''Britannica''.</ref> Louverture's push for autonomy angered Napoleon, who sent an army to betray and capture him. At first, this pacified the island. However, Napoleon made the grave mistake of declaring his intention to reinstate slavery in Haiti, which prompted Louverture's second-in-command Jean-Jacques Dessalines to rise up again and fully expel the French from the island.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Jacques-Dessalines Jean-Jacques Dessalines]. ''Britannica''.</ref> The humiliating defeat in Haiti convinced Napoleon that France would not have an empire in the Americas; this influenced his decision to sell France's claim to the Louisiana Territory to the United States.<ref>[https://www.historywiz.com/toussaint.htm The Slave Who Defeated Napoleon]. ''HistoryWiz.''</ref>

Louisiana had previously been under Spanish control, and in 1795, the United States had made a treaty with Spain allowing them access to the Mississippi River and New Orleans.<ref>[https://history.state.gov/milestones/1784-1800/pickney-treaty Treaty of San Lorenzo/ Pinckney’s Treaty, 1795]. US State Department.</ref> This arrangement was threatened when Napoleon acquired Louisiana from Spain through a secret deal and announced his intentions to rebuild France as a colonial power in the Americas.<ref>[https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/10/31/the-louisiana-purchase-napoleon-sold-it-to-u-s-eager-for-money-to-wage-war-on-britain-and-a-british-bank-financed-the-sale/ The Louisiana Purchase: Napoleon, eager for money to wage war on Britain, sold the land to U.S.–and a British bank financed the sale]. ''The Vintage News''.</ref> The Americans feared that French and American expansionism would result in a war over Louisiana. Luckily, that scenario was averted due to Napoleon's loss in Haiti. The Americans were stunned when Napoleon simply offered to sell the entirety of France's claim to Louisiana for a mere $15 million dollars, which US President [[Thomas Jefferson]] eventually accepted.<ref>[https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase Louisiana Purchase, 1803]. US State Department.</ref> The Louisiana Purchase famously doubled the size of the United States. It was also, less famously, [[Amerindian genocides|very bad news]] for the [[Native Americans]] who lived there.

===Code Napoléon===
{{cquote|Is it not an absurd and terrible thing that that which is true in one village is false in another? What kind of Barbarism is it that citizens must live under different laws? When you travel in this kingdom you change legal systems as often as you change horses.|||[[Voltaire]] explains the problem that Napoleon sought to fix.<ref>[http://blogs.bu.edu/guidedhistory/moderneurope/the-napoleonic-code/ The Napoleonic Code]. History Research Guides by Boston University Students.</ref>}}
Creating a new legal system for France had been an ongoing project for much of the French Revolution. The revolutionary governments had shattered the secular power of the [[Catholic Church]], broken the guilds, and legally unified the country.<ref name="codei">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Napoleonic-Code Napoleonic Code]. ''Britannica''.</ref> Before the revolution, France was governed by a number of different legal systems, from Frankish Customary Law around Paris to traditional Roman Law in the south to [[theocratic]] Church laws in lands controlled by the clergy.<ref name="codeii">[https://www.thoughtco.com/the-napoleonic-code-code-napoleon-1221918 A History of the Napoleonic Code (Code Napoléon)]. ''ThoughtCo.''</ref> There was an increasing push to replace France's outdated and contradictory feudal laws with a new legal system based on [[rationalism]]. Napoleon himself recognized the importance of building a legal state to bolster his rule, and he was desperate to be seen as more than just a general who had seized power with force.

The "Civil Code of the French People" was implemented across France's territories in 1804, and it became known as the "Code Napoléon" in 1807.<ref name="codeii"/> The code was both revolutionary and [[conservative]]. It ended the French [[nobility]] and declared that [[United States Declaration of Independence|all men were created equal]], but [[sexism|it did not grant rights to women]].<ref name="codeii"/> Like in the United States at the time, the key word in "all men are created equal" was ''men''. Non-whites also lost out, as slavery was re-legalized across France's colonies.<ref name="codeii"/> Like in the United States at the time, "men" was wordlessly amended to mean "''white'' men". 

Nonetheless, the Code was innovative in that it recognized property rights and actually explained how those property rights actually worked in practice.<ref name="codei"/> Unfortunately, it was also a step back in terms of criminal justice, as it returned prison labor, warantless arrests, and freaking ''branding'' to the French justice system.<ref name="codeii"/> 

The Code Napoléon is still used in France in modified form today. Later it formed the basis of the private law of the [[Netherlands]], [[Germany]], [[Belgium]] and [[Spain]], and was quite influential throughout the rest of [[Europe]]. Some "descendants" of the Code Napoléon were later "exported" to other countries trying to come up with a new code of civil law, e.g. [[Japan]]. Since [[Louisiana]] was a French colony until Napoleon himself sold it to the United States in 1803, and the purchase wasn't finalized until 1804, the Code Napoléon is also the basis of civil law in Louisiana.<ref>[https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2005/09/is-louisiana-under-napoleonic-law.html "Is Louisiana Under Napoleonic Law?"] - ''Slate Magazine''</ref>

===Becoming emperor===
[[File:Ingres, Napoleon on his Imperial throne.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Napoleon on his throne.]]
{{cquote|To be a king is to inherit old ideas and genealogy. I don't want to descend from anyone.|||Napoleon on becoming Emperor.<ref name="coronation">{{wpa|Coronation of Napoleon I|}}</ref>}} 
Despite his popularity, Napoleon faced multiple assassination plots from royalists and Jacobins.<ref>{{wpa|Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise|}}</ref><ref>{{wpa|Conspiration des poignards|}}</ref> Napoleon received intelligence, later proven false, that Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé, the Duke of Enghien was responsible for one of the plots against him. Napoleon had the Duke kidnapped, tried, and executed. This action was the final nail in the coffin preventing any and all reconciliation between Napoleon and the monarchs of Europe, and it prompted the famous quote, “''C’est pire qu’un crime, c’est une faute''” (“It’s worse than a crime, it’s a mistake”).<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Antoine-Henri-de-Bourbon-Conde-duc-dEnghien Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duke d'Enghien]. ''Britannica''</ref>

The various assassination attempts made Napoleon's most ardent supporters, France's landowners, fear what would happen if Napoleon were ever to lose power.<ref name="empnapi">[https://www.thoughtco.com/how-napoleon-became-emperor-1221916 How Napoleon Became Emperor.] ''ThoughtCo.''</ref> He leveraged that fear into the 1802 referendum appointing him First Consul for life. However, the threat of the Bourbons still hung over France, and there was an increasing sense that the only way to preserve what remained of the French Revolution was to make Napoleon a hereditary ruler so that there would never again be an unstable shift in power that could allow the Bourbons to return.<ref name="empnapi"/> Napoleon convinced the French Senate to pass a law making him "Emperor of the French" and once again falsified the results of the national referendum to ensure its passage.<ref name="empnapi"/> Napoleon chose the title Emperor because it was ambitious, and was at that point in history more associated with the [[Roman Empire]] than the hated Bourbon kings.<ref>[https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/napoleonic-legitimacies-and-the-proclamation-of-empire/ Napoleonic legitimacies and the proclamation of empire.] ''Napoleon.org''</ref> A French socialite at the time, Madame de Rémusat, explained that Napoleon's rise was possible because "men worn out by the turmoil of the Revolution … looked for the domination of an able ruler" and that "people believed quite sincerely that Bonaparte, whether as consul or emperor, would exert his authority and save [them] from the perils of [[anarchy]]."<ref>De Rémusat, Claire Elisabeth, Memoirs of Madame De Rémusat, 1802–1808 Volume 1, HardPress Publishing, 2012, 542 pp., ISBN 978-1290517478.</ref> 

Napoleon was crowned as Emperor of the French on Sunday December 2<sup>nd</sup>, 1804.<ref name="coronation"/>

==As emperor==
[[File:Batalla de Trafalgar.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Battle of Trafalgar, one of the wettest battles in European history.]]
===War of the Third Coalition===
The Treaty of Amiens predictably broke down within a year of its negotiation. The issue in question was Malta, which the United Kingdom refused to vacate despite having agreed to do so during the negotiations.<ref name="thirdi">[https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/napoleonic-wars-03.htm 1805-1806 - War of the Third Coalition]. ''GlobalSecurity''.</ref> Napoleon retaliated by occupying the German state of Hanover and the southern Italian kingdom of Naples, both of which were under British protection.<ref name="thirdi"/> The war with the UK began in 1803.

Napoleon began the war in a strong position. France was at the height of its power up to then, and he also had the powerful Spanish fleet at his disposal. Manuel de Godoy was the dictator of Spain in all but name, and he had become a willing puppet ruler of France in 1796 due to having been promised half of [[Portugal]] as a personal conquest.<ref name="spaini">[http://countrystudies.us/spain/13.htm Spain: The Napoleonic Era]. ''Country Studies.''</ref> Napoleon hoped to use the Spanish fleet to destroy the British Royal Navy and finally achieve what no one since William the Bastard had done: invade the British Isles. Unfortunately for him, the Franco-Spanish fleet suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of Admiral Lord Nelson during the Battle of Trafalgar, permanently ending French hopes of achieving naval supremacy.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/trafalgar_01.shtml The Battle of Trafalgar]. ''BBC''.</ref> 

On land, Napoleon once again faced Austria and Russia. Napoleon moved quickly and used a forced march to encircle the Austrians at the German city of Ulm, capturing 60,000 Austrian prisoners and creating the inspiration for the [[World War One|Schlieffen Plan]].<ref>{{wpa|Ulm Campaign|}}</ref> The shattered Austrians retreated towards Austerlitz (now located in [[Czechia]]) to link up with their Russian allies. This set the stage for one of Napoleon's most famous battles. The Battle of Austerlitz, also called the Battle of the Three Emperors, saw Napoleon take advantage of the divisions between the Austrians and Russians to defeat an army of 90,000 soldiers with only 68,000.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Austerlitz Battle of Austerlitz]. ''Britannica''.</ref> 

The disaster convinced Austria to immediately enter an armistice with France. This resulted in the Treaty of Pressburg, in which Austria surrendered all of its lands in Italy to the Cisalpine Republic and surrender its lands in Germany to Napoleon's allies, which were then released from the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Pressburg-1805 Treaty of Pressburg]. ''Britannica''.</ref> Throughout 1806, Napoleon reorganized the German states into the so-called "Confederation of the Rhine", a large French puppet state which represented the closest thing the world had ever seen to a united [[Germany]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederation-of-the-Rhine Confederation of the Rhine]. ''Britannica''.</ref>

===War of the Fourth Coalition===
[[File:Tilsitz 1807.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Napoleon greets Czar Alexander to negotiate the Treaty of Tilsit.]]
The radical restructuring of Germany convinced the east German superpower of Prussia to intervene and begin the war of the Fourth Coalition. It's somewhat difficult to separate this war from the previous, as many of the belligerents maintained constant hostilities with no interruptions. Napoleon routed the Prussians in two months and occupied Berlin.<ref>[http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_fourth_coalition.html War of the Fourth Coalition (1806-1807)]. ''History of War''.</ref> Prussia was then forced to cede much of its territory to the Confederation of the Rhine.

After completing his establishment of the Confederation, Napoleon finally announced that the Holy Roman Empire no longer existed.<ref>[https://www.historytoday.com/archive/end-holy-roman-empire The End of the Holy Roman Empire]. ''History Today.''</ref> During the campaign against Russia, Napoleon established the Duchy of Warsaw as a client state under control of Saxony, which was itself under the control of France.<ref>{{wpa|Duchy of Warsaw|}}</ref> Napoleon defeated the Russians in the Battle of Friedland, in which the Russians lost 20,000 men.<ref>{{wpa|Battle of Friedland|}}</ref> The scope of this loss finally brought Russia to the negotiating table. The Fourth Coalition ended when Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon, becoming a French ally in exchange for being given a free hand to conquer [[Finland]] from [[Sweden]] and to take the Balkans from the Ottoman Empire.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Treaties-of-Tilsit Treaties of Tilsit]. ''Britannica.''</ref> 

This war also saw Napoleon create the "Continental System", under which he forbade his European allies and other neutral countries from trading with the United Kingdom.<ref name="continent">[https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/treaties-and-alliances/continental-system Continental System]. ''Encyclopedia.com''.</ref> Ultimately, the embargo hurt France and her allies worse than the United Kingdom, as the UK could still trade with her [[British Empire|vast overseas holdings]]. Russia joined the Continental System under the Treaty of Tilsit, but would later wish they hadn't.

Napoleon's victory over the Fourth Coalition marked the height of his power. Unfortunately for him, the stunning victories over much of Europe caused Napoleon to grow more and more arrogant in his decision-making. Everything after would be a downhill slide.

===The Peninsular War===
[[File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|thumb|right|300px|French troops execute civilians in Madrid.]]
{{cquote|The fact is that not a single Spaniard is on my side.|||Joseph Bonaparte, King of Spain.<ref name="joebon">[https://shannonselin.com/2014/07/joseph-bonaparte-king-spain-new-jersey/ Joseph Bonaparte: From King of Spain to New Jersey]. Shannon Selin.</ref>}}
Napoleon's slow downfall began when he invaded Portugal. The attack was prompted by Portugal's refusal to join the Continental System; the nation chose to honor its long-standing alliance with Britain.<ref name="peninsular">[https://www.britannica.com/event/Peninsular-War Peninsular War]. ''Britannica''.</ref> Napoleon also negotiated a secret treaty with Spain promising to partition Portugal into three pieces under join Spanish and French control.<ref>{{wpa|Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 1807)|}}</ref> Napoleon, as it would later be seen, had no intention of honoring the treaty. 

Portugal fell easily, and its royal family fled to [[Brazil]].<ref name="peninsular"/> Napoleon's army, however, had marched through Spain, and they started to behave less like allies and more like occupiers. This situation, combined with Spain's rapidly collapsing economy due to the ongoing wars, led to a popular uprising against the king and his minister Godoy.<ref>[https://www.revolvy.com/page/Mutiny-of-Aranjuez Mutiny of Aranjuez]. ''Revolvy''.</ref> The Spanish king was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Ferdinand VII, but with French troops occupying Madrid, Napoleon was able to claim the crown for himself and toss Ferdinand in prison.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ferdinand-VII Ferdinand VII]. ''Britannica''.</ref> He then handed the crown off to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, who ruled as Napoleon's puppet.<ref name="joebon"/> 

The Spanish hated poor Joseph, especially after he began confiscating territory from the Catholic Church.<ref name="spaini"/> (His alleged [[alcohol]]ism also earned him the monicker "Pepe Botella" or Bottle Joe.) The Spanish people launched a general uprising against the hated French occupiers, using guerrilla warfare to great effect. In fact, this is where the term "guerrilla" ("little war" in Spanish) came from. The worst atrocities committed during the Napoleonic Wars by both sides were committed here as the French brutally tried to put down Spanish revolts.<ref>Chandler, David (1966). The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0025236608. OCLC 740560411. p. 659–660.</ref> Over the years, the war became an ulcer bleeding Napoleon's strength. Napoleon's power in Iberia was finally shattered by Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, who defeated the French in Portugal and began advancing into Spain.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Vitoria Battle of Vitoria.] ''Britannica''.</ref> 

[[File:Europe in 1812.PNG|thumb|right|250px|Europe in 1812.]]
===War of the Fifth Coalition===
With Napoleon preoccupied dealing with the deteriorating situation in Spain, the War of the Fifth Coalition broke out in 1809 when Austria decided to have another crack at taking down Napoleon. They invaded the Confederation of the Rhine, specifically Bavaria, and caught the French by surprise.<ref name="fifthco">[http://www.napoleonguide.com/campaign_5coalit.htm The Fifth Coalition]. ''Napoleon Guide.''</ref> Napoleon himself once more had to take to the field to rescue his country. He won a quick series of victories over the Austrians and occupied their capital, but his overconfidence resulted in his first real setback at the Battle of Aspern Essling.<ref>[http://www.napoleonguide.com/battle_aspern.htm Aspern Essling]. ''Napoleon Guide.''</ref> Napoleon managed to defeat the Austrians in the end, and the resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn
in 1809 saw Austria lose the Dalmatian coastline to France and lose much of its eastern territory to the Duchy of Warsaw.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Schonbrunn Treaty of Schönbrunn]. ''Britannica''.</ref> 

Although certainly not a defeat, the Fifth Coalition was yet another sign that Napoleon's arrogance was seriously degrading his ability to properly fight wars. Napoleon's biggest fuckup would come just three years later. 

==Downfall==
===Invasion of Russia===
{{cquote|Never interfere with the enemy when he is in the process of destroying himself.|||Often attributed to Napoleon Bonaparte.<ref>[https://quoteinvestigator.com/2010/07/06/never-interfere/ Never Interfere With an Enemy While He’s in the Process of Destroying Himself]. ''Quote Investigator.''</ref>}}

[[File:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg|thumb|right|300px|"Next time I'll bring mittens."<br/>Napoleon's retreat from Moscow.]]

In 1808, Napoleon and Czar Alexander met at Erfurt to reaffirm their alliance. Instead, they only exposed how fragile it was. Alexander was reluctant to break with the United Kingdom, Napoleon was reluctant to allow Alexander a free hand to wage war against the Ottoman Empire, and neither wanted the other to gain too much land or power.<ref>[https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/the-meeting-at-erfurt/ The Meeting at Erfurt.] ''Napoleon.org''</ref> With Napoleon's power weakened by the ongoing disaster in Spain, Russia was unwilling to completely burn its bridges with Austria and Britain. Thus, Napoleon left Erfurt dissatisfied. 

The messy breakup between Alexander and Napoleon had a number of causes. Firstly, Russia was far more dependent on British trade than the other way around, and adhering to the Continental System was wreaking havoc on Russia's economy.<ref name="russiai">[https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/russia-and-france-the-messy-break-up/ Russia and France: The Messy Breakup]. ''Napoleon.org</ref> Secondly, Russia's interests were inherently opposed to France's, especially when it came to the Warsaw Duchy (which Russia saw as a threat), and the Ottoman Empire (which Napoleon didn't want to see destroyed by Russia). Napoleon and Alexander both started preparing for war as early as 1810, as the mutual divorce seemed inevitable.

In Napoleon's mind, he would wage a quick campaign to chastise the Russians, similar to what he had already done during the Fourth Coalition. Napoleon claimed that, “I shall tame Alexander; I shall win two battles and I shall go to Moscow or to St Petersburg: there I shall dictate peace. I shall be away no more than three or four months.”<ref name="russiai"/> 
To achieve this, he made his first mistake in assembling the Grande Armée. It was the largest army of the era, numbering about 570,000-630,000 soldiers.<ref>''1812: Napoleon's Russian Campaign'' by Richard K. Riehn (1991) Wiley, ISBN 9780471543022.</ref><ref>[https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/jun24/napoleon-invades-russia/ Jun 24, 1812 CE: Napoleon Invades Russia]. ''National Geographic.''</ref> This worked against him because the Russians knew full well that they weren't about to defeat half a million men led by history's best general. (Though many Russian generals, being Russians, wanted to fight anyway.<ref>Roberts, Andrew. ''Napoleon the Great'', p. 589</ref>) Thus, instead of meeting Napoleon on the battlefield, they retreated into their own country, using hit-and-run and scorched earth tactics against the French.<ref name="russiaii">[https://www.rbth.com/history/327666-surprised-by-russia-napoleon Surprised by Russia: 5 things that bewildered Napoleon in 1812]. ''Russia Beyond.''</ref> Napoleon noted that "My regiments were amazed that after so many hard and deadly marches [two months after the invasion], the results of their endeavors constantly were further away, and they started to worry about the distance separating them from France."<ref name="russiaii"/> Napoleon's usual strategies worked against him in Russia. His forced march tactics only tired his soldiers out over the course of the massive Russian hinterlands. His usual reliance on living off the land forced his troops into food and water shortages as the Russians burned storehouses, croplands, and farms. Starvation, desertion, typhus, and [[suicide]] cost Napoleon more men than Russian action ever could.<ref>[https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/French_invasion_of_Russia French invasion of Russia]. ''New World Encyclopedia.''</ref>

Having already lost a third of his men, Napoleon finally caught the Russians at Borodino. However, this was the bloodiest of his battles, and it accomplished nothing because the Russians had simply escaped again, though not before leaving both armies battered.<ref>[https://shannonselin.com/2018/09/battle-of-borodino/ Battle of Borodino: Bloodiest Day of the Napoleonic War]. Shannon Selin.</ref> Napoleon finally entered Moscow on the 15<sup>th</sup> of September, but he found the city deserted.<ref name="russiaiii">[https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/timelines/napoleons-russian-campaign-the-retreat/ Napoleon's Russian Campaign: The Retreat.] ''Napoleon.org''</ref> Napoleon's plans were further foiled when the Russians set fire to Moscow, burning it down and denying Napoleon the housing and supplies he hoped to gain from it. The emperor famously remarked, "This fire demolished everything. I was ready for everything but not this. Who could think that people would burn their own capital?"<ref name="russiaii"/> With Moscow destroyed and his troops left in the cold, Napoleon finally tried suing for peace.<ref name="russiaiii"/> The Russians didn't accept (or rather, didn't bother to reply), and Napoleon was forced to leave Moscow a month later in disarray. 

During the retreat, Russia's winter hit Napoleon's army with full force. The army's horses died, and most were forced to proceed on foot, with usually fatal results.<ref name="russiaii"/> Russian peasants were also zealous in their desire to wipe out the armies of the "evil foreigner" Napoleon (the [[Russian Orthodox]] Church had declared him the Antichrist when he invaded, and that played a role as well<ref>Roberts, Andrew. ''Napoleon the Great'', p. 599</ref>), and harassed any small French units, destroying many of them. Having invaded with half a million men, Napoleon escaped with only 10,000 left.<ref>[https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/229-vital-statistics-of-a-deadly-campaign-the-minard-map The Minard Map - "The best statistical graphic ever drawn"]. ''Big Think''.</ref> Things worsened when Napoleon received word of an attempted coup back in Paris, causing him to leave his army early and rush home.<ref name="russiaiii"/>

Although the Russian strategy was likely superior, Napoleon's army was probably doomed from the start due a combination of factors: not bringing their own food or water (thus making them susceptible to hunger and dysentery), poor hygiene (even for the standards of the 1810s), no changes of clothing for foot soldiers (thus engendering lice and concomitant typhus). Most of the soldiers died of disease (dysentery or typhus), with only about 30,000 of the original 600,000 or so returning to France after having been basically abandoned by Napoleon who had fled earlier under armed guard.<ref>[https://slate.com/technology/2012/12/napoleon-march-to-russia-in-1812-typhus-spread-by-lice-was-more-powerful-than-tchaikovskys-cannonfire.html Napoleon Wasn't Defeated by the Russians: Tchaikovsky’s 1812 Overture gives too much credit to cannons.] by Joe Knight (Dec 11, 20123:47 PM) ''Slate''.</ref><ref>''The Illustrious Dead: The Terrifying Story of How Typhus Killed Napoleon's Greatest Army'' by Stephan Talty (2010) Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0307394050.</ref>

[[File:DelarocheNapoleon.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Napoleon abdicated in Fontainebleau.]]

===War of the Sixth Coalition===
The War of the Sixth Coalition began in 1813 when the states of Europe, heartened by Napoleon's defeat in Russia, banded together one more time to defeat him. The Coalition included the UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal.<ref>{{wpa|War of the Sixth Coalition|}}</ref> Vastly outnumbered, Napoleon won his last great victory at the Battle of Dresden.<ref>[https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/napoleons-last-great-victory-the-battle-of-dresden/ Napoleon’s Last Great Victory: The Battle of Dresden]. ''Warfare History Network.''</ref> With Wellington advancing from Spain to the south, and the other allies advancing from the east through Germany, Napoleon was forced to retreat and defend Paris during the Six Days' Campaign.<ref>{{wpa|Six Days' Campaign|}}</ref> 

With Paris under attack by multiple armies, and with his own forces just about depleted, Napoleon finally caved to the inevitable. He abdicated and signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, ending his rule and sending him into exile on Elba.<ref>{{wpa|Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814)|}}</ref>

===Return and final defeat===
The First Restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne proved unpopular with the French people, as King Louis XVIII set about undoing the progress made by the French Revolution. Hearing of this, Napoleon escaped from the island of Elba and made his way back to France. With the French army refusing to attack their former emperor, Napoleon was able to march on Paris and retake his throne less than a year after being sent into exile.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Hundred-Days-French-history Hundred Days]. ''Britannica''.</ref> The Coalition partners, now comprising most of Europe, denounced Napoleon as an outlaw and signed a declaration of war against him personally.<ref>[https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/objects/treaty-of-the-seventh-coalition-alliance-between-great-britain-and-the-king-of-sardinia-against-napoleon-treaty-of-9-april-1815-treaty-of-25-march-1815/ Treaty of the Seventh Coalition]. ''Napoleon.org''</ref> 

The Prussians and the British each assembled armies against Napoleon. They outnumbered Napoleon badly, so the emperor's only chance was to keep them apart. Napoleon chased down his archnemesis, the Duke of Wellington, and trapped him at Waterloo, but the Prussians came to the rescue and the allies defeated Napoleon for the final time.<ref>[https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/battle-waterloo Battle of Waterloo]. National Army Museum.</ref> Napoleon was once again forced to abdicate, and the British exiled him to a different island, Saint Helena, this time far out in the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{wpa|Saint Helena|}}</ref> Napoleon died there in 1821.

==Legacy==
{{cquote|What then is, generally speaking, the truth of [[history]]? A fable agreed upon.|||Napoleon during his final exile.<ref name="napquotesi">[https://shannonselin.com/2014/08/10-napoleon-bonaparte-quotes-context/ 10 Napoleon Bonaparte Quotes in Context]. Shannon Selin.</ref>}}
===The Congress of Vienna===
[[File:Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|right|300px|Europe after the Congress of Vienna.]]
After Napoleon was defeated by the Sixth Coalition, a great conference called the "Congress of Vienna" was held by representatives of the victorious kings and emperors of Europe and ran for almost a year (including during Napoleon's brief escape from Elba).  This conference sought to largely undo most of what Napoleon had put into place, and tried to revert European politics back to how they were in the [[good old days]] before the French Revolution, to include restoring the old French royal family to their throne.  Additionally, the conference set up the informal "Concert of Europe" system, whereby the major European countries would seek to avoid another large-scale, devastating war by using a complicated system of alliances and diplomatic conferences.  It mostly worked for a while. There were many wars in Europe in the 1800s, but they tended to be much smaller and more localized. These wars never came close to the massive scale and widespread destruction of the Napoleonic Wars until about a hundred years later when [[World War I|the complicated system of alliances backfired]].<ref>[http://opil.ouplaw.com/page/congress-vienna-1814-1815 "The Congress of Vienna 1814-1815"] - Oxford Public International Law</ref>

Trying to revert back to the "good old days" also backfired a bit - the lower classes of people eventually had enough of the [[reactionary]] results of the Congress, and this exploded into a wave of revolutions and rebellions across Europe about thirty years later in 1848, an event known as the ''Spring of Nations''.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Revolutions-of-1848 Revolutions of 1848]. ''Britannica''.</ref>  Most of these revolts eventually failed, except notably in France, which apparently didn't get the lesson from its own history and thus repeated it — the king was overthrown, a shaky republic was formed, which was eventually overthrown by a guy named Napoleon who became emperor. No joke, one of Napoleon's nephews became Emperor Napoleon III (Napoleon's newborn son was Napoleon II). The Spring of Nations did give some steam to newer political movements, such as [[nationalism]], [[socialism]] and [[communism]], as well as unification movements in places like Germany and Italy.

[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|250px|French propaganda showing Emperor Napoleon emancipating the Jews.]]

===Jewish emancipation===
Before the French Revolution and its subsequent continental turmoil, the [[Jews]] were denied citizenship, equal rights, and the right to join government or own property.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/anti-Semitism/Anti-Semitism-in-medieval-Europe Anti-Semitism In Medieval Europe]. ''Britannica''.</ref> Throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and the Early Modern Era, Jews faced waves of violence such as the slaughters during the [[Crusades]] or the horrific Chmielnicki Pogrom. 

Jewish emancipation refers to the process by which Jews gained civil equality in Europe. The process began during the French Revolution with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which proclaimed that France would uphold the principle of religious non-discrimination.<ref>[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]. ''My Jewish Learning.''</ref> Unfortunately, the subsequent revolutionary governments did little to uphold this principle when it came to the Jews. It wasn't until Napoleon assumed leadership of France that French Jews were permitted to worship openly and participate in civil society.<ref>[https://www.napoleon-series.org/ins/weider/c_jews.htmlhttps://www.napoleon-series.org/ins/weider/c_jews.html Napoleon and the Jews]. By Ben Weider, CM, PhD. ''International Napoleonic Society.''</ref> 

Throughout his military campaigns, Napoleon forcibly expanded his religious tolerance policies. This began in 1797 when Napoleon ordered that Italian Jews should not be forced to wear yellow armbands and should be allowed to live wherever they chose rather than in [[ghetto]]es.<ref name="emancipate">[https://www.stljewishlight.com/features/arts_culture/article_da9952c2-0891-11e0-b256-001cc4c03286.html Napoleon scholar details Emancipation of European Jews]. ''STL Jewish Light.''</ref> In 1806, Napoleon convened a "Sanhedrin" in Paris of French Jews in order to address their concerns and his concerns about how Jews could live amicably with French Christians.<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-this-day-napoleon-convenes-sanhedrin-1.5320241 This Day in Jewish History / The Sanhedrin of Paris Convenes at the Behest of Napoleon]. ''Haaretz.''</ref> Napoleon's victorious armies also spread Jewish emancipation into Germany. 

Although Jewish emancipation would be partially reversed after Napoleon's defeat, he still sowed the seeds that led to their eventual equality in Western Europe later in that century.<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/napoleon-bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte]. ''Jewish Virtual Library.''</ref> Unfortunately, Napoleon wasn't around to help the Jews defend themselves from [[Adolf Hitler|that one crazy Austrian dude who cocked everything up]].

==See also==
*[[French colonial empire]]

==External links==
*[http://www.militaryheritage.com/napoleon.htm The Napoleonic Wars Collection Website]

==References==
{{reflist|2|80%}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bonaparte, Napoleon}}

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