Knowledge

{{philosophy}}
'''Knowledge''' (from Middle English ''knowlechen'', to acknowledge) is "the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association" and "acquaintance with or understanding of a science, [[art]], or technique." Another definition of note is "the circumstance or condition of apprehending [[truth]] or fact through reasoning." "Justified true belief" is an influential definition explored by Socrates in [[Plato|Plato's]] dialogue ''Theaetetus''.<ref>https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/#Bib</ref> It is compared with synonyms "learning", "erudition," and "scholarship" as applying to "facts or ideas acquired by study, investigation, [[observation]], or experience."<ref>"[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/knowledge knowledge]."  Merriam-Webster OnLine Dictionary. 2010.</ref> On the other hand, the Catholic Encyclopedia notes, "Knowledge, being a primitive fact of consciousness, cannot, strictly speaking, be defined…"<ref>"[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08673a.htm Knowledge]." New Advent.</ref>

==Philosophy of knowledge==
The study of knowledge is known as [[epistemology]]. As it pertains to knowledge, epistemology is concerned with the sources and limitations of knowledge.  Epistemology is also the study of justification for [[belief]]s. Evidentialism is a [[philosophy]] asserting that whether or not a belief is justified is dependent upon the [[evidence]] supporting it.<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/evidenti/ Evidentialism], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

==Kinds of knowledge==
===Common knowledge===
Common knowledge is that which is known among members of a group to be mutually known by all members. Note that it is not sufficient to be merely mutually known, but it must be known to be mutually known. Common knowledge becomes significant in social interactions and, despite its rather obvious nature, was not articulated as a phenomenon until the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Secondhand or unverifiable knowledge is called [[hearsay]]. If it gets passed on long enough, it becomes an [[urban legend]].

===''A priori'' knowledge===
''[[A priori]]'' knowledge refers to knowledge that is not justified by reference to [[empirical]] facts about the world as such. It often involves definitions and logical systems. For example, we know that a "married bachelor" is a logical impossibility because it is in conflict with the definition of bachelor. According to some philosophical positions, all mathematical knowledge may be classified as ''a priori''. The [[rationalist]] tradition of philosophy is associated with an emphasis on deductive system-building which would be considered a form of ''a priori'' knowledge. It is also often associated with excessive armchair theorizing.

===''A posteriori'' knowledge===
''[[A posteriori]]'' knowledge is the opposite of ''a priori'' knowledge. It involves facts about the empirical world, and so is associated with the philosophical tradition of empiricism. It may involve objective or subjective knowledge gained through either the unaided senses or with the aid of some kind of instrumentation.<ref>See [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/apriori/ A Priori Justification and Knowledge] in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy and [http://www.iep.utm.edu/apriori/ A posteriori and a priori] in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

===Scientific knowledge===
Scientific knowledge is that which is [[Scientific consensus|accepted by the scientific community]] as having been acquired through use of the [[scientific method]]. What counts as strictly "scientific knowledge" (as opposed to non-scientific knowledge and [[pseudoscience]]) is a matter of debate due to the [[demarcation problem|problem of demarcation]].

===Situated knowledge===
Situated knowledge is any knowledge that is only valid or relevant in a specific setting. Thus, the term "situated knowledge" is often associated with [[relativism|relativist]] or [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] philosophies.<ref>Donna Haraway. [http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~ewa/Haraway,%20Situated%20Knowledges.pdf Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective.] ''Feminist Studies'', Vol. 14, No. 3. (Autumn, 1988), pp. 575-599.</ref>

==Sources of knowledge==
Sources are dictated by the philosophy used and the kind of knowledge desired. The [[Bible]] is not a good source of scientific knowledge, for example. Much scientific knowledge is, however, gained through experience. This includes perception, especially through [[experiment]]ation and observation, memory of past experience, and, to acquire self-knowledge, [[introspection]].

Another significant source of scientific knowledge is reason, which uses [[logic]] and, to some degree, [[intuition]]. [[Inductive reasoning]], emphasized by modern science, starts with effects and infers causes. [[Deductive reasoning]] starts with assumptions and derives outcomes.

Sources of non-scientific knowledge include [[revelation]], [[meditation]], and esoteric or secret knowledge. According to one [[myth]], knowledge can be gotten by eating an [[apple]] from the tree of knowledge of good and [[evil]].

==See also==
* [[Empiricism]]
* [[Pyrrhonism]]
* [[Other ways of knowing]]

==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/ The Analysis of Knowledge], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==References==
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[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Science]]

Categories: Education, Philosophy, Science