Belgian Congo

[[File:Nsala of Wala in Congo looks at the severed hand and foot of his five-year old daughter, 1904.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Congolese man with the severed hand and foot of his five-year-old daughter. Belgian mercenaries also killed his wife and mother.]]
{{Race}}{{imperialism}}
{{cquote|At the time of the Congo Free State, acts of violence and cruelty were committed that still weigh on our collective memory. The colonial period that followed also caused suffering and humiliation. I would like to express my deepest regrets for these wounds of the past, the pain of which is today rekindled by the discrimination still too present in our societies.
|||King Philippe, [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarch]] of [[Belgium]]<ref>[https://www.ft.com/content/4143de29-19c3-4efd-8728-c3cdd07eb917 Belgian king expresses ‘deepest regrets’ for historical Congo brutality.] ''Financial Times''</ref>}}
The '''Belgian Congo''', also known as the '''Congo "''[[Bullshit|Free]]''" State''', was a [[Belgium|Belgian]] colony in the geographic area that is now the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] which became infamous for its brutal [[Slavery|forced labor]] regime<ref>
* {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540-544}}
* {{cite book|last1=Likaka|first1=Osumaka|title=Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire|date=1997|publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison, Wisconsin}}
* {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910-1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|edition=reprint|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}}
* {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4}} 
* {{cite web|last1=Rich|first1=Jeremy|title=Lord Leverhulme’s Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review)|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076|website=Project Muse|publisher=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History|accessdate=17 March 2018|date=Spring 2009}}</ref><ref>
* {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|year=2008|pages=43-44}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188-190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}}
* {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4-5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}}
* {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}}
* {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940-1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|website=DeWereldMorgen.be|accessdate=17 March 2018|date=January 9, 2016}}
* {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|website=History|accessdate=17 March 2018}}</ref><ref>
* {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}}
* {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l’exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|accessdate=17 March 2018|pages=14-17, 25-28}}
* Seconde partie : Travail forcé pour le cuivre du Katanga https://www.cobelco.info/Histoire/Congo2text.htm
* Troisième partie: Travail forcé pour l'or https://www.cobelco.info/Histoire/travfor_or.htm</ref> which killed between one and ten million people.<ref>[http://movies2.nytimes.com/books/98/08/30/daily/leopold-book-review.html 'King Leopold's Ghost': Genocide With Spin Control] Kakutani, Michiko. ''New York Times''. September 1, 1998</ref>

==Background==

Colonial exploitation of the Congo occurred in two phases. First, King Leopold II of Belgium took personal control of the territory (meaning that it was owned not by Belgium™, but by Leopold as an individual, because all the colonial powers wanted the Congo and this way its resources could be sold to everyone) and gave it the hideously ironic name of the "Congo Free State" (1885-1908).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|page=xix|chapter=Introduction by Adam Hochschild}}</ref> 

After international outcry over the brutality inflicted on the Congolese natives, the Belgian government reluctantly confiscated the territory from Leopold and instituted a marginally less murderous regime (less murderous in that it only killed ''one'' million people<ref> I recorded no democide for Belgium, although it may have been responsible for close to a million once it took over the Congo   https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COMM.7.1.03.HTM</ref>). Like many countries which suffered under the [[Scramble for Africa]], the legacy of the Belgian Congo looms over the current DR Congo, even if not acknowledged in any form, by any media.

==The Congo "Free" State (1885‒1908)==

[[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|thumb|left|275px|Slaves loading a steamboat on the Congo River.]]

During the 1880s and beyond, the major European powers were rapidly dividing and [[Colonialism|colonizing]] Africa in a period known as the [[Scramble for Africa]]. To prevent colonial conflicts from occurring on the continent, the European powers met at the [[Scramble_for_Africa#Berlin_Conference|Berlin Conference]] to hammer out some ground rules. Among other things, this meeting confirmed the Congo Free State as being the private property of King Leopold II. No, not Belgium. ''Leopold as an individual specifically.''<ref>[https://www.thoughtco.com/general-act-of-the-berlin-conference-4070667 Full Text of the General Act of the Berlin Conference on West Africa]</ref>

===Leopold II of Belgium===

Leopold managed to convince the European powers to agree to this by explaining that he wanted to help "civilize" the natives and convert them to [[Christianity]].<ref>[https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/feb5/belgian-king-establishes-congo-free-state/ 1885: Belgian King Establishes Congo Free State] ''National Geographic''</ref> He argued that Belgian rule would be for their own good. This appealed to the other European leaders because they were using much the same rhetoric to justify colonialism themselves.<ref name="frciv">[https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/fr-colony-52.htm The Mission Civilisatrice (1890-1945)]</ref><ref>Robert Livingston Schuyler, "The rise of anti-imperialism in England." Political science quarterly 37.3 (1922): 440-471. in JSTOR</ref> Unfortunately, for the Congolese, Leopold was [[Bullshit|lying his ass off]]. 

Initially, the colony was a financial failure. However, the rubber boom happened,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/science/rubber-chemical-compound/Development-of-the-natural-rubber-industry Development of the natural rubber industry]</ref> and Belgian explorers stumbled across a huge number of rubber vines native to the Congo.<ref>[https://www.nap.edu/read/11879/chapter/20 Gumvines] "Lost Crops of Africa: vol III"</ref> At this point, Leopold began to turn the Congo into a [[Hell]] on [[Earth]]. Villages of natives were forced to venture out into the jungles and gather rubber. This was a painful and labor-intensive process, especially because the best way to harvest rubber while keeping the trees alive for more harvesting was to slice the vines, allow the latex sap to cover the body and dry, then peel it off along with skin and hair.<ref>[https://lithub.com/how-heart-of-darkness-revealed-the-horror-of-congos-rubber-trade/ HOW HEART OF DARKNESS REVEALED THE HORROR OF CONGO’S RUBBER TRADE] ''Literary Hub''</ref> The native laborers were given  quotas by their overlords, and failure to meet them would be met with arson, [[rape]], whippings, and massacres.<ref>[https://www.historytoday.com/tim-stanley/belgiums-heart-darkness Belgium's Heart of Darkness] Stanley, Tim. ''History Today'' Volume 62 Issue 10. October 2012.</ref>

[[File:Hands of Lingomo and Bolengo.tif|thumb|left|275px|Congolese men holding severed human hands.]]

The quotas themselves were insane, motivated by nothing but [[Greed|sheer profit]]. The Anglo-Belgian Rubber (ABIR) Congo Company was the primary agent assigned by Leopold to produce rubber from the Congo, and they made massive profits by selling rubber for almost ten times as much as it cost to produce.<ref name="ABIR">[https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/father-hand-belgian-congo-1904/ Father stares at the hand and foot of his five-year-old, severed as a punishment for failing to make the daily rubber quota, Belgian Congo, 1904] ''Rare Historical Photos''.</ref> The desire to maximize production (and thus profits) led to an issuance of production quotas that had no consideration at all for what was realistically possible. Meanwhile, the lack of any formal bureaucracy on the ground gave administrators leeway to be as brutal as possible in the likely event that the Africans were unable to produce inhumanely large quantities of rubber.<ref>Gibbs, David N. (1991). The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref>

[[File:Three boys with hands cut off.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Three mutilated Congolese boys.]] 

===State-sponsored violence===

Leopold and the ABIR Company's colonial administrators hired [[Mercenary|mercenaries]] to enforce their demands, and infamously mandated that they sever the hands of anyone they killed to prove that they weren't wasting bullets on hunting or sport.<ref>[https://www.amdigital.co.uk/about/news/item/red-rubber-atrocities-in-the-congo-free-state-in-confidential-print-africa Red Rubber: Atrocities in the Congo Free State in Confidential Print: Africa]</ref> Government-issued guns are only for shooting people, y'see. Of course, the undisciplined mercenaries couldn't help themselves, so in order to cover it up, they just raided villages and severed hands from living people.<ref>Renton, David; Seddon, David; Zeilig, Leo (2007). The Congo: Plunder and Resistance. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84277-485-4.</ref> 

Severed hands even became a commodity of sorts as villages used them to bribe mercenaries to avoid punishment for failure to meet quotas. This resulted in small wars between villages as they attempted to gather hands from other natives.<ref>Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost, p. 166</ref> King Leopold disapproved of the mutilations, but not due to humanitarian reasons. He was quoted as saying "[[Evil|Cut off hands - that's idiotic. I'd cut off all the rest of them, but not hands. That's the one thing I need in the Congo.]]"<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1999/may/13/features11.g22 The hidden holocaust] ''The Guardian.'' 1999-05-13</ref>

===Global attention===

While the images of severed hands became the greatest symbol of Belgium's brutality in the Congo, it was only the tip of the iceberg. Belgian authorities ordered the razing of entire villages and the murder of all of their inhabitants in the event of any resistance or repeated failures to meet quota.<ref>Stengers, Jean (1969). "The Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo before 1914". In Gann, L. H.; Duignan, Peter. Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1914. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 261–92.</ref>

Needless to say, this kind of treatment did not take long to be noticed. E.D. Morel, a British journalist, was the first to notice something rotten in the heart of Africa. He was working at a shipping company at the time and noticed that while great wealth flowed out of Congo Free State, the only things that were ever shipped back in were weapons, ammunition, and tools of bondage.  Eventually, the international public got wind of what was happening in the Congo, beginning with the publication of the {{wpl|Casement Report|}} by a national of the [[United Kingdom]] and further inflamed with Joseph Conrad's {{wpl|Heart of Darkness|}} and [[Mark Twain]]'s {{wpl|King Leopold's Soliloquy|}}. This international outcry and intense diplomatic pressure forced the Belgian Parliament to officially annex the Congo as a possession of the Belgian state.<ref>Pakenham, Thomas (1992). The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 (13th ed.). London: Abacus. pp. 588–9. ISBN 978-0-349-10449-2.</ref>

==Belgian Congo (1908‒1960)==

[[File:Esclave fouetté avec une chicotte, État indépendant du Congo.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A slave being whipped with a chicotte.]]

Theoretically, things should have gotten better. In some respects they did, essentially with the passage of legislation outlawing the "red rubber" system detailed above and most of the worst instances of violence. However, many other laws, especially the ones banning forced labor as a whole, were completely ignored due to a lack of administration on the ground.<ref>Marchal, Jules (1999). Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910-1945. Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah (reprint ed.). Per Ankh Publishers.</ref> Corporations operating in the Congo and even the Belgian government itself continued to use slave labor in the Congo, albeit using slightly less obvious and egregious methods.<ref>Hochschild, Adam (1999). "18. Victory?". King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa. Boston: Mariner Books.</ref> Indeed, the vast majority of the administrators appointed by Leopold remained in place under the new regime despite their myriad crimes.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), Congo: Mythes et réalités, Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref>

Natives who failed to do the work were sent to prison, and then punished via chicotte, a type of whip made from hippo hide.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|page=217|chapter=Afterword}} 
First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910-1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> For a time, the Congolese were still forced to gather rubber, but just before [[World War I]], the price of rubber fell as rubber plantations elsewhere in the world began producing. By then, the wild rubber vines in the Congo were largely tapped out.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|page=xvii|chapter=Introduction by Adam Hochschild}}</ref> 

Doctors and officials reported on how little the Belgian government cared about natives. Natives received very little education and just as much healthcare.<ref name="Verso">{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|pages=27–36|chapter=2: The Lejeune Report (1923)}} 
First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910-1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref><ref>
* {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|page=68|chapter=4: In Barumbu Circle (1917-1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910-1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.
* {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|pages=96–98|chapter=5: In the Basongo and Lusanga Circles (1923-1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910-1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.
* {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|pages=116–117|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927-1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910-1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.
* {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927-1930)}}</ref>

A report published by these doctors in 1923 noted that "It is of course the case that when an entire population is put to work, in a manner harmful to its very existence, it cannot be a question of voluntary labour."<ref name="Verso"></ref> By threats of prison and the chicotte, workers were forced to work from morning until night.<ref name="Verso"></ref> While the work was painful enough for an adult, it was an intolerable strain for old men and the infirm, who made up the majority in certain fields of labor, such as palm fruit harvesting. Unable to supply the required quantities by themselves, the men had to call upon their wives to help them. [[Child labour|Children were forced to work]] too.<ref name="Verso"></ref> At one point mentioned by the report, children aged 5 to 14 made up the entire workforce. This intense forced labor regime resulted in a decline of food cultivation, causing famines and disease.

[[File:Kisanga-mijn Ruandese arbeiders einde-jaren 1920.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Mine workers in the Belgian Congo.]]

Other Congolese were forced to work in the mines. Laborers were taken from their homes and marched to the mines with ropes around their necks, under the guard of undisciplined soldiers. Upon arrival, they found unhealthy working conditions, a heavy, stamina-draining workload, insufficient food for the output of energy required, and near constant physical abuse.<ref name="congomines"></ref> Some men were jailed for complaining to management about their wives being [[rape]]d, and whipped if they persisted in complaining.<ref name="congomines">{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910-1945|pages=240-242|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|edition=reprint|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah}}</ref>

The Huileries du Congo Belge (HCB), a subsidiary of [[Lever Brothers]], was one of the companies that recruited Africans by force, their numerous agents accompanied by armed auxiliaries. The agents encountered increasing resistance during their tours, or else found villages emptied before they arrived.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|pages=6–7|chapter=1: The Early Years (1911-1922)}} 
First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910-1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dr. Émile Lejeune, medical officer of the Congo-Kasi province, drafted a report finding rations, accommodation, and clothing to be inadequate, and the workload to be dangerous for the health of even healthy young men.<ref name="Verso"/> 

A number of workers were dying, and while Lejeune found documentation of rates of mortality to be inadequate, he found the most frequent causes of death recorded to be disease, especially pneumonia and bronchial infections.<ref name="Verso"/> The HCB provided blacks with just one meal a day, and due to lack of pans and utensils, the preparation was often unhygienic and unpleasing.<ref name="Verso"/> No clothing or blankets were provided, which was a major problem since the majority of deaths were caused by  respiratory ailments.<ref name="Verso"/> Labor camps were crowded and lacked latrines, kitchens, medical facilities, and even a place to dispose of trash.<ref name="Verso"/>

Jules Marchal, who was a colonial official in the Belgian Congo between 1948 and 1960, himself administered punishments with the chicotte during that time to force natives to grow cotton. He must have had a change of heart, since he later proceeded to write a number of books revealing the brutality of the regime he served and of the previous regime, King Leopold's Congo "Free" State.<ref>Jules Marchal: postuum interview met eenzaam waarheidsvinder – tegen de Belgische Congo-mythes. http://www.sypwynia.nl/archief/interview-jules-marchal/</ref><ref>Marchal, Jules 1924-2003. http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n96039138/</ref><ref>Interview de Jules Maréchal. http://www.larevuetoudi.org/fr/story/poursuite-du-travail-forc%C3%A9-apr%C3%A8s-l%C3%A9opold-ii</ref>

Matters eventually came to a head in 1960, with the eruption of the [[Belgium#Congo's independence and war|Congo Crisis]] and the Belgian Congo's subsequent independence.

==See also==

* [[Revolt of the Pende]]
* [[Rhodesia]]

==References==

{{Reflist|3|80%}}

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[[Category:Authoritarian regimes]]
[[category:Crimes against humanity]]
[[Category:Genocide]]
[[category:History]]
[[Category:Historical countries]]
[[Category:Imperialism]]
[[Category:Misnomers]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Slavery]]

Categories: Authoritarian regimes, Crimes against humanity, Genocide, History, Historical countries, Imperialism, Misnomers, Racism, Slavery