Apophenia

[[File:Klaus Conrad (1905-1961).jpg|thumb|right|165px|Klaus Conrad]]
{{Psychology}}
{{cquote|Any fact becomes important when it's connected to another.|||Umberto Eco, ''Foucault's Pendulum''}}
'''Apophenia''' is the experience of seeing meaningful patterns or connections in [[random]] or meaningless data. The term was coined by neurologist Klaus Conrad {{lived|1905|1961}} in his 1958 publication on the beginning stages of [[schizophrenia]], and defined as the "unmotivated seeing of connections".<ref>[https://slate.com/technology/2014/09/apophenia-makes-unrelated-things-seem-connected-metaphors-paranormal-beliefs-conspiracies-delusions.html It's All Connected: What links creativity, conspiracy theories, and delusions? A phenomenon called apophenia.] by Katy Waldman (Sept 16, 2014 4:09 PM) ''Slate''.</ref>

==Variations==
Apophenia is the [[term of art]] generally used in psychology for this phenomenon. However, there have been a number of other coinages of similar or related concepts in academic and popular discourse.
*[[Carl Jung]]'s "synchronicity", which is itself a form of apophenia. Jung believed that [[Coincidence|coincidental]] events with some symbolic significance were actually meaningful.<ref>[http://www.skepdic.com/jung.html Synchronicity] (27-Oct-2015) ''The Skeptic's Dictionary''.</ref>
*In [[statistics]], getting a positive, or significant, result and thus rejecting the [[null hypothesis]] when there is no actual pattern is referred to as a "Type I error".<ref>[http://www.intuitor.com/statistics/T1T2Errors.html Type I and Type II Errors - Making Mistakes in the Justice System] ''Intuitor''.</ref>
*[[Michael Shermer]] coined the term "patternicity" to describe apophenia.<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=patternicity-finding-meaningful-patterns Patternicity: Finding Meaningful Patterns in Meaningless Noise] by Michael Shermer (2008 December) ''Scientific American''.</ref>
*The general term "[[pattern recognition|pattern-seeking]]" is sometimes used synonymously with apophenia.

==Types of apophenia==
[[File:FeedbackXKCD.png|thumb|right|200px|Many [[superstition]]s are the result of apophenia.]]
Some phenomena classified under the general umbrella of apophenia include:
*'''[[Clustering illusion]]:''' Related to an inability to recognise ''actual'' random patterns. Uneven clusters caused by true randomness are mistaken for patterns.
*'''[[Confirmation bias]]:''' A [[bias]] towards testing to confirm one's [[hypothesis]] rather than disprove it.
*'''[[Gambler's fallacy]]:''' Feeling that past events reflect and alter probability when, in fact, they don't.
*'''[[Pareidolia]]:''' Seeing shapes, most often faces, in random patterns. [[Mars Anomaly Research]] and [[Lunar anomalies]] are replete with examples.

Other psychological phenomena may affect apophenia as well. By [[Cherry picking|selecting data]], consciously or unconsciously, apophenia can include [[hindsight bias]], where seemingly meaningful events are interpreted as having "obviously" led to the present situation. [[Priming]] a stimulus will increase the likelihood that it will be "seen" or noticed even when it isn't actually there. A feeling of a loss of control can also increase the detection of false patterns in random data such as visual noise and stock market reports.<ref>[http://www.rifters.com/real/articles/Science_LackingControlIncreasesIllusoryPatternPerception.pdf Lacking Control Increases Illusory Pattern Perception] by Jennifer Whitson et al. (2008) ''Science'' 322:115-117.</ref>

==Evolutionary explanation==
The explanation put forth by [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]] for apophenia is that it is not a defect of human cognition, but rather a feature that is [[Natural selection|selected]]. This is due to the asymmetrical cost of Type I (recognizing a pattern that does not exist) and Type II (not recognizing a pattern that does exist) errors. For example, someone might hear a noise that sounds like a predator growling. If the person believes that it is a predator, but it's just the wind, the cost is only losing a moment's travel time to stand on guard. If the person believes that it is just the wind and it actually is a predator, the cost is the person's life.{{efn|This [[Game theory|game theoretical]] description is used in a number of evolutionary explanations of apophenia, such as hyperactive agency detection.<ref>[http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/hyperactive-agency-detection/ Hyperactive Agency Detection] by Steven Novella (Mar 22 2010) ''Neurologica Blog''.</ref>}} Research in this topic generally falls under "Error Management Theory."<ref>[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/comm/haselton/webdocs/EMTencyclopedia.pdf Error Management Theory: Overview and Significance] by Martie Haselton. In: ''Encyclopedia of Social Psychology'', edited by Roy F. Baumesiter & Kathleen D. Vohs () 2007) ''SAGE Publications''. ISBN 1412916704.</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10653507 Error management theory: a new perspective on biases in cross-sex mind reading.] ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'' by M. G. Haselton & D. M. Buss (2000) ''J. Pers. Soc. Pyschol.'' 78(1):81-91. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.1.81.</ref> The propensity for apophenia has also been demonstrated in [[animals]], such as in [[Skinner box#Skinner's box and superstition|B.F. Skinner's research on superstition in pigeons]].

==See also==
*[[Conspiracy theory]] — Apophenia is often an important driver of this.
{{otherlang
|pt=Apofenia}}

==External links==
*[http://www.skepdic.com/apophenia.html Apophenia entry] in [[The Skeptic's Dictionary]]
*[http://www.dbskeptic.com/2007/11/04/apophenia-definition-and-analysis/ Apophenia: Definition and Analysis], Digital Bits Skeptic

==Notes==
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==References==
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[[Category:Psychology]]

Categories: Psychology