Soul

{{Religion}}
The '''soul''' is the name given to the [[Begging the question|supposed]] "[[dualism|immaterial part]]"{{efn|[[Deepity|Whatever that is even supposed to mean]], as the word "part" is clearly derived from the material.}} of an individual, which some believe can exist separately from the body in the [[afterlife]]. Though the term itself largely comes from Christian traditions, most [[religion]]s have some concept of a "part" of the person that is separate and distinct from the body. It's considered by those who believe in it to be a self-evident and intrinsic part of humanity (hence why things like [[philosophical zombie]]s can exist in some peoples' minds). It is an important aspect of much religious belief &mdash; particularly when concerning the [[afterlife]].

The term is often invoked in a metaphorical sense (such as a poetic statement "my soul was moved by his words") without implying the actual existence of a separate "magical" part of a person that exists after the person dies.

A fringe Christian belief separates people into two spiritual "races", pre-Adamic and [[Adam]]ic humanity, where only the latter is endowed with the soul-spark and a large portion of humanity is viewed as missing it and being beyond [[salvation]].{{efn|The idea of pre-Adamic humanity can e.g. be found in the works of the mystic {{wpl|Boris Mouravieff||.}} The same idea can be found in fringe [[conspirituality]] teachings with different names, such as "[[organic portals]]" or "spiritless humans".}}

Religious and spiritual belief systems differ in whether non-human animals have souls; typically, Christianity does not grant them that.

==Scientific view==

[[Science]] does not recognize the concept of a soul, because the soul provides a [[supernatural]] explanation of the phenomenon of human [[consciousness]], and as such the idea is non-[[falsifiability|falsifiable]]. Believers postulate that soul-stuff is completely immaterial. Scientists who attempt (and without exception, fail) to find evidence of the soul will usually be told that they can't measure or characterise it anyway — compare [[Non-Overlapping Magisteria]]. Like most other spiritual beliefs, the inability to measure makes the idea of the soul (conveniently) immune to scrutiny. Those who logically and scientifically argue against a "soul" would state that if something can't be measured or tested — directly or indirectly — in any way, then it can't affect the material world and therefore is, in all practicality and in all actuality, non-existent. 

Soul-fans usually describe the soul as an immaterial "thing" in a way that implies that it "contains" someone's consciousness, emotions, personality, and memories. In [[reality]], the only possibility of a soul existing would be through a function of awareness; that is, awareness from a body at a moment in time. We know from physics that time is merely space, so the fact that humans experience from one point in time rather than simultaneously experiencing the entirety of our lifespan creates an argument for the idea of the soul occupying a body, and traveling through space connected with it. The movement would be what we perceive as time. 

Neuroscience suggests that these various aspects of the mind are almost exclusively dependent on the [[brain]]. Changes to the brain from injury or illness directly affect memories, emotions, and in fact a person's overall character.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2943-brain-tumour-causes-uncontrollable-paedophilia.htmlNewScientist.com, "Brain tumour causes uncontrollable paedophilia"] by Charles Choi. ''New Scientist'', 21 October 2002. - "The sudden and uncontrollable paedophilia exhibited by a 40-year-old man was caused by an egg-sized brain tumour, his doctors have told a scientific conference. And once the tumour had been removed, his sex-obsession disappeared."</ref><ref>Kennedy, DP; Gläscher, J; Tyszka, JM; Adolphs, R. "Personal space regulation by the human amygdala." (2009). Nat Neuroscince. '''12''' pmid=19718035</ref><ref>Bucher, K.; Myersn, R.; Southwick, C. "Anterior temporal cortex and maternal behaviour in monkey." (1970). Neurology. '''20''' pmid = 4998075</ref> If those changes in actual personality can be identified within a working brain, how can the "soul" — which is generally described as these aspects in collective — exist? One wouldn't expect an immaterial entity to be affected by {{wpl|Phineas Gage|a giant rod ploughing right through its owner's skull|.}}

If the soul does not interact with the physical body at all, then it should not bear any responsibility for the actions of its "host", such as "[[sin]]". (The soul would just be some sort of "observer", but even just "observing" something — according to the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] of quantum mechanics — may physically affect that thing.) If a body sins, it cannot be the soul's fault. (Compare conscience.<ref>{{wpa|conscience}}</ref>)

If the soul interacts with the physical body in some way, then that makes the soul a physical phenomenon…

===Weighing===

In an effort to put the soul onto a more scientific footing, Dr. [[Duncan MacDougall]] of Haverhill, Massachusetts tried, in 1901, to weigh the soul (he disagreed with the common view of the soul, believing it was material, thus having mass). He took a dying man and weighed him until the "moment" of [[death]], at which point he apparently noticed a reduction in weight of three-fourths of an ounce. The Sunn Classic Pictures 1978 pseudoscience documentary ''Beyond and Back''<ref>{{wpa|Beyond and Back}}</ref> dramatized MacDougall's experiment — with a great deal of artistic license. MacDougall subsequently repeated the experiment with fifteen unfortunate dogs and found no such reduction. Over time, he repeated the experiment with five other dying humans, and got a variety of differing results — which rather invalidated his premise.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/religion/soulweight.asp snopes: Soul Man]</ref> The human weight-loss he arrived at, about 21 grams, lived on in the [[urban legend]] stating we all lose this upon death, referenced in the title (and briefly in the plot) of the 2003 movie ''21 Grams'' starring Sean Penn, Benicio Del Toro, and Naomi Watts.

[[Harry La Verne Twining]] also attempted to weigh the soul of [[animal]]s in a set of experiments and obtained some interesting differences in weight loss. However, scientists (including Twining himself later in his life in 1915) claimed that the experiments turned out to be the result of the natural cause of moisture loss.<ref>Len Fisher Weighing The Soul: Scientific Discovery From the Brilliant to the Bizarre 2004, p. 14-15</ref>

===Other===

The physicist [[R. A. Watters]] in the 1930s carried out some experiments with a Wilson cloud chamber and claimed to have observed the souls of insects and animals leaving their bodies at death. His results have not been replicated by other scientists, and skeptics believe his photographs depict dust.

Some [[parapsychology|parapsychologists]] have also reported cases of "soul mist" being seen after people have died; however, the scientific community does not regard these reports — based on personal stories or testimonials — as evidence for the existence of souls.<ref>[http://whitecrowbooks.com/michaeltymn/entry/more_witnesses_to_soul_mist/ More Witnesses to “Soul Mist” by Michael Tymn].</ref>

==The number of souls==
Modern [[Monotheism|monotheists]] often posit one soul per person. This soul is sometimes divided into several parts but is still a single soul. Other religious traditions, on the other hand, give out souls more generously.<ref>For example: {{cite book
| title                 =  Report of the ... Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=sCZCAQAAMAAJ
| publisher             = J. Murray
| publication-date      = 1916
| page                  = 662
| accessdate            = 2016-10-13
| quote                 = Numerous instances of 'multiple souls' resembling those of Egypt have been recorded from the Congo and West Africa [...]}}</ref> Ancient Egyptians distinguished at least five souls,<ref>{{cite book
| last1                 = Najovits
| first1                = Simson
| title                 = Egypt, trunk of the tree : a modern survey of an ancient land
| volume                = 2
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=UVaQJIpx_9wC
| location              = New York
| publisher             = Algora Publishing
| publication-date      = 2003
| page                  = 60
| isbn                  = 9780875862019
| accessdate            = 2016-10-13
| quote                 = It is clear that the pharaohs — their bodies and several spiritual entities, or souls — enjoyed immortal survival and union with the divine as far back as can be traced in the Early Dynastic Period (from c. 3100 BC). [...] The Egyptian soul system was intimately linked to the numbers five and nine. Five united souls in the afterlife constituted a unified person.}}</ref> and Aristotle, following Egyptian lore, subdivided the soul into three.<ref>{{cite book
| last1                 = Diop
| first1                = Cheikh Anta
| origyear              = 1981
| title                 = Civilization Or Barbarism: An Authentic Anthropology
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=j1lg6Inifv4C
| location              = Chicago
| publisher             = Chicago Review Press
| publication-date      = 1991
| page                  = 358
| isbn                  = 9781613747421
| accessdate            = 2016-10-13
| quote                 = On a psychological level, the soul, according to Aristotle, as with all the ancient Egyptians, is composed of three principles [...].}}</ref> One Chinese tradition postulates three souls,<ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Tong
 | first1 = Daniel
 | chapter = Theological Perceptions
 | title = A Biblical Approach to Chinese Traditions and Beliefs
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=b_ui6MxxmesC
 | location = Singapore
 | publisher = Armour Publishing Pte Ltd
 | publication-date = 2003
 | page = 71
 | isbn = 9789814045926
 | access-date = 19 November 2019
 | quote = The Chinese [...] believe that each person has three souls. [They] believe that upon the death of a person, the souls are dispersed to reside in three different places.}}</ref> but Taoism features ten souls, ''sanhunqipo'' ([[:zh:三魂七魄|三魂七魄]]) per person: "three ''hun'' and seven ''po''".<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.deathreference.com/Ce-Da/Chinese-Beliefs.html
|title= Encyclopedia of Death and Dying (2008)
|publisher= Deathreference.com
|accessdate= 19 November 2019
|url-status= live
|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20111105103959/http://www.deathreference.com/Ce-Da/Chinese-Beliefs.html
|archivedate= 5 November 2011
|df= dmy-all
|quote = One common view included the idea of three hun and seven po. These multiple soul theories were among the factors in popular religion that mitigated widespread acceptance of belief in salvation of the individual soul. At the same time, however, multiple soul theories helped Chinese to manage contrasting perceptions of ancestral souls (as benevolent or malevolent, for example) and to provide an explanatory framework for the differing rituals of the domestic, gravesite, and clan hall cults for ancestors.}}</ref>

==Soul in Abrahamic religions==
=== Judaism ===
Before the influence of the Greek concept of the ''psyche'' on [[Hebrew]] thought, the [[Bible]]'s authors only spoke of a man having breath (spirit) using the word ''nefesh'' in Hebrew, and any living creature was called a "soul". Consider in Genesis 2:7, describing the creation of [[Adam]]:

: {{bible|Genesis|2|7}}
:Then YHWH God formed man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and so the man became a living being.

Or, as the [[King James Version]] puts it:

:And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.

In Judaism, the concept of the soul was expanded on later through the [[Kabbalah]], which proposes separate elements of the soul (of sefirot): Nefesh (breath), Ruach (wind/spirit), Neshamah (breath), Chayah (life), and Yechidah (singularity). There is also an "animal soul" and a "godly soul". Many Jews also believe that one's soul is "Jewish" (even before conversion).<ref>https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2613870/jewish/Jewish-Soul-in-a-Non-Jewish-Body.htm</ref>

Meanwhile, in the canon, [[Ecclesiastes]] explicitly denies the belief in consciousness after death:

: <bible book="Ecclesiastes" chapter=9 verse1=5 verse2=6/>

Ecclesiastes is also notable in the extent to which it dwells on the futility of the human condition. In the Hebrew writings, humans have no ontological superiority over animals.

: <bible book="Ecclesiastes" chapter=3 verse1=18 verse2=20/>

Judaists do not traditionally believe in an afterlife in the Christian sense, instead waiting for the prophecized [[resurrection]] in ''Olam haBa''. Some believe that the souls may be put in the Chamber of Guf or Gehinnom. However, the [[New Testament]] begins to speak of parallel destinations of either [[hell]] or [[heaven]]/paradise:

:{{bible|Luke|23|43}}
: And Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto thee, To day shalt thou be with me in paradise.

=== Christianity ===
Opinions on the soul in Christianity vary greatly, in great part due to the sheer number of denominations. A common perspective is that humans are tripartite: comprising body, soul, and spirit. The origin of the soul is also a subject of discussion. According to soul creationism, God creates each individual soul directly, either at the moment of conception or some later time. According to traducianism, the soul comes from the parents by natural generation. According to the preexistence theory, the soul exists before the moment of conception. A great deal of Christian perspectives on the soul concern the judgment of the soul by God. 

: {{bible|Matthew|25|31|46}}
: When the Son of man shall come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory: And before him shall be gathered all nations: and he shall separate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: And he shall set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left. Then shall the King say unto them on his right hand, Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world: [...] Then shall he say also unto them on the left hand, Depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and his angels: [...] And these shall go away into everlasting punishment: but the righteous into life eternal.

And so on. The idea of [[Limbo]] 
evolv
developed later, flourishing in [[Catholicism]].

Some Christians have argued in favor of [[annihilationism]] rather than an eternal hell, although that has never been the most widely-held or traditional Christian view. It's not entirely clear how heaven or paradise and the resurrection fit together (Christians have wrangled over the details for generations); however, the [[Book of Revelation]] indicates the whole scenario does not take place "in the sky", but rather on a future Earth. The idea of the soul being immaterial may also be wrong, with every dead person rather being resurrected, [[Last Judgement|judged]], and then either sent to [[damnation|eternal torment]]/annihilated (depending on the specific interpretation) or given [[immortality|eternal life]] in heaven/paradise while inhabiting an immortal body.

=== Islam ===
Like Christianity, Islam expounds upon the afterlife of the soul (heaven and hell being ''jannah'' and ''jahannam'', respectively) along with resurrection. In Islam, the soul is typically referred to as the ''nafs'' (نَفْس - literally meaning "self" in Arabic). The soul is often considered to have three stages in Islam. First, the "soul which commands", where the soul causes one to do wrong, the "soul which blames", a soul that recognizes its own imperfections, and finally the "soul at peace", a soul that has found tranquility through God.<ref>https://www.livingislam.org/nafs.html</ref>

:{{Quran|17|86}}
:And they ask you about the soul. Say: The soul is one of the commands of my Lord, and you are not given aught of knowledge but a little.

One non-Muslim account describes the death in November 1122 of the Muslim ruler Il-ghazi:<ref>
{{wpa | Ilghazi}}
</ref>
"the filthy soul issued forth from his anus along with a flux of dung from his belly, and it was dragged away by the claws of infernal scorpions to tumble into the halls of deepest hell, which are full of dreadful fires burning without end, blazing and inextinguishable [...]."<ref>
{{cite book
 |author1              = Walter the Chancellor
 |editor-last1         = Asbridge
 |editor-first1        = Thomas S.
 |editor-last2         = Edgington
 |editor-first2        = Susan
 |title                = Walter the Chancellor's the Antiochene Wars
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=MxNnAAAAMAAJ
 |series               = Crusade texts in translation, ISSN 1759-491X, volume 4
 |location             = Aldershot
 |publisher            = Ashgate
 |publication-date     = 1999
 |page                 = 171
 |isbn                 = 9781840142631
 |access-date          = 6 May 2025
}}
</ref>

== The separation of souls from bodies ==
How does the soul react to the death of an associated body? - Opinions differ:

* In [[Hinduism]], the ''ātman'' ("soul" or "self") can escape from the body at death through one of a number of orifices.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Bowker
 |first1               = John Westerdale
 |date                 = 26 March 1993
 |orig-date            = 1991
 |chapter              = Hinduism
 |title                = The Meanings of Death
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=B2HgZ325ANUC
 |series               = Canto original series
 |edition              = reprint
 |publication-place    = Cambridge
 |publisher            = Cambridge University Press
 |page                 = 144
 |isbn                 = 9780521447737
 |access-date          = 2 June 2025
 |quote                = At the moment of death, [the devout Hindu's] soul escapes though the ''brahmarandhra'', the Brahma-gap, a minute opening in the crown of the head (or, some say, between the eyebrows and the forehead). This escape may be assisted by the practice of breaking the skull of the body that has been burning on the pyre [...]. But the escape through the ''brahmarandhra'' occurs only if he has not been evil or depraved in his life: in that case his soul would be expelled through the anus.
}}
</ref>
* A [[Jainist]] soul can leave its associated body through one of three orifices.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Mirabello
 |first1               = Mark
 |date                 = 15 September 2016
 |title                = A Traveler's Guide to the Afterlife: Traditions and Beliefs on Death, Dying, and What Lies Beyond
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=EGEoDwAAQBAJ
 |publisher            = Simon and Schuster
 |isbn                 = 9781620555989
 |quote                = According to Jainism [...] if the dying person is a wise and virtuous sage, his soul will exit from the top of his head. If he is a lecher, his soul will leave through his genitals. If he is vile and wicked, his soul will exit from his anus.
}}
</ref>
* In [[ancient Rome]], the [[Latin]] word ''anima'' could mean "soul" or "breath". "[A]t the death-bed of an ancient Roman, the nearest kinsman leant over to inhale the last breath of the departing (''et excipies hanc animam ore pio'') [and thou shalt receive this soul with a reverent mouth]"<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Tylor
 |first1               = Edward Burnett
 |year                 = 1873
 |orig-date            = 1871
 |chapter              = XI: Animism
 |title                = Primitive Culture: Researches Into the Developement of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion Language, Art and Custom
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=JObCZS__PvsC
 |volume               = 1
 |edition              = 2
 |publication-place    = London
 |publisher            = J. Murray
 |pages                = 432, 433
 |access-date          = 2 June 2025
 |quote                = The act of breathing [...] has been repeatedly and naturally identified with the life or soul itself. [...] [One] may judge the strength of the implied connexion between breath and spirit by cases of the most unequivocal significance. [...] at the death-bed of an ancient Roman, the nearest kinsman leant over to inhale the last breath of the departing ({{lang|la|et excipies hanc animam ore pio|italic=no}}).
}}
</ref>

==See also==
*[[Non-materialist neuroscience]]
*[[Afterlife]]
*[[Dualism]]

==External links==
*[http://freethoughtpedia.com/wiki/What_Is_The_Soul%3F What Is The Soul?] 

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Religious terms]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Afterlife]]

Categories: Religious terms, Pseudoscience, Afterlife