Biogeography

[[File:Wild shortbeak echidna.jpg|thumb|right|165px|A short-beaked echidna, ''Tachyglossus aculeatus'', a monotreme from Australia and New Guinea.]]
{{Evolution}}
'''Biogeography''' is the study of the distribution of [[species]] due to evolutionary history. It is a powerful argument for evolution and a branch of [[evolutionary biology]].

[[File:Map of Sunda and Sahul 2.png|thumb|right|300px|The Wallace Line and its surroundings, with Pleistocene-era continental shelfs of Asia and Australia added for clarity.]]

==The Wallace Line==
[[File:Tree kangaroo2.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Goodfellow's tree kangaroo, ''Dendrolagus goodfellowi'', a marsupial from New Guinea.]]
The Wallace line, drawn by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], marks the point of separation between [[Asian]]-like and [[Australian]]-like [[Animal|fauna]] and the maximum westward spread of marsupials.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/science/Wallace-Line</ref> For example, the areas to the west of the line are dominated by placental mammals, while those to the east are marsupial-dominated. This is due to the fact that, during one of the [[ice age]]s, the continental shelves of the Asian and Australian landmasses extended farther than they do now, while still being separated by a large amount of water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.naturalhistorymag.com/features/113822/from-sunda-to-sahul|title=From Sunda to Sahul: The ﬁrst crossings and early settlement of the Paciﬁc|last=Thomas|first=Nicolas|date=June 2021|publisher=''Natural History''}}</ref> Therefore, marsupial mammals from Australia colonized areas such as New Guinea, while placental mammals from Asia colonized western [[Indonesia]]. The separation of marsupial and placental lineages, therefore, dates to before Laurasia (the supercontinent modern Asia developed from) and Gondwana (the supercontinent Australia separated from) separated. Plants also follow the Wallace line, although not to such a great extent, and their distributions in the area around the line also provide strong support to the idea that Asia and Australasia were separated for long periods of time.<ref>https://www.jstor.org/stable/2399087</ref>
In addition, monotremes also occur only east of the line.<ref>https://www.jstor.org/stable/2808563?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents</ref> 
[[File:Ngarai Sianok sumatran monkey.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A crab-eating macaque, ''Macaca fascicularis'', from Sumatra, west of the Wallace Line, which occupies a similar niche to the tree kangaroo.]]<br />
[[File:Casuarius unappendiculatus qtl1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The northern or single-wattled Cassowary, ''Casuarius unappediculatus'', a ratite from New Guinea.]]

The situation with [[birds]] is slightly more complicated, due to the fact that most have the power of flight. However, trends can still be seen. For example, cockatoos (Cacatuidae) occur only east of the Huxley line, except for the island of Palawan.<ref>https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/cockatoo</ref><ref>https://carolinabirds.org/HTML/Psitt_Cockatoo.htm</ref>
[[File:Callocephalon fimbriatum (male) -Blue Mountains-8.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A gang-gang cockatoo,''Callocephalon fimbriatum'', a cockatoo from Australia.]]Similarly, ratites (flightless paleognaths) occur only east of Wallacea. Populations in Wallacea are introduced.<ref>https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/cassowary</ref><ref>https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22678108/131902050</ref><ref>https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22678114/118134784</ref><ref>https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22678111/92755192</ref><ref>https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Casuarius_unappendiculatus/</ref> Additionally, the four ratites of Australia and [[Papua New Guinea]] (the three species of cassowary, as well as the emu ''Dromaius novaehollandiae'') form a monophyletic [[Cladistics|clade]]. There is however, disagreement over whether this clade forms a family (Casuariidae) an order (Casuariiformes) or a subgroup within the order Struthioniformes.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/animal/casuariiform</ref><ref>https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Casuariidae/</ref><ref>http://tolweb.org/Palaeognathae/15837</ref>

===Taxa that cross the Wallace Line===
[[File:Lanthanotus borneensis 1f.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Bornean earless monior lizard, ''Lanthanotus borneensis.'' Note the aquatic surroundings.]]
True monitors (Varanidae) are a widespread family of lizards that live from southern [[Africa]] to Australia.<ref>https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Varanidae/</ref> Around half of its species live in Australia, which means that the geographical center of their distribution is around Wallacea. True monitors are an old group, being at least 65 million years old by most estimates.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790315003127?via%3Dihub</ref> They are also highly capable swimmers,<ref>https://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/biographies/architecture-biographies/monitor-lizards</ref><ref>https://theculturetrip.com/asia/thailand/articles/why-does-thailand-hate-monitor-lizards/</ref> meaning that they would have had no problem dispersing over water.
[[File:Varanus bitatawa (KU 322188) from Barangay Dibuluan, San Mariano - ZooKeys-266-001-g069.jpg|thumb|300px|A Northern Sierra Madre Forest Monitor, ''Varanus bitatawa'', a true monitor from the island of Luzon in the [[Philippines]], between the Wallace and Huxley lines.]]
Due to their distribution patterns, we would expect that the Varanidae originated some place around Wallacea (which would explain how they managed to cross it so well). If so, the closest living relative of the Varanidae should live in the area.

This is exactly what we see. That closest relative, the Bornean earless monitor lizard, lives slightly west of the line, on the island of Borneo.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/nov/11/lizard-traffickers-exploit-legal-loopholes-to-trade-at-worlds-biggest-fair</ref><ref>http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/details/species/id/a3df2212eee23842159af5497bfc0b1a/source/tree</ref>
<br />
[[File:Coturnix pectoralis South Australia.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A stubble quail, ''Coturnix pectoralis''.]]
The ''Coturnix'' genus of Old World quail also crosses the Wallace Line. While its most well-known members occur in Eurasia,<ref>https://ebird.org/species/comqua1</ref><ref>http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/common-quail-coturnix-coturnix</ref><ref>https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Coturnix_japonica/</ref> it has two members in Australia (the stubble quail and brown quail).<ref>https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Coturnix_pectoralis/</ref><ref>https://ebird.org/species/broqua1</ref><ref>http://birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/Brown-Quail</ref> In addition, a recently extinct member of the genus used to live in [[New Zealand]], having gone extinct by 1875.<ref>https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22678955/92795779</ref><ref>http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/new-zealand-quail</ref>

While most incubator birds (Megapodiidae) range east of the Wallace Line in Australasia, several occur west of it, including in the Philippines.<ref>[https://nhpbs.org/wild/megapodiidae.asp  Megapodiidae - Scrub Fowl, Brush-turkeys ]</ref><ref>[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Megapodiidae/ Megapodiidae megapodes (Also: mound-builders or megapodes)]</ref> One species, the Nicobar megapode ''Megapodius nicobariensis'', even lives as far west of the line as the Nicobar Islands in the eastern Indian Ocean, northwest of Sumatra.<ref>[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22678583/92779885 Nicobar Scrubfowl Megapodius nicobariensis]</ref><ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/000632079400056V The distribution, status and conservation of the Nicobar megapode ''Megapodius nicobariensis'']</ref>

In conclusion, those taxa that cross the Wallace Line are those that are comparatively ancient and/or able to cross water, generally birds capable of flight.

===Additional terminology===
'''Lydekker's line''', drawn by {{wpl|Richard Lydekker||,}} is the line of maximum expansion of Asian mammals into Indonesia.<ref>https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/lydekkers-line</ref>

'''Weber's Line''', drawn by {{wpl|Max Carl Wilhelm Weber||,}} marks the boundary between Oriental fauna-dominated areas to its west and Australian fauna-dominated areas to its east.<ref>https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/webers-line</ref>

'''Wallacea''' is the area between Wallace's and Lydekker's line.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallacea</ref><br />

'''Huxley's Line''' is a revision of the Wallace Line by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], altering the northern segment of the latter line to go west of the Philippines (excluding the island of Palawan) instead of east of it, due to the Philippines' unique flora and fauna.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/science/biogeographic-region/Fauna#ref588391</ref>

==Gondwana==
[[File:Andean Tinamou RWD.jpg|300px|thumb|left|An Andean Tinamou, ''Nothoprocta pentlandii'', a flying paleognath from South America.]]
'''Gondwana''' was an ancient supercontinent which incorporated the areas of land that today comprise [[South America]], Australia, Africa/Arabia, [[Antarctica]], and [[India]].<ref> https://www.livescience.com/37285-gondwana.html</ref> It began breaking up during the Mesozoic Era.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Gondwana-supercontinent</ref> Unlike with Laurasia, there has been far more limited movement by species across its areas since its split split, due to the fact that basically all of the latter was connected by the Bering Land Bridge during recent [[Ice age|ice ages]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Gondwana-supercontinent Gondwana- ancient supercontinent (from Britannica)]</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Beringia Beringia- Ancient landform, Pacific Ocean, from Britannica]</ref> Therefore, its animals provide the most widely used and most convincing examples of relict distributions used to demonstrate how the evidence proves [[Evolution|evolution]].


===Paleognathae===
[[File:Apteryx mantelli -Rotorua, North Island, New Zealand-8a.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The North Island Brown Kiwi, ''Apteryx mantelli'', a flightless paleognath from New Zealand.]]
The '''paleognaths''' are a suborder of birds.<ref>https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/palaeognathae.html</ref> A '''ratite''' is any paleognath bird that is also flightless.<ref>https://www.beautyofbirds.com/ratites.html</ref><ref>https://www.britannica.com/animal/ratite</ref> They also, apparently, have [[Fun:Delicious|delicious]] red meat.<ref>https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/poultry-preparation/ratites-emu-ostrich-and-rhea/ct_index</ref> Paleognaths likely flew into formerly Gondwanan areas from the north, then lost flight multiple times, in a stunning example of [[convergent evolution]]. This is due to the fact that ratites are [[Cladistics|paraphyletic]], with the flying tinamous nested within them instead of being a sister group.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982216315032</ref> Paleognaths currently occur in the Gondwanan landmasses of Africa/Arabia, New Zealand, Australia, and South America.<ref>http://richleebruce.com/biology/emu.html</ref> Extinct members also lived in India,<ref>https://phys.org/news/2017-03-evidence-ostriches-india-years.html</ref><ref>https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1474-919X.1929.tb08775.x</ref> Madagascar,<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-45495400</ref><ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/26/science/largest-elephant-bird.html</ref><ref>https://www.britannica.com/animal/elephant-bird#ref287389</ref> and Antarctica.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982216312143</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312306275_Phylogenomics_and_Morphology_of_Extinct_Paleognaths_Reveal_the_Origin_and_Evolution_of_the_Ratites</ref>

Early paleognaths, such as the {{wpl|Lithornithidae|lithornithids}} were typically Laurasian in distribution and capable of flight. They ranged over [[Europe]] and [[North America]].<ref>https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/view/zootaxa.4032.5.2</ref> Lithornithids were basal lineages among the paleognaths, meaning members among them flew south and colonized formerly Gondwanan areas.<ref>http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/6664</ref><ref>http://fossilworks.org/?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=98813</ref> Due to this, the phylogeny of paleognaths follows a different pattern from that which would be expected if paleognaths had originated in Gondwana, and the splitting apart of their lineages was caused by the drifting apart of its component continents.<ref>https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/02/09/262949.1.full.pdf</ref>

===Austral conifers===
[[File:PodocarpusTotara2.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A totara, ''Podocarpus totara'', from New Zealand.]]
[[File:Volcán Llaima - Araucanía.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Several monkey puzzle trees, ''Araucaria araucana'', in front of a mountain.]]
The austral or southern conifers are two conifer families (Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae) whose distribution is mainly south of the Equator and whose distributions can be easily explained by continental drift.<ref>http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/araucari.htm</ref><ref>http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/G/Araucariaceae/</ref><ref>https://www.conifers.org/ar/Araucariaceae.php</ref><ref>https://www.conifers.org/po/Podocarpaceae.php</ref><ref>https://www.britannica.com/plant/Podocarpaceae</ref><ref>https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/seedplants/conifers/araucaria.html</ref><ref>http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/G/Podocarpaceae/</ref> [[Fossils]] of the Araucariaceae date back to the [[Triassic]].<ref>https://www.britannica.com/plant/conifer/Annotated-classification#ref410967</ref>
[[File:Agat damma 101202-09855 wlt.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A stand of the Amboyna pine ''Agathis dammara'' on Java.]]
[[File:Parasitaxus usta.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Parasitaxus usta'', the world's only parasitic conifer, which lives in New Caledonia.]]
During the Mesozoic Era, the Araucariaceae had a far wider distribution, as far north as [[England]] and [[Japan]], which is explainable by Gondwana being part of [[Pangaea]] at the time.<ref>https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/the-araucaria-family-past-present/</ref><ref>R.A. Stockey ''Mesozoic Araucariaceae: Morphology and systematic relationships
''https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227151735_Mesozoic_Araucariaceae_Morphology_and_systematic_relationships</ref> The Podocarpaceae similarly date back to the Mesozoic, also to the Triassic period.<ref>Wagstaff, Steven ''Evolution and biogeography of the austral genus Phyllocladus (Podocarpaceae)'' https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230184707_Evolution_and_biogeography_of_the_austral_genus_Phyllocladus_Podocarpaceae</ref> They also had non-Gondwanan representatives during the Mesozoic Era, although not to such a great extent as the Araucariaceae, but, unlike the former group, expanded in the Cenozoic, such that their range is currently far larger.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265079534_Dispersal_and_Paleoecology_of_Tropical_Podocarps</ref> In fact, podocarps currently range as far north as Japan and Mexico, both of which are decidedly Laurasian.<ref>''Biogeography of Australasia: A Molecular Analysis'' by Michael Heads, page 201.https://books.google.com/books?id=IRiAAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA201&lpg=PA201&dq=podocarpaceae+range+%22japan%22+%22mexico%22&source=bl&ots=18MEHlt7BL&sig=ACfU3U2kfajwnvgBctYpfSBwg0PJmiWVgw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwips_nQ2pHiAhVDYKwKHXbrAsEQ6AEwCHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=podocarpaceae%20range%20%22japan%22%20%22mexico%22&f=false</ref>
[[File:Wollemia cones.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Cones of the Wollemi pine, ''Wollemia nobilis''.]]
[[File:Agathis moorei Kauri Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A Moore's kauri, ''Agathis moorei''.]]
Many Araucariaceae, such as the Wollemi Pine, are considered "[[Living fossil|living fossils]]".<ref>http://earthsci.org/expeditions/wollemi/wollemi.html</ref>
Unsurprisingly, [[creationists]] are attempting to use this as "proof" against evolution. [[Institute for Creation Research|ICR]], for example, claims that the Wollemi Pine somehow poses an "evolutionary mystery" for scientists.<ref>[https://www.icr.org/article/wollemia-nobilis-living-fossil-evolutionary-enigma/ Wollemia nobilis: A Living Fossil and Evolutionary Enigma]</ref> Obviously, this is wrong, for several reasons:
[[File:Podocarpus nagi nagi01.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Asian bayberry, ''Nageia nagi'', a podocarp from East Asia. Note the wide, angiosperm-like leaves.]]
# Mesozoic fossils show that the Araucariaceae had already split into distinct branches by the Triassic. This blatantly contradicts the creationist model of rapid post-Flood speciation and diversification. In fact, it portrays a beautifully illustrated story of slow, pleasantly uniformitarian change. 
# The fact that there is ''basically no difference'' between ''Agathis jurassica'' and ''Wollemia nobilis'' blatantly contradicts the baraminological model, under which species rapidly "degenerate" and change is rapid.
# Wollemi pines do not necessarily require the conditions of their home canyons to grow. They have, for example, been raised in cultivation.<ref>https://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/our-work-discoveries/germplasm-conservation-horticulture/wollemi-pine-conservation-program/wollemi-pine-research-projects/growth-of-wollemi-pine-in-cultivation</ref>
#Even if modern Wollemi pines are adapted to canyon conditions, it does not follow that their ancestors were. ''A. jurassica'', for example, lived outside the canyon area. Species adapt. Therefore, it is not necessary for the canyons to have been around for the Wollemi pine to have survived.<ref>https://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/our-work-discoveries/germplasm-conservation-horticulture/wollemi-pine-conservation-program/wollemi-pine-research-projects/growth-of-wollemi-pine-in-cultivation</ref>
# ''Dilwynites'' pollen has been found in South America in rocks dated as late as the Middle Eocene, specifically 46 mya. 46 million and 150 million years are wildly different dates, which shows ICR's blatant [[Intellectual dishonesty|dishonesty]].<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23894439</ref>
# Fossils of the Wollemi Pine have been found in rocks just ''two million years old'' in Tasmania. Given the near-continuous fossil record of these trees since the Mesozoic, and their small range, in hard-to access areas, it is in no way unusual that a plant whose most recent fossils are two million years old should still be living.<ref>''Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference'' by James E. Eckenwalder, page 631 https://books.google.com/books?id=QGmO_CtTPAEC&pg=PA631&lpg=PA631&dq=dilwynites+2+mya&source=bl&ots=xGsUVAMF4V&sig=ACfU3U3RNucXyjtkVf_n78sSBeSCPLqkuw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi825q3gJniAhUGoZ4KHdusCSsQ6AEwA3oECAcQAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref>
In conclusion, ICR is misrepresenting facts and blowing hot air, and the [[evidence]] is far more hostile to creationism than to evolution.

''Parasitaxus usta'', the world's only parasitic conifer, is a podocarp from New Caledonia.<ref>https://parasiticplants.siu.edu/parasitaxus.html</ref>Its host is the fellow podocarp ''Falcatifolium taxoides''.<ref>http://legacy.brit.org/webfm_send/1767</ref> The rate of genetic change of the chloroplasts of ''Parasitaxus'' was higher than normal, likely due to a new food source, from another plant instead of from sunlight.<ref>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00606-002-0199-8</ref> The closest relatives of ''Parasitaxus'' are likely ''Lagarostrobos'' (Huon pine) and ''Manoao''.<ref>https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0107679</ref> ''P. usta'' uses fungi in order to receive nutrients from its host.<ref>https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2005.01378.x</ref><ref>http://www.indefenseofplants.com/blog/2016/9/5/the-worlds-only-parasitic-gymnosperm</ref> Creationists have not even tried to explain how these features and apparatuses could have evolved in 6,000 years due to "degeneration" from an original podocarp "[[Baraminology|archaebaramin]]". In fact, such a development is blatantly impossible, providing even more proof against creationism and in support of evolutionary theory.

Interestingly, podocarp success in the face of competition with angiosperms has been linked to their large, wide leaves, with wide-leaved lineages generally being more successful and widespread. This trend is noticeable in the [[fossil record]], particularly in the Cenozoic.<ref>''Leaf evolution in Southern Hemisphere conifers tracks the angiosperm ecological radiation'' https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3223667/</ref> This trend, with the expansion and reduction of lineages being illustrated in the fossil record, culminating in their modern distribution, exactly matches the distribution expected of evolution and does not match the distribution expected from creationism.

===Lungfish===
{{main|Lungfish}}
[[File:Marbled lungfish 1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A marbled lungfish, ''Protopterus aethiopicus'', at Suma Aqualife Park, Kobe, [[Japan]]]]
[[File:Neoceratodus forsteri Aquarium tropical du Palais de la Porte Dorée 10042016 1.jpg|300px|thumb|left|An Australian lungfish, ''Neoceratodus forsteri''.]]
Lungfish (Dipnoi) are a group of air-breathing lobe-finned [[fish]] that are spread across the southern continents.<ref>https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/sarco/dipnoi.html</ref>
They currently occur in South America, Africa, and Australia. Their fossils date from the early [[Devonian]] period. Lungfish lungs are similar to those of [[amphibians]], and their fins provide a model for how primitive tetrapods could have walked on land.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/animal/lungfish</ref>
[[File:Leipzig - Zoo - Gondwanaland in - Neoceratodus forsteri 03 ies.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Two Australian lungfish in the Leipzig zoo.]]
Interestingly, the hatchlings of the Australian lungfish are impossible to tell apart with the naked eye from those of salamanders.<ref>[[David Attenborough|Attenborough, David]] ''Life in Cold Blood'', page 15</ref> This is a useful piece of information to present cretinists with when they ramble on and on about "fishapods". In fact, an even more effective approach would be to present them with photographs of the hatchlings in question and request that they sort them into "[[Baraminology|kinds]]". Since, according to creationism, "kinds" are clearly and sharply delineated, they should have no problems with this simple task. Meanwhile, keep notes on which of the photos belong to which species, and confront them with that after they would inevitably fail to properly distinguish the "kinds" in question.

[[File:Lepidosiren paradoxa Aquarium tropical du Palais de la Porte Dorée 10042016 1.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A South American lungfish, ''Lepidosiren paradoxa''.]]
Fossil lungfish burrows have been found as early as the Permian, indicating their lifestyles were similar to those of today even back then. During the Mesozoic, they, like so many other groups on this page, had a far larger distribution, being distributed nearly worldwide. In addition, the still-extant genus ''Neoceratodus'' was already around back then.
[[File:Protopterus annectens Aquarium Liège 30012016 1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A West African lungfish, ''Protopterus annectens''.]]

While under creationism, the lungfish-amphibian similarity is mysterious, under evolutionary theory, it makes perfect sense. Lungfish are the closest living relatives of tetrapods, and should therefore be expected to look a lot like basal tetrapods (e.g., amphibians). This prediction is borne out by the evidence.

===Marsupials===
[[File:Opossum 2.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A North American opossum, ''Didelphis virginiana''.]]
[[File:Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus Bruny.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A Bennett's [[Fun:Kangaroo|wallaby]], ''Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus'', from Tasmania.]]
'''Marsupials''' ('''Marsupalia''') are a group of mammals characterized by premature birth (compared to placental mammals), with the neonates then being transferred to pouches.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/animal/marsupial</ref> Marsupials were formerly more common in the Mesozoic, but now are generally restricted to the southern continents, specifically South America and Australasia.<ref>https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/marsupial</ref><ref>https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/marsupial/marsupial.html</ref>

[[File:Vombatus ursinus -Maria Island National Park.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A common wombat, ''Vombatus ursinus''.]]
The term '''Metatheria''' refers to all mammals that are more closely related to marsupials than to placental mammals, as well as the marsupials themselves. The group was proposed by [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]] in 1880.<ref>https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=179917#null</ref><ref>https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Metatheria</ref> Metatherians are often confused with the less-broad group of marsupials, likely due to true marsupials being the only extant group of metatherians.<ref>https://eol.org/pages/2844108</ref> Metatherians originally evolved in Laurasia, but the [[K-Pg extinction event|Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event]] and competition with placental mammals reduced their range and numbers, causing them to become extinct there. Eventually, most of their fossils came to be found in Gondwanan areas.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4284630/</ref>

[[File:Tasdevil large.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A Tasmanian devil, ''Sarcophilus harrisii'', a marsupial from Tasmania.]]
[[File:Dasyurus maculatus.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A tiger quoll, ''Dasyurus maculatus''.]]
Marsupials evolved in Laurasia and spread from North America to South America over a land bridge.<ref>https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091215202320.htm</ref> They had diverged from placental mammals by the Middle [[Cretaceous]].<ref>https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Metatheria/</ref> Laurasian marsupials went extinct in the Paleogene due to competition with placental mammals.
[[File:Monito del Monte ps6.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A monito del monte ("monkey of the bush/mountain") or colocolo, ''Dromiciops gliroides'', an australidelphian marsupial from South America.]]

[[Kurt Wise]], in his book ''[[Explore Evolution]]'', wrote a comically bad attempt at at disproving evolutionary theory and debunking the relevance of marsupials within the realm of biogeographical evidence for evolution, while also confusing Australian possums and American opossums, and [[strawmanning]] extensively. [[NCSE]] has published an elegant and concise refutation of his claims.<ref>https://ncse.com/creationism/analysis/marsupials</ref>
[[File:Numbat.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A numbat, ''Myrmecobius fasciatus'', an insectivorous marsupial from Australia.]]

The subgroup Australidelphia within the marsupials occurs mostly in Australasia. However, it contains one South American member, the monito del monte, which is basal to the rest.<ref>https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/honors/117/</ref> This, combined with the paleontological evidence and the fact that all non-Australidelphian marsupials (which form a paraphyletic group known as the "Ameridelphia") occur in the Americas, supports the [[hypothesis]] that marsupials spread from South America to the rest of their range.<ref>https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/microbiotheria-monitos-del-monte</ref><ref>https://www.gbif.org/species/144097487</ref>

Interestingly, the Didelphidae, among whose members are the only non-Gondwanan marsupials, have been shown to have dispersed north over the Isthmus of [[Panama]] after its formation.<ref>https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/florida-vertebrate-fossils/species/didelphis-virginiana</ref><ref>http://www.wildlifecontrolexperts.com/opossum.htm</ref> The closest relative of the North American opossum is a [[Mexican]] species, meaning both likely evolved from a common ancestor that migrated north over said isthmus.<ref>https://ifcnr.org/the-much-misunderstood-opossum/</ref> Therefore, vicariance is supported even more strongly, by the fact that phenomena that seem to be exceptions to the pattern of vicariance actually provide even more support to the hypothesis.

It conclusion, marsupial range can be summarized as those areas reachable and habitable by mammals where placental mammals are '''''not'''''. For example, Antarctic marsupials died out due to the cold, and African ones due to competition (South America being a minor exception). The same occurred throughout Laurasia. The absence of marsupials from Gondwanan New Zealand is likely due to to its inaccessibility. Note that the creationist explanation, which has rafting as the major means of [[Life and the global flood|post-Flood transport]], would imply that land mammals, specifically marsupials, should be native to there. Yet they are not. The inhospitability of the New Zealand environment cannot be a factor, since introduced land mammals, such as stoats and rats, have multiplied to the point of causing significant ecological damage there when they have managed to get there.

===Nothofagaceae===
[[File:Roble (Nothofagus obliqua).JPG|300px|thumb|left|A group of several robles, ''Nothofagus obliqua'', from South America.]]
[[File:Nothofagus Gunnii summer foliage with flowers.JPG|300px|thumb|right|The tanglefoot, ''Nothofagus gunnii'', a member of the southern beech family from Tasmania.]]
The Nothofagaceae or southern beeches are a group of [[plants]] that occur throughout the southern continents. Their seeds are easily damaged by seawater, showing that they could not have rafted over the ocean, as creationist theory suggests, which supports the idea that their distribution is due to continental drift.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/plant/Fagales#ref992762</ref> They formerly had a far wider range, however, there is no fossil record of them from Africa or India, in line with the view that those continents were the first to split from Gondwana.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263030041_Biogeography_evolution_and_palaeoecology_of_Nothofagus_Nothofagaceae_The_contribution_of_the_fossil_record</ref> Additionally, what seem to be contradictions between the vicariance model and the fossil pollen evidence have already been resolved by postulating extinction of several lineages.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1599775/</ref> The leaf shapes of their fossil members reflects the climate of the times, and the low variation in said shapes provides good evidence against the changes expected in [[baraminology]].<ref>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2018.01073/full</ref> Additionally, the fact that leaves adapted to significantly different climactic conditions occur in the same place prove that the relevant fossils cannot have lived at the same time, providing compelling evidence against a [[Young Earth creationism|young-Earth model]].

Preserved Antarctic fossils show that members of the Nothofagaceae, which even today include many members well-adapted to tundra conditions, were among the last vascular land plants to occur in Antarctica, going extinct around there 15 mya.<ref>https://phys.org/news/2011-06-fossilized-pollen-reveals-climate-history.html</ref>

Fossils of the Oligocene/Miocene ''Nothofagus palustris'' provide data on the evolution of leaf wax within the Nothofagaceae. Again, we see trends in the fossil record occurring slowly over time.<ref>https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article-pdf/174/4/503/25179467/boj12143.pdf</ref>

===Parastacidae===
[[File:Astacoides betsileoensis 01.jpg|300px|thumb|left|''Astacoides betsiloensis'', a parastacid from Madagascar.]]
[[File:Paranephrops.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A northern koura, ''Paranephrops planifrons'', a parastacid from New Zealand.]]
The '''Parastacidae''' are a family of crawfish found throughout the Southern Hemisphere, in Madagascar, South America, and Australasia, with their greatest diversity in Australia.<ref>http://tolweb.org/Parastacidae/6665</ref> They are remarkable in the extent to which they are restricted to the southern continents, with only one known Laurasian member, ''Aenigmastacus crandalli'' from the Eocene of British Columbia. Its ancestors likely traveled there through Asia.<ref>https://academic.oup.com/jcb/article-pdf/31/2/320/10336292/jcb0320.pdf</ref>
[[File:The-eastern-swamp-crayfish-Gramastacus-lacus-sp.-n.-(Decapoda-Parastacidae)-a-new-species-of-zookeys-398-053-g001.jpg|300px|thumb|left|An eastern swamp crayfish, ''Gramastacus lacus'', from Australia.]]
[[File:Euastacus spinifer.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Euastacus spinifer'', a parastacid from Australia]]

[[Genetic]] evidence has been used to show that Australian parastacids are paraphyletic, and the descendants of their most recent common ancestor was also the ancestor of the parastacids of Madagascar and New Zealand, with the New Zealand and Madagascar species forming a clade with two genera from Tasmania, as well as showing that New Zealand has never been completely submerged since parastacids reached it ([[Global flood|hint, hint]]).<ref>https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02374.x</ref>

Additionally, those same biogeographic methods also work when applied within lineages and even genera.<ref>''Phylogeny and biogeography of the freshwater crayfish Euastacus (Decapoda: Parastacidae) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA'' https://www.academia.edu/12214365/Phylogeny_and_biogeography_of_the_freshwater_crayfish_Euastacus_Decapoda_Parastacidae_based_on_nuclear_and_mitochondrial_DNA</ref> In some cases, they even make up for a lack of fossil evidence illustrating divergences.<ref>''THE EVOLUTION OF QUEENSLAND SPINY MOUNTAIN CRAYFISH OF THE GENUS EUASTACUS. I. TESTING VICARIANCE AND DISPERSAL WITH INTERSPECIFIC MITOCHONDRIAL DNA'' https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2004.tb00441.x</ref> In many cases, they also illustrate speciation as early as the Miocene, as well as providing new tools for which to classify species.<ref> Hansen, B ''Systematics and phylogeny of the Tasmanian freshwater crayfish genus Parastacoides (Decapoda: Parastacidae)'' https://eprints.utas.edu.au/19930/</ref> Said studies also illustrate that vicariance can be a powerful method and model of speciation, while also providing real-world examples of [[Punctuated equilibrium|punctuated equilibrium]], as well as explanations for its causes.<ref>Burnham, Quinton ''Systematics and biogeography of the Australian burrowing freshwater crayfish genus Engaewa Riekk (Decapoda: Parastacidae)'' https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1278/</ref> They also show that, consistent with [[Uniformitarianism|uniformitarian]] theories of [[plate tectonics]], the ''Astacoides'' of Madagascar are the most basal living parastacids.<ref>http://jur.byu.edu/?p=9721</ref>

===Osteoglossiformes===
[[File:Pantodon buchholzi.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A freshwater butterflyfish, ''Pantodon buchholzi'', the most basal living osteoglossiform, from Africa. Note the normal fish-like appearance, in stark contrast to most osteoglossiforms, which have elongated bodies/snouts.]]
[[File:Arapaima-full.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The arapaima or piracucu, ''Arapaima gigas'', an osteoglossiform fish from the Amazon River basin.]]
[[File:Arapaima gigas 01.JPG|300px|thumb|left|Another photo of an arapaima.]] The Osteoglossiformes are an old, morphologically diverse order of ray-finned fish whose distribution can easily be explained by vicariance, as long as it is assumed that crown-group teleosts date back to the [[Paleozoic]], an assumption which is supported by the molecular and genetic evidence. Vicariance is the likely cause for the separation of the African ''Heterotis'' and South American ''Arapaima'' lineages within the Arapaimidae.<ref>Lavoue, Sebastien. ''Was Gondwanan breakup the cause of the intercontinental distribution of Osteoglossiformes? A time-calibrated phylogenetic test combining molecular, morphological, and paleontological evidence''https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298338093_Was_Gondwanan_breakup_the_cause_of_the_intercontinental_distribution_of_Osteoglossiformes_A_time-calibrated_phylogenetic_test_combining_molecular_morphological_and_paleontological_evidence</ref>
[[File:Gymnarque du Nil.JPG|300px|thumb|left|An African knifefish, ''Gymnarchus niloticus''.]] 
[[File:Heterotis niloticus.png|300px|thumb|right|The exclusively planktivorous African arowana, ''Heterotis niloticus''.]]<br />
[[File:Osteoglossum bicirrhosum.JPG|300px|thumb|left|A silver arowana, ''Osteoglossum bicirrhosum'', from South America, for which the order is named.]]

Old World knifefish (Notopteridae) include two clades, one composed of their African representatives, and one composed of its Asian species. Data confirms that osteglossiform fish had a Gondwanan origin in the Early Triassic, thus making it obvious that teleosts originated before that, in the Paleozoic, consistent with earlier predictions. Fossil data also shows that Osteoglossiformes are an ancient group of primarily freshwater fish (primarily meaning their most recent common ancestor lived in freshwater, not that most of its species live in freshwater, even though, strictly speaking, that is also true), while tests show that modern notopterids are generally intolerant of salinity, with only one species being able to tolerate low levels of it (which would still be less than those encountered in oceanic environments.) All of this shows the notopterids cannot have dispersed across saltwater, making vicariance the most likely hypothesis.<ref>''From Chromosomes to Genome: Insights into the Evolutionary Relationships and Biogeography of Old World Knifefishes (Notopteridae; Osteoglossiformes)'' https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6027293/</ref>

[[File:Arowana.jpg|300px|thumb|right|An Asian arowana, ''Scleropages formosus'', from Southeast asia and Indonesia.]]
[[File:Shanghai Ocean Aquarium - Chitala blanci 1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The royal knifefish, ''Chitala blanci'', a notopterid from the Mekong river basin in Southeast Asia.]]
Fossil data shows that the Arapaimidae were formerly more widespread. Its two living genera diverged 50 to 80 million years ago.<ref>''Cytogenetics, genomics and biodiversity of the South American and African Arapaimidae fish family (Teleostei, Osteoglossiformes)'' https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6433368/</ref> The Arapaimidae diverged from their closest relatives, the Osteoglossidae (arowanas) around 220 million years ago. Meanwhile, the Asian and Australian branches of the Osteoglossidae diverged around 140 million years ago, with the Asian branch likely traveling there through Gondwanan India.<ref>OSTEOGLOSSIDAE:Bony Tongues https://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:afd.taxon:1102b16d-864b-422a-8008-d2bc801049bd#cite_note-7</ref> Molecular data shows the Osteoglossidae to be divided into two clades, one (''Osteoglossum'' species) from South America and the other (''Scleropages'' species) from Asia and Australasia.<br />
Interestingly, the Osteoglossidae are the only exclusively freshwater fish family to occur on both sides of the Wallace Line.<ref>''Molecular Phylogeny of Osteoglossoids: A New Model for Gondwanian Origin and Plate Tectonic Transportation of the Asian Arowana'' https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/17/12/1869/1059640</ref> This is likely due to their massive age as a distinct family/taxon. The South American and Australasian branches of the Osteoglossidae diverged around 170 million years ago in the Middle Jurassic, allowing the ancestors of the modern Asian arowana to be carried to the Indian subcontinent after the ''Sclerophages'' branch split, meaning their route to Asia was not blocked by saltwater.<ref> Yoshinori Kumazawa ''The reason the freshwater fish arowana
live across the sea'' https://web.archive.org/web/20120205000120/http://www.brh.co.jp/en/experience/journal/39/research_1.html</ref><br />The Osteoglossidae, like the arapaimas, were also formerly more widespread, with ''Phareodus'' even being known from the Eocene of Wyoming's Green River formation.<ref>http://www.onlythebestfossils.com/green-river-formation6.html</ref> Notably, ''Phareodus'' had an appearance quite [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Phareodus unlike] modern osteoglossids, instead looking  quite like modern members of the Hiodontidae, which form the sister group to the Osteoglossiformes.<br />
[[File:Gnathonemus petersii, Sunshine Acuario.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A Peters' elephantnose fish, ''Gnathonemus petersii'', a mormyrid from Africa.]]
<br />Osteoglossiform monophyly is beyond doubt. The following features are shared among the Osteoglossiformes and their closest relatives, the mooneyes, who are sometimes included in the order (the two taxa form the "Osteoglossomorpha"):<ref>http://www.csun.edu/~msteele/classes/Ich530/lectures/5_teleosts%20I.pdf</ref><ref>http://oaji.net/articles/2014/652-1396784299.pdf</ref>
{{collist|2|
*Primary bite between parasphenoid and tongue.
*Absence of supramaxillary bone.
*Absence of supraorbital bone.
*Fusion of fourth and fifth infraorbital bones.
*Number of epural bones decreased to one or zero.
*18-17 or fewer principal caudal fin rays.
*Paired tendon bones on 2nd hypobranchial (in extant species).
*Intestine passes to the left of the stomach (in extant species).<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/animal/fish/Annotated-classification#ref1055418 Fish- Annotated Classification]</ref><ref>http://tolweb.org/Osteoglossomorpha</ref>
*Tongue used as opposing surface for teeth; bony, toothed tongue, teeth on roof of mouth.
*[[Vestigial structure|Rudimentary]] caudal skeleton.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/animal/osteoglossomorph#ref525684</ref><ref>http://www.wetwebmedia.com/FWSubWebIndex/osteoglossiforms.htm</ref>
Common features are also visible within lineages within the order, such as:
*Air-breathing capability in basal lineages (Osteoglossoidei).<ref>[https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=38 Family Osteoglossidae - Arowanas from FishBase]</ref> Osteoglossidae and Arapaimidae even have a suprabranchial organ for the purpose. The arapaima ''Arapaima gigas'' is actually an obligate air-breather.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15037637</ref> This has led to it being vulnerable to human spearfishing, causing it to become extirpated in many areas, a prime example of [[Suboptimal design|suboptimal design]], since many Amazonian fish can survive without breathing air.<ref>[https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2014/08/giant-fish-amazon-faces-extinction Giant fish of Amazon faces extinction]</ref> The African knifefish and some notopterids can also breathe air, although the Mormyridae (elephantfishes), the most derived osteoglossiforms, cannot.
*Ability to generate electricity within the clade composing the Gymnarchidae and Mormyridae. These two families are also the only vertebrates to have spermatozoa lacking flagellae.<ref> Volker Blum ''Vertebrate Reproduction: A Textbook'' Page 93 https://books.google.com/books?id=JZfzCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=mormyridae++gymnarchidae+no+flagellum&source=bl&ots=_7czk9B4HX&sig=ACfU3U1EXdjPNyvyBpHiud04D9YWA38brg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwik3JTStYDjAhVJeawKHXwvDLwQ6AEwDHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=mormyridae%20%20gymnarchidae%20no%20flagellum&f=false</ref>
*Upper and lower parts of ear are completely separated in the more derived Notopteroidei suborder.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/animal/osteoglossomorph</ref>
}}

The closest relatives of the Osteoglossiformes are the Hiodontidae (mooneyes), who are sometimes included within the order. They are ''not'' Gondwanan, instead living near the [[United States]]-[[Canada]] border.<ref>[https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/49241-Hiodontidae Mooneyes (Family Hiodontidae)]</ref><ref> Hiodontidae on FishBase https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=36</ref> This geographical data, combined with molecular tests to determine relatedness, can be used to determine when and where the two lineages split from a common ancestor, as well as providing a 
calibration to confirm the likely date of the breakup of [[Pangaea]].

===Galaxiiformes===
[[File:Adult koaro (Galaxias brevipinnis) from the Momona Stream, Taranaki. Photo by Stella McQueen.jpg|300px|thumb|A climbing galaxias or kōaro, ''Galaxias brevipinnis'', from New Zealand and southern Australia.]]
[[File:Canterbury mudfish by Colin Meurk.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A group of Canterbury Mudfish, ''Neochanna burrowsius'', galaxiiform fish from the east-central portion of [[New Zealand|New Zealand's]] South Island.]]
The '''Galaxiiformes''' are an order of freshwater and anadromous fish living throughout the temperate parts of the Southern Hemisphere. They range throughout Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and the southern tips of Africa and South America.<ref>[https://www.fishbase.in/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=79 Family Galaxiidae - Galaxiids]</ref> Fossils are recorded from the Miocene of New Zealand (23 mya) of at least three species of ''Galaxias'', with one of the two bearing a striking similarity to a living species of the genus. They were lake-living, likely indicating a freshwater origin for their order, which in turn argues against oceanic dispersal and for a dispersal based on continental drift.<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03014220709510540 D. E. Lee,R. M. McDowall &J. K. Lindqvist, Galaxias fossils from Miocene lake deposits, Otago, New Zealand: The earliest records of the Southern Hemisphere family Galaxiidae (Teleostei)]</ref> There is no galaxiiform [[Fossil record|fossil record]] outside of Gondwana, nor do they currently occur outside of it..

===Clariidae===

===Proteaceae===
 [[File:Embothrium coccineum Torres del Paine National Park 2.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A chilean firetree, ''Embothrium coccineum'', a member of the Proteaceae from South America.]][[File:Knightia excelsa (foliage & flowers).jpg|300px|thumb|right|The rewarewa, ''Knightia excelsa'', from New Zealand]]
The Proteaceae (proteas) are a family of flowering plants distributed throughout the Southern Hemisphere, especially southern Africa, Australasia, and Madagascar, although South America, India, Indonesia, mainland Southeast Asia, and New Zealand also contain a few species.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/plant/Proteales#ref36415 Proteales-Brittanica]</ref><ref>[http://www.flwildflowers.com/proteaceae/ The Evolution of Proteaceae]</ref><ref>[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01749.x Molecular dating of the ‘Gondwanan’ plant family Proteaceae is only partially congruent with the timing of the break‐up of Gondwana]</ref> In the New World, members of the family range as far north as Mexico. One of the Proteaceae's Neotropical genera, ''Orites'', also occurs in Australia, suggesting the genus already existed when the two areas separated.<ref>Prance, G.T. (2009). Neotropical Proteaceae. In: Milliken, W., Klitgård, B. & Baracat, A. (2009 onwards), Neotropikey - Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/Proteaceae.htm</ref>

[[File:Protea cynaroides 1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A king protea, ''Protea cynaroides'', South Africa's national flower.]]
[[File:Telopea_aspera_inflorescence.JPG|300px|thumb|left|A Gibraltar Range waratah, ''Telopea aspera'', from New South Wales, Australia.]]
Interestingly, the radiation of the subtribe Embothriinae, which is generally bird-pollinated, dates to around the time of the hypothesized origin of nectar-feeding birds in Australia. This is an interesting example of how fossil data can be used to confirm hypotheses about radiations for which fossils do not exist.

The Proteaceae are probably around 118 million years old, older than the breakup of Gondwana.<ref> Molecular dating of the ‘Gondwanan’ plant family Proteaceae is only partially congruent with the timing of the break‐up of Gondwana. https://www.academia.edu/3543049/Molecular_dating_of_the_Gondwanan_plant_family_Proteaceae_is_only_partially_congruent_with_the_timing_of_the_break-up_of_Gondwana</ref> One genus, ''Beauprea'', which is currently endemic to New Caledonia, formerly also occurred in New Zealand. It is likely around 88 million years old as a genus. The two islands were formerly joined as parts of a continent called Zealandia, most of which is now submerged. New Zealand has [[Global flood|never been submerged]] since the Upper [[Cretaceous]], meaning that most of its flora (and fauna) are Gondwanan in origin.<ref>Pre-Gondwanan-breakup origin of Beauprea (Proteaceae) explains its historical presence in New Caledonia and New Zealand https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/2/4/e1501648.full</ref>

Despite the fairly clear Mesozoic origin of the Proteaceae, the family has been the victim of an unfortunate bit of bad science led by Harry Levin, who has theorized that the group dates from the [[Carboniferous]]. While his work is admirably detailed, it sadly relies on shaky and bad assumption, such as miscalculating the date of the splitting of Gondwana.<ref>[http://www.flwildflowers.com/proteaceae/ Levin's work]</ref> His work has been extensively analyzed and refuted on [[Wikipedia|Wikipedia's]] page on the subject.<ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proteaceae The relevant discussion.]</ref>

===Cichlidae===
===Atherospermataceae===

===Tryonicidae===

===Eleotridae===

===Cunoniaceae===
===Karakas (''Corynocarpus'')===

==Laurasia==

===Calycanthaceae===
===Acipenseriformes===
[[File:Beluga sturgeon in aquarium.webm|thumb|right|A beluga sturgeon, ''Huso huso'', in an aquarium.]]
[[File:Polyodon spathula у Будапешцкім Акеанарыуме 14.JPG|300px|thumb|left|Two American paddlefish, ''Polyodon spathula'', sorrounded by a school of trout at the Budapest Oceanarium.]]
The '''Acipenseriformes''' (sturgeons and paddlefish) are an ancient order of primitive ray-finned fish living in the Northern Hemisphere. They are mostly freshwater fish and have skeletons mostly composed of cartilage.<ref>[https://nhpbs.org/wild/acipenseriformes.asp "Acipenseriformes - Paddlefish, Sturgeons" on NHPBS]</ref> Fossils of basal acipenseriform fish (Chondrosteidae) date back to the early [[Jurassic]].<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1017/S1477201909002740 Redescription of †Chondrosteus acipenseroides Egerton, 1858 (Acipenseriformes, †Chondrosteidae) from the lower Lias of Lyme Regis (Dorset, England), with comments on the early evolution of sturgeons and paddlefishes Eric J. Hilton &Peter L. Forey]</ref> Chondrosteid appearance was remarkably similar to that of modern sturgeons.<ref>[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chondrosteidae Chondrosteidae on Wikimedia Commons, for comparison.]</ref><br />
<br />
Currently, sturgeons range over a wide area as far south as the Gulf of Mexico.<ref>[https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Sturgeon Sturgeon- New World Encyclopedia]</ref> Paddlefish, meanwhile, have a far smaller range, living only in North America and in [[China|China's]] Yangtze river.<ref>[https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Paddlefish Paddlefish- New World Encyclopedia]</ref> The Chinese species is now almost certainly extinct and has been declared as such.<ref>[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/freshwater/chinese-paddlefish/ "Chinese Paddlefish Psephurus gladius" - National Geographic]</ref><ref>[https://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/09/30/another-long-goodbye-chinese-paddlefish/ Peter C. Revkin, "For Chinese Paddlefish, Another Long Goodbye" from the New York Times]</ref><ref>[https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2015/1022/14-animals-declared-extinct-in-the-21st-century/Pinta-Island-Tortoise-Chelonoidis-abingdoni-2012 14 animals declared extinct in the 21st century]</ref> However, paddlefish previously had a far wider range, including west of the {{wpl|Continental Divide of the Americas|Continental Divide of the Americas}} notably from the Eocene of [[Fun:Wyoming|Wyoming's]] {{wpl|Green River Formation|Green River Formation}}, where they now occur only east of it, and in a larger area in [[Asia]] than in recent times.<ref>[https://umorf.ummp.lsa.umich.edu/wp/specimen-data/?Model_ID=1391 Specimen: UMMP VP 22206]</ref><ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02724634.1991.10011424  Lance Grande &William E. Bemis, "Osteology and Phylogenetic Relationships of Fossil and Recent Paddlefishes (Polyodontidae) with Comments on the Interrelationships of Acipenseriformes"]</ref><ref>,Lance Grande, ''The Lost World of Fossil Lake: Snapshots from Deep Time'', page 111</ref><ref>"Eocene Biodiversity: Unusual Occurrences and Rarely Sampled Habitats-edited by Gregg F. Gunnell", page 11</ref>

===Magnoliaceae===
[[File:Magnolia grandiflora Anderson Springs.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The southern magnolia or bull bay ''Magnolia grandiflora'',a magnolia from the [[The South|southern]] [[United States]].]]
[[File:鹅掌楸.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A young Chinese tuliptree,''Liriodendron chinense'', a member of the Magnoliaceae from East Asia.]]
The magnolias and tulip trees (Magnoliaceae) are an ancient family of broadleaved trees found mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, probably dating back to around 100 million years ago.<ref>[https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/trmar98c.htm The Magnolia Family (Magnoliaceae): A Primitive Family Of Flowering Plants]</ref> They currently occur in the Americas,the eastern parts of Asia, and in and around New Guinea.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/plant/magnolia-plant Magnolia (Plant) -Britannica]</ref> Based on its current distribution and knowledge of its origin there, it has been possible to make predictions that the family once had a more extensive range in Laurasia.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/plant/Magnoliales#ref72771 Magnoliales:Distribution -Britannica]</ref> This prediction is borne out by the evidence, with [[Miocene]] fossils of the family in Europe and extending further west within Asia.<ref>"The Plants of China"
edited by De-Yuan Hongand Stephen Blackmore, page 93. https://books.google.com/books?id=aCw7CQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref><br />
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While the circumstance of magnolias ranging into Gondwanan territory may seem to pose a biogeographical problem, it does not, and in fact is a good illustration of the way taxa spread over time. Magnolias south of the Isthmus of Panama only date back to the biotic interchange over that same isthmus described elsewhere in this same article.Tellingly, Caribbean and South American magnolias are generally closely related (the islands of the Caribbean were and are part of the "southern"  American ecozone, as shown on the interchange map.)<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3558389?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Hiroshi Azuma, José G. García-Franco, Victor Rico-Gray and Leonard B. Thien, "Molecular Phylogeny of the Magnoliaceae: The Biogeography of Tropical and Temperate Disjunctions" from the American Journal of Botany ]</ref> Those in New Guinea, meanwhile, are located near a major center of magnolia diversity in [[Southeast Asia]] which includes Indonesia to the west of the Sahul.<ref>C. Barry Cox, Peter D. Moore ''Biogeography: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach'', page 50. https://books.google.com/books?id=GP5HeCwkV2IC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref> Magnolia seeds are known to be dispersed by [[Bird|birds]] and thus the comparatively narrow straits between the islands of Indonesia would not have been hard to cross.<ref>[https://www.printmag.com/imprint/botany-blueprint-the-southern-magnolia/ "Botany Blueprint: The Southern Magnolia" by Anna Laurent from Print Magazine]</ref><ref>[https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_magr4.pdf Southern Magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) Plant Guide -USDA]</ref> Many magnolias (and their seeds) are also known for being highly salt tolerant, meaning their seeds could potentially been blown across the narrow seas of [[Indonesia]].<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/27863836/Evaluating_Trees_for_Saltwater_Spray_Tolerance_for_Oceanfront_Sites Susan French, Roger Huff "Evaluating Trees for Saltwater Spray Tolerance for Oceanfront Sites"]</ref><ref>[https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/content/dam/pubs_ext_vt_edu/430/430-031/430-031_pdf.pdf "Trees and Shrubs that Tolerate Saline Soils and Salt Spray Drift"]</ref><br />
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It is curious that magnolias, unlike most flowering plants pollinated by animals, are pollinated not by bees, but by beetles, with special [[Adaptation|adaptations]] in the flowers for that purpose, reflecting that beetles, unlike bees, pollinate flowers by crawling through them rather than landing on them. Bees and moths are, indeed, highly ineffective at pollinating magnolia flowers, and often get trapped in them, sometimes with [[Death|fatal]] results.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2441921?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Leonard B. Thien, "Floral Biology of Magnolia"]</ref> Magnolias are, as said before, an extremely old family of flowering plants, and beetles are known to have been pollinators before bees.<ref>[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-beguiling-history-of-bees-excerpt/ The Beguiling History of Bees [Excerpt<nowiki>]</nowiki> by Dave Goulson from Scientific American]</ref> Significantly, most or all of the families within the magnolia order ({{wpl|Magnoliales}}) are primarily beetle pollinated, such as the Annonaceae (custard-apples), the largest family within the order, and the Myristicaceae(nutmeg and relatives).<ref>S. C. Willemsten, "An Evolutionary Basis for Pollination Ecology", page 271. https://books.google.com/books?id=5-sUAAAAIAAJ</ref><ref>[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/194008291300600502 Manju V. Sharma, Joseph E. Armstrong, "Pollination of Myristica and Other Nutmegs in Natural Populations"]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2444777?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Joseph E. Armstrong and Anthony K. Irvine, "Floral Biology of Myristica insipida (Myristicaceae), a Distinctive Beetle Pollination Syndrome"]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2387768?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Leonard B. Thien, "Patterns of Pollination in the Primitive Angiosperms"]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2388563?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents  Joseph E. Armstrong and Anthony K. Irvine, "Functions of Staminodia in the Beetle-Pollinated Flowers of Eupomatia laurina"]</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299980423_Basal_angiosperms_and_beetle_pollination Gerhard Gottsberger, Ilse Silberbauer-Gottsberger, "Basal angiosperms and beetle pollination"]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2405990?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents L. van der Pijl, "Ecological Aspects of Flower Evolution. I. Phyletic Evolution"]'''Note''' paper is from 1960, possibly outdated.</ref><ref>[https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/169/1/245/2416181 Gerhard Gottsberger, "How diverse are Annonaceae with regard to pollination?"]</ref><ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0367253011001800 Gerhard Gottsberger, Ilse Silberbauer-Gottsberger, Roger S. Seymour, Stefan Dötterl, "Pollination ecology of Magnolia ovatamay explain the overall large flower size of the genus".]</ref><ref>Joseph E.Armstrong, "Pollination by deceit in nutmeg (Myristica insipida, Myristicaceae): floral displays and beetle activity at male and female trees."https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.2307/2446051</ref>

==In paleontology==
[[File:Snider-Pellegrini Wegener fossil map.gif|300px|thumb|The fossil distributions of several fossil genera across continents, implying that they were once joined.]]
The combination of biogeography with [[Paleontology|paleontology]], known as '''paleobiogeography''', can be used to determine the layout of prehistoric landmasses, as well as sea levels and other features.<ref>http://faculty.washington.edu/gpwilson/Paleobiogeography.htm</ref>
[[File:Dromaius distribution.png|300px|thumb|left|A reconstruction of the coastline of southeastern Australia during the past 25,000 years from emu fossils, which also fits the archaeological data.]] It can also be used to clarify relationships among taxa and provide additional information on evolution.<ref>https://eeb.ku.edu/sites/eeb.ku.edu/files/files/bsl/annurevecolsys.pdf</ref> In addition, consilience between cladistic phylogeny and biogeographic trees provides additional support for the accuracy of using paleontology to reconstruct evolutionary trees.<ref>http://www-personal.umich.edu/~wilsonja/Titanosauria/Paleobiogeography.html</ref>

Fossil data has been used to measure the sea levels of million of years ago.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468517817300060</ref> In many cases, fluctuations in those sea levels can also be measured.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080454054006017</ref> The application of these methods of measurement can even be used to predict future changes in sea levels.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128143506000021</ref> These methods can even be used to better understand prehistory.<ref>https://www.jstor.org/stable/216087?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents</ref> In addition, fossil patterns can be observed to glean information on what geographic pressures existed in a certain area in a certain time.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920332/</ref> It can even be used to provide data on population fluctuations, extinctions, and directions of movement of different species.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4810818/</ref> Many geological features span across now-disconnected continents, suggesting they were once connected.<ref>http://publish.illinois.edu/alfredwegener/evidence/</ref>

These methods can also be used to show that sea levels were stable during the last interglacial period, providing more evidence that current rises in sea levels are not normal and almost certainly [[Anthropogenic global warming|anthropogenic]].<ref>https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2018/09/10/Cave-features-suggest-stable-sea-levels-during-last-interglacial-period/1341536601363/</ref>

===Great American Interchange===
[[File:Great American Biotic Interchange examples.svg|300px|thumb|Map of the Great American Interchange. Animals in blue are from North American taxa that spread south; those in olive are from South American taxa that spread north. Several of the species shown are now extinct.]]
The {{wpl|Great American Interchange|Great American Interchange}} began around 3 million years ago when the {{wpl|Isthmus of Panama}} formed and connected the continents of North and South America.<ref>http://facstaff.uwa.edu/jmccall/Biogeog/Great%20American%20Interchange.ppt</ref> It involved the exchange of flora and fauna between North and South America, although far more migrated south than north. The formation of the isthmus also caused climate changes, such as turning the highlands Mesoamerica into a tropical rainforest, where earlier they had been semi-temperate dry forests dominated by plants such as walnuts (''Juglans'') and elms (''Ulmus'').<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2987556/ Michael O. Woodburne, "The Great American Biotic Interchange: Dispersals, Tectonics, Climate, Sea Level and Holding Pens"]</ref><br />It lead to the extinction of taxa such as terror birds (Phorusrhacidae) and notoungulates.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/animal/notoungulate Notoungulta- fossil mammals (Britannica)]</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150727-the-reign-of-the-terror-birds The reign of the terror birds]</ref><br />
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The presence of stages of migration, with the first immigrant species in the areas affected being first found in strata more recent than in the areas they came from, is good evidence for the accuracy of [[Radiometric dating|radiometric dating]] and of evolution.
This is because:
*The migration of the animals can be divided into stages. Extinctions were positively correlated with migration levels.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2400220?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents S. David Webb, "Mammalian Faunal Dynamics of the Great American Interchange"]</ref> Animal movements can also be tied to changes in vegetation and climate that are visible in the fossil history of [[Central America]].<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299648664_Quaternary_glaciation_and_the_Great_American_Biotic_Interchange Quaternary glaciation and the Great American Biotic Interchange]</ref>
*Under creationist theory, we should not expect this correlation of dates and stages of migration. Since, according to creationist [[Flood geology|flood pseudogeology]], the time of death had no effect on fossil placement in rock strata since all the organisms supposedly died at nearly the same time, we should expect the fossil arrangements to be disordered and not to see organisms adapted to different climactic conditions in the same place. However, we see strata associated with different climates in the same area, with changes visible in those said layers. We also see that those animals predicted by biogeography to be "northern" (such as camelids, felids, canids, deer and elephantids) are first found in layers dated older in North America than in South America, while the opposite is true of "southern" animals (such as marsupials, tinamous and cavimorph rodents).Additional evolutionary predictions about the events have also been confirmed.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2400869?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents "Ecogeography and the Great American Interchange" by S. David Webb]</ref> Such patterns contradict creationist predictions and thus refute the positions and assumptions used in order to make them.
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In a similar situation to that of the Wallace Line, Wallace was also the first to comment on it, making conjectures on what is now referred to as the Interchange in his book, "The Geographical Distribution of Animals". In that book, he proposed certain ideas that are now part of [[Scientific consensus|scientific orthodoxy]], such as the idea that the isthmus was formerly submerged under a sea, which previously formed a barrier between the two continents of the New World, and that glaciation changed the climate in the region and contributed to species movements.<ref> Alfred Russell Wallace, [https://books.google.com/books?id=HmqtZfTfQUMC&hl=en  "The Geographical Distribution of Animals"] pages 81-82</ref><br />
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Another impact of the formation of the isthmus is that the marine populations on both sides of it were divided by the land and prevented from interbreeding. Porkfish and snapping shrimp are among the groups whose populations were split by the isthmus and who developed into separate species by allopatric [[speciation]].<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/05/2/l_052_03.html Allopatric speciation- PBS]</ref><ref>[https://biology-forums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id=711 An example of allopatric speciation- Biology Forums]</ref>

==Creationist responses==
[[File:EnRoute.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A creationist perspective on biogeography, showing kangaroos (marsupials) and a kiwi (a paleognath bird) en route to Australasia, in what [[User:Summa Atheologica|I]] term the "blitzkrieg hypothesis".]]
[[Creation Ministries International]] (CMI) claims biogeography, in the sense that Asian and American species are remarkably similar, refutes evolutionary theory.<ref>https://creation.com/biogeography-against-evolution</ref>

There are, obviously, several problems with their reasoning (there are ''always'' problems with their reasoning).
* CMI incorrectly defines [[Species|species]], claiming that two organisms that can interbreed are demonstrably the same species, while "species" is an exclusive grouping (if two populations cannot interbreed, they are different species, but if they can, that does not make them the same species.)
* CMI claims the relevant species did not evolve, but the fact that speciation occurred demonstrates that they did, in fact, evolve.
* The [[Modern Synthesis]] does not necessarily claim that rates of evolution are constant between or across lineages (see [[punctuated equilibrium]]).
* One can probably not think of any species whose appearance has changed as much in the past 6-million years as that of humans. In light of this, CMI's use of [[humans]] as a comparison is blatant [[Cherry picking|cherry-picking]].
* [[Phenotype|Phenotypic]] and genotypic evolution rates are not necessarily proportional.<ref>https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/genovspheno_01</ref><ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4439200/</ref><ref>http://www.ped.fas.harvard.edu/files/ped/files/genetics06_0.pdf</ref><ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5161288/</ref><ref>https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/evo.12302</ref>
* Creationism has an ''even harder'' time explaining this (not that its supporters actually attempt to do so.) Under the massive mutation rates proposed by baraminology, East Asian and Eastern North American species should ''really not'' still be able to interbreed, much less still be the same species in many cases. As usual, creationism remains inadequate to explain the evidence satisfactorily. Evolution, however, can.
* Plants can interbreed comparatively successfully between species, and even between different families, far more so than animals.<ref>http://www.biologyreference.com/Ho-La/Hybridization-Plant.html</ref><ref>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rstb.2008.0055</ref><ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4031106/</ref><ref>https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09670260010001735721</ref><ref>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02886345</ref> The same is true of [[fungi]].<ref>''The Role of Hybridization in the Evolution and Emergence of New Fungal Plant Pathogens.'' https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26824768</ref> Therefore, plants and fungi do not have to be as closely related to organisms they can reproduce with as animals. In light of this, it is rather revealing that the animals of the relevant areas are '''''not''''' mentioned in CMI's article.<br /><br />

[[Ray Comfort]], in his book [[Origin of Species (2009)|''Origin of Species'']], a reprint of the original, notably omitted, among others, chapters 11 and 12, where [[Charles Darwin]] discussed the biogeographical evidence for evolution.

==See also==
*[[Geologic timeline]]
*[[Linnaean taxonomy]]
*[[Plate tectonics]]

==References==
{{reflist|2|80%}}

[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Evolution]]
[[Category:Science]]
[[Category:Evidence against a recent creation]]
[[Category:Geography]]

Categories: Biology, Evolution, Science, Evidence against a recent creation, Geography