Classical antiquity

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[[File:Roman fresco fragment.jpg|thumb|right|165px|Portrait of a Roman citizen of African ancestry from Lombardy,<ref>{{wpa|Black people in ancient Roman history}}</ref> c. 1 BCE – 1 CE<ref>{{wpa|Grottoes of Catullus}}</ref>]]
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{{cquote|Whoever knows only one view or one form of a view does not believe that another has ever stood in its place, or that another will ever succeed it; he neither doubts nor tests. If we extol, as we often do, the value of what is called a classical education, we can hardly maintain seriously that this results from an eight-years’ discipline of declining and conjugating. We believe, rather, that it can do us no harm to know the point of view of another eminent nation, so that we can, on occasion, put ourselves in a different position from that in which we have been brought up. The essence of classical education is historical education.<br />

But if this is correct, we have a much too narrow idea of classical education. Not the Greeks [or Romans] alone concern us, but all the cultured people of the past.|||Ernst Mach<ref>[https://archive.org/details/historyrootofpri00mach/page/18/mode/2up ''History and Root of the Principle of the Conservation of Energy''] by Ernst Mach (1911) The Open Court Publishing Co.</ref>{{rp|17-18}}}}

'''Classical antiquity''' was a period of time from the beginning of ancient [[Greece|Greek]] civilization (8<sup>th</sup> century BCE) to approximately the fall of the Western [[Roman Empire]] (5<sup>th</sup> century CE), with some scholars considering it to overlap with early [[Middle Ages]]. It is also known as the Greco-Roman world, since the Greek and Roman civilizations were overlapping. Geographically, its maximum extent was the largest reach of the Roman Empire in 117 CE.

==Instruction==
Instruction in classical antiquity usually includes ancient Greek and [[Latin]] language lessons, and readings in [[history]] and [[philosophy]] ([[Socrates]] and [[Plato]], especially). The instruction in language has long been in decline, when it was once common (in the [[Western world]]). Arguments about the impracticalness of such instruction were already taking place in the [[United States]] in 1828.<ref name=howe>[https://www.wilsonquarterly.com/quarterly/spring-2011-the-city-bounces-back-four-portraits/classical-education-in-america/ Classical Education in America] by Daniel Walker Howe (Spring 2011) ''The Wilson Quarterly''.</ref> Since the decline of Latin and Greek instruction, at least one [[far-right]] [[journalist]], Joseph Sobran {{lived|1946|2010}} who wrote for the ''[[National Review]]'', associated such teaching with [[racist]] [[nostalgia]].<ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2019/12/13/champion-for-classics-racism-joseph-sobran-latin-greek-remedial-english/ A Champion for Classics… and Racism] by Curtis Dozier (December 13, 2019) ''Pharos''.</ref><ref>[https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2010/10/the-death-of-a-holocaust-skeptic/64130/ The Death of a 'Holocaust Skeptic'] by Jeffrey Goldberg (October 12, 2010) ''The Atlantic''.</ref>

There are certainly good reasons for studying classical antiquity (e.g., understanding history, government or philosophy), but readings of the past can either be a lens for understanding the present or a cudgel for controlling it. Why else would [[despot]]s resort to [[book burning]]s?

===Classical education===
{{cquote|When [[fascists]] adopt classical education, then they rely on the flattened, instrumentalized version of it, which does nothing to challenge the practice of viewing people solely in terms of their productive capacity&nbsp;— [[Kinder, Küche, Kirche|in the case of women, the capacity to produce children]], and in the case of men, the capacity for labor.|||Jason Stanley<ref name=stanley/>{{rp|141}}}}
Classical education is an ambiguous term that can mean different things to different people. It can range from learning [[Latin]] and Greek and reading ancient texts, to a curriculum based on the {{wpl|Western canon}} of mostly non-ancient books, to simply using the [[Socratic method]] of instruction. Because of this, classical education can range from promoting fascism such as [[Nazi Germany]] did by emphasizing the empire-building parts of the Roman Empire to promoting liberal education with the Socratic method and the values of the [[Age of Enlightenment]].<ref name=stanley>''Erasing History: How Fascists Rewrite the Past to Control the Future'' by Jason Stanley (2024) One Signal Publishers / Atria. ISBN 9781668056912.</ref>{{rp|135-159}} [[Adolf Hitler]] emphasized what he called "humanistic education" in ''[[Mein Kampf]]''<ref name=stanley/>{{rp|137}}<ref>''Mein Kampf'' by Adolf Hitler (1971) Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395078016.</ref>{{rp|423}} The far-right [[Christian]] [[Hillsdale College]] has programs that it calls classical education<ref>[https://k12.hillsdale.edu/About/Classical-Education/ Classical Education] ''Hillsdale College''.</ref> but that include Dante's [[Middle Ages|pre-Enlightenment]] ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' and "[[Supply-side economics#Supply-Side Economics|Voodoo Economics]] and American Prosperity with [[Arthur Laffer]]" (!).<ref name=stanley/>{{rp|138-139}}<ref>[https://online.hillsdale.edu/courses/promo/dantes-divine-comedy Dante’s ''Divine Comedy'']] ''Hillsdale College''.</ref><ref>[https://online.hillsdale.edu/courses/promo/supply-side-economics Supply-Side Economics and American Prosperity with Arthur Laffer] ''Hillsdale College''.</ref> Hillsdale also sells copies of an edition of Plato's ''Republic'',<ref>[https://shop.hillsdale.edu/products/the-republic-of-plato-plato ''The Republic of Plato''], translated by Allen Bloom (2016) Basic Books. ISBN 9780465094080. HIllsdale College SKU SKU: 1-21-PLAREP-P.</ref> a book in which Socrates promotes removing children from their families to be educated by the state.<ref name=stanley/>{{rp|146}}

In contrast to fascist classical education, when [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] taught social philosophy at Morehouse College, his final examination required knowledge of Plato and [[Aristotle]] and their theories of justice, as well as knowledge of [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], and [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref name=stanley/>{{rp|142-143}}

The uncritical teaching of classical texts, as well as texts from the Enlightenment, results in ideas that most people would find abhorrent. Plato's ''Symposium'' presents [[homosexual]] [[Pedophilia|pedophilic]] relationships as normal and unremarkable.<ref name=stanley/>{{rp|146}} Many Enlightenment thinkers believed that non-white people and women were inferior (racism and [[misogyny]]), and that [[slavery]] was justifiable.<ref name=stanley/>{{rp|141-151}}

{{cquote|Whether Enlightenment ideals of reason, [[rationality]], and progress can be separated from the beliefs of racial and religious supremacy by which they were originally accompanied is not a problem that can be obviously solved. Enlightenment ideals are not sacrosanct in [[debate]]; even by their own lights, they can be challenged (in [[Critical thinking|critical inquiry]] and [[dialectic]]).|||Jason Stanley<ref name=stanley/>{{rp|155}}}}

==Misrepresentation==
{{cquote|The playwright {{wpl|Euripides}} lived at the height of classical Greek culture. More than two thousand years ago, he realized that [[democracy]] depends on [[truth]]ful, risky speech. Amid all the [[blather]] we now hear about freedom of expression, it is easy to forget its purpose: to create the circumstances in which [[fact]]s ennoble the individual and challenge the powerful. We protect truthful, risky speech because [[tyranny]] is born of [[lie]]s.|||Timothy Snyder<ref>''On Freedom'' by Timothy Snyder (2024) Crown. ISBN 9780593728727.</ref>{{rp|188}}}}
{{cquote|But from the myth of SPQR to the “Roman salute,” the Roman Empire cited by those fascists&nbsp;— including Hitler&nbsp;— was, in fact, a modern fantasy born in part from art and cinema.|||Sarah E. Bond and Stephanie Wong<ref name=bondwong/>}}
Distorting history for one's own political purposes is nothing new. The [[alt-right]]'s appropriation is just the latest incarnation, following European intellectuals in the 19<sup>th</sup> and earlier centuries.<ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2021/05/19/dozier-pharos-mahindra-lecture-classical-athens-and-contemporary-white-ethnonationalism/ Mahindra Lecture: Classical Athens and Contemporary White Ethnonationalism] by Curtis Dozier (May 19, 2021) ''Pharos''.</ref><ref>[https://classics.fas.harvard.edu/news/curtis-dozier-mahindra-lecture-classical-athens-and-contemporary-white Curtis Dozier Mahindra Lecture: Classical Athens and Contemporary White Ethnonationalism (video)] (May 14, 2021) ''Department of the Classics, Harvard University''.</ref> [[Nazi Germany]], an antecedent for at least some of the [[alt-right]], misrepresented antiquity in at least three ways:
#Referring to itself as "The Third Reich", with the implication that the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the [[German Empire]] were the first and second. 'Holy Roman Empire' itself referred back to the Roman Empire, though it was not a direct descendant of it.
#The {{wpl|Hitler salute}} was itself an adaptation of the {{wpl|Roman salute||.}} The Roman salute itself though has no clear origins, as it is never described in Roman literature or shown in Roman art.<ref> ''The Roman Salute: Cinema, History, Ideology'' by Martin M. Winkler (2009) Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814208649.</ref>{{rp|2}} The most likely source of the mistaken belief that there was only one type of Roman salute was Jacques-Louis David's 1784 painting, "Oath of the Horatii".<ref name=bondwong>[https://hyperallergic.com/984855/the-revisionist-history-of-the-nazi-salute/ The Revisionist History of the Nazi Salute: Elon Musk’s defenders were quick to claim that his hand motion was actually an ancient “Roman salute” — but that gesture never existed.] by Sarah E. Bond and Stephanie Wong (January 22, 2025) ''Hyperallergic''.</ref><ref>''The Roman Salute: Cinema, History, Ideology'' by Martin M. Winkler (2021) Ohio State University Press. ISBN 9780814258309.</ref>
#The Nazis adored and promoted neoclassical architecture and classical forms in general.<ref>{{wpa|Nazi architecture}}</ref> Classical sculptures inspired by forms from [[pagan]] times were seen as useful remedy for the lethargy of [[Christianity]].<ref name="mosse">''The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars and through the Third Reich'' by George Mosse (1975) Plume. ISBN 0452004640.</ref>{{rp|68}} [[Hitler]] admired the Colosseum and hated Gothic architecture, seeing it as too old-fashioned for contemporary Germany,<ref name="mosse"/>{{rp|60}} while Albert Speer, a principal architect for Nazi Germany, found a kindred spirit in French neoclassical architect {{wpl|Étienne-Louis Boullée}} and his monumental and austere designs.<ref name="mosse"/>{{rp|49-50}}
<gallery>
File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|A Roman salute: Emperor [[Augustus]] depicted in the 1<sup>st</sup> century CE
File:062 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel LXII.jpg|A diversity of Roman salutes depicted in 113 CE
File:David-Oath of the Horatii-1784.jpg|David's 1784 painting, "Oath of the Horatii"
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 147-0510, Berlin, Lustgarten, Kundgebung der HJ.jpg|The uniformity of the Nazi salute in 1933
File:Nazi detector.png|Neo-Nazi detector
File:Elon Musk's Nazi salute.png|One of [[Elon Musk]]'s two or three such salutes on January 20, 2025<ref>[https://www.irishstar.com/news/us-news/breaking-elon-musk-hitler-salute-34518373 Elon Musk 'makes Nazi salute' three times during inauguration speech] by Emily Hodgkin (Jan 20 2025) ''Irish Star''.</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/international/article-838444 Did Elon Musk Sieg Heil at Trump's inauguration? Musk was seen making the gesture twice on live television.] by Mathilda Heller (January 20, 2025 22:29; Updated: January 21, 2025 21:18) ''The Jerusalem Post''.</ref>
</gallery>

===Whiteness===
[[File:Carole Raddato (13543792233).jpg|thumb|right|165px|Septimius Severus and his second, Syrian wife, Julia Domna.]]
{{cquote|A narrative of a monoethnic and monochromatic Classical world is demonstrably false and, frankly, boring.|||Rebecca Futo Kennedy<ref name=kennedy>[https://eidolon.pub/why-i-teach-about-race-and-ethnicity-in-the-classical-world-ade379722170 Why I Teach About Race and Ethnicity in the Classical World] by Rebecca Futo Kennedy (Sep 11, 2017) ''Eidolon''.</ref>}}
The concept of whiteness likely arose with the development of the transatlantic [[slave]] trade in the 17<sup>th</sup> century, and was justified with the theory of [[racialism]] starting in the 18<sup>th</sup> century.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/apr/20/the-invention-of-whiteness-long-history-dangerous-idea The invention of whiteness: the long history of a dangerous idea: Before the 17<sup>th</sup> century, people did not think of themselves as belonging to something called the white race. But once the idea was invented, it quickly began to reshape the modern world] by Robert P. Baird (20 Apr 2021 01.00 EDT) ''The Guardian''.</ref> Since the 18<sup>th</sup> century, it has often been presumed that the classical world was white, but Romans in fact frequently incorporated other ethnic groups as Roman citizens, including Africans and Judeans.<ref name=kennedy/> The Roman emperor {{wpl|Septimius Severus}} was African born, in what is now [[Libya]], and his paternal ancestors were Palestinians.

An [[archaeological]] analysis looked at the personal names associated with place of origin of the Roman port city of Ostia Antica population in what is now central Italy. It found that one of the largest ethnic groups included people from North Africa in the provinces of Numidia and Mauretania.<ref>"The Population of Ostia: Composition and Working Activities, an Analysis of Inscriptions" by Antonio Licordari (2020) In: ''Life and Death in a Multicultural Harbour City: Ostia Antica From the Republic Through Late Antiquity'', edited by Arja Karivieri. Institutum Romanum Finlandiae, pages 165-171.</ref>{{rp|167}}

Throughout later history, the era has often been misrepresented. For example, the whiteness of ancient marble sculptures was fetishized since the 18<sup>th</sup> century with the rise of racialism,<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/02/magazine/classics-greece-rome-whiteness.html He Wants to Save Classics From Whiteness. Can the Field Survive? Dan-el Padilla Peralta thinks classicists should knock ancient Greece and Rome off their pedestal — even if that means destroying their discipline.] by Rachel Poser (Feb. 2, 2021) ''The New York Times''.</ref> but it is now known that the statues were originally painted in a variety of colors.<ref name=bond>[https://hyperallergic.com/383776/why-we-need-to-start-seeing-the-classical-world-in-color/ Why We Need to Start Seeing the Classical World in Color: The equation of white marble with beauty is not an inherent truth of the universe; it's a dangerous construct that continues to influence white supremacist ideas today.] by Sarah E. Bond (June 7, 2017) ''Hyperallergic''.</ref> The fetishization has continued to influence modern-day [[white supremacists]],<ref name=bond/> most of whom would ''not'' look good as sculptures. Some art critics have said that the colors likely to have been used on ancient Greek and Roman statues could be considered evidence of vulgar taste.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/arts-entertainment/2022/08/11/ancient-sculptures-colorized-met/ What if the ancient Greeks and Romans actually had terrible taste? Antiquities reproduced in vivid color, now on view in ‘Chroma’ exhibition at the Met, may look garish to modern eyes] by Philip Kennicott (August 11, 2022 at 6:00 a.m. EDT) ''The Washington Post''.</ref><ref>[https://www.artnews.com/list/art-news/news/the-mets-new-show-dispels-the-myth-of-white-greek-sculpture-in-blaze-of-color-1234635075/ The Met’s New Show Dispels the Myth of White Greek Sculpture in a Blaze of Color] by Tessa Solomon (July 25, 2022 1:17pm) ''ARTnews''.</ref>

{{clear}}
====United States====
[[File:Apollo of the Belvedere.jpg|thumb|right|165px|The original Apollo Belvedere (c. 120-140 CE): whiter than thou]]
In the US, the retrojection of whiteness into the classical period can be traced to [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s use of neoclassical architecture in his home town of Charlottesville.<ref name=monteiro>[https://intersectionist.medium.com/american-power-structures-white-columns-white-marble-white-supremacy-d43aa091b5f9 Power Structures: White Columns, White Marble, White Supremacy] by Lyra D. Monteiro (Oct 27, 2020) ''Medium''.</ref> The idea of 'whiteness' was unknown in the classical era. Jefferson's [[slave]] owning, and the neoclassical architecture in Charlottesville, were the primary reasons that [[Richard Spencer]] chose the city for the [[Unite the Right]] rally, not the threatened [[Robert E. Lee]] statue.<ref name=monteiro/> Jefferson was not simply a benign admirer of classical architecture, but in his book ''Notes on the State of Virginia'' he used the slavery that existed in the classical era as a justification for his own slaveowning.<ref name=monteiro/><ref>[https://archive.org/details/notesonstateofvir00jeff ''Notes on the state of Virginia''] by Thomas Jefferson (1832) Lilly and Wait.</ref>{{rp|149}}

In February 2020, a draft Presidential Executive Order titled "Making Federal Buildings Beautiful Again" and written by the National Civic Art Society was leaked that promoted neoclassical designs for new government buildings.<ref name=ferguson>[https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/02/the-case-for-making-federal-buildings-beautiful-again/606829/ Trump’s Beautiful Proposal for Federal Architecture: The classicists hope to address a problem that the architecture establishment does not see as a problem.] by Andrew Ferguson (February 21, 2020) ''The Atlantic''.</ref><ref>[https://chicago.suntimes.com/2020/2/5/21124236/architecture-making-federal-buildings-great-again-trump-executive-order-design Make federal buildings ‘beautiful again?’ Trump declares war on modern architecture] (Feb 5, 2020, 7:07pm CST) ''Chicago Sun-Times''.</ref> The draft was in part a backlash against [[modern art and architecture]]<ref name=ferguson/> but primarily an attack on [[multiculturalism]].<ref name=monteiro/>

The Apollo Belvedere statue of the Greek god Apollo was rediscovered in the 15<sup>th</sup> century during the [[Renaissance]]. Beginning in the 18<sup>th</sup> century, the statue began to be championed as an aesthetic ideal by early racialists such as Pieter Camper.<ref name=bond/><ref name=monteiro/> Camper used anthropometry to [[Rationalization|rationalize]] his aesthetic preferences for facial angle,<ref name=monteiro/> basically the ''[[post hoc, ergo propter hoc]]'' fallacy. Apollo Belvedere was, like other classical statues, esteemed for its whiteness,<ref name=monteiro/> but it is not known whether it was originally painted like other such statues.<ref name=bond/> In 2016, before the Unite the Right rally that they cosponsored, [[Identity Evropa]] began a poster campaign co-opting Apollo Belvedere and other classical statues.<ref name=monteiro/><ref>[https://news.artnet.com/art-world/identity-evropa-posters-art-symbolism-881747 The New White Nationalism’s Sloppy Use of Art History, Decoded: Identity Evropa has been terrorizing campuses across the country.] by Ben Davis (March 7, 2017) ''Artnet''.</ref><ref>[https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/learn-speak-act/2018/02/15/classics-and-the-alt-right/ Classics and the Alt-Right: Historicizing Visual Rhetorics of White Supremacy] by Heidi Morse (February 15, 2018) ''Learn Speak Act, University of Michigan''.</ref>

====United Kingdom====
In 2018, the ''[[BBC]]'' released an 8-part mini-series titled ''Troy: Fall of a City'' about the Trojan War. The series cast several British actors of African descent, including key roles for David Gyasi as Achilles and Hakeem Kae-Kazim as Zeus.<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5103758/fullcredits?ref_=tt_ov_st_sm Troy: Fall of a City (2018–): Full Cast & Crew] ''IMDb''.</ref> This casting created a substantial amount of criticism by racists.<ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2018/01/11/racist-reaction-to-david-gyasi-playing-achilles-in-bbc-netflix-troy-miniseries/ Racist reaction to David Gyasi playing Achilles in BBC/Netflix “Troy” Miniseries] by Curtis Dozier (January 11, 2018) ''Pharos''.</ref><ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2018/04/06/further-racist-backlash-against-black-achilles/ Further racist backlash against “Black Achilles”] by Curtis Dozier (April 6, 2018) ''Pharos''.</ref> The racists in question used the cover of what they claimed was historical inaccuracy, but there are several problems with this claim:<ref>[https://www.radiotimes.com/tv/drama/troy-fall-of-a-city-blackwashing-casting-black-actors-greek-myth/ No, the BBC is not ‘blackwashing’ Troy: Fall of a City: Why has the casting of David Gyasi and Hakeem Kae-Kazim as Achilles and Zeus proved so controversial?] by Thomas Ling (24 February 2018) ''RadioTimes''.</ref><ref>[https://aeon.co/essays/when-homer-envisioned-achilles-did-he-see-a-black-man Black Achilles: The Greeks didn’t have modern ideas of race. Did they see themselves as white, black – or as something else altogether?] by Tim Whitmarsh (9 May 2018) ''Aeon''.</ref>
*There was no concept of black and white races in ancient times. Additionally, ancient Greeks had a range of skin tones.
*Homer's ''Illiad'' did not describe Achilles as 'white', the actual term used was 'xanthē' or 'xanthos' (which could mean ‘brown’, ‘ruddy’, ‘yellow’ or ‘golden’), and Greek color terminology does not map well into modern English color terminology.<ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2018/05/18/scholars-respond-to-racist-backlash-against-black-achilles-part-2-what-did-achilles-look-like/ Scholars Respond to Racist Backlash against Black Achilles, Part 2: What did Achilles look like?] by Curtis Dozier (May 18, 2018) ''Pharos''.</ref>
*Odysseus is described in one translation of Homer's ''Odyssey'' as ‘black-skinned and woolly-haired’, yet there were no known complaints about white English actor Joseph Mawle playing Odysseus in the series.
*There is no contemporaneous description of the Trojan War, thus all accounts are [[Mythology|mythological]]. Homer's account was an amalgamation of different versions.
*Sophocles portrayed Zeus as 'black' in his play '' Inachus'', using the term ''aithos'', which is believed to be the root of the word Ethiopia.<ref name=pharos-achilles1>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2018/05/11/scholars-respond-to-racist-backlash-against-black-achilles-part-1-ancient-greek-attitudes-toward-africans/ Scholars Respond to Racist Backlash against Black Achilles, Part 1: Ancient Greek Attitudes toward Africans] by Curtis Dozier (May 11, 2018) ''Pharos''.</ref>
*It is likely the case that ancient Greeks did not exclude other ethnic groups, including North Africans, from being considered Greek.<ref name=pharos-achilles1/>

===Immigration===
Rather than the genetically homogenous population in ancient Rome that modern-day [[white supremacists]] fantasize about,<ref>[https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/spring-2021/the-classical-roots-of-white-supremacy The Classical Roots of White Supremacy: A whitewashed history of the ancient world lays the foundation for white supremacy across the curriculum.] by Dani Bostick (Spring 2021) ''Learning for Justice, Southern Poverty Law Center''.</ref> the city of Rome and its vicinity had a flux of genetically diverse populations throughout its history, including high levels of ancestry from the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East during the Imperial Roman era.<ref>[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aay6826 Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean] by Margaret L. Antonio et al. (2019) ''Science'' 366(6466): 708-714. doi:10.1126/science.aay682.</ref> The genetic diversity of the Italian peninsula during the Imperial era was confirmed for southern Italy from the [[DNA]] of people killed during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius; this analysis concluded that there were recent immigrants from the Eastern Mediterranean or North Africa.<ref>[https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01361-7 Ancient DNA challenges prevailing interpretations of the Pompeii plaster casts] by Elena Pilli et al. (November 07, 2024) ''Current Biology'' doi:10.1016/j.cub.2024.10.007.</ref><ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2024/11/07/pompeii-victims-ancient-dna/ Science is revealing the true stories of Pompeii’s victims beneath the ash: Analysis of ancient DNA rewrites what we know about the relationships between the people buried there in 79 A.D.] by Carolyn Y. Johnson (November 7, 2024 at 11:00 a.m. EST) ''The Washington Post''.</ref>

===Gender and sexuality===
{{main|1=Gender|3=Sexuality}}
[[File:Terentius Neo and wife MAN Napoli Inv9058 n01.jpg|thumb|right|165px|Portrait of Terentius Neo and his wife]]
{{cquote|But why does there seem to be a gender divide in who is daydreaming about ancient Rome today?<BR>

According to historians, one explanation could be that Western societies have historically overemphasized the aspects of Roman history that are associated with masculinity in the popular imagination.<ref name=sands/>}}
The preservation of gender [[Sexism|inequality]] often relies on appeals to the [[good old days]], such as [[Kinder, Küche, Kirche]]. The [[MRA]] website ''[[A Voice for Men]]'' has specifically referenced ancient and [[medieval]] laws in its argumentation,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20211121103251/https://avoiceformen.com/featured/limit-to-gender-justice-lessons-of-ancient-medieval-sumptuary-laws/ Limit to gender justice: lessons of ancient & medieval sumptuary laws] by Douglas Galbi (November 21, 2021) ''A Voice for Men'' (archived from November 21, 2021).</ref> yet the reality of such appeals is not as clear as they would like to represent. Plato was the first known person to put [[feminist]] arguments in writing in his ''Republic'' Book 5 (c. 375 BCE).<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3749607 Plato's "Republic" and Feminism] by Julia Annas (1976) ''Philosophy'' 51(197):307-321.</ref>

Scholars generally agree that Roman women had more agency and freedom than in Greece. A portrait of Terentius Neo and his wife  (c. 50–79 CE) was excavated in the ruins of their house in Pompeii. Terentius Neo, a middle class baker, is portrayed as a Roman citizen who was involved in public life (indicated by the toga and rotulus in his hand). His wife holds a wax tablet and stylus, indicating her equal status, her role in the operation of the family's business, and that she is educated and literate.<ref name=clarke>''Art in the Lives of Ordinary Romans: Visual Representation and Non-Elite Viewers in Italy, 100 B.C.-A.D. 315'' by John R Clarke (2003) University of California Press. ISBN 9780520248151.</ref>{{rp|261-263}}

According to historian Lewis Webb,<ref name=sands>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/2023/09/14/roman-empire-trend-men-tiktok How often do men think about ancient Rome? Quite frequently, it seems.] by Leo Sands (September 14, 2023) ''The Washington Post''.</ref>
{{cquote|Ancient Rome was of course patriarchal and violent. But it was also a diverse place: there were numerous forms of masculinity, women could have agency and power, and there were multiple gender expressions and identities, as well as various sexualities.}}

And according to historian Hannah Cornwell, noting that the Roman Empire had some female gladiators,<ref name=sands/>
{{cquote|Even when you get to some of the emperors, they’re doing weird and wacky things by modern conceptions of what a man is. The Romans do have a clear sense of what is masculine and feminine, but within that there is an awful lot of flexibility. Which sometimes we often forget about.}}

Cornwell has also noted that there has been a longstanding reliance on "elite, masculine" written sources about the Roman Empire, creating a [[selection bias]] for interpreting the Empire.<ref name=sands/>

One notable similarity between the modern-day [[Manosphere]] and elite males in the Roman Empire of around the 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> centuries CE is the great fear of the emancipation of women with regard to [[money]], freedom of movement and [[sex]].<ref name=clarke/>{{rp|163-164}}

[[Dominionism|Christian Reconstructionist]] Pete Hegseth, the totally unqualified<ref>[https://www.yahoo.com/news/opinion-vetted-pete-hegseth-team-112829274.html I vetted Pete Hegseth for Team Trump in 2016. He wasn't qualified then — and still isn't.] by Justin M. Higgins (November 16, 2024 at 7:59 AM PST) ''MSNBC'' via ''Yahoo!News''.</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U3Il5CZVJrI Duckworth on MSNBC: It's Insane Trump Wants Pete Hegseth to Lead the Department of Defense] (Nov 21, 2024) Senator Tammy Duckworth on MSNBC, ''YouTube''.</ref> DUI hire Trump nominee for Secretary of Defense in 2024, stated "I’m straight up just saying we should not have women in combat roles. It hasn’t made us more effective. Hasn’t made us more lethal. Has made fighting more complicated."<ref>[https://apnews.com/article/military-women-defense-hegseth-combat-916d50a7b465ccfea1aeb13bb91064b3 ] by Lolita C. Baldor (10:45 AM PST, November 18, 2024) ''Associated Press''.</ref><ref>''The War on Warriors: Behind the Betrayal of the Men Who Keep Us Free'' by Pete Hegseth (2024) Broadside Books. ISBN 0063389428.</ref> But, it's incorrect for Hegseth to imply that women had not fought in combat until very recently. [[Herodotus]], the ancient Greek historian, wrote that Scythian warriors were the greatest of their time, and [[archaeological]] findings have shown that about 20% of Scythian warriors were women.<ref>[https://snyder.substack.com/p/the-crusade-against-america?utm_source=post-email-title&publication_id=310897 The Crusade against America: Handmaid Fails 3/3] by Timothy Snyder (Nov 22, 2024) ''Thinking about…'' on Substack''.</ref><ref>[https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1783/scythian-women/ Scythian Women] by Patrick Scott Smith (30 June 2021) ''World History Encyclopedia''.</ref>

===Praetorian Guard===
{{cquote|Often Greco-Roman antiquity seems to function as a respectable veneer over hateful ideologies. However, in the case of the “First Amendment Praetorians” the link to ancient Rome actually serves to clarify the group’s commitment, despite their claims to defend democracy, to a violent and [[totalitarian]] agenda.|||Curtis Dozier<ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2021/06/18/first-amendment-praetorians-free-speech-roman-praetorian-guard/ “Praetorian Guard” protecting the Freedom to Undermine Democracy] by Curtis Dozier (June 18, 2021) ''Pharos''.</ref>}}
The Praetorian Guard was a Roman Army and intelligence gathering unit intended to protect [[Roman emperor]]s. The discordantly-named 1st Amendment Praetorian is a [[militia]] group associated with the [[QAnon]] [[conspiracy theory]] and [[Michael Flynn]].<ref name=brederman>[https://www.thedailybeast.com/1st-amendment-praetorian-the-far-right-paramilitary-wannabes-feeding-mike-flynns-conspiracy-machine The 1st Amendment Praetorian group has become an on-call security and intelligence team for the most extreme and esoteric of Trumpists.] by William Bredderman & Will Sommer (Updated Jun. 11, 2021 3:48AM ET / Published Jun. 10, 2021 4:53AM ET) ''The Daily Beast''.</ref> 1st Amendment Praetorian may also have been associated [[Donald Trump|Trump]]'s [[2021 U.S. Capitol riot|2021 coup attempt]].<ref name=brederman/><ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/jan-6-committee-oath-keepers-proud-boys-insurrection/2021/11/23/0ba96890-4c86-11ec-b0b0-766bbbe79347_story.html House Jan. 6 committee issues subpoenas to Proud Boys, Oath Keepers] by Jacqueline Aleman (November 23, 2021).</ref> This militia calling themselves "Praetorian" makes some perverted sense insofar as QAnoners having the "God Emperor Trump" delusion.<ref>[https://knowyourmeme.com/memes/god-emperor-trump God Emperor Trump] ''Know Your Meme''.</ref> However, while Roman citizens did have rights,<ref>{{wpa|Roman citizenship}}</ref> they did not overlap at all with the [[First Amendment]] ([[freedom of speech]], press, religion, assembly, and petition).

===Roman wreath===
The laurel wreath was a symbol of military triumph used in ancient Rome.<ref name=wreath>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2020/10/01/proud-boys-ancient-western-civilization-trump-presidential-debates/ The Proud Boys and Greco-Roman Masculinity] by Curtis Dozier (October 1, 2020) ''Pharos''.</ref> The [[Proud Boys]] initially adopted the Fred Perry polo shirt as their official uniform, likely in part because the wreath on the shirt resembled the Roman wreath.<ref name=wreath/> The Fred Perry clothing label logo had been based upon the Wimbledon Tennis Championships logo and not directly based upon the Roman wreath. After the Fred Perry company found out about the Proud Boys' co-opatation of their logo, they withdrew the polo shirt from production.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/28/fred-perry-withdraws-polo-shirt-adopted-by-far-right-proud-boys Fred Perry withdraws polo shirt adopted by far-right Proud Boys: Company distances itself from US fascist group as it halts sales of garment in North America] by Priya Elan (28 Sep 2020 10.31 EDT) ''The Guardian''.</ref> The Proud Boys continued to use the wreath on their own clothing brand(s).<ref>[https://www.thefocus.news/opinion/proud-boys-flag-change/ Did the Proud Boys’ flag change? Its meaning and symbols explained] by Samantha McGarry (October 1, 2020) ''The Focus''.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg|Roman wreath with eagle and "[[Alt-right glossary#SPQR|SPQR]]"
File:Brutus by casca.jpg|Roman coin with Brutus and laurel wreath, 42 BCE 
File:Proud Boys in Pittsboro (2019 Oct) - 01.jpg|2019 Proud Boys rally with Fred Perry shirt on the man on the left (and Castro beard on the man on the right)
File:Proud Boys PB and Wreath Logo.jpg|Proud Boys logo including wreath
File:Proud Boys in Raleigh (2020 Nov) (50658842286).jpg|Fred Perry shirt (left, black) and Proud Boys sweatshirt (center, yellow)
</gallery>

===Latin abuse===
[[File:Dr Stephen Carney 02 - Confederate Memorial Day - Arlington National Cemetery - 2014.jpg|thumb|right|165px|Lost Causers in front of the Confederate Memorial at Arlington: ''[[Quidquid latine dictum sit, altum videtur]].'']]
The statement "''Victrix causa deis placuit sed victa Catoni.''" appears on the base of the Confederate Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery. The statement originally appeared in Lucan's epic poem from 61 CE {{wpl|Pharsalia|''De Bello Civili''}} ("On the Civil War") about the Roman civil war of 48 BCE between Julius Caesar and the forces of the Roman Senate. The statement translates literally as, "The victorious cause pleased the gods, but Cato was conquered." but has been translated as "The victorious cause pleased the gods, but the conquered one [pleased] Cato."<ref>[https://archive.org/details/confederateveter28conf/page/124/mode/2up?q=victrix Inscriptions on Arlington Confederate Monument] by Mrs. Cabell Smith (1920) ''Confederate Veteran'' 20:123</ref> 'Conquered' has also been translated as losing side or losing cause in direct reference to the Confederate Memorial.<ref>[http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/anderson-address.htm Address delivered on 6 June 1999 at Arlington National Cemetery by Fr. Alister C. Anderson, SCV Chaplain-in-Chief] ''Arlington National Cemetery''.</ref> Cato here refers to {{wpl|Cato the Younger||,}} who opposed corruption and Julius Caesar's [[Monarchy|monarchialism]]. In contrast to Lucan's intent, referring to this Latin phrase in the context of the [[Confederate States of America]] erroneously implies that the primary cause of the [[American Civil War]] was for [[states' rights]] ([[republic]]anism in the American sense rather than the Roman sense) rather than preservation of slavery (the [[Lost Cause of the South]]).

''Sic semper tyrannis'', a Latin phrase meaning "always to tyrants", was a favorite of the Oklahoma City Federal building bomber [[Timothy McVeigh]]. He even was wearing the shirt for his mugshot that quoted John Wilkes Booth using it after assassinating [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref>[https://archive.ph/4bfYS Timothy James McVeigh] ''Imago'' (archived from 15 Apr 2022 15:40:31 UTC).</ref> Both men violently tried to subvert democracy, the opposite of the meaning of the phrase, that dictators should have bad outcomes.
===Elon Musk===
{{main|Elon Musk}}
Musk has engaged in frequent and multifaceted misrepresentation of classical antiquity, often relying on [[quote mining]], impressing followers that he can repurpose phrases from [[Wikipedia]]'s list of Latin phrases, and AI-generated Romanesque [[memes]] of himself.<ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2025/01/31/elon-musk-nazi-salute-classics-roman-empire-latin/ When the Richest Man in the World Loves Classics] by Curtis Dozier (January 31, 2025) ''Pharos''.</ref>

==Name co-optation==
Several names from antiquity have been co-opted as pseudonyms within the alt-right:<ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/onomasticon-of-classical-pseudonyms-and-avatars/ Onomasticon of Classical Pseudonyms and Avatars] (May 27<sup>th</sup>, 2020) ''Pharos''.</ref><ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2022/04/15/classics-ottowa-freedom-convoy-leaked-donors/ How Classics Made its Way into the “Freedom Convoy”] (April 15, 2022) ''Pharos''.</ref><ref>[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/2018/10/26/gladiator-calls-for-new-roman-legion-to-save-the-west/ “Gladiator” calls for New Roman Legion to save “the West”] (October 26, 2018) ''Pharos''.</ref>
{{collist|2|
*Alexander the Great, king of ancient Macedonia
*Atlas: punished by the gods for starting a war among them, his name was appropriated on the [[men's rights movement]] blog [[Return of Kings]]
*Marcus Aurelius: Roman emperor, appropriated on StoicSchool.org
*Boethius: a favored ancient philosopher in the [[neoreactionary movement]], his name was appropriated on StoicSchool.org as an [[antifeminist]]
*Cato the Elder: a xenophobic Roman, his name has been used as a pseudonym on StoicSchool.org
*Cicero: Roman orator, appropriated as the antisemitic [[meme]] "[[Alt-right glossary#Noticer|The Noticer]]" and on a Telegram channel
*Diomedes: king of Argos
*Domitius Corbulo,a Roman general; his name has been used as a pseudonym on the [[white nationalist]] ''Occidental Quarterly''
*Hadrian: a Roman emperor, his name has been used as a pseudonym on the [[Neo-Confederate]] IdentityDixie 
*Hannibal: Carthaginian general<ref group="note">The Carthaginians were Phoenician, a Semitic ethnic group closely related to those dreaded [[Hebrew]]s. White nationalists self-own so often a drinking game could be made out it.</ref>
*[[Hippocrates]], the Greek father of medicine, appropriated in "The Galton Report" column on the white nationalist ''[[American Renaissance]]''
*Lysander: a Spartan admiral, appropriated by [[pedophile]] [[misogynist]] [[Nathan Larson]]
*"Maximus" — a fictional character in the film ''Gladiator''
*Musonius Rufus: a Roman Stoic philosopher, appropriated by the founder of IdentityDixie.com
*[[Plato]]
*Quintilian: a Roman rhetorician, appropriated on the [[neo-Nazi]] site [[Counter-Currents]]
*Sargon of Akkad: first ruler of the Akkadian Empire (24<sup>th</sup>-23<sup>rd</sup> centuries BCE), appropriated by [[Carl Benjamin]]<ref group="note">This is especially hilarious because Sargon was Akkadian, a Semitic-speaking ethnicity indigenous to the Middle East.</ref>
*[[Socrates]]
*Titus Quinctius Flamininus: a Roman consul, appropriated as "Titus Quintus" on Counter-Currents
*Seneca the Elder and Seneca the Younger: an orator and philosopher respectively, appropriated by "Seneca III" on the Islamophobic blog [[Gates of Vienna]]
*Virgil: a major Latin poet, appropriated on ''[[Breitbart]]''
*[[Zeus]]
}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Races and skulls.png|Apollo Belvedere, as used in {{wpl|Josiah C. Nott|Josiah C. Nott's}} 1854 racialist book ''Types of Mankind''<ref>[https://archive.org/details/typesofmankindo00nott ''Types of Mankind: or, Ethnological researches, based upon the ancient monuments, paintings, sculptures, and crania of races, and upon their natural, geographical, philological and Biblical history''] by Josiah C Nott & George R Gliddon (1854) Lippincott, Grambo.</ref>{{rp|458}}
File:Apollo Belvedere, Identity Evropa.png|{{wpl|Apollo Belvedere||,}} co-opted by [[Identity Evropa]] and emphasizing the facial angle<ref name=monteiro/>
File:Pompei - Sappho - MAN.jpg|Another portrait of an educated and literate woman in Pompeii
File:George Washington Greenough statue.jpg|Horatio Greenough's statue of [[George Washington]] (1840), made in the classical style, managed to scandalize people with its bare areolae.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230122122729/https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2023/01/22/george-washington-statue-toga-capitol/ The first statue removed from the Capitol: George Washington in a toga] by Ronald G. Shafer (January 22, 2023 at 7:00 a.m. EST) Archived from ''The Washington Post''.</ref>
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Alt-right glossary]]:
**[[Alt-right glossary#Molon labe|Molon labe]] — misappropriation of the Battle of Thermopylai (480 BCE)
**[[Alt-right glossary#Noticer|Noticer]] — misappropriation of Roman senator Cicero
**[[Alt-right glossary#SPQR|SPQR]] — originally referred to semi-democratic/[[republic]]an Roman Empire. It has been widely used in Europe, but it was also appropriated by [[Mussolini]] and later [[fascists]]
*[[Biblical archaeology]] — attempts to prove that the [[Bible]] is factual using archaeological techniques
*[[Classical mythology]]
*[[Images of Jesus]]
*[[Middle Ages#Back to the future]]
*[[Neoreactionary movement]] — particularly with regard to Boethius

==External links==
*[https://buntegoetter.liebieghaus.de/en/ Gods in Color: Polychromy in Antiquity]
*[https://pharos.vassarspaces.net/ ''Pharos''] — "a website where classical scholars, students, and the public more broadly, can learn about appropriations of Greco-Roman antiquity by hate groups"

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="note"}}

==References==
{{reflist|2|80%}}

[[Category:Alt-right]]
[[Category:Ancient history]]
[[Category:Men's rights movement]]
[[Category:Nationalist pseudohistory]]
[[Category:Racialism]]

Categories: Alt-right, Ancient history, Men's rights movement, Nationalist pseudohistory, Racialism