Livestock and European bison
Source: gov.uk (2025-10-30)

Learn more about protecting trees from domestic cattle (Bos taurus), domestic and feral sheep (Ovis aries), domestic and feral goats (Capra hircus) and European bison (Bison bonasus).

Area and status

Approximately 11 million hectares, almost 45% of the UK’s total land area, is used for domestic livestock grazing. A captive herd of European bison have been introduced in southern England as a conservation grazing species.

The Animal Welfare Act 2006 is the main law relating to the welfare and management of domestic livestock in the UK. Feral sheep and goats are covered under general wildlife legislation, including the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/69).

Associated treescapes
- wood pasture, parkland, and orchards (https://woodlandwildlifetoolkit.sylva.org.uk/advice-types-broadleaf) (most common)
- they are also occasionally found in closed-canopy woodlands, in areas where they have been introduced for conservation grazing
Ecosystem services and impacts on biodiversity

Livestock have different grazing patterns. Domestic and feral sheep are selective browsers, preferring willow, hazel, silver birch and alder. They create a short, tight grass sward.

Cattle are less selective grazers and will eat plants other animals avoid. They create uneven, tussocky grass sward. Due to their larger size, cattle and European bison can reduce bracken through trampling, benefiting light demanding trees like oak.

Domestic and feral goats are random grazers, preferring high quality grasses. They are effective at controlling bramble and other thorny species, but they are more likely to browse on broadleaf seedlings, and will climb shrubs to browse foliage.

Benefits:
- low to moderate browsing and grazing, particularly by domestic cattle, can create favourable habitats for bird species like wood warblers, European pied flycatchers, common redstarts, thrushes and tree pipits
- open areas maintained by grazing benefits light-demanding flora and fauna which depend on glades
- dung provides a resource for fungi, invertebrates, and their predators
- cattle and bison can increase structural diversity in even-aged woodland by breaking woody stems
High stocking densities can cause soil damage from overbrowsing, overgrazing, and trampling, as well as from excessive nutrient input from supplementary food. Heavily grazed woodlands have reduced populations of small mammals with consequences for their predators.

Bark stripping might be a concern at high densities; however, bark stripping and subsequent decay can help create nesting cavities for red-listed bird species, such as the marsh tit.

Identification and assessment of damage and risk to trees

Damage to trees mainly occurs through browsing and grazing. Excessive browsing and grazing of buds, shoots, and foliage can significantly impair a tree’s ability to grow and survive. This often leads to a lack of tree regeneration, one of the most common indicators of over-browsing and over-grazing.

Timing of damage:
- autumn is often best for woodland grazing when biomass is at its highest
- spring and summer grazing can harm ground flora flowering and seed production
- browsing damage to woody species is likely to be greater in winter when alternative food sources are scarce
How to identify damage:
- sheep and goats create ragged edges on vegetation up to 1.5 metres high and can leave wool behind
- cattle can browse up to 2 meters high, also leaving ragged edges
- European bison rarely uproot mature trees but browse on saplings, sometimes pulling them from the ground
- European bison bark stripping varies, affecting between 1.4% and 20% of available trees
Managing livestock and bison in the landscape

Widespread use

Non-lethal control:
- stocking rate, stocking density, and timing and pattern of grazing (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protecting-trees-from-mammal-damage-technical-guidance/managing-mammals-in-the-landscape#stocking)
- diversionary feeding and nutrient supplementation (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protecting-trees-from-mammal-damage-technical-guidance/managing-mammals-in-the-landscape#diversionary)
Occasional use

Non-lethal control: breed selection (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protecting-trees-from-mammal-damage-technical-guidance/managing-mammals-in-the-landscape#breed).

Any control must be conducted in line with animal welfare legislation such as the Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996 and the Animal Welfare Act 2006.

Modifying livestock and bison access to trees

Widespread use

Physical exclusion from an area: fencing (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protecting-trees-from-mammal-damage-technical-guidance/modifying-mammal-access-to-trees#exclusion-from-an-area).

Physical exclusion from an individual tree or shoot: parkland tree guards (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protecting-trees-from-mammal-damage-technical-guidance/modifying-mammal-access-to-trees#parkland).

Occasional use

Sensory deterrents: virtual fences (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protecting-trees-from-mammal-damage-technical-guidance/modifying-mammal-access-to-trees#virtual).

Managing trees in the landscape

Occasional use

Adapting planting pattern and choice:
- willow pegs (or forks) (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protecting-trees-from-mammal-damage-technical-guidance/managing-trees-in-the-landscape#willow)
- sabre planting (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protecting-trees-from-mammal-damage-technical-guidance/managing-trees-in-the-landscape#sabre)
Additional information, guidance and resources

Case studies, trials, and scientific research

Overview of the Wilder Blean project in Kent (https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/rewilding-projects/wilder-blean) from Rewilding Britain.

Support, advice, and guidance

Guidance sheets for domestic livestock and European bison (https://howtorewild.co.uk/guides/) from How to Rewild.

Woodland Grazing Toolbox (https://basc.org.uk/deer/wild-boar/) from British Association for Shooting and Conservation (BASC).

Guidance on designing a domestic livestock grazing regime to meet woodland management objectives (https://www.forestry.gov.scot/woodland-grazing-toolbox) from Forestry Scotland.

Agroforestry toolkit for sustainable farming (https://thelandapp.com/2024/11/18/introducing-the-agroforestry-designer-toolkit-a-new-tool-for-sustainable-farming/).