the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
This was changed to  to standardize the round.
They had cast iron barrels with a wrought iron reinforcement strip welded around the breech (rear of the cannon).
Artillery rounds
Solid Round Shot – This is a solid iron ball that could travel several miles.
They were designed to crush the target.
Explosive Shell – This was a hollow round iron ball filled with black powder.
It had a fuse to make the iron ball explode when it reached the target.
People today occasionally find these buried in fields and backyards.
They can still explode with deadly results.
Spherical case – It is also filled with gunpowder and uses a fuse.
The hollow area is also filled with small iron balls.
Used against troops it was usually timed to go off at chest-level.
Case shot was designed to kill or injure enemy soldiers at maximum distance the cannon could fire.
Canister Shot – Like spherical case it is a shrapnel round used against enemy troop formations.
It contains usually between 20 and 30 large solid round balls.
When fired it spreads out in a cone shape from the muzzle like a large shotgun blast.
When canister balls were scarce, nails, scrap iron or other materials were used.
Canister was a short range weapon usually effective at up to .
Some artillery commanders used a technique of firing canister at the ground in front of advancing troops.
The effect was to bounce the canister shot into the formation and cause more deaths.
Gun crews
For the average artillery piece it took eight highly trained artillerymen to form a gun crew.
Each member of the crew was cross-trained to do all the jobs required to operate a gun.
If a crew member was killed or wounded, another member of the crew could take his place.
Gun crews were among the best trained soldiers in either the Confederate or Union armies.
They were also vulnerable.
They had to see their target to hit it.
If they could see their target, the enemy soldiers they were targeting could see them.
For a gun crew to get off the maximum number of accurate rounds per minute, they used a system whereby each man had a number.
His number indicated his main task:
Number 1 - Sponges out the barrel to wet down any hot spots or sparks.
He then rams the round (cannonball and powder or shell) down the barrel.
Number 2 - Uses a "worm" (a large corkscrew on a pole) to make sure there is nothing caught in the barrel.
He then loads the round and charge in the barrel ready for ramming.
Number 3 - Covers the vent hole with his thumb wearing a special glove.
He then pierces the loaded powder bag with a spike.
Number 4 - Places the friction primer in the vent hole just prepared by Number 3.
On the command of "fire" he pulls the lanyard attached to the primer which fires the gun.
Number 5 - Carries the round from the limber to the artillery piece.
Number 6 - In charge of the ammunition box on the limber and prepares the friction primers.
Number 7 - Hands the round each time to Number 5.
Gunner - Aligns and aims the artillery piece.
Battery personnel
Section commander - A lieutenant commanded a "section" of two guns.
Battery commander - A captain usually commanded the battery of six guns (four guns in a Confederate battery).
First Sergeant - Also called an Orderly Sergeant, he helped the battery commander with administrative duties.
He was second-in-command to his Captain.
Quartermaster Sergeant - Was responsible for supply and logistics.
Artificer - A blacksmith who repaired cannons.
Farrier - Kept the horses shod.
Bugler - One or two per battery.
A bugler was usually at the battery commander's side and the bugle could be heard over a considerable distance.
Artillery bugle calls were nearly identical to cavalry bugle calls.
Guidon - Carried the battery colors.
He was often the most trusted man in the unit.
Teamsters and Wagoneers - To manage all the horse teams and wagons needed to move the battery.
Civil War Artillery Glossary
Firing the 12-pdr Napoleon; National Park Service recreation
A pome is a type of fruit produced in plants of subtribe Malinae (in the tribe Maleae in the subfamily Amygdaloideae) in the family Rosaceae.
Examples include pears and apples.
They consist of carpels surrounded by accessory tissue.
The Nera () is a river in central Italy that starts in the Marche region but flows mainly through the  Umbria region.
It is the main tributary of the Tiber river.
The Nera river starts in the Monti Sibillini, within the Monti Sibillini National Park (), at an elevation of about .,
in the comune of Castelsantangelo sul Nera, Province of Macerata, Marche.
The river flows through the comuni of Castelsantangelo sul Nera, Viso and Ussita in the Marche and then, after about , it flows in the Umbria.
After flowing through the province of Perugia, it gets in the province of Terni and keeps flowing to the east and flows through the city of Terni.
Corno - 20 km
Velino - 90 km
Serra - 17 km
Parco Fluviale del Nera website
Abraham was born on 17 December 1972 into a family of mixed religious and ethnic heritage.
His father is a Syrian Christian from Kerala and his mother is a Zoroastrian Irani.
Abraham's Zoroastrian name is "Farhan", but he was baptised with the name "John."
He has a younger brother named Alan Abraham.
He considers himself a spiritual person but does not follow any particular religion.
Abraham grew up in Mumbai and studied at the Bombay Scottish School in Mumbai, Maharashta.
He attended Jai Hind College, University of Mumbai, and then got an MBA degree from Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS), Bombay.
His cousin Susy Matthew is an author and has written novels like "Mahabharat".
Agadir is a city in southwestern Morocco, located on the Atlantic coast in the region of Souss.
"Cheap Thrills" is a song by Australian singer-songwriter Sia.
It was recorded for her seventh studio album, This Is Acting, after it was rejected by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna.
On February 11, 2016, the song was released as a remix with Jamaican recording artist Sean Paul.
The remix of the song has been very successful, reaching the top ten in Sia's country of Australia, the top two in the UK, and number one in Canada, most of mainland Europe, and the United States.
"Cheap Thrills" became Sia's first Billboard Hot 100 number-one hit and Sean Paul's fourth.
Sean Paul's last number-one U.S. song was "Temperature" in 2006.
She never shows her face or even is in her music videos because of privacy.
The song reached number 11 on the year-end Billboard Hot 100 of 2016.
It was certified double-Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America.
Merced is a city in Merced County, California, United States.
As of 2014, 81,743 people lived there.
Merced is the county seat of Merced County in the San Joaquin Valley of California.
Merced has the first research university built in the 21st century, University of California Merced.
UC Merced is the newest school in the University of California system.
Merced runs off of the Council-Manager form of government.
Merced's mayor is Stan Thurston.
Merced is located in California's 12th State Senate district.
Merced's state senator is Anthony Cannella.
Merced is also located in the California's 21st State Assembly District.
Merced's assemblyman is Adam Grey.
Merced is represented in the United States House of Representatives by Jim Costa.
The unemployment rate in Merced as of June 2014 is 14.10%.
The average per capita income in Merced is $17,331 while the median household income is $38,253.
Sales tax in Merced is 8% while the income tax is 6%.
Settlements in Merced County, California
Slaughterhouse-Five is a science fiction book by American author Kurt Vonnegut.
It has been popular all over the world since its was published in 1969.
It is often picked as one of the best books of all time.
Slaughterhouse 5 is about a time travelling American soldier during World War II who is in the German city of Dresden when it is bombed by the Allies.
The author experienced this event in his real life and so the novel is semi autobiographical.
The novel follows the story of American soldier, Billy Pilgrim.
Billy is what is known in literature as an unreliable narrator - his experiences are written in a way that might make the reader think they are not exactly true.
To reflect this, the novel is structured in a non linear fashion.
This means events are not always written in the order that they happened.
Billy's stories from the war are interrupted when he is taken by aliens (called Tralfamadorians) to live in a zoo on their home planet.
He also becomes "unstuck in time" and experiences his life in a random order of flashbacks.
The II Antofagasta Region () is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions.
It is the second-largest region of Chile.
The only  river of the region is the Loa river, the longest river of Chile, with a length of .
Coastal Desert Climate (BWn), along the coast.
Normal Desert Climate (BW)
Desert Climate in High Mountains (BWh), found in mountains over  high.
, there were (estimated) 622,640 persons living in the region, for a population density of  inhabitants/km².
List of volcanoes in Chile
Levi's Stadium is a stadium in Santa Clara, California.
The San Francisco 49ers play there.
A year after the stadium opened, Super Bowl 50 was held there.
After the 2019 San Francisco 49ers season (2019 season), the stadium held its first playoff game on against the Minnesota Vikings, and the first NFC Championship game against the Green Bay Packers.
The 49ers won both games.
The stadium hosted the 2019 College Football Playoff National Championship, in which the Clemson Tigers defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide, 44-16.
The stadium's construction was completed on July 17, 2014.
There are 174 executive suites.
The capacity is 68,500, which is expandable to 75,000.
The cost of the stadium's construction was $1.27 billion.
The first match held in the stadium was an MLS league match between the San Jose Earthquakes and the Seattle Sounders (1-0) on August 2nd 2014.
On September 14, 2014, the 49ers played their first game at the stadium against the Chicago Bears, but lost 20-28.
Gunmetal, or red brass in the United States, is a metal alloy.
It is a type of bronze – an alloy of copper, tin and zinc.
Proportions of its metals vary.
88% copper, 8-10% tin and 2-4% zinc is usual.
Originally it was used for making cannons.
Guns are now made of steel.
Gunmetal is easy to cast and work on a lathe.
It resists corrosion from steam and salt water.
It is used to make steam and hydraulic castings, valves, gears, statues, and various small objects such as buttons.
GNK Dinamo Zagreb is a football club which plays in Croatia.
1911-1945 1.
HŠK Građanski
1945-1991 Dinamo Zagreb
1991-1992 HAŠK-Građanski
1992-2000 Croatia Zagreb
2000-2011 Dinamo Zagreb
2011-present GNK Dinamo Zagreb
Yugoslav First League : 4
1947/48, 1953/54, 1957/58, 1981/82
Prva HNL : 22
1992/93, 1995/96, 1996/97, 1997/98, 1998/99, 1999/00, 2002/03, 2005/06, 2006/07, 2007/08, 2008/09, 2009/10, 2010/11, 2011/12, 2012/13, 2013/14, 2014/15, 2015/16, 2017/18, 2018/19, 2019/20, 2020/21
Football Club Astana (Kazakh: «Астана» футбол клубы; usually just called FC Astana or simply Astana) is a professional association football club from Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan.
They currently play in the Kazakhstan Premier League.
They were founded as Lokomotiv Astana in 2009 from football clubs Almaty: Megasport and Alma-Ata, the club changed its name to Astana in 2011.
Their short history already included two league titles, two Kazakhstan Cups and two Kazakhstan Super Cups.
In 2015, Astana qualified to the UEFA Champions League group stage, becoming the first Kazakh team to do so.
Kazakhstan Premier League:
Winners (2): 2014, 2015
Winners (2): 2010, 2012
Winners (2): 2011, 2015
FC Astana on UEFA.com
Ashdod (Hebrew: אַשְׁדּוֹד; Arabic: اشدود‎‎, إسدود) is the sixth-largest city in Israel.
Ashdod is Israel's largest port, since about 60% of the country's imported goods come through the city.
Ashdod has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers, pleasant spring and fall, and cool, rainy winters.
The humidity is usually high many times year round, and rain occurs mainly from November to March.
Ashdod had a population of about 220,000 in 2015, making it the sixth-largest city in Israel.
The ratio of women to men is about 1.05 to 1.00.
Also, 19.7% of the population was under the age of 10, 15.7% from age 10 to 19, 14.9% from 20 to 29, 19.1% from 30 to 44, 19.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% were 65 or older.
The population of Ashdod is a lot younger than the Israeli average because there are a lot of young couples in the city.
Over 95% of Ashdod's population is Jewish, even though only about 30% follow their religion.
The city is also home to the world's largest Karaite community, with about five thousand members.
Welcome To Isdud
Survey of Western Palestine, Map 16:  IAA, Wikimedia commons
Ashdod Port official website
The end justifies the means is a phrase of Sergey Nechayev, the 19th century Russian revolutionary.
It means that if a goal is morally important enough, any method of getting it is acceptable.
The idea is ancient, but it was not meant to justify unnecessary cruelty.
It was part of a political philosophy called consequentialism.
The basic idea is that a policy can be judged by its outcome.
All modern versions of consequentialism have to deal with the limitations necessary to prevent tyrants abusing this  idea.
Political philosophy is the study of politics, liberty, justice, property, and rights.
Also the law, and its enforcement (a legal code) by authority.
It concerns not the details, but the basic principles, reasons and arguments.
Topics studied include the purpose of government, what rights and freedoms it should protect, what form it should take, and what the law is.
Also, what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.
The district of Courtelary in the Swiss canton of Bern has 18 municipalities in an area of 266 km²:
Official website of Reisiswil
The Model 1857 12-Pounder Napoleon Field Gun, officially called the “light 12-pounder gun” by the United States Army, was the most popular smoothbore cannon used during the American Civil War.
The cannon was named after French president and emperor, Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte.
The French Canon obusier de campagne de 12 cm, modèle 1853, also known as the Canon de l’Empereur, was a type of canon-obusier (shell cannon) or gun-howitzer developed in 1853 by the French army.
It could fire ball, shell, canister or grapeshot which allowed it to replace all the earlier French cannons.
It was of a cast bronze smoothbore design and could double as a howitzer.
It was light enough to be pulled by a team of horses.
At the same time it had enough firepower to destroy fortifications at a distance of a half-mile (805 meters).
When it entered the service of Emperor Napoléon III it was named after him.
In 1857 the design was adopted by the U.S. Army as the light 12-pounder M1857.
The Confederate army also developed their own version.
In 1863, General Robert E. Lee was so impressed by the M1857 that he had all six-pounders in the Army of Northern Virginia gathered up and sent to Richmond to be melted down and re-cast into 12-pounders.
The Confederates kept producing 12-pounder Napoleons until the Union army captured the Ducktown copper mines near Chattanooga, Tennessee.
This reduced Confederates bronze production.
After that Confederate 1857s were cast of iron.
U.S. M1857
When first model 1857s were cast in Northern foundries they had two handles or "dolphins".
After 1861 the dolphins were eliminated, the barrel was shortened from the French version, and it was made lighter.
Like most cannons in use at the time, they were muzzleloading weapons.
The Model 1857 12-pounder Napoleon with its bronze barrel made up 40% of the cannons on both sides.
The U.S. version of the Napoleon could hit a target up to  away.
However they were most accurate at closer ranges of about .
The M1857 Napoleon fired a cannonball or canister shot at a speed of 1,440 feet per second (or 439 meters per second).
The barrel had a bore of  in diameter and was  long.
The barrel alone weighed .
With its gun carriage it weighed  and was pulled by a team of six horses.
The average gun crew was six men.
Official website of Rohrbachgraben
The Loa is a U-shaped river in Chile's northern Antofagasta region.
It is the longest river of the country and the main river in the Atacama Desert.
The Loa river starts on the Andean mountain slopes at the base of the Miño volcano near the Bolivian border, at an elevation of about , in the comuna of Ollagüe, Calama, Antofagasta.
The river flows south, for about , to the oasis of San Francisco de Chiu Chiu or simply Chiu Chiu.
Two left tributaries joints the Lao river in this part the riverː
San Pedro de Inacaliri, or simply San Pedro, river.
It joints the Loa river before Chiu Chiu.
Salado river.
It joints the Loa river about  south of Chiu Chiu.
From Chiu Chiu, the Loa flows to the west, running through the city of Calama.
The San Salvador river joints the Loa in this part of course as its only important right tributary.
Then the Loa flows north for about  to Quillagua, an oasis in the comuna of María Elena, Tocopilla province in the Antofagasta region of northern Chile.
The Loa is crossed by the Pan-American Highway in this area.
From Quillagua, the river turns westward again and marks the border between the regions of Tarapacá and Antofagasta.
Finally, the Loa flows in the Pacific Ocean.
San Pedro de Inacaliri -  long.
Salado -  long.
San Salvador -  long.
Cuenca Río Loa
Rajesh Hamal (, born 9 June 1964 in Tansen, Palpa, Nepal) is a Nepali actor.
He is known for his Nepali films.
Nepalese movie producers
Sarlahi (), a part of Province No.
2, is one of the seventy-five districts of Nepal.
Nepal Standard Time (NPT) is the time zone for Nepal.
With a time offset from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) of +5:45, all over Nepal Standard Time is one of only three time zones with a 45-minute offset from
UTC. (
The others are Chatham Island Standard Time, with an offset of UTC+12:45, and the
unofficial Australian Central Western Time, with an offset of UTC+08:45.)
NPT is an approximation of Kathmandu mean time, which is 5:41:16 ahead of
The district of Erlach in the Swiss canton of Bern has 12 municipalities in an area of 84.7 km².
The district of Fraubrunnen in the Swiss canton of Bern has 27 municipalities in an area of 123.5 km².
Gamboma is a town of the Republic of the Congo, located on the center in the Plateaux departement.
It has an military airport, a diocese and a stadium.
The district of Frutigen in the Swiss canton of Bern has 7 municipalities in an area of 489 km².
Djambala is a town of the Republic of the Congo, located on the center in the Plateaux departement.
It has an national airport, a diocese and a stadium.
Ewo is a town of the Republic of the Congo, located on the west in the Cuvette-Ouest departement.
Impfondo is a town of the Republic of the Congo, located on the center in the Likouala Region.
Freiin Johanna Bertha Julie Jenny von Westphalen or better known as Jenny von Westphalen or also Jenny Marx (born 12 February 1814 in Salzwedel, now Germany, and died 2 December 1881 in London) was the wife of philosopher Karl Marx, and daughter of Baron Ludwig von Westphalen, a professor at Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Berlin.
Luise Dornemann: Jenny Marx: Der Lebensweg einer Sozialistin.
Dietz Verlag, Berlin, 1980.
Françoise Giroud: Trio infernale oder das Leben der Jenny Marx.
Beltz, Weinheim, 1994. .
Jenny von Westphalen-Marx Correspondence Page at Marxists Internet Archive
A smoothbore weapon is one that has a barrel without rifling.
Smoothbores range from handheld firearms to powerful tank guns and large artillery mortars.
The majority of shotguns are smoothbores and the terms "shotgun" and "smoothbore" can be synonymous.
The earliest mention of a smoothbore weapon was about the year 1000 in Dunhuang.
The weapon was called a fire lance.
The basic parts that make up a gun are a barrel, a charge and a projectile.
The gun must also have a way to ignite the black powder charge.
The earliest guns were made of bamboo, later replaced with metal barrels.
The first mass produced guns were the matchlocks.
Matchlock
The classic European matchlock gun was a smoothbore weapon that held a burning slow match in a clamp at the end of a small curved lever called a "serpentine".
When the lever (or in later models a trigger) was pulled, it lowered the smoldering match into the flash pan.
This ignited the priming powder.
The flash from the primer travelled through the touch hole igniting the main charge of propellant in the gun barrel.
One problem with the matchlock was that the match had to be constantly lit.
The match was soaked in potassium nitrate to keep the match lit for longer periods of time.
If the match was not lit when the gun needed to be fired, the mechanism was useless.
This was a real problem in wet weather.
Another drawback was the burning match itself.
At night, the match would glow in the darkness showing the matchlock holder's position.
The smell of burning match-cord also gave away a musketeer's position.
The main advantage of the matchlock was that it allowed the shooter to hold the weapon at eye level so as to better aim the weapon.
After about 200 years, the next major development was the flintlock.
It used a flint striking mechanism.
Another improvement replaced the flashpan with a smaller “priming pan” that held a smaller amount of black powder.
It also contained an opening into the breach to ignite the main powder charge.
A small piece of steel (called a “frizzen”) was mounted to the top of the priming pan.
When the trigger was pulled the mechanism created a spark igniting the powder in barrel.
When the powder and ball were loaded into the barrel, it was then tamped (pushed) down with the ramrod.
The hammer was pulled back to the first click, called "half-cocked".
To make the weapon ready to fire, the hammer was pulled back to the "full-cocked" position.
When the trigger was pulled, a spring caused the hammer to fall igniting the charge.
Flintlocks were the main firearm for the next 200 to 300 years before being replaced by percussion cap guns.
Percussion cap
The percussion cap mechanism was the next great improvement in firearms.
It was also called a caplock.
The percussion cap was based on the discovery of fulminate of mercury in about 1800.
When struck with a sharp blow, mercury fulminate detonates.
In 1816, Joshua Shaw, an artist living in Philadelphia, painted fulminate of mercury on the inside of copper caps.
He fitted it over a small nipple on the firing hole over the bore.
When the hammer struck the percussion cap, the gun fired.
By 1826 they were widely used and had replaced the flintlock.
The percussion cap eliminated the flash pan, flint and frizzen.
It added the step of placing a cap on the nipple cone, but it was a real advantage to troops in battle.
Percussion caps were quick to load and worked in nearly all weather conditions.
Crude cannons existed in China from about the 12th century, possibly earlier.
One of the first weapons used in Europe was the bombard.
They were built in different diameter barrels to fire anything from a small rock to a  cast iron ball.
By the 16th century cannons began to replace bombards.
Casting had greatly improved in Europe after about 1570.
In the early 1500s, French cannons were used to break up masses of men in their campaigns in Italy.
The Germans had some of the best gunners in Europe and developed cannon that could hit targets at up to .
Next, the Swedish under Gustavus Adolphus developed lightweight cannons that could easily move around the battlefield.
He used a cast 4-pounder that weighed about  and could be pulled by just two horses.
In 1742, Englishman Benjamin Robins wrote New Principles of Gunnery where he added science to the field of ballistics.
He developed carronades which were short, lightweight smoothbore cannons that could be used on the decks of ships.
During the American Revolutionary War, the British had a number of different cannons as well as mortars.
Many of the American weapons were captured British cannon.
In 1853 France introduced the Canon-obusier de 12, a 12-pounder capable of firing both shot and shell.
The U.S. Army adopted the Napoleon 12-pounder in 1857 as the Model 1857 12-Pounder Napoleon Field Gun.
It became the most popular field gun on both sides during the American Civil War.
They were ultimately replaced by rifled barrel cannons beginning after the Civil War.
Gunsmithing: Versatility of Smoothbore Muskets (Gunworks)
A muzzleloader is any firearm where the projectile and usually the propellant charge is loaded from the muzzle of the gun.
This is distinct from the more popular modern designs of breech-loading firearms.
The term "muzzleloader" may also apply to the marksman who shoot muzzleloading firearms.
The term of art includes rifled muzzleloaders and smoothbore muzzleloaders.
There are several different calibers of muzzleloading firearms.
Modern muzzleloading firearms a variety of firing mechanisms.
These include sidelock, flintlock and percussion models of the Pennsylvania rifle (after the early 1800s called the Kentucky rifle).
Muzzleloading can apply to anything from cannons to pistols.
But in modern use the term most commonly applies to black powder small arms.
It usually, but not always, involves the use of a loose propellant (like gunpowder) and a projectile, as well as a separate method of ignition or priming.
Some of the earliest muzzleloaders were matchlocks.
The matchlock, named for its firing mechanism, was the first invention that made it possible to keep both hands on the weapon and at the same time keep the shooter's eyes on the target.
The design allowed a cloth or stick with a flame on the end—called a "match"—to be lowered into a "flashpan" filled with gunpowder which ignited the main charge, firing the gun.
Matchlocks appeared in Europe in about 1400.
The matchlock mechanism was used to produce muskets.
The gun barrels were smooth inside and used round ball ammunition.
Those who used muskets were called "musketeers".
Very few pistols used this design but some shotguns from this period were matchlocks.
In about 1509 the wheellock was the next advance in muzzleloader technology.
It did not have a match to keep lit and generated a spark mechanically with a wheel mechanism.
But they were expensive to produce and cheaper (by half) so matchlocks remained in use.
It took another 200 years to improve on the matchlock.
Marin le Bourgeoys, a Frenchman is credited with inventing the Flintlock mechanism sometime in the 1620s.
He was variously an artist, a crossbow maker and a gunsmith (harquebuzier).
From 1660 to 1840, flintlock muzzleloading rifles and pistols were used by every European and American army.
It produced a spark by a flint striking steel producing a spark and igniting the priming powder.
By covering the priming powder until the gun was fired, it would usually work even in windy or damp weather.
In 1722, the British Army called for a standard pattern of muzzleloading flintlock musket.
The resulting model and its variants were called the Brown Bess.
It remained in service until the 1830s.
In 1869, the centerfire cartridge was invented.
It worked only in breech-loading weapons and together they quickly replaced the muzzleloader in common use.
Mortars
Modern mortars use a shell with the propelling charge and primer attached at the base.
Unlike older muzzleloading mortars, which were loaded the same way as muzzleloading cannon, the modern mortar is fired by dropping the shell down the barrel.
A pin at the bottom fires the primer, which then ignites the main propelling charge.
However, since the mortar is not loaded in separate steps makes its definition as a muzzleloader a matter of opinion.
However, in the simplest terms it does load from the muzzle end.
Crude muzzleloading cannons existed in China from about the 12th century, possibly earlier.
They were muzzleloaders built in different diameter barrels to fire anything from a small rock to a  cast iron ball.
By the 16th century muzzleloading cannons began to replace bombards.
He developed carronades which were short, lightweight muzzleloading smoothbore cannons that could be used on the decks of ships.
In 1853 France introduced the Canon-obusier de 12, a 12-pounder capable of firing both shot and shell also called a "Napoleon".
They were ultimately replaced by breach-loading cannons after the Civil War.
Shooting traditional muzzleloaders; YouTube
Live Fire With a Civil War (muzzleloader) Cannon: YouTube
"The Charge of the Light Brigade" is a poem written in 1854 by Alfred, Lord Tennyson.
It is about a British brigade in the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War.
Manuscript in Tennyson's handwriting at Archive.org
Several blowback systems exist within this broad principle of operation, each distinguished by the methods used to control bolt movement.
In most actions that use blowback operation, the breech is not locked mechanically at the time of firing: the inertia of the bolt and recoil spring(s), relative to the weight of the bullet, delays opening of the breech until the bullet has left the barrel.
A few locked breech designs use a form of blowback (example: primer actuation) to perform the unlocking function.
Other operating principles for self-loading firearms include blow forward, gas operation, recoil operation, revolver, Gatling, and chain.
The blowback principle may be considered a simplified form of gas operation, since the cartridge case behaves like a piston driven by the powder gases.
Simple Blowback
Simple blowback operation is where the recoil of the cartridge moves the bolt rearwards to reload the next round.
This operation is found in automatic pistols and submachine guns and firearms chambered in lower pressure rounds.
The likes of rifle rounds which have higher pressures is usually deemed unsuitable for simple blowback operation.
However, there is Delayed Blowback where the chamber is locked until the pressures drop to a safe level to reload.
Delayed Blowback
Delayed blowback is similar to simple blowback but is capable of handling the pressures of rifle rounds.
It uses an operation that delays the opening of the bolt when firing.
Lever delayed blowback
Lever delayed blowback is where the bolt has a lever that slows the opening of the bolt but accelerates the bolt carrier, the bolt then also accelerates with the bolt carrier.
The AA52 machine gun and the FAMAS use this operation.
Roller delayed blowback
Roller delayed blowback is where the bolt has two rollers that pop out both sides of the bolt to lock the chamber.
The Sturmgewehr 45 assault rifle, Heckler & Koch MP5 and Calico submachine gun uses this operation.
Primer actuated blowback
Primer actuated blowback is when the round is fired, the primer moves the firing pin rearwards to unlock the bolt.
The Garand Model 1919 and Postnikov APT uses this operation.
Primer actuated M16 bolt
Llullaillaco is a  stratovolcano in the Andes range, in Argentina and Chile.
It is the 7th highest mountain in the Andes.
The first recorded ascent was on 1 December 1952, by Bión González and Juan Harseim, from Chile.
They found archaeological evidence that people were at the top of Llullaillaco in the pre-Columbian period.
During 1983–1985, American archaeologist Johan Reinhard directed three surveys of archaeological sites on the summit and slopes  of the mountain.
The summit is the highest archaeological site in the world.
The mummies of three Inca children were found on it in 1999.
These were found by Johan Reinhard and Constanza Ceruti and their expedition.
Other artifacts were also found along with the mummies.
It is believed that the children were part of a human sacrifice.
The Llullaillaco is a stratovolcano.
There were eruptions in 1854, 1866 and 1877.
Since then, no volcanic activity has been recorded.
It is the world´s second highest active volcano, second to Ojos del Salado.
It is an ultra-prominent peak, or Ultra for short, because it has as a summit with a topographic prominence of  or more.
Andeshandbook: A Complete Description, history, place names and routes of Llullaillaco
Llullaillaco at SummitPost.org
Instituto de Arqueología de Alta Montaña, Universidad Católica de Salta
Nisha Adhikari
Anup Baral
Biraj Bhatta
Shrawan Ghimire
Tulsi Ghimire
Sitaram Kattel
Kalyan Ghimire
Jiwan Luitel
Dayahang Rai
Wilson Bikram Rai
Dilip Rayamajhi
Nima Rumba
Neer Shah
Shiva Shankar
Shiv Shrestha
Aryan Sigdel
Niruta Singh
Saurab Dhakal
Suraj Singh Thakuri
Bipana Thapa
Arpan Thapa
Sunil Thapa
Nikhil Upreti
The Province of Antofagasta () is one of three provinces in the northern Chilean region of Antofagasta (II).
The capital is the port city of Antofagasta.
(last national census), there were 318,779 people living in the province, giving it a population density of  inhabitants/km².
The largest city of the province is Antofagasta, its  capital, with a population, in 2002, of 285,255 inhabitants.
As a province, the Antofagasta province is a second-level administrative division, consisting of four  communes (comunas).
The city of Antofagasta serves as the provincial capital.
Gobierno Regional de Antofagasta
Province of Antofagasta website
The Province of El Loa () is one of three provinces of the northern Chilean region of Antofagasta (II).
It is named after the longest river of Chile, the Loa.
The provincial capital is Calama.
(last national census), there were 143,689 people living in the province, giving it a population density of  inhabitants/km².
The largest city of the province is Calama, its  capital, with a population, in 2002, of 126,135 inhabitants.
As a province, the El Loa province is a second-level administrative division, consisting of three communes (comunas).
The city of Calama serves as the provincial capital.
Province of El Loa website
El Loa
William Frederick Burr (born June 10, 1968) is an American comedian, writer and actor.
He is the host of the Monday Morning Podcast, and appeared in the AMC crime-drama show Breaking Bad.
In 2013, The New York Times wrote that Burr "has been one of the funniest, most distinctive voices in the country for years.
He has released six stand-up specials.
His parents are of German and Irish ancestry.
His father worked as a dentist.
He married producer, director and screenwriter Nia Hill in 2013.
Their daughter was born in 2017.
As of May 2015, Burr is a licensed helicopter pilot and he has played the drums for a long time.
Rolling Stone magazine called Burr "the undisputed heavyweight champ of rage-fueled humor."
Burr often makes himself look like "that loud guy in the bar" with "uninformed logic."
In an interview with the The Boston Globe, Burr stated, "I'm the 'dude, bro' guy."
He has also been known to not care about being politically correct."
Emotionally Unavailable (2003) [CD]
Emotionally Unavailable: Expanded Edition (2007) [CD]
Why Do I Do This? (
2008) [CD/DVD/Netflix]
Let It Go (2010) [CD/DVD/Netflix]
You People Are All The Same (2012) [Netflix and download]
Live at Andrew's House (2014) [limited vinyl release]
Bill Burr: I'm Sorry You Feel That Way (2014) [Netflix]
comedians from Massachusetts
actors from Massachusetts
Asprovalta () is a town near Thessaloniki in northern Greece.
It was the seat of the Agios Georgios municipality.
Since January 2011, Asprovalta belongs to the Municipality of Volvi.
The population is around 3,039 people.
According to a book about Simonopetra, Asprovalta was built in the 16th century.
Its first name was Aspra Valta.
After the Greco-Turkish War, 54 families from western Turkey moved to Asprovalta.
Elizabeth Lada (born 19??)
is an American astronomer.
The American Astronomical Society honored her work by awarding her the Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy Prize in 1992.
She also was named as a Hubble Fellow during her work at the University of Maryland.
She was awarded a National Science Foundation's CAREER Award in 1999.
In 1998 she received a Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE).
Lada got her Bachelor of Science in Physics degree at Yale University in 1965.
She did her Ph.D. in Astronomy at the University of Texas in 1990.
Lada is currently Professor of Astronomy at the University of Florida.
Meessen De Clercq is a contemporary art gallery in Brussels, Belgium.
The gallery is in an old building with three floors.
In 2007, art historian Olivier Meessen and art lover Jan De Clercq began to work to start a contemporary art gallery in Brussels.
In April 2008 the gallery opened, with a group show of works by seven artists.
After this first show, the gallery closed to rebuild it.
From September 2008 the gallery re-opened with group and solo shows by both older and new artists.
Ignasi Aballì
Susan Collis
Jordi Colomer
Hreinn Friðfinnsson
Filip Gilissen
Ellen Harvey
Nicolas Lamas
Benoît Maire
Jorge Méndez Blake
Claudio Parmiggiani
Tania Pérez Cordova
Evariste Richer
Fabrice Samyn
Kelly Schacht
José María Sicilia
Thu Van Tran
Maarten Vanden Eynde
Leon Vranken
Rüschegg is a municipality in the administrative district of Bern-Mittelland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.
It is also a Swiss Reformed Church parish.
Official website of the municipality of Rüschegg
Saanen () is a municipality and ski resort in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.
It is the capital of the administrative district of Obersimmental-Saanen.
Ignasi Aballí (born in 1958) is a Spanish artist.
He is one of Spain's well known artists.
Artist's background
Aballí tried some ways to make his art.
He has done art shows in Italy and Australia.
In 2015, he showed his work in France.
Aballí won an award called the Joan Miró prize in 2015.
Solo art shows
Secuencia infinita, Fundació Joan Miró, Barcelona (Spain)
sin principio / sin final, Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid (Spain)
Gabinet: Ignasi Aballí.
Es Baluard Museu d'Art Modern, Palma de Mallorca (Spain)
Presque visible, Cortex Athletico, Paris (France)
Double readings, Meessen De Clercq, Brussels (Belgium)
Seeing visions, Galeria Estrany De La Mota, Barcelona (Spain)
Something is wrong, Galeria Pedro Oliveira, Oporto (Portugal)
Three hours of light, Empty Cube, Lisboa (Portugal)
Mirar (el otro lado), Galeria Elba Benitez, Madrid (Spain)
This is not the end, Lower East Gallery, Artium, Barcelona (Spain)
Galeria Proyecto Paralelo, México DF (Mexico)
En el aire, Fundacion Roson Arte Contemporaneo (RAC), Pontevedra (Spain)
CMYK Color System, Galeria Estrany De La Mota, Barcelona (Spain)
Transparència, ACVIC, Centre d’arts contemporànies de Vic, Vic (Spain)
Transparent States, Meessen De Clercq, Brussels (Belgium)
Teoria, Pinacoteca do Estado, São Paulo (Brasil)
Pòsit, Fundació Guinovart, Agramunt, Lleida (Spain)
Index, Sommergarten, Berlin (Germany)
Coming soon, Galerija Vartai, Vilnius (Lithuania)
Nothing or something, Suitcase Art Projects, Today Art Museum, Beijing (China
Inside Job (with Karin Sander), curated by Maria de Corral and Dan Cameron, galerie Nächt St. Stephan, Wien (Austria)
Posible/Probable.
Galeria Elba Benitez, Madrid (Spain)
Zona euro, Banco de España, Madrid (Spain)
52 words, Fundació Joan Miró, Barcelona (Spain)
To Show.
Meessen De Clercq Brussels (Belgium)
Sem Actividada.
Museu de Portimao, Portimao (Portugal)
Tempo morto.
Galeria Pedro Oliveira, Porto (Portugal)
Malas Hierbas.
Real Jardín Botánico, Madrid (Spain)
Classificar.
Galería Estrany- De la Mota, Barcelona (Spain)
Les partes y el todo.
Fundacio Foto Colectania, Barcelona (Spain)
0-24h, Museum of Contemporary Art  Serralves, Porto (Portugal)
0-24h, Ikon Gallery Birmingham (UK)
0-24h, Zentrum für Kunst und Medientechnologie/ZKM, Karlsruhe (Germany)
Inmigrants, Clockshop, Los Angeles, California (USA)
0-24h, MACBA, Museum of Contemporary Art, Barcelona (Spain)
Nada-para-ver, Museo de Bellas Artes de Santander, Santander (Spain)
Un año, Galería Elba Benítez, Madrid (Spain)
Desapariciones, Galería Estrany - De la Mota, Barcelona (Spain)
Desapariciones, Espacio Uno, Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid (Spain)
Presencias, Galeria Pedro Oliveira, Porto (Portugal)
Manipulaciones, Nouvelle Galerie, Grenoble (France)
A diario, H. Associació per a les Arts Contemporànies, Vic.
Malgastar, Sala de Arte Josep Bages, El Prat de Llobregat, Barcelona (Spain)
Libros, Glass Cabinet, Galería Estrany-de la Mota, Barcelona (Spain)
Spanish artists
A chevron in geology is a sharply-folded rock formation.
Chevron folds are regular folded beds with straight limbs and sharp hinges.
Well developed, these folds produce a set of v-shaped beds.
They develop in response to compressive stress.
The angles of the folds are generally 60 degrees or less.
Chevron  folding  is helped if the bedding alternates between beds of different make-up.
Turbidites, with alternating sandstones and shales, are the typical geological setting for chevron folds to occurs.
Mid-air fragmentation.
When a large meteor enters the atmosphere it often fragments into many pieces.
This showers the material over a large oval-shaped area.
The shape of this oval is caused by the flight path of the meteor.
When multiple-explosions occur, the material may be found in several overlapping ovals.
Impact fragmentation: the fragmentation can occur on impact.
In this case the strewnfield shape may be different, usually circular.
The Australasian strewnfield is the youngest and largest of the tektite strewnfields.
Recent estimates suggest it may cover 10%-30% of the Earth's surface.
Rifling consists of spiral grooves cut into the inside of a barrel of a gun.
It causes the bullet or projectile to spin as it flies through the air.
This greatly improves the accuracy of the bullet over longer distances.
The first muskets to use this technology were called rifles.
Barrels are rifled using a left or right twist.
The number of turns per inch is called the "twist rate".
These are expressed as a ratio.
For example, a 1:7 twist means the bullet will turn once for each seven inches of barrel length.
As a general rule, the heavier the bullet, the higher the twist rate.
Gaspard Kollner, a 15th century gunmaker in Vienna, is thought by many to have invented rifling.
Others think it was Augustus Kotter of Nuremberg who invented rifling in about 1520.
At about that same time some crossbows fired a bolt (short heavy arrow) through a tube with spiral grooving.
This gave the bolt more stability in flight.
Whether these were used before rifling in gun barrels is not certain.
The "hand cannon" was first used in China in 1288.
From this early beginning and a number of different guns, the smoothbore  Musket was in use in Europe by the 15th century.
While it could not fire and reload as fast as an archer and could not be reloaded on horseback, it could penetrate armor.
Its greatest advantage over the bow was that anyone could learn to fire a musket in a very short period of time.
It took much longer to properly train an archer.
The British army used the musket along with pikemen until about 1705 when the pikes were abandoned.
In 1722 the army adopted a standard musket called the Brown Bess and continued to use it until about the 1830s.
Muskets used a round cast ball that was smaller in diameter than the gun barrel.
As a consequence, when the musket was fired, the ball bounced along the inside the barrel.
When it exited the barrel it could take a variety of paths making the musket inaccurate.
So soldiers were massed together very closely and fired in volly (all at the same time).
This sent bullets flying generally in the direction of the enemy on the theory that at least some of the bullets would hit some of the soldiers.
The smoke from repeated vollies prevented soldiers from seeing what they were shooting at.
In the heat of battle, soldiers who wanted reload and fire faster sometimes omitted ramming the bullet and powder into the barrel with the ramrod.
Instead, they would try to seat the ball by sharply hitting the butt of the musket on the ground.
This reduced the effectiveness even more.
Sometimes the bullet would do little more than dribble out of the barrel and travel only a short distance.
The use of rifled muskets called rifles, changed this.
During the American Revolutionary War Americans used muskets.
But they also had marksmen who used their Kentucky rifles.
The longer barrel was rifled for accuracy at a long range.
American riflemen began targeting British officers in battle instead of just individual soldiers.
Without their officers giving them every command, the British soldiers could not function as a unit.
The British command despised the tactic calling it “unsportsmanlike”.
But the Americans continued the practice up to the end of the war.
In 1849, a French army officer, Claude-Étienne Minié, invented a bullet with a hollow base named for him called the Minié ball.
When fired, the bullet expanded to fit the rifling inside the gun barrel.
This gave it even greater accuracy over a longer distance.
The British used it in the Crimean War against Russian forces with tremendous success.
At the time of the American Civil War, both the Union and the Confederate armies were using smoothbore muskets out of necessity.
But soon rifled muskets using the Minié ball replaced the smoothbore muskets.
The effects were to devastate the opposing army at much longer distances.
Rifling process
Most firearms produced today use a rifled barrel.
There are basically three machining processes used to produce rifled barrels.
Broach rifling - Uses a hardened steel broach that has several cutting rings.
Each cutting ring is slightly larger and cuts the grooves progressively deeper.
The gun barrel material ridges that are left after rifling are called lands.
Button Rifling - (most commonly used) Pushes a hardened steel button into the unrifled barrel of a gun.
The rifling grooves are cut by very high pressure that also polishes the inside of the barrel.
Hammer Forged Rifling - This is used to create a type of rifling called "polygonal rifling".
A mandrel is inserted into the barrel blank.
Then the outside of the barrel is hammered until it becomes smaller and forms the rifling around the mandrel.
The mandrel is then removed leaving a rifled barrel.
The final step is to finish the outside of the barrel removing any hammer marks.
History of the Gun Part-7: Rifling; Ruger
Rifling and twist rate explained; YouTube
The First American Sharpshooters: YouTube
The district of Interlaken in the Swiss canton of Bern has 23 municipalities in an area of 724 km².
CH-3803 Beatenberg
CH-3806 Bönigen
CH-3855 Brienz
CH-3856 Brienzwiler
CH-3707 Därligen
CH-3818 Grindelwald
CH-3814 Gsteigwiler
CH-3815 Gündlischwand
CH-3804 Habkern
CH-3858 Hofstetten bei Brienz
CH-3800 Interlaken
CH-3807 Iseltwald
CH-3822 Lauterbrunnen
CH-3706 Leissigen
CH-3816 Lütschental
CH-3800 Matten bei Interlaken
CH-3853 Niederried bei Interlaken
CH-3854 Oberried am Brienzersee
CH-3852 Ringgenberg
CH-3813 Saxeten
CH-3855 Schwanden bei Brienz
CH-3800 Unterseen
CH-3812 Wilderswil
The Province of Tocopilla () is one of three provinces of the northern Chilean region of Antofagasta (II).
The provincial capital is Tocopilla.
(last national census), there were 31,516 people living in the province, giving it a population density of  inhabitants/km².
The largest city of the province is Tocopilla, its  capital, with a population, in 2002, of 23,352 inhabitants.
As a province, the Tocopilla province is a second-level administrative division, consisting of two communes (comunas).
The city of Tocopilla serves as the provincial capital.
Province of Tocopilla website
The district of Konolfingen in the Swiss canton of Bern has 29 municipalities in an area of 214 km².
CH-3672 Aeschlen bei Oberdiessbach
CH-3112 Allmendingen bei Bern
CH-3508 Arni
CH-3507 Biglen
CH-3674 Bleiken bei Oberdiessbach
CH-3533 Bowil
CH-3671 Brenzikofen
CH-3510 Freimettigen
CH-3506 Grosshöchstetten
CH-3510 Häutligen
CH-3671 Herbligen
CH-3629 Kiesen
CH-3510 Konolfingen
CH-3434 Landiswil
CH-3673 Linden
CH-3532 Mirchel
CH-3110 Münsingen
CH-3504 Niederhünigen
CH-3672 Oberdiessbach
CH-3504 Oberhünigen
CH-3531 Oberthal
CH-3629 Oppligen
CH-3113 Rubigen
CH-3082 Schlosswil
CH-3502 Tägertschi
CH-3083 Trimstein
CH-3512 Walkringen
CH-3114 Wichtrach
CH-3076 Worb
CH-3532 Zäziwil
The district of Laupen in the Swiss canton of Bern has 11 municipalities in an area of 88 km².
Laupen
The district of Moutier in the Swiss canton of Bern has 26 municipalities in an area of 216 km².
The district of La Neuveville in the Swiss canton of Bern has 5 municipalities in an area of 59 km².
Neuveville
The district of Nidau in the Swiss canton of Bern has 25 municipalities in an area of 88 km².
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