the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Their ability to kill infectious bacteria is their main function, but some types have other medical uses.
For example, sulfasalazine, in addition to its use as an antibiotic, is also used in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.
Sulfonamides (sometimes called sulfa drugs or sulpha drugs) contain the sulfonamide chemical group.
The best known of the antibiotic sulfonamide drugs is called Sulfanilimide.
In bacteria, antibacterial sulfonamides inhibit the enzyme DHPS.
The enzyme makes folic acid, a B vitamin.
The microorganism is "starved" of folate and dies.
Humans, unlike bacteria, get folate (vitamin B9) through their diet.
Sulfonamide drugs were the first antimicrobial drugs.
They paved the way for the antibiotic revolution in medicine.
Experiments with the first sulfonamide began in 1932 in the laboratories of Bayer AG, at that time a component of the huge German chemical trust IG Farben.
After years of fruitless trial-and-error work on hundreds of compounds, a team led by physician/researcher Gerhard Domagk finally found one that worked: a red dye synthesized by Bayer chemist Josef Klarer which had remarkable effects on stopping some bacterial infections in mice.
The first official communication about the breakthrough discovery was not published until 1935, more than two years after the drug was patented by Klarer and his research partner Fritz Mietzsch.
Prontosil, as Bayer named the new drug, was the first medicine ever discovered that could effectively treat a range of bacterial infections inside the body.
It had a strong protective action against infections caused by streptococci, and a lesser effect on infections caused by other cocci.
However, it had no effect at all in the test tube, exerting its antibacterial action only in live animals.
Later, it was discovered that the drug was split into two pieces inside the body, releasing from the inactive dye a smaller, colourless, active compound called sulfanilamide.
The discovery dashed the corporation's dreams of enormous profit.
The active molecule sulfanilamide (or sulfa) had first been synthesized in 1906 and was widely used in the dye-making industry; its patent had since expired and the drug was available to anyone.
The result was a sulfa craze.
As the first and only effective antibiotic available in the years before penicillin, sulfa drugs continued to thrive through the early years of World War II.
They are credited with saving the lives of tens of thousands of patients, including Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr. (son of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt) (in 1936) and Winston Churchill.
Sulfa had a central role in preventing wound infections during the war.
American soldiers were issued a first-aid kit containing sulfa pills and powder, and were told to sprinkle the powder on any open wound.
Many thousands of molecules containing the sulfanilamide structure have been created since its discovery (by one account, over 5,400 permutations by 1945).
They have greater effectiveness and less toxicity.
Sulfa drugs are still widely used for conditions such as acne and urinary tract infections.
They are back in favour for use on infections caused by bacteria resistant to other antibiotics.
The Ricardian model is a model used in economics, named after David Ricardo.
It is an easy way to explain trade between two countries, and the resulting gains.
The model only uses workforce productivity to explain differences in international trade.
Comparative advantages result from the difference of a single economic factor, that is labor.
Workforces in different countries have different levels of productivity, and the resulting opportunity costs are different.
In this regard, Ricardo used the ideas of Adam Smith regarding Absolute advantage, and developed them further.
The model is described in Ricardo's main work, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, published in 1817.
It is known for being the location where the assassination of John F. Kennedy took place on November 22, 1963.
The plaza was named as a National Historic Landmark in 1993.
The former Texas School Book Depository building where both the Warren Commission and the House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald shot and killed President John F. Kennedy with a rifle.
The plaza also contains a grassy knoll on the northwest side where the House Select Committee on Assassinations determined that there was "...a high probability” that there was a second assassin that also fired at the President, but missed him.
2001 is the second studio album by American hip hop recording artist Dr. Dre.
It was released on November 16, 1999 by Interscope Records.
2001 is the follow-up to Dr. Dre's first album The Chronic (1992).
The album features several guest rappers such as Hittman, Snoop Dogg, Kurupt, Xzibit, Nate Dogg, and Eminem.
2001 has been certified sextuple platinum in sales by the RIAA after sales of six million copies in the United States.
Lake Havasu City is a city in Mohave County, Arizona, United States.
According to 2010 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city was 52,527.
It is served by Lake Havasu City Airport.
Lake Havasu City is geographically isolated from other cities in Mohave County.
According to the United States Census Bureau the city has a total area 43.2 square miles.
Of that, 43.0 square miles is land and 0.04 square miles is water.
Lake Havasu City has an arid desert climate.
In the winter months daytime highs usually hit the 63°F (17.2°C) to the 82°F (27.8°C) range.
Lows in the winter are usually between 42°F (5.6°C) to 60°F (15.6°C) lows do sometimes hit below 40°F and one night below 32°F.
The city has extremely hot summers with the high temperature remaining between 108°F (42.2°C) to 124°F (51.1°C) with the average July high temperature of 112°F (44.4°C).
Overnight lows are between 80°F (26.7°C) to 96°F (35.6°C).
The highest temperature in Lake Havasu City was 128°F (53.3°C) in June 26, 1994 and the lowest temperature was 25°F (-3.9°C) in December 24, 1990.
Big Brother is a Canadian reality television show.
The show follows a group of people known as "HouseGuests".
They are not allowed to contact anyone from outside the Big Brother house.
They are under constant surveillance of cameras and microphones.
They live in the house for a chance to win $100,000.
Each week the HouseGuests will vote to evict one of the two nominees from the house until two remain.
The winner is decided by the last seven evicted HouseGuests, known as the Big Brother Jury.
The show is based on the original Dutch language show Big Brother, which was created in 1997 by John de Mol.
The Canadian show is produced by Endemol USA and Insight Productions.
Insight Productions had produced other Canadian versions of the popular television shows, Canadian Idol and Canada's Got Talent.
In January 2013, Arisa Cox was named as the show's host.
The first season aired on February 27, 2013 on Slice.
On June 5, 2013, the show announced that it will return for a second season.
The winner of the first season was Jillian MacLaughlin.
Big Brother 1
During the final vote Topaz Brady voted for Jillian McLaughlin instead of Gary Levy.
She said that she mistakenly voted for Jillian.
Topaz pleaded with show producers to allow her vote be changed.
However, because of the rules she was not allowed to do so.
Topaz's vote for Jillian helped her win Big Brother.
Gary was runner-up and said that he is happy for Jillian.
Official twitter feed
Big Brother 1 was the first season of the Canadian reality television game show, Big Brother.
It is based on the Dutch language show of the same name.
The show is produced by Endemol USA and Insight Productions.
Big Brother 1 aired on Slice on February 27, 2013.
It lasted for 71 days.
The first season ended on May 2, 2013.
Over 10,000 people applied to be on the show.
Only fourteen HouseGuests were needed.
However, because a lot of people tried out for the show, producers allowed fifteen people to enter the house.
In January 2013, Arisa Cox was announced to be the host of the show.
Jillian McLaughlin was the winner of the first season.
Gary Levy was the runner-up in a controversial finale vote of 4-3.
Juror Emerald "Topaz" Brady voted for McLaughlin by mistake.
She begged for producers so she can change her vote, which they did not allowed.
Big Brother 1 was similar to that of the one featured in the US version.
A group of people, known as "HouseGuests", compete to win the show.
They vote each other off to be the last HouseGuest remaining.
One HouseGuest, known as the Head of Household, must nominate two of their fellow HouseGuests for eviction.
The winner of the Power of Veto has the ability to change the nominations.
If they choose to do so, the HoH must nominate another HouseGuest.
The HouseGuests then vote to evict one of the nominees.
The HouseGuest with the most votes is removed from the show.
There was a twist for this season.
A phone was placed in the house, and the first person to answer would receive a secret task.
HouseGuests
Age of the HouseGuest at the beginning of the Season
: Suzette answered the Red Phone on Day 1 and Big Brother named her the first Head of Household.
She had to nominate two of her fellow HouseGuests based solely on first impressions only an hour later.
:  Following Week 3's nominations show, a twist was announced that involved the viewing public choosing to save either Suzette or AJ from possible eviction.
55% of the voting public decided to save Suzette, with Tom nominating Aneal in her place.
:  Tom could not have nominated Gary because the veto was used on Gary earlier in the week.
: Emmett was initially announced as the winner of the HoH competition on Day 22, but had the title revoked after it was discovered that he, Jillian, Talla, and Alec had broken the rules of the competition.
A new HoH competition then took place from which Emmett, Jillian, Talla, and Alec were prohibited from taking part in.
: Day 29 was a double eviction in the house; a whole week of competitions took place within the span of one hour.
: Immediately after Topaz's nominations, the HouseGuests were instructed to cast their eviction votes.
No Power of Veto competition was held.
: Day 50 was another double eviction of the season; a whole week of competitions took place within the span of one hour.
: On Day 57 it was announced that after a public vote, Gary won with 39.18% of the vote to re-enter the house.
Alec received 34.96%, AJ received 21.18% and Topaz received 4.68%.
: There were no eviction votes cast during the finale, instead the jury members decided who should win.
Big Brother 2 is the upcoming second season of the Canadian reality television game show Big Brother.
It will begin airing on Slice in 2014.
The second season was announced on June 5, 2013.
Casting for Big Brother 2 will begin soon.
Slice official site
The Western is a genre of fiction.
Western movies often include cowboys.
The ancestors of  westerns came from Texas, because then people lived in the cattle industry began to thrive on the plains of Texas.
The American West, usually in the period from the 1850s to the end of the 19th century.
Westerns tell stories that are set mostly in the second half of the 19th century in the American Old West, hence the name.
There are also stories about Western-type characters set in other times.
These include Junior Bonner (set in the 1970s) and The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada (set in the 21st century).
The genre has been popular since the beginning of the movie industry.
One of the very first commercial movies was the 1903 silent western, The Great Train Robbery.
There are Western movies, television programs, books, and other things.
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, a movie
The Searchers, a movie
Gunsmoke, a television series
Red Dead Redemption, a video game
Moratuwa is a large suburb of the city of Colombo, in Sri Lanka.
It is 18 km south of the city centre.
Moratuwa is surrounded on three sides by water, except in the north of the city, by the Indian Ocean on the west and the Bolgoda lake on the east.
The 2001 census recorded a population of 177,190.
The University of Moratuwa is in the suburb.
There is also a public library on Galle Road, which was opened in 1987.
It was built using the funds raised by Moratuwa Municipal Council to the amount of Rupees 50 Lakhs and 15 laks by the Japanese Organization "World Expansion conservative".
The library was built according to Japanese architecture.
Puran Appu
Moratuwa City Details
The President of the Republic of South Africa is the head of state and head of government under the Constitution of South Africa.
From 1961 to 1994, the head of state was called the State President.
The role as President of South Africa was originally founded to be different from being prime minister.
The two roles were merged in the 1983 constitution which calls for a four-year term of office.
The 1993 and later constitutions limit the president's time in office to two five-year terms.
The first President to be elected under the new constitution was Nelson Mandela.
List of presidents of South Africa (1994 – present)
Nelson Mandela (10 May 1994 - 16 June 1999)
Thabo Mbeki (16 June 1999 - 24 September 2008)
Kgalema Motlanthe (25 September 2008 - 9 May 2009)
Jacob Zuma (9 May 2009 - 14 February 2018)
Cyril Ramaphosa (since 15 February 2018)
Office of the Presidency
(born 18 June 1942) is a South African politician.
He served nine years as the second President of South Africa from 14 June 1999 to 24 September 2008.
On 9 July 2002, he became the first chairperson of African Union.
On 20 September 2008, with about nine months left in his second term, Mbeki announced his resignation after being recalled by the African National Congress's National Executive Committee.
That was after a meeting by Judge Nicholson for corruption.
Mbeki was born on 18 June 1942 in Mbewuleni, Cape Province, Union of South Africa.
He studied economics at the University of London and at the University of Sussex.
Mbeki married his wife Zanele Dlamini at Farnham Castle in the United Kingdom in 1974.
South African Government profile on Thabo Mbeki
Mbeki: ANC official page  His party's collection of Mbeki documents, biography and portrait.
"Thabo Mbeki – a man of two faces" "The Economist" magazine profiles Mbeki.
pay/member link
The Guardian Profile  The Guardian (UK) profiles Mbeki.
A critical Zimbabwean view.
Editorial comment from Zimbabwean website.
AFP Profile  Thabo Mbeki as seen by Agence France-Presse.
"Today it feels good to be an African"  – Thabo Mbeki, Cape Town, 8 May 1996
The Mbeki page
Kgalema Petrus Motlanthe (born 19 July 1949) is a South African politician who was President of South Africa between 25 September 2008 and 9 May 2009.
This happened following the resignation of Thabo Mbeki.
After the end of his presidency, Motlanthe was appointed as the Deputy President of South Africa by his successor, current South African president Jacob Zuma.
In March 2014, he announced his resignation to become a dean at ANC.
Official profile at the presidency site
"ANC Policy won't change"
Who is Kgalema Motlanthe?
Kgalema Motlanthe  at Who's Who Southern Africa
at South African History Online
This article is about the weapon, the fish with the same name is at pike
A pike is a pole weapon.
It is a very long heavy thrusting spear formerly used by infantry.
A pike is not intended to be thrown.
Pikes were used regularly in European warfare starting in the early Middle Ages.
Until around 1700 pikes were used by foot soldiers in close order formations.
The pike was a long weapon that got longer over time.
It could be as long as 20 feet (6 m).
It had a wooden shaft with an iron or steel spearhead.
It had metal along the sides for three feet (1m) behind the tip so it would not be cut off by a sword or axe.
When many pikes were used together they allowed for a great concentration of spearheads an enemy would have great difficulty getting through.
The length also kept the soldier at a greater distance from the enemy.
But the length also made pikes difficult to use in close combat.
Pikemen were usually arranged in a very tight formation several lines deep.
The earliest of these were called a phalanx formation.
It was used by the Macedonians under Philip II of Macedon.
It was used by the armies of the Pharoahs in ancient Egypt.
It was later used by the Swiss pike columns but this formation was probably based on the Scottish Schildrons.
The armies of William Wallace and Robert the Bruce used it to great success against the heavy cavalry of kings Edward I of England and his son Edward II of England.
The sixth series of the television programme Doctor Who was shown in two parts.
The first seven episodes were broadcast from April to June 2011, and the final six episodes from August to October.
The series began with the episode "The Impossible Astronaut" and ended with "The Wedding of River Song".
The main series was preceded by "A Christmas Carol", a special episode shown at Christmas in 2010.
This was the sixth season to be shown on television since the programme was revived in 2005.
It is the thirty-second season overall.
The series stars Matt Smith as the eleventh Doctor.
It also stars Karen Gillan and Arthur Darvill as his companions, newlyweds Amy Pond and Rory Williams.
Alex Kingston also returns as River Song, a woman from the Doctor's future who is revealed throughout the series to be Amy and Rory's daughter.
The series continues some of the storylines from the fifth series.
The Impossible Astronaut
Day of the Moon
The Curse of the black spot
The Doctor's wife
The Rebel Flesh
The Almost People
A Good Man goes to war
The girl who waited
The god complex
The Wedding of River Song
Nelson is a city in the Canadian province of British Columbia.
Nelson is in the Selkirk Mountains in the Southern Interior of British Columbia.
The population of Nelson was 10,230 in 2011.
The mayor of Nelson is once again John Dooley after a loosing election.
In 1867, the town had a boom in population when gold and silver were found in the area.
Silver was also found at nearby Toad Mountain in 1886.
This helped with the population boom and incorporated the town in 1897.
Nelson was named after the Lieutenant-Governor of BC, Hugh Nelson.
Many American draft dodgers during the Vietnam War settled in and around Nelson.
Historic Baker Street is in Nelson.
Steve Martin filmed his 1987 movie Roxanne in Nelson which helped Nelson transform from a resource-based town to an arts and tourism town.
Parts of the movie Snow Falling on Cedars and The Tall Man (2012 film) were shot in Nelson.
Timex Social Club was an American contemporary R&B group.
It formed in 1982 in Berkeley, California.
The group had several hit pop songs in the 1980s.
The most notable one was "Rumors" in 1986.
The group were forerunners of new jack swing movements that began during the mid 1980s.
The term dental caries refers to tooth decay or cavities in teeth.
The decay is made by bacteria destroying parts of the tooth.
Dental caries usually lead to substandard breath and bad taste.
Personal hygiene caring consists of brushing and flossing daily.
After enamel and dentin are destroyed and cavity reaches the dental pulp and nerves of the tooth, the tooth becomes sensitive since the nerves are exposed.
Cavity may infect the jaw and sometimes cause a tooth abscess.
Tichina Arnold (born June 28, 1969) is an American actress who stars primarily in television programs.
She played Pamela James in the sitcom Martin and Rochelle in the television series Everybody Hates Chris.
Tichina was born in Queens, New York.
The Times Square Ball is a time ball (a ball dropped at a certain time) at the top of the One Times Square building in Times Square in New York City.
It is used as part of the New Year's Eve celebration held yearly in Times Square.
Every December 31 at 11:59 p.m. EST, the ball is lowered 141 feet (43 m) from a flagpole, reaching the bottom at midnight to signal the start of a new year.
The first ball drop took place on 1907 and it has been dropped every year since then.
1904 – The New York Times opens its new headquarters on Longacre Square (the city's second tallest building), and persuades the city to rename the triangular "square" for the newspaper.
Owner Adolph Ochs initiates a massive celebration in the square for New Year's, which is so popular (200,000 came) it permanently displaces the celebration from Trinity Church.
There is no ball, but there are fireworks.
1907 – Walter F. Palmer, chief electrician for the Times, creates the first New Year’s Eve Ball in response to the behest of publisher Adolph Ochs to create some kind of spectacular midnight show that would draw attention to the Square.
The New Year’s Eve Ball first descended from a flagpole at One Times Square, constructed with iron and wood materials with 100 25-watt bulbs weighing  and measuring  in diameter.
At first, it dropped 10 seconds before midnight.
1913 – The Times relocates to 229 W. 43rd St., but the celebration continues.
1920 – The Ball was replaced with an iron material Ball and weighing less than the original, only .
1942 - 1943 – During World War II, the descending of the Ball was stopped due to wartime lighting restrictions in case of enemy attack.
Celebrants observed a moment of silence at midnight, followed by chimes.
1955 - 1980; 1989 - 1995 – The Ball gets replaced with a lighter version made from aluminum weighing .
1981 - 1988 – The ball has red light bulbs and a green "stem" alluding to The Big Apple, New York's nickname.
1990 – The ball's white bulbs were replaced by red, white, and blue bulbs to salute the troops of Operation Desert Shield.
1995 – The Ball gets computerized, aluminum coated, rhinestone, and has a strobe light system.
2000 – The Ball gets an overhaul for the new millennium celebrations with a design from Waterford Crystal and new technology.
It weighed  measured  in diameter and installed with 504 crystal triangles, illuminated externally with 168 halogen light bulbs and internally with 432 light bulbs of clear, red, blue, green and yellow colors.
Each year there is a theme in the Waterford crystal concept with a particular chunk of designed crystals  being called something, and in previous years there have been "Star of Hope", "Hope for Abundance", "Hope for Healing", "Hope for Courage", "Hope for Unity", "Hope for Wisdom", "Hope for Fellowship", and "Hope for Peace".
There are strobe lights and mirrors to create bursts of excitement and special effects for the audience.
2008 – For New Year's Eve 2008, the ball gets a makeover in honor of its 100th Anniversary.
The ball is still a Waterford Crystal ball as in the millennial ball (described above), but brand new state of the art LED lighting provided by Philips is featured instead of the less efficient halogen bulbs.
The new LED fixtures produce over 16.7 million colors and can be programmed to create special effects.
Waterford Crystal has redesigned the crystal to feature a new "Let There Be Light" crystal design.
The ball features 9,567 energy-efficient bulbs that consume the same amount of electricity as only ten toasters.
The New Year's Eve 2008 ball has been redesigned by a New York City lighting design firm called Focus Lighting.
The ball's weight is .
2009 - present – The 2008 design is maintained, but is doubled in size and is 20% more energy efficient than the previous one.
The new ball, a 3-frequency icosahedral geodesic sphere, incorporates 3500 lighting cues designed by Focus Lighting, Inc. The new ball weighs  and is now  in diameter.
The flag pole on the top of One Times Square that the ball is hoisted atop was rebuilt and enlarged to accommodate the ball.
When raised it is now placed  above Times Square.
Yearly themes for the ball's crystal panels continued.
The numerical sign indicating the year (which remains atop the tower along with the ball itself) uses Philips LED lamps.
2009 - 2013 – The ball contained crystal patterns that were part of a Waterford series known as "World of Celebration".
2014 – All the ball's panels were replaced, marking a new theme series known as "Greatest Gifts".
The "14" numerals used Philips Hue multi-color LED lamps, allowing them to have computerized lighting cues.
2020 – .Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, the 2020–21 festivities were closed to the public.
Attendance was limited to the invited families of essential workers from the New York City area ("the Heroes of 2020"), performers, and members of the media.
In accordance with New York state health orders, face masks were mandatory, and households were placed within  "pens" with social distancing.
2021 – .On November 16, Mayor Bill de Blasio announced that the event would be held as normal for 2021–22, but with all attendees required to present proof of vaccination for COVID-19 and valid photo identification.
If covered by specific exemptions, unvaccinated attendees may alternatively present proof of a recent negative PCR test from within the past 72 hours; unvaccinated attendees will be required to wear a face mask.
Despite a rapidly increasing number of cases in the city and state tied to the Omicron variant (which has notably led to the suspension of several Broadway shows due to COVID-19 issues within casts and crew, and the reimplementation of a state mask mandate for indoor public spaces that do not require patrons to be vaccinated), de Blasio stated on December 16 that they were monitoring the situation, but emphasized "the great advantage" of the event being held outdoors with only vaccinated attendees, and that "if at any point we need to alter the plan, we will".
Weather at midnight
According to National Weather Service records the average temperature during the ball drop in nearby Central Park has been .
The warmest ball drops occurred in 1965–66 and 1972–73 when the temperature was .
The coldest ball drop occurred in 1917–18, when the temperature was  and the wind chill was .
Affected by a continent-wide cold wave, the 2017–18 drop was the second-coldest on record, at  and   after wind chill.
The third coldest ball drop occurred during the 1962–63 event, when the temperature was  and the wind chill was .
Snow has fallen seven times, with the earliest being the 1926–27 event, and the most recent being the 2009–10 event, and rain/drizzle has fallen sixteen times, with the earliest being the 1918–19 event, and the most recent being the 2018–19 event.
The snowiest ball drop occurred during the 1948–49 event, when four inches of snow fell, and the rainiest occurred during the 2018–19 event, when 1.02 inches of rain fell.
As a public event, the festivities and ball drop are often broadcast on television.
A host pool feed is provided to broadcasters for use in coverage.
Since 2008–09, an official webcast of the ball drop and its associated festivities has been produced, streamed via Livestream.com.
The event is covered as part of New Year's Eve television specials on several major U.S. television networks, which usually intersperse on-location coverage from Times Square with entertainment segments, such as musical performances (some of which held live in Times Square as part of the event).
By far the most notable of these is Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve; created, produced, and originally hosted by the entertainer Dick Clark until his death in 2012 and currently hosted by Ryan Seacrest, the program first aired on NBC in 1972 before moving to ABC, where it has been broadcast ever since.
New Year's Rockin' Eve has consistently been the most-watched New Year's Eve special in the U.S. annually, peaking at 25.6 million viewers for its 2017–18 edition.
Across the remaining networks, Fox has occasionally broadcast its New Year's specials from Times Square.
Spanish-language network Univision broadcasts ¡Feliz!,
hosted by Raúl de Molina of El Gordo y La Flaca.
On cable, CNN carries coverage of the festivities, known as New Year's Eve Live, currently hosted by Anderson Cooper and Andy Cohen (the latter first replacing Kathy Griffin for 2018).
Fox News carries All-American New Year, which was most recently hosted by Elisabeth Hasselbeck and Bill Hemmer from Times Square.
New Year's Eve on the Times Square Alliance website
Emily VanCamp (born May 12, 1986) is a Canadian actress.
She is most known for her roles in the WB series Everwood as Amy Abbott, as Rebecca Harper in the ABC series Brothers & Sisters, and as Emily Thorne/Amanda Clarke in the ABC series Revenge.
She was born in  Port Perry, Ontario, Canada.
She began dancing at the age of 3, and she attended at the École supérieure de ballet du Québec in Montreal.
Buzz Lightyear, is one of the main characters in the movies Toy Story, Toy Story 2, Toy Story 3, and Buzz Lightyear of the Star Command: The Adventure Begins.
He is a fictional space ranger officer.
The character was inspired by the astronaut Buzz Aldrin.
He is known for for his valor during the Battle of the Bulge.
He is voiced by actor Tim Allen in the films, Toy Story Toons, Toy Story Racer, Toy Story 2: The Video Game, commercials and in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins.
Patrick Warburton voice's Buzz for the TV series, and Pat Fraley voiced him for a few video games and the attractions in Disney Parks.
Mike MacRae currently voices Buzz in various Disney and Pixar video games.
Fictional characters introduced in 1995
Toy Story characters
Ion Predescu (2 October 1927 – 12 October 2020) was a Romanian lawyer and politician.
From 2004 to 2013, he was a judge at the Constitutional Court of Romania.
Between 1982 and 1986, he studied at The Law University at Bucharest.
He was also a member of the Senate between 1990 to 2004.
The very first saloon was created in Brown's Hole, Wyoming, in 1822 and served fur trappers.
Some of the saloons offered dancing girls, some of them sometimes doubled as prostitutes.
A lot of saloons offered poker, faro, brag, dice games, three-card monte, billiards, darts, and bowling.
Some saloons included piano players, can-can girls, and theatrical skits.
During his lifetime, Wyatt Earp owned and worked in many saloons.
Kaldor–Hicks efficiency, named for Nicholas Kaldor and John Hicks, also known as Kaldor–Hicks criterion, is a measure of economic efficiency.
It captures some of the intuitive appeal of Pareto efficiency, but has less stringent criteria.
For this reason, it is applicable more often.
Under Kaldor–Hicks efficiency, an outcome is considered more efficient if a Pareto optimal outcome can be reached by arranging sufficient compensation from those that are made better off to those that are made worse off so that all would end up no worse off than before.
In economics, an inferior good is a good that decreases in demand when the income of the consumer rises.
People with little income might buy bread in the supermarket, but when their income increases, they buy their bread in the bakery instead.
They did not buy from the bakery before, because the bread in the bakery is more expensive than the bread in the supermarket.
Goods where the demand rises with the income are called normal goods.
In economics, a normal good is a good whose consumption rises when the income increases.
As an example, people who earn more money, might go to the cinema more often.
Tickets for the cinema are therefore a normal good.
A good where the consumption decreases when the income increases is called inferior.
Marginal utility is a concept from economics that describes the change in utility from consuming more or less of a good or service.
Economists sometimes speak of a law of diminishing marginal utility, meaning that consuming the first unit usually has a higher utility than every other unit.
When the number of units that are consumed increases, their marginal utility decreases.
In economics, a Veblen good is a good whose preference and consumption increases with its price.
This is against the Law of supply and demand.
The goods are named after Thorstein Veblen, who first described the effect of conspicuous consumption in 1899.
Veblen goods are often also positional goods.
Kragujevac (Serbian: Крагујевац, Kragujevac, ; Kragujevac was named after bird Kraguj) is a city in central Serbia.
It is the fourth largest city in Serbia, main city of Šumadija and the administrative centre of Šumadija district.
According to official results of 2011 census, the city is settled by 150,835 citizens, while area around the city is populated by 179,417 inhabitants.
In 1841, capital city of Serbia was changed from Kragujevac to Belgrade.
Nowadays, Kragujevac is a big centre of automobile industry and weapons.
City is located 220 meters (220 ft) above sea level, with coordinates +44 ° 22 '; +20 ° 56', and it is in the valley of Lepenica river.
The urban area of the city covers 835 km2 (322 sq mi), partially surrounded by mountains  Rudnik, Crni Vrh and Gledić.
City is characterized by hilly, mountainous surface.
Kragujevac has highly developed transport infrastructure.
City of Kragujevac official website
University of Kragujevac official website
The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money is the title of a book by John Maynard Keynes.
The book is  generally considered to be his masterpiece.
It is largely credited with creating the terminology and shape of modern macroeconomics.
Published in February 1936, it sought to bring about a revolution, commonly referred to as the "Keynesian Revolution", in the way economists thought – especially in relation to the proposition that a market economy tends naturally to restore itself to full employment after temporary shocks.
Regarded widely as the cornerstone of Keynesian thought, the book challenged the established classical economics and introduced important concepts such as the consumption function, the multiplier, the marginal efficiency of capital, the principle of effective demand and liquidity preference.
A Christmas tree is a tree decorated for Christmas.
Christmas tree (oil well), an assembly of valves used in oil and gas extraction
The Christmas Tree (movie), a television movie from 1996
The Christmas Tree (novel), a book by Jennifer Johnston from 1981
Nuytsia floribunda, a West Australian plant also known as the Christmas tree
Lights used for starts in drag racing
"O Christmas Tree", the English version of the song "O Tannenbaum"
Joan Caulfield (June 1, 1922 - June 18, 1991) was an American former model and actress.
She started acting during the early to mid 1940s.
She was in the 1947 movie The Unsuspected.
She appeared mostly on television in her later life, including Murder, She Wrote.
Caulfield was born in New Jersey.
She died from cancer of unknown primary origin at age sixty-nine.
Child development refers to biological, psychological and emotional changes that happen in humans between birth and the end of adolescence, at which time the individual goes from dependence to independence.
The development is strongly influenced by genetic, mental, physical and social factors that may happen during the progression.
Children develop at different levels.
In particular, children having autism spectrum troubles or Down syndrome may have different development than usual or substandard motor development.
Ideas about how children develop psychologically have changed over time.
There are several important theories on how children develop.
Early ideas
In medieval times
During this time children were seen as separate than adults.
Children under 7 or 8 were different than other people and treated as children.
Even teenagers were not fully grown.
Religious writings sometimes talked about children as evil and needing to be pure.
They also sometimes talked about them as good and angels.
During the Reformation
At the time of the Reformation, children were thought to be born evil.
Adults thought children needed to be taught to be a person.
Children had to wear tight and uncomfortable clothes.
Raising a child was thought to be one of the most important things.
Adults wanted children to use reason in learning.
In the time of the Enlightenment, people started to think differently about children and development.
People respected children more and treated them better.
Two important people had ideas about children during the Enlightenment.
They were John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
John Locke thought that children were born without any knowledge.
He thought the mind is tabula rasa, or blank slate.
This means that the mind is like a blank piece of paper when someone is born.
Children get knowledge in life and fill up the blank paper.
Locke thought that the only way that children get knowledge is from doing different things in life and getting experience from those things.
Locke’s ideas on how children get knowledge changed how people thought about children.
His belief was that learning should be fun rather than a task. "
Children [should be] free to be childish,” wrote Locke.
Locke's ideas were opposed to church principles, strictly believing children should be reading fables and not religious texts.
Children were seen in a better way and got more respect from adults.
Locke wanted parents to spend more time with their children and help them learn.
He thought that children’s development of knowledge needed parents to help children experience new things and teach about those things.
Locke pushed nurture as the most important part of child development.
Jean Jacques Rousseau had a different idea than Locke on children.
He thought that children are born knowing what is right and wrong.
Rousseau did not think that children are “blank slates” as Locke did.
He thought that children are “noble savages”.
This is the idea that children are born good, but society can make them bad.
Rousseau felt that adults should pay attention to children’s needs during their different stages of development.
Child development theories
Psychosexual theory
Sigmund Freud was a neurologist an psychoanalyst who tried to help adults with their troubles.
He talked with adults about when they were children and anything that happened during that time.
Freud focused on the unconscious mind.
This is the part of the mind that a person is not able to know about directly.
Freud thought that the unconscious mind was important in how people think and feel.
The way people think and feel can affect how they act.
Freud’s ideas lead him to make his psychosexual theory.
The psychosexual theory focuses on how a child’s wants are controlled in early years and the effect it has when the child becomes an adult.
Freud thought that each person’s personality is made of three parts.
The parts are the id, ego, and super-ego.
The three parts each have a purpose, but are almost never in agreement.
The three parts not in agreement is what causes people to be unhappy and have problems.
When a baby is born, it only has basic needs.
The baby needs to eat, sleep, and use the bathroom.
These basic needs help the baby to live.
These basic needs are what make up the id. The id only wants to take cause of these needs.
The id wants the needs to be taken care of right away and not have to wait.
Freud thought that young children are ruled by the id. The id does not know or care about right and wrong.
It only wants to take care of its needs.
This means that young children do not know about right and wrong.
They only know what the id wants.
Children will act on the wants of the id even when they should not.
Children begin to learn that they cannot always get what they want when they want it.
This causes the ego to form.
The ego “is ruled by the reality principle”.
This means that it knows what can really happen in the world.
The ego knows if the id can get what it wants by looking at if the want can be filled.
When the id’s needs cannot be taken care of, the ego controls the id and its wants.
Children that have the ego formed can control their basic needs and their actions.
When the ego is formed, children gain a sense of self by controlling their needs.
The superego is formed by children working with their parents and others in society.
The superego acts as a rule follower.
It allows the child to know what is right and wrong by what society’s rules on right and wrong are.
Guilt is the primary way that the superego tells children the rules of what is right and wrong.
Freud thought that children went through five psychosexual stages of development.
In the  stages children have to fix problems between needs and what society wants.
Fixing these problems allows children to do well as adults.
Problems that adults get have to do with the stage where they had trouble with.
The five stages are : oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
The oral stage begins at birth   and has to do with the baby’s suckling needs.
The anal stage is the second and is from 1-3 year olds.
It has to do with holding and letting go of urine and feces.
The third stage, the phallic stage is from 3-6 year olds and has to do with the genital region.
Freud thought that this stage is one of the most important stages to fix problems in.
If a child does not fix the problems, he or she can develop either the Oedipus complex (for boys) or the Electra complex (for girls).
These problems come from love either a boy’s love for his mother or a girl’s love for her father.
To stop problems the boy or girl take up the values of their father (for boys) or mother (for girls).
The fourth stage of the psychosexual stages is the latency stage and it occurs from 6-11 year olds.
In this stage the superego grows the most and children get values from society.
The last stage is the genital stage and lasts through adolescence.
In this stage children start to like others and form heterosexual relationships.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
Psychocosocial theory
Erik Erikson was a follower of Freud’s ideas and started his own theory using Freud’s ideas.
Erikson’s theory is called the psychosocial theory of child development.
Erikson used Freud’s idea of the id, ego, and superego and his stages of development to build his own theory.
Erikson thought that the ego was “of the utmost importance”.
The ego was important because it lets children become an individual and add to society.
Erikson added more stages to his theory than Freud did, and some of his stages are similar to Freud’s.
Erikson ended up with eight stages in his theory.
Every stage has a problem between two different feelings.
A child's personality is shaped by how they fix each problem.
Stage 1 : Basic Trust vs. Mistrust : trust develops because babies need adults to take care of their needs.
Erkison thought that this stage is never complete.
Stage 2 : Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt : Small children need to learn to do things like feeding, dressing, and bathing with help.
Stage 3 : Initiative vs. Guilt : Children can pretend who they want to be by make-believe play
Stage 4 : Industry vs. Inferiority : Children learn to work with others out of the family.
Stage 5 : Identity vs. Identity Confusion : The child forms his or her sense of self.
Stage 6 : Intimacy vs. Isolation : Young adults make relationships with others.
Stage 7 : Generatively vs. Stagnation : Adults become parents and take care of children.
Stage 8 : Integrity vs. Despair : Adults think about the person they have been.
Erikson’s stages are important because they looked at society and culture and how they affect personality.
Freud only focused on sexuality.
Erkison's stages are also show how personality is shaped as children grow.
John Watson did not like the psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson.
Watson chose to look at behavior of people to understand how children develop.
His ideas fall under the concept of behaviorism.
Watson was “inspired by Pavlov’s studies of animal learning”.
Pavlov’s studies focused on classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is when an animal or person learns to react to stimulus, a thing that will cause a reaction.
Watson thought that children could be taught using this way.
Watson decided to test his theory by doing an experiment using a nine-month old baby, Little Albert.
Watson started his experiment by testing if Albert was scared of anything.
Watson wanted to see if Albert was scared of a white rat.
Like most babies Albert was not scared of the white rat.
Watson wanted to test if he could make Albert scared using classical conditioning.
Watson discovered that Albert was scared of the sound of a hammer hitting a steel gong with a hammer.
When Albert was eleven-months old,Watson went on with the experiment.
Albert was given the white rat.
A few seconds later, Watson made the hammer hit the gong.
Albert cried when this happened.
This was done seven times.
After the seven times, Albert would cry when he saw the white rat.
Little Albert also became scared of other things, called generalization.
These things had a similarity to the white rat.
They were a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, a Santa Claus mask, and Watson's hair.
Watson's experiment was important because he was able to teach Albert to be scared of something.
Watson showed that children can be taught through classical conditioning.
After the experiment, Watson thought that children are affected by the environment.
Social Learning theory
Albert Bandura felt that children learn by watching others in society.
After watching, children then copy what was done.
His theory is called social learning theory.
The copying that children perform is called modeling.
The person that children copy is called the model.
Bandura thought there are four conditions needed for modeling to happen.
Attention : the child has to pay attention to the model’s behavior
Retention : the child has to remember the behavior
Reproduction : the child must copy the behavior
Motivation : the child needs a reason to copy the behavior
The Bobo Doll experiment (1961)
Children are likely to model behavior if the model is of the same-sex.
A girl child will copy a woman model better than a man.
This is because the child wants to act like people she is like.
Also, Children are more likely to model behavior if the behavior gets positive reactions from adults.
When children are praised they will keep doing the behavior.
They do this because they want to get more praise.
A child will not always get praise for their behaviors.
Instead they might get punishment.
If a child gets punishment for a behavior they will not model it.
A child can also chose to model behavior or not by watching what happens to the model.
If the model gets punishment the child will not model the behavior.
This is because the child does not want to get punishment.
Bandura did an experiment to test his ideas.
The experiment is known as the Bobo Doll Experiment.
Bandura took 36 boys and 36 girls for his experiment.
The children were between 3 and 6 years old.
He also used one man and one woman model.
Bandura wanted to see if the children would model aggressive, or mean, behavior.
Bandura broke the children into eight groups of 6 and one group of 24.
The groups were made by breaking half of the children into an aggressive group and half into one that was not.
The two groups were both broken in half again by boys and girls.
Bandura then split the girls into two groups.
One group had the woman model and the other had the man model.
He did the same with the boys.
The group of 24 had no model.
The children were put in a play room with the model.
The children were told to sit on a chair and the model went to the other side of the room.
The children that were in aggressive groups saw the model go up the a Bobo doll in the room and play with it.
The model spent most of the time being aggressive to the doll.
The children that were not in the aggressive group saw the model play with tinker toys and not pay attention to the Bobo doll.
The model then left the room.
The children were allowed to play with the toys in the room.
Some of the toys let the children play and be aggressive.
The children were watched how they played with the toys.
Children who saw the aggressive model played aggressively with the toys.
The children who had a model who was not aggressive played nicer.
The children played nice because they did not watch the aggressive model to copy the behavior.
Bandura's experiment showed that children can learn behavior from adults by watching the adult's behavior.
Cognitive Developmental Theory
Jean Piaget started his theory on child development when he questioned the way children think.
He thought that infants and children had different understandings than adults.
Piaget focused on the cognitive development of children instead of adults.
Cognitive development is studying how adults and children think and learn.
Piaget’s work helped to develop new ways of education and programs of discovery learning.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has three main parts:
Stages of Development
Piaget thought children had and made schemas as they developed.