the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
At other times, Presidents did not die, but they were unable to do their jobs because of illness.
For example, during his Presidency, Woodrow Wilson had a stroke.
However, the First Lady, Edith Wilson, and the official White House doctor kept the stroke a secret.
Because of this, no one took over the Presidency, even though Wilson could not do the job at that time.
Before the 25th Amendment, the office of Vice President had been empty eighteen times because the Vice President died, resigned, or had to take over for the President.
For example, there was no Vice President for nearly four years after Franklin D. Roosevelt died.
On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated.
Kennedy's assassination made it very clear to Congress that they needed to figure out a solution about presidential succession right away.
The United States was in the middle of the Cold War.
The new President, Lyndon B. Johnson, had previously had a heart attack in 1955 along with a family history of Johnson men dying relatively young (in their early 60s, which he did in 1973 aged 64).
The next two people in line for the presidency were the Speaker of the House of Representatives, John McCormack (who was 71 years old), and the President pro tempore of the Senate, Carl Hayden (who was 86 years old).
Congress started moving more quickly.
The KeatingKefauver Proposal suggested allowing Congress to make a law about who should decide when a President is disabled.
It was proposed in 1963 by Senator Kenneth Keating of New York,p. 345 and supported by Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver.p.
28  However, other Senators were worried that Congress could abuse this power, or would not actually make the law after the amendment was passed.pp.
The BayhCeller Proposal ended up becoming the Twenty-fifth Amendment.
On January 6, 1965, Senator Birch Bayh proposed the amendment in the United States Senate, and Representative Emanuel Celler (Chairman of the House Judiciary Committee) proposed it in the United States House of Representatives.
Unlike the KeatingKefauver Proposal, it suggested a way to fill the Vice President's position if it was empty, and also set out rules for how a President could be declared "disabled.
348–350
On February 19, 1965, the Senate passed the amendment.
However, the House passed a different version of the amendment on April 13.
The House and Senate had to form committees to figure out a version of the amendment they could all agree on.
On July 6, 1965, both Houses of Congress passed the final version of the amendment and sent it to the states for ratification.
As with all Constitutional amendments proposed by the Congress, the Twenty-fifth Amendment had to be  ratified by three-fourths of the states (38 of 50).
Ratification was complete 19 months after the Amendment was proposed.
Another nine states subsequently also ratified the Amendment; three states did not vote to ratify the Amendment.
Section 1: Presidential succession
Section 1 made the "Tyler Precedent" a law.
It says that if a President is removed from office, dies, or resigns, the Vice President immediately becomes President (not "Acting President").
Section 2: Vice Presidential vacancy
Under Section 2, whenever there is a vacancy in the office of Vice President, the President nominates someone to replace the Vice President.
If a majority of both Houses of Congress agree, that person becomes the Vice President.
Section 3: Presidential declaration
Section 3 says that a President can declare themselves "unable to discharge the powers and duties of their office" (unable to do their job).
He or she must say this in a written letter to both the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
Once the President does this, the Vice President becomes Acting President.
The President can take back the Presidency at any time by sending letters to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House, saying he or she is able to discharge the powers and duties of the Presidency again.
Section 4 is the only part of the Amendment that has never been used.
It allows other executive officials to declare the President unable to do his job.
The Vice President must agree to do this.
So must:
A majority of "the principal officers of the executive departments" (the United States Cabinet), OR
"Such other body as Congress may by law provide" (some other group that Congress chooses)
To declare the President unable to do his job, these people would have to sign and give a letter to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House.
As with Section 3, the Vice President would then become the Acting President.
The President may take back the Presidency by sending a letter to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House.
However, if the Vice President and the Cabinet think the President is still disabled and still cannot do his job, they can challenge his return.
They have four days to write another declaration saying the President is still unable to do his job.
The Vice President is still Acting President during these four days.
Congress then has to get together within 48 hours, if they are not already in session.
Then Congress has 21 days to make a decision.
In the meantime, the Vice President is still Acting President.
If two-thirds of each House of Congress votes that the President still cannot do his job, the Vice President would continue to be Acting President.
If Congress does not vote this way, or if they do not vote at all within 21 days, the President takes over the Presidency again.
The Twenty-fifth Amendment has been invoked (used) six times since it was added to the Constitution.
Section 1 has been used once; Section 2 has been used twice; and Section 3 has been used three times.
Only Section 4 has never been used, though it was considered twice.
Use of Section 1
President Richard Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, before the House could vote on whether to impeach him for crimes related to the Watergate scandal.
Vice President Gerald Ford became President as soon as Nixon resigned.
Use of Section 2
On October 10, 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned.
Two days later, President Richard Nixon nominated United States Representative Gerald Ford of Michigan to be the new Vice President.
According to Section 2, more than 50% of each House of Congress had to approve Ford as Vice President.
By December 6, 97% of the Senate and 92% of the House had approved Ford.
Ford was sworn in to the Vice Presidency later on December 6 before both Houses of Congress.
Ford is the only person in United States history ever to be Vice President, and later President, without being elected to either office.
When Gerald Ford became President after Richard Nixon resigned, the Vice Presidency became vacant.
On August 20, 1974, the new President Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to be the new Vice President.
On December 10, 1974, the Senate confirmed Rockefeller with a vote of 90–7.
Nine days later, the House voted 287-128 to confirm Rockefeller.
He was sworn into office later on December 19, 1974, before the Senate.
Use of Section 3
Presidents have used Section 3 of the 25th Amendment three times.
Each time, they have given power to their Vice Presidents for a short time because they needed to get anesthesia for medical tests or surgery.
The three Acting Presidents in United States history are listed below.
George H. W. Bush (1985)
On July 12, 1985, President Ronald Reagan found out that he had a small growth in his colon that could turn into colon cancer.
His doctor told him he needed surgery.
Reagan decided to have surgery right away.
However, Reagan did not want to invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment.
He was worried that giving Presidential power away would set a bad precedent.
The White House's head lawyer and Reagan's Chief of Staff suggested that he use Section 3 and give power to Vice President George H.W. Bush.
Two letters were created.
The first invoked Section 3 and said Reagan would be unable to discharge his duties.
The second said that Reagan knew about Section 3, and did not think it applied to his situation, but still wanted Bush to take over during his surgery.
On July 13, Reagan signed the second letter and had it delivered to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House.
Reagan's autobiography, and other books, argue that Reagan clearly meant to give power to Vice President Bush.pp.
197–200  The White House lawyer, Fred Fielding, said:
Dick Cheney (2002; 2007)
On June 29, 2002, President George W. Bush became the first President to officially invoke Section 3.
He needed a colonoscopy, a test of the colon, and would be getting anesthesia.
He formally gave power to his Vice President, Dick Cheney, using the rules that the 25th Amendment set out.
Unlike Reagan, he specifically said he was using Section 3 of the 25th Amendment in his letter to the President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House.
After about two hours, Bush was awake and took back the Presidency.
On July 21, 2007, President Bush again invoked Section 3 so he could have another colonoscopy.
Again, Cheney was Acting President for about two hours, until Bush was ready to take back the Presidency.
Considered use of Section 4
As of 2021, Section 4 has never been invoked, however there were at least two occasions where the use of Section 4 was considered and another where its non-use came under substantial criticism.
These occurred during the presidency of Ronald Reagan.
1981: Reagan assassination attempt
On March 30, 1981, a man named John Hinckley tried to kill President Ronald Reagan.
Reagan was shot and needed immediate surgery, so he could not invoke Section 3 to give power to his Vice President.
His Vice President, George H.W. Bush, did not invoke Section 4, because he was on an airplane returning from Texas.
Reagan was out of surgery by the time Bush got to Washington, D.C.pp.
195–6, 253-5
1987: Reagan accused of not doing his job
In 1987, Reagan's Chief of Staff, Donald Regan, resigned.p.
218  Howard Baker replaced him.p.
83  Reagan's staff told Baker that Reagan seemed lazy and unable to do his job.
They told him to be ready for Section 4 of the 25th Amendment to be invoked.
According to the PBS program American Experience:
Aluf Meir Dagan (; 30 January 1945 – 17 March 2016) was an Israeli politician.
He was a former Israel Defense Forces officer.
He was a former Director of the Mossad.
He served as director from 2002 through 2011.
Dagan was born in the Soviet Union.
He moved to Israel at age five.
Larry Drake (February 21, 1950 – March 17, 2016) was an American actor.
He was known for his role as Benny Stulwicz on the television show L.A. Law, Robert G. Durant in Darkman and as Pops in Johnny Bravo.
He won two Emmy Awards in 1988 and in 1989.
Zoltán Kamondi (6 April 1960 – 17 March 2016) was a Hungarian movie director, actor, screenwriter and producer.
He was known for directing Paths of Death and Angels.
Marian Kociniak (11 January 1936 – 17 March 2016) was a Polish movie and theatre actor.
He was known for his role in the 1970 movie How I Unleashed World War II.
Jean Miotte (1926 – 1 March 2016) was a French abstract painter.
He worked with the style known as L'Art Informel.
Miotte's work is preserved and studied at the Miotte Foundation in Manhattan.
Examples of Jean Miotte's work
Miotte biography and original prints
Home of Miotte Foundation
James Douglas (May 20, 1929 – March 5, 2016) was an American actor.
He best known for his role as Grant Colman on As the World Turns (1974–81, with return appearances in 1986 and 1989).
Douglas was born in Los Angeles, California.
He died on March 5, 2016 at the age of 86.
His first major role came in 1964 when he joined the cast of the primetime soap Peyton Place.
He played the role of Steven Cord.
He stayed with the series until it left the air in 1969.
He then turned mainly to daytime roles, appearing as Elliott Carrington on Another World from 1972 to 1974.
He then moved to As the World Turns.
He also appeared on The Edge of Night in 1984 and on One Life to Live as Dr. Marcus Polk (1985–87).
G.I. Blues (1960) as Rick
Sweet Bird of Youth (1962) as Leroy
Erik Duval (11 September 1965 – 12 March 2016) was a Belgian scientist.
Duval chaired the informatics section of the computer science department of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.
He also chaired the research unit on human-computer interaction.
Solomon Marcus (; March 1, 1925 – March 17, 2016) was a Romanian mathematician of Jewish descent.
He was a member of the Mathematical Section of the Romanian Academy.
He was also Emeritus Professor of the University of Bucharest's Faculty of Mathematics.
List of Romanian mathematicians
Global Perspectives on Science and Spirituality (GPSS)
Publication list on his web page, at the "Simion Stoilow" Institute of Mathematics of the Romanian Academy
International Journal of Computers, Communications & Control, Vol.
I (2006), No.1, pp.
73–79, "Grigore C. Moisil: A Life Becoming a Myth", by Solomon Marcus, Editor's note about the author (p. 79)
Marcus' articles on semiotics at Potlatch
Solomon Marcus  at the University of Bucharest
Vladimir Yakovlevich Shainsky () (December 12, 1925 — December 25, 2017) was a Soviet and Russian composer.
In the 1950s Shainsky played in Leonid Utyosov's orchestra.
He taught young people how to conduct music.
He worked as a composer and musical leader at different dance orchestras.
He studied in Baku conservatory, the composers faculty.
Shainskiy's biography
Another biography
These species of tree frogs in the Hylidae family are commonly referred to as the Arizona tree frog:
Canyon tree frog, Hyla arenicolor
Mountain tree frog, Hyla eximia is listed as the official Arizona state amphibian, but it does not occur in Arizona.
Arizona tree frog, Hyla wrightorum, was previously a synonym of Hyla eximia.
Nancy Olson (born April 14, 1928) is an American actress.
She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in Sunset Boulevard (1950).
Other movies including The Absent-Minded Professor and Airport 1975 (1974).
She has mostly retired from acting.
Olson was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Albert Abraham Michelson (December 19, 1852 – May 9, 1931) was an American physicist.
He was born in Strzelno (in Posen, Prussia, now in Poland) but grew up in California.
He was known for his work on measuring the speed of light.
That work led to him being awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1907.
He was the first American to receive it in the field of science.
Donna Mills (born December 11, 1940) is an American actress and producer.
She began her television career in 1966 with a recurring role on The Secret Storm.
She played Abby Cunningham on Knots Landing.
She won several Soap Opera Digest Awards for this role.
She also played Madeline Reeves in General Hospital in 2014-2015.
She won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Guest Performer in a Drama Series.
Mills was born in Chicago, Illinois.
Some sources give her birth date as 1942 or 1943.
R136a1 is the most massive and luminous known star.
It is a Wolf–Rayet star at the center of R136.
Ri36 is the central group of stars of the large NGC 2070 open cluster in the Tarantula nebula.
The nebula lies about 50 kiloparsecs (163,000 light-years) in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
R136a1 has 265 the mass of the Sun, and 8.7 million times its luminosity.
It is also one of the hottest at over 50,000 K. The cluster is only about 1.5 million years old, and is pouring out a huge amount of energy.
Together, they outshine our Sun by a factor of 30 million.
Madison is a family name of English origin.
It has become a popular first name in the United States.
It was one of the most popular names during the 2000s–2010s for girls.
The Tarantula nebula (also known as 30 Doradus) is an H II region in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC).
It was originally thought to be a star, but in 1751 Lacaille recognized it was a nebula.
The Tarantula nebula has an apparent magnitude of 8.
Considering its distance of 49 kpc (160,000 light-years), this is an extremely luminous object.
Its luminosity is so great that if it were as close to Earth as the Orion Nebula, the Tarantula nebula would cast shadows.
It is the most active starburst region known in the Local Group of galaxies.
It is also one of the largest such regions in the Local Group with an estimated diameter of 200 pc.
30 Doradus has at its centre the star cluster NGC 2070 which includes the group of stars known as R136.
This group puts out most of the energy that makes the nebula visible.
The estimated mass of the cluster is 450,000 solar masses.
It may become a globular cluster in the future.
In addition to NGC 2070, the Tarantula nebula has other star clusters, including the much older Hodge 301.
The most massive stars of Hodge 301 have already exploded in supernovae.
The closest supernova observed since the invention of the telescope, Supernova 1987A, occurred in the outskirts of the Tarantula Nebula.
The remnants of many other supernovae are difficult to detect in the complex nebulosity.
Rice allergy is a type of food allergy.
People allergic to rice react to some rice proteins after they eat rice or breathe in rice steam.
Although some reactions might lead to severe health problems, doctors can diagnose rice allergy with many methods and help allergic people to avoid reactions.
Some rice proteins are regarded as the causes of allergy in some people.
People allergic to rice might have sneezing, runny nose, itching, asthma, stomachache or eczema after they eat rice.
Besides eating rice, people with a rice allergy can have reactions breathing rice steam from cooked rice.
Allergic people might have skin rashes and swellings.
Moreover, they might stop breathing and die due to cardiac arrest.
People suspected of having a rice allergy can try diet avoidance on their own.
First, they have to avoid rice for a couple of weeks.
If they don’t have symptoms in the avoidance period, but have those when exposed to rice, they are most likely allergic to rice.
Specific rice IgE, a kind of antibody in human blood, will rise significantly when people are allergic to rice.
A blood test shows the level of the antibody.
A skin prick test, the most efficient diagnosis, shows the reactions in a short period.
After being pricked in their skin with some rice mixture, allergic people will get itching and swelling in about 30 minutes.
Some symptoms might weaken if people get allergy shots.
After getting several treatments for a long time, some allergic people will not have reactions afterwards.
Some reactions have been eased by replacing original rice with genetically modified rice.
This is regarded as a new choice for rice allergic people.
Reactions might lessen by staying away from rice long-term.
Unlike other food allergies, rice allergy is relatively uncommon.
It has been reported worldwide but mostly in China, Japan or Korea.
Because rice is a major food in Asia, people from Asia are exposed to higher allergy risk than people from other areas.
Rice Allergy, Southwest Allergy & Asthma Center
Common Food Allergies
The Congressional Apportionment Amendment (originally titled Article the First) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution.
It was one of twelve "articles of amendment" to the United States Constitution approved by the 1st Congress on September 25, 1789.
They were sent to the legislatures of the several states for ratification.
If adopted, it would establish a formula for determining the appropriate size of the House of Representatives following each constitutionally required wikt:decennial census.
It is the only one of the twelve proposed amendments that has not been adopted, as it has not been ratified by enough states for it to become part of the Constitution.
Because Congress did not set a time limit for its ratification, the Congressional Apportionment Amendment is still technically pending before the states.
Ratification by an additional 27 states is now necessary for this amendment to be adopted.
The other 1789 article of amendment ("Article the Second") of the original 12, was finally ratified in 1992.
It became the Twenty-seventh Amendment.
The "ideal" number of seats in the House of Representatives has been a subject of controversy since the country's founding.
The delegates to the 1787 Constitutional Convention set the representation ratio at one representative for every 40,000 people.
Upon the suggestion of George Washington, the ratio was changed to 1:30,000.
This was the only time Washington voiced an opinion on any of the actual issues debated during the convention.
In Federalist No.
55, James Madison argued that the size of the House of Representatives has to balance the ability of the body to legislate with the need for legislators to have a relationship close enough to the people to understand their local circumstances, that such representatives' social class be low enough to sympathize with the feelings of the mass of the people, and that their power be diluted enough to limit their abuse of the public trust and interests.
Anti-Federalists, who opposed the Constitution's ratification, noted that there was nothing in the document to guarantee that the number of seats in the House would continue to represent small constituencies as the general population of the states grew.
They feared that over time, if the size remained relatively small and the districts became more expansive, that only well-known individuals with reputations spanning wide geographic areas could secure election.
It was also feared that those in Congress would, as a result, have an insufficient sense of sympathy with and connectedness to ordinary people in their district.
This concern was evident in the various state ratifying conventions, where several specifically requested an amendment to secure a minimum size for the House of Representatives.
Virginia's ratification resolution proposed,
Federalists, who supported the Constitution's ratification, placated those opposing its ratification by agreeing that the new government should immediately address Anti-Federalist concerns and consider amending the Constitution.
The assurance that these issues would be addressed in the First Congress was essential to the ratification of the new form of government.
Legislative and ratification history
An amendment establishing a formula for determining the appropriate size of the House of Representatives and the appropriate apportionment of representatives among the states was one of several proposed amendments to the Constitution introduced first in the House on June 8, 1789, by Representative James Madison of Virginia.
Madison's original intent was,
This, along with Madison's other proposals, was referred to a committee consisting of one representative from each state.
After emerging from committee, the full House debated the issue and, on August 24, 1789, passed it and sixteen other articles of amendment.
The proposals went next to the Senate, which made 26 substantive alterations.
On September 9, 1789, the Senate approved a culled and consolidated package of twelve articles of amendment.
Changed in this amendment was the apportionment formula to be followed once the number of House members reached 100.
At the time it was sent to the states for ratification, an affirmative vote by ten states would have made this amendment operational.
That number rose to eleven on March 4, 1791, when Vermont joined the Union.
By the end of 1791, the amendment was only one state short of the mark.
However, when Kentucky attained statehood on June 1, 1792, the number climbed to twelve, and, even though Kentucky ratified the amendment that summer (along with the other eleven amendments), it was still one state short.
No additional states ratified this amendment since.
To become part of the Constitution, 27 additional ratifications are required.
Eugene Martin LaVergne, a former attorney claims to have found evidence that the entire proposed Bill of Rights, including this proposed amendment, was ratified by Connecticut in 1790.
As such, Kentucky's 1792 ratification would have been sufficient for the amendment to meet the constitutional requirement to become part of the Constitution.
However, according to LaVergne the Connecticut ratification was never forwarded to Congress for action.
LaVergne argued the point in a lawsuit against a number of federal officials, but the case was dismissed.
The dismissal was summarily affirmed per curiam by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, ending the case.
Fourteenth Amendment, Section 2 (which modified the portion of Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 commonly known as the Three-Fifths Compromise)
United States congressional apportionment
Apportionment Act of 1792
Apportionment Act of 1911
Reapportionment Act of 1929
The Federalist No.
55 is an essay by James Madison.
It is the fifty-fifth of a collection called the Federalist Papers.
It was published on February 13, 1788 under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all The Federalist Papers were published.
In this paper, Madison examines the size of the United States House of Representatives.
It is titled, "The Total Number of the House of Representatives."
The paper discusses critics' objections to the relatively small size of the House of Representatives (sixty-five members).
In addition, he states that the small size does not put the public liberty in danger because of the checks and balances relationship the House of Representatives has with the state legislatures, as well as the fact every member is voted in by the people every two years.
55 Text
It was discovered in 1887.
Edwin Hubble suspected it might belong to the Local Group of galaxies, but this was uncertain for decades.
The radial velocity of IC 10 was measured in 1962.
It is approaching the Milky Way at about 350 km/s. This strengthened the evidence for its being in the Local Group.
Its membership in the group was finally confirmed in 1996 by measurements of its distance by observations of Cepheids.
Despite its closeness, the galaxy is rather difficult to study because it lies near the galactic plane of the Milky Way.
It is heavily obscured by interstellar matter.
IC 10 is the only known starburst galaxy in the Local Group of galaxies.
It has many more Wolf-Rayet stars per square kiloparsec (5.1 stars/kpc²) than the Large Magellanic Cloud (2.0 stars/kpc²) or the Small Magellanic Cloud (0.9 stars/kpc²).
Although the galaxy has a luminosity similar to the SMC, it is much smaller.
The evolutionary status of the Wolf-Rayet stars suggests they all formed in a relatively short period.
The galaxy produces stars at the rate of 0.04–0.08 solar masses per year, which means that the gas supply in the galaxy can last for a few billion years longer.
Observations of IC 10 in the far-infrared show that the dust in this mild starburst galaxy is deficient in small grains.
Perhaps small grains were destroyed by strong ultraviolet radiation in the areas around the hot luminous stars.
The galaxy has a huge envelope of hydrogen gas, with an apparent size measuring 68′ × 80′, which is far larger than the apparent size of the galaxy in visible light (5.5′ × 7.0′).
IC 10 is also unusual in the respect that the visible part of the galaxy seems to rotate in a different direction than the outer envelope.
It has an H II nucleus.
The Old Man and the Sea is a novella by Ernest Hemingway that was written in 1951 and then published in 1952.
It is Hemingway's most famous work, and also his final work to be published while he was alive.
Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 for this work.
Hemingway wrote it while he was in the Bahamas.
The work tells the story of Santiago, an old Cuban fisherman who catches a giant marlin in the Gulf Stream.
A water tank is a container for storing water.
The need for water tanks is as old as civilization.
Tanks were used to provide storage of water for use in many applications, drinking water, irrigation agriculture, fire suppression, agricultural farming, both for plants and livestock, chemical manufacturing, food preparation as well as many other uses.
Water tank parameters include the general design of the tank, and choice of construction materials, linings.
Various materials are used for making a water tank: plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene), fiberglass, concrete, stone, steel (welded or bolted, carbon, or stainless).
Earthen pots also function as water storages.
Water tanks are an efficient way to help developing countries to store clean water.
In the 1980s, high density polyethylene rotationally molded water tanks became popular for home water storage.
Gardeners, for example, use various types of these tanks to store rain water.
A Water tower, usually made of metal, is a type of elevated water tank.
The history of the United States Constitution is a history of how the government of the United States functions, its  rule of law and the rights guaranteed to its citizens.
It was signed by the delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia on September 17, 1787.
It replaced the Articles of Confederation, that served as new nation's first constitution.
The government under the Articles proved to be weak and inefficient.
When the convention was called to meet in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787, most of the members were aware a new stronger government was necessary.
The first constitution
The history of the (second) Constitution of the United States begins with the history behind the creation of the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution.
The Articles of Confederation were, in effect, a loose confederation that joined together thirteen independent states to mainly deal with foreign policy.
For all other purposes they remained sovereign states.
The greatest weakness of the Articles of Confederation is that it had no direct connection to the people themselves.
It recognized state sovereignty.
Each state collected its own taxes, provided its own militia and printed its own currency.
A weak Congress was the chief instrument in the new government.
There was no executive branch.
The recent tyranny suffered under Britain's King George III made the new country's leaders wary of a strong central government.
In Congress, each state only had one vote.
States with small populations had the same voting rights as states ten times their size.
Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote, which was virtually impossible with thirteen states each having their own interests.
However, the weaknesses became rapidly apparent.
Congress could not levy taxes and so could not effectively support any war effort.
The central government did not have the ability to negotiate trade agreements with foreign governments.
It could not settle quarrels between states.
The country could not protect its ships which were being robbed at  by pirates.
The states themselves were in a near disastrous condition economically.
The widespread use of paper money was causing inflation.
So much so that in some places a pound of tea could cost $100.
Farmers were being thrown in jail because they could not pay their debts.
Many farms were being sold off for the unpaid taxes that were owed.
There was an attempt at reforming the Articles.
The Articles Congress received a report on August 7, 1786 from a twelve-member "Grand Committee".
They were appointed to develop needed amendments.
Under these reforms, Congress would gain "sole and exclusive" power to regulate trade.
States could not favor foreigners over citizens.
Tax bills would require a 70% vote, public debt 85%, not the 100% currently required.
Congress could charge states a late payment penalty fee.
A state withholding troops would be charged for them, plus a penalty.
If a state did not pay, Congress could collect directly from its cities and counties.
There would have been a national court of seven judges.
No-shows at Congress would have been banned from any U.S. or state office.
These proposals were, however, sent back to committee without a vote and were not taken up again.
Congress had given the delegates the task of amending the Articles of Confederation.
But almost immediately they began discussing a completely new form of government.
The debates lasted through the summer of 1787 and at times became so heated it threatened to end the convention prematurely.
The delegates
Appointed to the convention were 74 delegates—only 55 of which actually attended the sessions.
The state of Rhode Island refused to send any delegates.
They believed the convention was actually a conspiracy to overthrow the Confederation government.
Patrick Henry of Virginia was another who refused to attend declaring he "smelt a rat."
In particular he suspected James Madison, also of Virginia, of wanting to create a new form of government.
Henry was a firm believer that the states offered the best protections for personal rights and wanted nothing to do with upsetting that arrangement.
Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were away on diplomatic missions.
John Jay was in New York at the diplomatic office.
For various reasons many of the country's major political leaders were not at the convention.
But the list of those who did attend was impressive.
It included Benjamin Franklin, James Wilson, Alexander Hamilton, George Mason, John Dickinson, Gouverneur Morris and George Washington.
Many others also became famous as framers of the Constitution.
The sessions were held in secret.
Reporters and spectators were not allowed.
To those who already had suspicions, the secrecy of the proceedings only confirmed what they feared.
There were even armed guards at the doors.
Many of those present had already risked being hanged by the British as traitors during the revolution.
Now they worried about what their states would think of abandoning the Articles of Confederation.
James Madison spent the winter of 1787 making a study of various confederations throughout history.
One would feature members elected by the people for a three year term.
A new constitution
The Constitution, a history
The United States Congress approved the amendment on March 23, 1971, and sent it to the states to be ratified.
Within three months and eight days, the states had ratified the amendment, and it became part of the Constitution.
This was the quickest amendment to be ratified in United States history.
Earlier legislation
Lowering the minimum voting age was not a new idea.
In the United States, some people started trying to get the voting age lowered during World War II.
During the war, President Franklin D. Roosevelt lowered the military draft age to 18.
This meant that men as young as 18 could be forced to join the military.
To many people, it did not seem fair that the government thought these young men were old enough to fight a world war, but not old enough to vote in the country they were fighting for.
"Old enough to fight, old enough to vote" became a common slogan.
United States Senator Harley Kilgore had begun supporting a lowered voting age in 1941.
Many other Senators, Representatives, and the First Lady, Eleanor Roosevelt, supported the idea.
However, Congress never made any changes.
Kilgore's ideas did interest some of the states.
In 1943, the Georgia state legislature passed a law lowering the voting age in the state to 18; in 1955, Kentucky did the same thing.
In 1963, the President's Commission on Registration and Voting Participation made a report to President Lyndon B. Johnson.
The report encouraged Johnson to lower the voting age.
During the 1960s, many Americans pushed both Congress and the state legislatures to lower the minimum voting age from 21 to 18.
This was mostly because of to the Vietnam War.
As the war went on, more and more people started to protest the war and become active.
During that war, many young men were drafted and sent to fight in the war before they were old enough to vote.
This meant they had no way to influence the people sending them off to risk their lives.
Protesters started to use the slogan "Old enough to fight, old enough to vote" again.
Supporters also argued that the law treated eighteen-year-olds as adults in many other ways.
For example, they had to pay income taxes.
Supporters argued that this was "taxation without representation"  meaning that 18- to 20-year-olds had to pay taxes, but had no say in what those taxes were or what they were spent on, because they could not vote.
Similarly, in 1970, in a committee that was debating a possible Constitutional amendment to lower the voting age, Representative Thomas Railsback said: ""Our laws tax these 18-year-olds but our voting laws do not permit them representation in enacting that tax law.
The Boston Tea Party was supposed to have been the spark that put that issue to rest in this country."
Not everybody supported lowering the minimum voting age.
Opponents to giving younger people the vote had several arguments.
Many argued that teenagers were not mature or responsible enough to vote.
Other people argued that teenagers did not know enough to have the right to vote.
One historian writes:
Others criticized the "old enough to fight, old enough to vote" argument.
For example, in 1953, the popular magazine Collier's Weekly said this argument "doesn't justify giving young ladies of eighteen the right to franchise [vote]."
They added: "If a man if old enough to vote when he's old enough to fight, then logically the man who is too old to fight out to lose the right to vote."
Another example comes from an editorial written by the New York Times in 1967.
The paper wrote: "The requirements for a good soldier and for a good voter are not the same.
For the soldier, youthful enthusiasm and physical endurance are [of most] importance; for the voter, maturity of judgment far outweighs other qualifications."
Amending the Voting Rights Act of 1965
The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment says that the government has to give every person "the equal protection of its laws."
People who supported the addition to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, like Ted Kennedy, said that by not allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to vote, the government not treating them equally by not letting them vote.
He was not against lowering the voting age.
However, he did not agree with Kennedy's legal argument.
He also worried that if the Supreme Court thought the new Voting Rights Act was unconstitutional, they could overturn it  cancel the entire law.
Nixon thought this could cause a lot of damage to the country.
However, on June 22, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed an extension (an addition) to the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
The change required the voting age to be 18 in all federal, state, and local elections.
After signing the change, Nixon said:
Oregon v. Mitchell
After Nixon signed the change to the Voting Rights Act, Oregon and Texas challenged the law in court.
The case, Oregon v. Mitchell, made it to the Supreme Court in October 1970.
This was just four months after Nixon signed the change.
By this time, four states had lowered their minimum voting ages: Georgia, Kentucky, Alaska, and Hawaii.
In Oregon v. Mitchell, the Supreme Court looked at whether the voting age changes that Congress added to the Voting Rights Act were constitutional.
This means they looked at whether the changes agreed with the rules in the Constitution, or broke them.
The judges on the Supreme Court strongly disagreed with each other in this case.
Eventually, five out of the nine judges agreed on a decision - just enough to reach the majority needed for a decision.
However, most of the judges did not agree on which legal reason was behind their decision.
The Court ruled that Congress could set a voting age for federal elections, but not state or local elections.
This meant that for state and local elections, states could keep the voting age at 21 if they wanted to.
However, they would have to keep two different voting registers (lists of people who had signed up to vote): one for federal elections, which would include people as young as 18, and another for state and local elections, which would only include people over age 20.
The Amendment
After the Supreme Court's decision, both Congress and the states wanted to find a way to lower the minimum voting age throughout the country.
Congress decided to propose a Constitutional amendment that would set the minimum voting age at 18 everywhere in the country.
This would be different than the change to the Voting Rights Act in a few ways.
First of all, the states did not want to deal with the cost and difficulty of having to keep two different voting registers, so they supported the idea of a Constitutional amendment.
Also, when they changed the Voting Rights Act, Congress had made a law about state and local elections without the states having any say.
However, for an amendment to be added to the Constitution, two-thirds of both Houses of Congress, and then three-fourths of the state legislatures, have to agree on it.
(These rules are set out in Article Five of the Constitution.)
An amendment would be something that both Congress and the states agreed on.
Congress would not be over-using its power and breaking the Constitution by making laws for the states.
Opinion polls said that most Americans wanted the Twenty-sixth Amendment to pass.
Younger people were most likely to support the Amendment.
However, even in people over age 50, over half of Americans supported the Amendment.
Even the New York Times changed its official opinion and supported the Amendment.
Approval by Congress
On March 10, 1971, the United States Senate voted 94–0 in support of proposing an amendment that would lower the minimum voting age to 18 everywhere in the country.
On March 23, the United States House of Representatives voted 401–19 for the amendment.
Congress sent the amendment to the states.
For the Twenty-sixth Amendment to be added to the Constitution, three-fourths of the state legislatures (38 out of the 50) would have to ratify the Amendment.
It took just three months for 38 states to ratify the Amendment.
After the Amendment was added to the Constitution, another five states ratified it.
Seven states never did.
On July 5, 1971, President Richard Nixon held a ceremony at the White House, where he signed the Twenty-sixth Amendment just to show his support.
(The President does not have to sign an amendment in order for it to be added to the Constitution.)
During the signing ceremony, he talked about his confidence in the United States' young people:
Tray Walker (August 5, 1992 – March 18, 2016) was an American football cornerback.
He played for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL).
He played college football at Texas Southern, and was drafted by the Ravens in the 4th round of the 2015 NFL draft.
Walker died in Miami, Florida when he was dirt biking when his bike was hit by a car.
He died the next day on March 18, 2016 from his injuries.
He was aged 23.
From 30 August 1978 to 13 January 1991, Späth was the 5th Minister President of Baden-Württemberg and chairman of the CDU Baden-Württemberg.
He served as the 36th President of the Bundesrat in the 1980s.
A separation process is a method used in science to separate two substances, that once formed a mixture.
The type of separation process used depend on the mixture's properties and components.
Here are examples of separation techniques: distilliation, evaporation, chromatography, filtration, fractional distillation and magnetism.
The end product of the separation process is one or more pure compounds .
Leonid (Les) Stepanovych Tanyuk (, August 7, 1938 – March 18, 2016) was a Ukrainian theatre and movie director.
He was a dissident and the head of the Club of Creative Youth.
After 1991's Ukrainian independence Tanyuk became a multiple re-elected member of the Ukrainian parliament.
Ukrainian movie directors
Jan Němec (12 July 1936 – 18 March 2016) was a Czech movie director and screenwriter.
His important work dates from the 1960s.
Movie historian Peter Hames has called him as the "enfant terrible of the Czech New Wave."
He was known for directing the 1966 movie A Report on the Party and the Guests.
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Czech Film: Jan Nemec's post-1989 films
Interview with Němec
Jan Němec: Interviews 1964–2014 (Rozhovory 1964–2014) (Camera obscura, Svatá Hora, Příbram, Czech Republic) (czech)
The real was the former currency of Argentina.
It was in circulation from 1813 to 1881 and was also the country's first currency used.
During its period, the sol was also used and its value was equal to that of the real.
The peso was worth 8 reales and the escudo was worth 16 reales.
The 2012 Democratic presidential primaries and caucuses was how voters of the Democratic Party chose the candidate for the United States presidential election, 2012.
The incumbent president, Barack Obama, won the primaries and caucuses after easily winning 88.87% of the popular vote, and all of the states and territories.
No other candidates seriously challenged Obama.
Republican Party presidential primaries, 2012
Congress is made of two "Houses," and the members of each House serve different terms (amounts of time in office).
Members of the United States Senate serve six-year terms, and members of the United States House of Representatives serve two years each.
The Twenty-seventh Amendment says that no law can change Congresspeople's salaries until a new two-year term for Representatives starts.
As of 2022, the Twenty-seventh amendment is the last amendment that has been added to the Constitution.
It took longer for the states to ratify this amendment than any other in history.
The 1st United States Congress sent the suggested amendment to the states for their approval on September 25, 1789.
It was not until May 7, 1992, that enough states ratified the amendment for it to be added to the Constitution.
The ratification process had taken 202 years, 7 months, and 12 days  the longest in United States history.
On September 25, 1789, the first United States Congress gave a group of 12 amendments to the states for their approval.
Written by James Madison, these were the first 12 Constitutional amendments ever written.
One of them was an amendment about salaries for Members of Congress.
Madison wanted to protect against Congresspeople being able to give themselves raises whenever they wanted to, while they were in the middle of their terms and the people could not vote them out.
In 1791, the states ratified ten of the 12 suggested amendments.
These ten amendments became the Bill of Rights.
However, the states did not ratify the other two amendments out of the 12  including the one on limiting pay for Congresspeople.
Proposal and ratification
Proposal by Congress
James Madison first proposed this amendment in the United States House of Representatives on June 8, 1789.
On August 24, 1789, the House passed the suggested amendment and sixteen others.
The proposals went next to the United States Senate, which made 26 different changes to the House's suggested amendments.
After taking out some parts of the House amendments, and combining others, the Senate approved a package of twelve suggested amendments on September 9, 1789.
Now a committee of House and Senate members had to meet to figure out a compromise and come up with amendments that they could all agree on.
After three days, they had come up with 12 suggested amendments, which they brought back to the full House and Senate.
That same day  September 24, 1789  the House agreed on the 12 proposed amendments.
The next day, the Senate agreed too.
The 12 amendments included the one on Congressional pay.
Ratification by the states
Congress sent the package of 12 amendments to the states on September 25, 1789.
For these amendments to be added to the Constitution, three-fourths of the state legislatures would have to ratify (approve) the amendments.
At the time, there were only 11 states (North Carolina and Rhode Island had not ratified the Constitution yet).
This meant just nine states would have to approve the amendments to add them to the Constitution.
On December 15, 1791, the states ratified ten of the twelve suggested amendments.
These got added to the Constitution together as the Bill of Rights.
However, at this time, only six states had ratified the Congressional pay amendment.
Over the next 186 years, only two more states ratified the Amendment.
Meanwhile, many more states joined the United States.
This meant that a larger number of states would need to ratify the amendment to get it added to the Constitution, since three-fourths of the state legislatures needed to ratify it, and there were more and more states as time went on.
Hide (skin), the cured skin of an animal
Bird hide, a structure for watching birds without disturbing them
Hide (unit), an old unit of land area