the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
In 2003, in a case called Lawrence v. Texas, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that sodomy laws were unconstitutional.
This means no sodomy law in the United States can be used to charge a person with a crime.
Types of laws
Most sodomy laws in the United States made both oral sex and anal sex illegal.
However, state laws did not agree on who could not do these things.
Every state law made sodomy between homosexual couples illegal.
Other state laws also made sodomy illegal between heterosexual couples, if they were not married.
The strictest laws made sodomy illegal in every case, even between married couples.
Creation of sodomy laws
The first sodomy laws in America were created when America was still a colony of the British Empire.
In the Jamestown colony (the first permanent settlement in America), sodomy could be punished by execution.
Sodomy could be punished by execution in many of the other American colonies as well.
In cases of rape or statutory rape, the victim was often punished also.
Sometimes the victim was executed along with their rapist.
In the 1600s, when executions for sodomy were most common, there may have been five or ten people executed for sodomy (including bestiality)
From 1700 to independence in 1776, there may have been five more executions for sodomy (including bestiality)
Historian Anne-Marie Cusac says that about fifty people were executed in the American colonies for sexual crimes (though these crimes included rape as well as sodomy)
Before 1963, every state in the United States had laws against sodomy.
The states did change these laws so that sodomy was no longer a capital crime.
However, punishments could be as severe as life in prison.
Repeals begin
In the 1960s, attitudes toward sex became much more liberal in the United States.
As this happened, some states began to repeal their sodomy laws.
Illinois was the first state to do this, in 1963.
In the 1960s and 1970s, seventeen other states repealed their sodomy laws.
Another seven states changed their laws to say that sodomy between heterosexual couples was not a crime.
These seven states kept laws that made sodomy between homosexual couples a misdemeanor.
However, some states refused to change their laws.
In 1986, the United States Supreme Court ruled that sodomy laws were constitutional, and that states could continue to use them.
By 2003, thirty-one of the fifty states had repealed their laws against sodomy.
Fifteen states had laws left that made sodomy a crime.
Four more had laws that made sodomy between same-sex couples a crime.
In 2003, the United States Supreme Court made a landmark decision in Lawrence v. Texas.
It ruled that Texas's sodomy law was unconstitutional.
This ruling meant that no sodomy law in the United States was constitutional or could be used to charge a person with a crime.
In other words, it made sexual activity between homosexuals legal in every state in America.
Some states refuse to repeal
As of 2019, a total of 15 states had not repealed their sodomy laws, even though they cannot be used any more because of Lawrence v. Texas.
Twelve of these state laws make both heterosexual and homosexual sodomy illegal:
Montana (directed only at homosexual sodomy via a common law definition) (repealed in 2013)
Virginia (repealed in 2014)
Utah (repealed in 2019)
Alabama (repealed in 2019)
The Gulf War oil spill happened in January of 1991 during the Gulf War when Iraq troops were retreating from Kuwait.
Shortly after Coalition forces (made up of 39 countries) started the air campaign against Iraq, Iraqi soldiers opened the valves at the Sea Island oil terminal.
This released between five and ten million gallons of oil into the Persian Gulf—the largest oil spill in history.
The spill was an environmental disaster.
It destroyed the coastal habitats and marine wildlife in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
Disasters in Asia
Hadizatou Mani (born 1984) is a human rights activist from Niger.
In 2009, Mani received an International Women of Courage Award.
In 1996, Mani was sold as a slave for $500.
She was 12 years old.
In 2003, slavery became illegal in Niger.
Mani’s master did not tell her.
Later, he said Mani was his wife, not his slave.
Mani received her "certificate of liberation" in 2005, and she got married.
Her old master took her to court for bigamy.
She got a prison sentence of six months.
Mani took the case to court.
She worked with Timidria, a local NGO, and Anti-Slavery International, a British NGO.
he brought the case to the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
In 2008, ECOWAS said that Niger did not protect her rights.
They said Niger had to pay her a fine of 10 million CFA francs.
In 2009 Mani was named one of the Time 100 people.
In 2009 Mani received the International Women of Courage Award from the U.S. State Department.
Nigerien people
The West African CFA franc is the currency of eight countries in West Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Sénégal and Togo.
CFA means Communauté Financière d'Afrique ("Financial Community of Africa") or Communauté Financière Africaine ("African Financial Community").
Reem Al Numery is a children's rights activist in Yemen.
When Al Numery was 12 years old, she had to marry her 30-year-old cousin.
She protested the wedding, but her father gagged her and tied her up.
After the wedding, she tried to kill herself twice.
Al Numery's father would not let her have a divorce.
A judge said she was too young to decide, and she could decide when she was 15 years old.
Al Numery went to live with her mother.
Her lawyer said she would appeal.
Reem's father said he would kidnap her but Al Numery wanted to go to school.
She got her divorce in 2010
In 2009 Al Numery received the International Women of Courage Award from the U.S. State Department.
In 2010 Al Numery was named one of Time Magazine's most influential people.
Veronika Marchenko is a Russian activist.
Marchenko started the “Mother’s Right” Foundation in 1990 to bring attention to the problem of hazing in the Soviet military.
The organization helps families of soldiers who die in peacetime, and works against corruption.
Many of the deaths are called suicides, so the families have trouble getting money after the death.
In 2007, lawyers from Mother’s Right helped 132 families go to court for survivor's benefits.
They also helped 5,323 families of men who died.
The organization now helps 5000 people a year.
They helped a total of 80,000 people.
Pancuronium bromide is a type of medication called a muscle relaxant.
Its brand name is Pavulon.
It is used in medicine for many different things.
It is also used in euthanasia.
In the United States, pancuronium bromide is used in executions.
It is one of three drugs that are given to prisoners being executed by lethal injection.
Normally, the brain sends chemical signals to the muscles to get them to work.
Pancuronium bromide stops these signals from getting to the muscles.
Without signals from the brain telling them to work, the muscles cannot move.
Because of this, a person who is given enough pancuronium bromide will be completely paralyzed until the drug wears off.
No muscle in their body will be able to move.
A dose of pancuronium bromide takes about 3-6 minutes to paralyze a person.
The drug's effects last for about 100 minutes.
A healthy adult usually needs 120 to 180 minutes to get most of their muscle movement back.
There are antidotes to pancuronium bromide that will help reverse the drug's effects more quickly.
Pancuronium bromide paralyzes the breathing muscles along with all of the other muscles.
This means that pancuronium bromide will stop a person from breathing.
In hospitals, a person who is given pancuronium bromide is then   a tube is put down their throat to pump oxygen into their lungs.
This gives the body the oxygen it needs until the medication wears off, the breathing muscles can work again, and they can breathe in oxygen on their own.
Because the brain is not a muscle, pancuronium bromide does not paralyze the brain.
This means that pancuronium bromide is not a sedative (it will not put a person to sleep), and it does not kill pain.
If a person is given only pancuronium bromide, their brain will keep working normally even while their body is paralyzed.
They will be awake and aware of what is going on, but unable to move.
Uses in medicine
Doctors use pancuronium bromide during surgery.
It keeps the patient's body from moving, and makes it easier to put a breathing tube down their throat.
It is always given along with anesthesia so the patient is asleep and does not feel pain.
A high heart rate, which can lead to high blood pressure and make the heart work harder than normal
Irregular heart beats
Extra salivation (this means the body makes more saliva than usual)
In Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, euthanasia is legal.
Doctors are allowed to give medicines to terminally ill people who want to end their lives.
In these three countries, pancuronium bromide is one of the medicines that doctors often use for euthanasia.
First they give a sedative so the person goes into a deep sleep.
Then they give pancuronium bromide, which stops the person's breathing.
Pancuronium bromide is the second medication.
First, a sedative called sodium thiopenthal puts the prisoner into a deep sleep.
Second, pancuronium bromide is given to keep the prisoner from moving and to stop their breathing.
Third, potassium chloride is given to stop the prisoner's heart.
The use of pancuronium bromide in lethal injections is controversial.
Some doctors and scientists say that potassium chloride is "extremely painful."
They say that if not enough of the sedative medicine was given, nobody would be able to tell if the prisoner was in pain, because they would be paralyzed.
However, other doctors say that if the three drugs are given correctly, lethal injection should not cause pain.
Supporters of lethal injection say that prisoners have pain when these people make mistakes, not because of the drugs themselves.
The European Union has a different definition of "foreign national."
In the European Union, a person is only thought of as a foreign national if they are not a citizen of any country in the European Union.
These people are called "third party nationals," not "foreign nationals."
Was born outside the United States; and
Is a citizen of another country; and
Has not become a United States citizen through naturalization.
Aérocentre is a French group of aerospace engineering companies and research centres.
It is in the region of Centre-Val de Loire in the middle of France.
There are over 321 companies.
About 20.000 people work there in the aviation and space flight industries.
The headquarters of Aérocentre is in Châteauroux.
The chairman of the group is Jean-Michel Sanchez.
Agence régionale pour l'innovation
Banque Populaire
Airemploi
Centre d'études supérieures industrielles of Orléans
Électrcité de France
Website of Aérocentre
The 2014–15 La Liga season (known as the Liga BBVA for sponsorship reasons) was the 84th season of the premier association football league in Spain.
The campaign began on 23 August 2014 and ended on 24 May 2015.
4 Player scored four goals
5 Player scored five goals
A constitutional convention is a convention where an organization's constitution can be created, revised, or amended.
A general constitutional convention is called to create the first constitution of a political unit or to entirely replace an existing constitution.
An unlimited constitutional convention is called to revise an existing constitution.
A limited constitutional convention is restricted to revising only a limited area of the current constitution.
However, such conventions may decide to go beyond their original authority.
For example, the United States Constitutional Convention of 1787 was supposed to be limited to amending the Articles of Confederation.
Instead, they wrote an entirely new constitution.
Constitutional convention
The United States Constitution is silent regarding rules of how a constitutional convention would operate.
There are no standards for states calling for a convention.
Even calls for a constitutional convention made 50 to 100 years ago on an entirely different topic might be counted towards the required 34 states needed to call a constitutional convention.
Oklahoma, for example, called for a convention in 1976 but then rescinded it in 2009.
They were concerned that such a convention might make unforeseen changes in any area of the Constitution.
Those in favor of a constitutional convention may want to count Oklahoma's call for a convention anyway.
Article Five of the United States Constitution provides two ways that constitutional amendments can be proposed:
By 2/3 of both houses of the Congress.
By a majority vote in 2/3 of the state legislatures.
Either way that amendments are proposed, they must then be ratified.
Article Five gives two choices for how an amendment can be ratified.
Congress chooses which way to use.
Letting the state legislatures ratify the amendment.
This is a group of people  not members of the state legislature—who would decide whether or not to ratify the amendment.
An organized body (when an organization already has a constitution, officers and by-laws) will usually have appointed a committee on credentials and a committee on program before the convention begins.
The committee on credentials (also called registration) checks the identity of delegates and gives each one a name badge or card as evidence they belong there.
A program committee should have copies of the program available to all delegates before the convention begins.
Other committees may be appointed as necessary.
A convention is a meeting of individuals who meet at an arranged place and time to discuss or engage in some common interest.
The most common conventions are based upon industry, profession, and fandom.
Trade conventions are usually about an industry or industry segment.
They often include keynote speakers, vendor displays, and other information and activities of interest to the event organizers and those who attend the convention.
Professional conventions focus on issues of concern to the profession.
Fan conventions usually feature displays, shows, and sales based on pop culture and guest celebrities.
Science fiction conventions are similar to both professional conventions and fan conventions.
Conventions also exist for various hobbies, such as gaming or model railroads.
Convention may mean:
Convention (norm), a custom or tradition, a standard of presentation or conduct
Treaty, an agreement in international law
Convention (meeting), meeting of a (usually large) group of people and/or companies who share a common interest
Fan convention, a gathering of fans of a particular  genre
Gaming convention, has role-playing games, collectible card games, miniatures wargames, board games, video games, and the like
Political convention, a formal gathering of people for political purposes
Trade fair
Bridge convention, a term in the game of bridge
Convention (Paris Métro), a station on line 12 of the Paris Métro in the 15th arrondissement
"The Convention" (The Office episode)
"Convention" (Malcolm in the Middle episode)
National Convention (disambiguation)
Ella  Mitchell (born 15 August 1937) is an American soul singer and actress.
She is best remembered for playing  Hattie Mae Pierce (Big Momma) in the 2000 comedy movie Big Momma's House.
She also played Evillene the evil witch in the Broadway theatre  musical The Wiz.
singers from Ohio
comedians from Ohio
The HMS Birkenhead was a British troopship that sank on 25 February 1852 near Cape Town, South Africa.
It was one of the first iron-hulled ships built for the Royal Navy.
She was designed as a steam-powered frigate, but was converted to a troopship before being commissioned.
Many of the lifeboats could not be lowered because of poor maintenance and a thick layer of paint that kept the mechanisms from working.
The soldiers famously stood aside and allowed the women and children to get into the working lifeboats safely.
Only 193 of the 643 people on board survived.
The chivalry shown by the soldiers gave rise to the "women and children first" protocol when abandoning ship.
The "Birkenhead drill" is memorialized in Rudyard Kipling's poem Soldier an' Sailor too:
The Birkenhead steamed out of Simon's Bay near Cape Town, South Africa on February 25, 1852 bound for Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
The ship had been built by the famous Scottish John Laird family of Birkenhead, Merseyside, England.
She was a 1400-ton ship that was just over 200 feet long.
On board were 643 men, women and children as well as several officer's horses.
Among the passengers were soldiers destined for the Queen's (second) Royal Regiment of Foot.
They were commanded by Ensign Boylan, one corporal and 51 men.
The ship's captain, Robert Salmond, wanted to make the trip quickly so he hugged the South African coast staying about 3 miles (4.8 km) off the shore.
That evening, everyone was resting in their hammocks below decks when the ship hit a hidden reef off a point now called "Point Danger".
The impact ripped the ship open allowing the sea to pour in.
The forward watertight compartment flooded immediately, drowning about 100 men in their hammocks.
A second impact tore open the second of the two watertight compartments flooding it.
The remaining officers and men assembled on the deck.
Because the winches were not well maintained and clogged with paint, the two large lifeboats that could hold 150 people each could not be launched.
The ship fired distress rockets but there were no other ships nearby.
Two cutters and one gig (small boat) were launched.
The order was given for the men to "stand fast" (remain where they were) allowing the women and children into the few boats available.
The horses were freed so they could swim the approximately two miles (3.2 km) to shore.
Twenty minutes after hitting the rock the ship broke up and sank.
A few managed to swim to shore while most either drowned or were taken by sharks.
The schooner Lioness discovered one of the cutters the next morning and made it to the scene where they rescued as many people as they could.
It was reported in The Times newspaper that there were 643 people on board the Birkenhead, but this was an estimate as the records were lost with the ship.
The survivors included about 113 Army personnel of all ranks, 6 Royal Marines, 54 sailors, 7 women and 13 children.
Eight horses made it to shore (a ninth broke its leg getting off the ship).
The disaster was the start of the standard protocol of women and children first.
The Birkenhead Drill became the best example of courage in the face of death.
A lighthouse was built at Danger Point in 1895 to warn ships of the dangerous reef.
It is about 59 feet (18 metres) tall and can be seen for about 25 nautical miles out to sea.
A memorial to the Birkenhead disaster is at the base and points to the rock where the ship sank.
Soldier an' Sailor too, by Rudyard Kipling
Birkenhead drill, YouTube
‘Women and Children First’?
On Sinking Ships, It’s Every Man for Himself
Constitutional convention (political meeting), a meeting of delegates to adopt a new constitution or revise an existing constitution.
Constitutional conventions by country
Constitutional Convention (Australia), any of four gatherings in 1891, 1897–98, 1973, 1998
Australian Constitutional Convention 1998
Constitutional Convention (Ireland), established in 2012
Constitutional Convention (Philippines)
Scottish Constitutional Convention
Colonel Petra Herrera, also known as "Pedro Herrera", was a Mexican "soldadera".
She fought as a revolutionary in the Mexican Revolution.
Petra Herrera changed herself into "Pedro" Herrera and joined the revolutionary troops of Pancho Villa.
She changed her looks and became more masculine.
She invented tricks like saying she shaved at dawn before the other soldiers were awake.
She was known for her courage, and for her specialty of blowing up bridges.
As "Pedro" Herrera, she was well-liked.
She was accepted as a leader.
She decided to reveal that she was a woman, but the  revolutionary leaders would not give her a military rank.
Fight in Torreón
Herrera decided to leave Pancho Villa's group.
She created a group of women who, like her, wanted to fight at the front.
Sources say there were tens of thousands of them.
Herrera was in the biggest fight of the war to that date, the second battle of Torreón in 1914.
With 400 other women, she took the city on May 30, 1914.
Cosme Mendoza Chavira, another follower of Villa, said "Ella fue quien tomo Torreón y apago las luces cuando entraron en la ciudad" (She was the one who took Torreón and turned out the lights when they entered the city.")
Conventional history does not say anything about the participation of Petra Herrera.
Villa gave the role of Petra Herrera in the revolution to  an unknown woman.
The end of her days
At the end of the fighting, she asked to be a general and to continue to fight, but they only gave her a promotion to colonel.
Later, the women under her command were disbanded.
It is not clear how Herrera died.
Some say she finished her military days as a spy.
They say she was attacked by bandits and died from the wounds.
Others say she died in the cross fire between the federal soldiers and the revolutionaries in Zacatecas.
Others say she formed her own brigade of 25,000 women and lived in a camp where men could not enter without being attacked.
Still others say she ended her existence as a waitress in the city of Juarez in Chihuahua.
Bothriolepis is a genus of antiarch placoderms.
It was widespread and diverse in the middle to late Devonian.
Bothriolepis lived in environments across every continent including near-shore marine and freshwater settings.
Most species of Bothriolepis were  small, benthic, freshwater detritivores.
They got nutrients by eating decomposing plant/animal material.
They were about  in length.
However, the largest species, B. maxima, had a carapace about  in length.
The Arthrodires (Arthrodira) are an order of extinct armoured, jawed fishes of the class Placodermi.
They flourished in the Devonian period before their sudden extinction, surviving for about 50 million years and living in most marine ecological niches.
Greek for "jointed neck", the arthrodires had movable joints between armour plates surrounding the head and body.
The mouth is interesting.
As the lower jaw moved down, the head shield moved, allowing a large opening.
Lacking distinct teeth, like all placoderms, they used the sharpened edges of a bony plate as a biting surface.
The eye sockets are protected by a bony ring, a feature shared by birds and some ichthyosaurs.
Early arthrodires, such as the genus Arctolepis, were well-armoured fishes with flattened bodies.
The largest member of this group, Dunkleosteus, was a true superpredator of the latest Devonian period, from 3 to 9 m in length.
In contrast, the long-nosed Rolfosteus measured just 15 cm.
A common misconception is the arthrodires were sluggish bottom-dwellers that were outcompeted by more advanced fish.
But during their reign, the arthrodires were one of the most diverse and numerically successful vertebrate orders of the Devonian.
They occupied a vast spectrum of roles from apex predator to detritus-nibbling bottom dweller.
The arthrodires were one of many groups eliminated by the mass extinctions of the late Devonian.
This let other fish such as sharks diversify into the vacant ecological niches during the Carboniferous period.
Captain Forever is the name for several space shooter indie games created by Jarred "Farbs" Woods.
There are six total versions of the games in the series.
In Captain Forever, the player is the pilot of a ship that can be expanded or upgraded using parts (such as blasters or boosters) found from other defeated ships.
The goal is to stay alive for as long as possible.
The game advances by defeating ships of progressive difficulty (represented by color) You lose the game after the pilot is destroyed.
Captain Successor was released in 2009, and included new parts.
Captain Impostor  was released in 2010 for supporters of the game, and included some updates
Captain Jameson was a new project, but scrapped in 2013.
This served as the framework for the next game, Dawn Star.
Dawn Star updated the game with new aesthetics and mechanics.
Originally called Captain Jameson Reboot.
Captain Forever Remix was released in 2015 by Jarred "Farbs" Woods with Dean Tate and Brian Chan, working with Pixelsaurus games.
Captain Forever Remix added many new parts to the ship, and, allowed for parts to be unlocked, and a series of definitive levels (represented by planets in the solar system).
The game also styles the pilot as a young girl imagining the game, playing against her brother, the antagonist of the game.
Progression through the planets is achieved by destroying ships of a certain level.
Captain Forever won the Best Game award at China's first Independent Games Festival in 2009.
The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign in World War II to defeat the Germans in 1945.
The British Royal Navy repeated the blockade of Germany of World War I, and Germany repeated its attempt to blockade Britain by using U-boats.
Paris Square (, Kikar Pariz, also called France Square = Kikar Tzarfat) is a square or plaza in Jerusalem.
The name France Square was established in 1959.
In 2007 the city of Paris gave Jerusalem a "French Fountain" that was built in the middle of the square.
From that time the square has been called "Paris Square".
Moscow Square (, Kikar Moskva, ) is a public square in Jerusalem, Israel.
The square was dedicated in 2007 during the visit of the mayor of Moscow Yury Luzhkov in Israel.
The square is the center of the Russian Compound next to the Russian church.
Rome Square (, Kikar Roma, ) is a public square in Jerusalem, Israel.
The square was dedicated in 2009 during the visit of the mayor of Rome Gianni Alemanno.
The square in located next to the Italian Jews Museum and the Italian Synagogue in Jerusalem.
Võ Thị Sáu (Đất Đỏ, 1933 – March 13, 1952) was a Vietnamese hero.
She was a schoolgirl who fought against the French. (
Vietnam was a French colony until 1954.)
She was a guerilla fighter.
She was born Phước Thọ Commune, Đất Đỏ District in 1933.
In 1948, she started helping the Viet Minh.
Many of her friends and family were part of the Viet Minh.
She was a contact for the guerillas and passed information to the fighters.
When she was 14, she attacked some French soldiers.
She threw a grenade at them.
A Captain was killed.
Twelve soldiers were hurt.
She was not caught.
In 1949, she made another attack.
She threw a grenade at a man who was in charge of executions (a canton chief.)
The attack did not work: the grenade didn't explode.
The French police caught her after the attack.
Sáu went to three different prisons.
The last prison she went to was Côn Sơn Prison in the Côn Đảo Islands.
She was executed (killed) on 13 March 1952.
Today, she is considered a martyr.
She is buried in Hàng Dương Cemetery on Côn Sơn Island.
Many Vietnamese people come to worship at her grave.
Electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) is a condition where a person feels unwell, which people who have it believe it to be due to being near  electromagnetic fields.
Other names for it include electrohypersensitivity, electro-sensitivity, and electrical sensitivity (ES).
Wi-Fi allergy is a form of EHS.
According to the World Health Organization, EHS is described by vague symptoms that are different in each person.
The symptoms are real and can be weak or strong and can make some disabled.
There is no specific list of features to diagnose someone, and there is no scientific link between electromagnetic fields and how people feel.
EHS is not a medical diagnosis.
People who claim to have EHS blame it for headaches, fatigue, stress, sleep disturbances, skin symptoms like prickling, burning sensations and rashes, pain and ache in muscles and many other health problems.
Although electromagnetic fields can make the body hot, people who say they have EHS say they feel sick at very low levels.
Most experiments show that people who claim to have EHS can't correctly tell if they are near EM radiation or not, and the medical and scientific communities don't think its a real illness.
Several double-blind experiments suggest that people who say they have EHS can't detect if electromagnetic fields are present, and are just as likely to report feeling sick after a phony exposure as they are after real exposure, making scientists think it is the nocebo effect.
In the TV show Better Call Saul, Jimmy McGill's brother Chuck stays at home and believes he suffers from electromagnetic hypersensitivity.
Wi-Fi Safety
Better Call Saul is an American television series created by Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould.
It is a spin-off another show, Breaking Bad.
Better Call Saul is set in 2002 and follows the story of a lawyer "Jimmy" McGill (Bob Odenkirk), six years before he appeared on Breaking Bad.
The first season consists of 10 episodes.
The show's 10-episode second season premiered on February 15, 2016.
On March 15, 2016, the series was renewed for a 10-episode third season.
Like the show that came before it, Better Call Saul has been praised by critics.
It has been nominated for several awards, including four Primetime Emmy Awards, three Writers Guild of America Awards, two Critics' Choice Television Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Golden Globe Award.
The first episode held the record for the highest-rated scripted series premiere in basic cable history.
The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was created by the United Nations Security Council in October 1993.
This was just after the end of the Rwandan Civil War.
UNAMIR's goals were to help put a peace agreement into place, monitor how well it was going, and support the new government.
However, on April 7, 1994, while UNAMIR was in Rwanda, the Rwandan genocide started.
The genocide lasted 100 days.
During that time, 800,000 people were killed; 2 million became refugees in other countries; another two million had to run away to different parts of Rwanda; and up to 250,000 women were raped.
The UNAMIR ended in March 1996.
Since the genocide, the United Nations has admitted that they failed to prevent the Rwandan genocide.
Overview of the genocide
In a genocide, many or all people in a group are killed because of their ethnicity, religion, or political opinions.
From 1990-1993, the two groups had fought a civil war about who would control the government.
This war ended with a peace treaty in 1993.
One of the reasons UNAMIR got involved was to make sure both sides obeyed that agreement.
However, the Hutu extremists blamed a Tutsi rebel group, and right away, they started killing Tutsis.
There were not many countries in the United Nations that were interested in sending peacekeeping troops to Rwanda, even before the genocide started.
France was an ally of the Hutu-led government, and did not want to fight it.
The United States had just had soldiers tortured and killed in Somalia a year before, and did not want to get into another fight in Africa."
Also, many countries thought there was nothing in it for them if they helped Rwanda.
Rwanda had no important natural resources, like oil or gold, and it was tiny.
It took five months to get United Nations member countries to offer enough soldiers for this mission.
No power to protect citizens
Once the genocide started, UNAMIR ran into a serious problem.
UNAMIR has to get its "mandate" (its powers, goals, and orders for a mission) from the United Nations Security Council.
For this mission, UNAMIR's mandate did not include stopping the genocide or protecting civilians.
Work in Rwanda
Once they saw what was happening in Rwanda, the UNAMIR Commander, Roméo Dallaire, and Belgian peacekeepers asked the Security Council to give them more power and soldiers to stop the killings.
However, the United Nations member countries refused to change these rules for UNAMIR.
They and other world leaders talked about the genocide as 'just another ethnic conflict' and said these types of things would always go on in Africa.
Other countries began to copy Belgium and pull their soldiers out of Rwanda.
However, many people have accused France of not doing enough to stop the genocide in its safe zone.
Here are some of the things France's accusers say:
In rural parts of the safe zone, mass murders were still happening.
France allowed the genocide's leaders to escape through its safe zone into Zaire, without being arrested by French troops.
Other countries' peacekeeping troops and some newspaper reporters say they saw French military trucks driving members of the Rwandan army into Zaire.p.
Rwanda's current president has even accused France of helping the genocide happen.
Together with the Ugandan army, a Tutsi rebel group called the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) fought the extremist Hutus.
Finally, on July 4, 1994, they took control of Kigali, Rwanda's capital city.
This group included many of the genocide's leaders.
With the RPF in control of the country, the killings stopped.
End of UNAMIR
UNAMIR stayed in Rwanda for about two years after the genocide stopped.
It worked on finding homes for refugees, clearing landmines, and helping with humanitarian aid.
Meanwhile, the United Nations raised $762 million to help the genocide victims and to help rebuild the country.
However, Rwanda did not want UNAMIR to stay in its country.
Rwandan leaders told the United Nations that the UN did not help with what Rwanda really needed.
It asked UNAMIR to leave Rwanda.
In March 1996, UNAMIR did.
Views about UN "failure" to protect Rwanda
In 2000, United Nations Security Council admitted that it did fail to prevent the genocide.
They said that they could have helped stopped the killings, but they did not.
Independent report
In 1999, Kofi Annan, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, asked for an independent report about the Rwandan genocide.
He wanted to know why the United Nations and the world had "failed" to stop the Rwandan genocide.
Also, at the time, historic things were happening in South Africa.
Apartheid was ending.
The international mass media chose to focus on that instead of what was happening in Rwanda.
They, like the UN, saw the Rwandan genocide as just another fight between African tribes.
Because there was little to no news broadcasts about Rwanda, most people in the world did not know what was going on there.
They could not push their governments to get involved.
Martin Dominque argues that world leaders may not have wanted to send troops to Africa because they had the wrong ideas about what African people are like.
If they thought African people were always fighting each other and always would, they would think the Rwandan genocide was no different.
Classified documents
Since the independent report came out in 1999, the UN and the United States have released documents that used to be classified.
These documents prove that the UN and the United States:
Knew several years ahead of time that the Hutus had a plan to kill every Tutsi in Rwanda
Knew that the Hutu government was training militias before the genocide began
Knew the Hutus were committing a genocide against the Tutsis, once it started
Dallaire's fax
Roméo Dallaire also says he tried many times to warn the United Nations that a disaster was coming in Rwanda.
Finally, he sent a fax to the military adviser of the Secreretary-General of the United Nations.
He said he had secretly spoken with a leader of the Hutu militia.
This man told him his soldiers were trained and ready to kill Tutsis.
For example, he said, his soldiers could kill 1,000 Tutsi in 20 minutes.
The man said he thought that huge massacres of Tutsis were about to begin.
Finally, he told Dallaire where the Hutu militia were keeping many of their weapons.
In his fax, Dallaire said he wanted to take action and take away those weapons.
If the weapons were not taken away, they would be used to kill Tutsis.
The next day, he received a fax back from Kofi Annan, who was in charge of peacekeeping at the United Nations.
He ordered Dallaire not to take any action.
He told Dallaire that protecting citizens was not part of UNAMIR's mandate.
About three months later, the Rwandan genocide began.
1996 in Africa
On 10 April 2016 at around 3:30 am Indian Standard Time, there was an explosion and fire at the Puttingal Temple in Paravur, Kollam, Kerala, India.
The incident happened when firework celebrations went out of control.
More than 100 people were killed.
More than 350 were injured, some with severe burns.
The temple did not have permission from Kerala Government authorities to do a competitive fireworks display.
2016 in India
Marie Christine de Rouvroy (May 7, 1728 - July 4, 1774) was a French noblewoman.
She was later a member of the House of Grimaldi by marriage.
She was a granddaughter of the famous writer, the duc de Saint-Simon  (1675-1755).
She was known as the Countess of Valentinois or as Princess Charles Maurice of Monaco.
She was a lady-in-waiting to three of the daughters of Louis XV of France and to the Countess of Provence.
Her parents were Jacques Louis de Rouvroy, Duke of Ruffec (1698-1746) and his wife Catherine Charlotte Thérèse de Gramont (1707-1755).
She was known as Mademoiselle de Ruffec before marriage.
she was formally married to Prince Charles Maurice Grimaldi of Monaco, "Count of Valentinois" on 10 December 1749.
The wedding took place in the private chapel of the Hôtel Saint-Simon in Paris with the express permission of Louis XV.
The couple eventually separated in 1766, having had no children.
May 7 1728 - 10 December 1749: Mademoiselle de Ruffec.
10 December 1749 - 1766: The Countess of Valentinois. (
Madame la comtesse de Valentinois)
Złotoryja (German: Goldberg, Latin: Aurum) it's a town in southwest Poland in Lower Silesian Voivodeship.
Złotoryja is a capital of Złotoryja County.
Since 8th until 10th century in the area of Złotoryja lived people from tribe called Trzebowianie.
At the end of the 12th century German miners settled here.
In 1211 Złotoryja received the city law.
In 1241 miners from Złotoryja fought in Battle of Legnica against Mongols.
The Impuzamugambi was a militia that was created in Rwanda in 1992.
"Impuzamugambi" means "those with the same goal" in Kinyarwanda, Rwanda's official language.
The Impuzamugambi was made of young people from an ethnic group called the Hutus.
A similar militia, the Interahamwe, was also made of young Hutus.
Together, these two militias killed tens of thousands of Tutsis, members of another ethnic group, in the Rwandan genocide.
They also killed some Hutus who did not agree with the pro-Hutu government.
About the Impuzamugambi
In 1992, two political parties that supported the Hutu president created the Impuzamugambi and the Interahamwe.
These political parties were extremist pro-Hutu groups.
The militias got training from the Rwandan army.
Some groups and witnesses have said that French soldiers also trained the militias.
One of the militias' commanders bragged that his men were so well trained that they could kill 1,000 Tutsis in 20 minutes.
The Impuzamugambi during the genocide
On April 6, 1994, Rwanda's President, Juvénal Habyarimana, and Burundi's President were in an airplane that got shot down.
Both men were Hutus.
As the United States Department of State said later:
Within half an hour of the airplane crash, the Impuzamugambi and the Interahamwe started blocking the roads in Kigali, Rwanda's capital city.
All Rwandans had to carry identification cards that said their ethnic group on them.
The militias killed every Tutsi they found.
Identification cards made it easy to tell who was a Tutsi
Leaders gave the militia lists of people they wanted to be killed; if one of these people stopped at a roadblock, the militia would kill them
The roadblocks made Tutsis too scared to try to escape from Rwanda on the roads
Door-to-door killing
During the first few days of the genocide, the Rwandan Army and the Presidential Guard took charge of executing people in Kigali.
However, the Impuzamugambi and the Interahamwe were with them, and the soldiers taught them what to do.
Soon, they were working together.
First the soldiers would fire grenades, tear gas, and machine guns into places where Tutsis might be staying.
Then the militia were allowed to go in and kill everybody inside.
Often, they used machetes or clubs to kill people.
Then the soldiers and militia would search, inch by inch, to find anyone who might still be hiding.
Spreading the genocide
According to Human Rights Watch, before April 6, the militias had only about 2,000 members, mostly in Kigali.
However: "Once the genocide began and militia members began reaping the rewards of violence, their numbers [increased quickly] to between twenty and thirty thousand for the [whole] country[.]"
Eventually, the Impuzamugambi and the Interahamwe grew so much that together they had 50,000 members.
That was half as many members as the regular Rwandan Army had.
This allowed the militias to spread the genocide around Rwanda.
There were militia all over the country.
However, the militia did not do all of the killing in the genocide.
They encouraged, and sometimes forced, regular people to kill their Tutsi neighbors, friends, wives, or husbands.
If they did not do this, they would be killed themselves.
The militias massacred groups of Tutsis who were trying to hide in places like schools and churches.
For example, on April 21, 1994, in the Murambi Technical School massacre, militia members killed almost 65,000 Tutsis in one day.
The militias also raped and sexually assaulted many women and girls.
Overall, during the genocide, between 150,000 and 250,000 women and girls were raped (though there is no way to know how many of these crimes were committed by militia, and how many by army members).
The Ugandan army joined the a Tutsi rebel army in fighting the extremist Hutus.
After this, about two million Hutus ran away from Rwanda to Zaire (now called the Democratic Republic of the Congo).
With the Tutsis in control, the genocide ended.
Prosecution and punishment
Many of the Impuzamugambi were among the two million people who fled from Rwanda to eastern Zaire.
The Tutsi and Ugandan armies went after them.
According to the BBC, "Human rights groups say the [Tutsi rebel army] killed thousands of Hutu civilians as they took power  and more after they went into [Zaire] to [follow] the [militias]."
However, there is no way to know how many members of the Impuzamugambi may have been killed.
However, an international court was able to convict two of the Impuzamugambi's commanders: Hassan Ngeze and Jean Bosco Barayagwiza.
Its goal was to prosecute people who took part in genocide, war crimes, or crimes against humanity.
In 2003, the ICTR found both Ngeze and Barayagwiza guilty of planning and leading the genocide; trying to get other people to commit genocide; and crimes against humanity.
They were both sentenced to life in prison.
The sentence against Barayagwiza was later decreased to 35 years due to a legal mistake.
He will stay in prison for at least 27 years.
The Free French Forces were a free army during the Nazi occupation of France in World War II.
It started in 1940.
It ended in 1944 because of the invasion of Normandy.
These forces made a major impact on the German army by destroying railroads and attacking German units.
Prince Charles Maurice, Count of Valentinois (14 May 1727 – 18 January 1798) was a Monégasque prince and member of the House of Grimaldi.
He was known by his title Count of Valentinois.
He had a fairly importanmt military career and was also a Grandee of Spain.
He is also sometimes referred to as Prince Charles Maurice of Monaco.
Born at the "Hôtel Matignon" in Paris, he was the eighth child of the reigning Princess Louise Hippolyte of Monaco and her husband Prince Jacques I. His father was the Duke of Valentinois but the title was given to Charles Maurice to be used as a Count.
Married on 10 November 1749 to Marie Christine de Rouvroy the couple were married in Paris with the express permission of Louis XV of France.
They separated in 1766 having had no children together.
École nationale supérieure de techniques avancées (ENSTA ParisTech) is a renowned graduate engineering school in France.
It is in a campus of the University of Paris-Saclay.
Ingénieur ENSTA ParisTech (ENSTA ParisTech Graduate engineer Masters level program)
Massive Online Open Course.
Students from a dozen of nationalities participate to the different curricula at ENSTA ParisTech.
The "ENSTA Programme" typically lasts three years and results in a master's degree, augmented with international experience.
Thus undergraduate studies + the ENSTA Programme account for more than a cumulated 300 ECTS credits as applicable in the European education system.
Chemistry and Processes Unit (UCP)
Electronics-IT-robotics Unit (U2IS)
Applied Mathematics Unit (UMA)
Mechanics Unit (UME)
Applied Optics Unit (UOA)
Applied Economics Unit
A wind instrument is a type of musical instrument where the player blows into (or over) a mouthpiece to produce sound.
They typically fit into two categories: woodwind instruments and brass instruments.
Woodwind instruments include oboe, clarinet, flute, and saxophone.
The brass instruments include the bugle, trumpet, trombone, cornet and tuba.
The Kawasaki Heavy Industries C151 is a type of train used by Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system.
It is the first generation rolling stock on the MRT and is one of the five types of electric multiple units on the North South and East West Lines.
The trains were introduced in 1987 and are still in operation.
There are sixty-six trainsets with six cars each.
There is a single money trainset with four cars that was used to collect money from different stations.
It has been withdrawn from service.
These trains are operated by SMRT Trains.
The trains were upgraded between 2006 and 2008, mainly to improve the trains' appearances.
Most of the important parts for the trains' functioning were not replaced as they were still considered in good condition.
However, due to what was considered one of the MRT's worst breakdowns in its history, a second upgrade was planned to replace these important parts, but the Land Transport Authority paused the upgrades as they wanted to replace the trains entirely instead.
Currently, only a few trains have these parts replaced.
Train Formation
The C151 is made out of 2 3-car trainsets permanently coupled together.
Each trainset is assigned a unique number, and each carriage has its own number.
There are 132 trainsets numbering 001-132.
There would either be normal coupled (099/100) or cross coupled (001/100).
A complete set would be coupled together as such:
DT- driving trailer (3)  M1/2 motor car 1/2 (1/2)
The second number is the identification number.
For the C151, this number is either a '0' or a '1'.
For example, trainset 099/100 would consist of:  3099-1099-2099-2100-1100-3100
Kawasaki Heavy Industries & Nippon Sharyo C751B
Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CSR Qingdao Sifang C151A
Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CSR Qingdao Sifang C151B
Kawasaki Heavy Industries & CRRC Sifang C151C
El Hedim Square (, "the square of demolition") is a famous square in Meknes, Morocco.
The square was built in the years 1672-1674 after the Sultan of Morocco, Moulay Ismail, demolished half of the Old city of Meknes for his palace and the square.
the Mansour Gate is in the front of the square.
1670s establishments
Buprestida is a family of beetles.
In English, they are known as jewel beetles or metallic wood-boring beetles, because of the coloring of their carapace.
The family is among the largest of the beetles, with some 15,000 recent species  in 450 genera.
In addition, almost 100 fossil species have been described.
A Moroccan riad is a traditional Moroccan house or palace with an inside garden or courtyard.
A riad normally has two or more storeys around an Andalusian-style courtyard that contained a fountain.
They usually do not have outside-facing windows.
Riads were the city homes of the wealthiest citizens such as merchants and courtiers.
The name riad comes from the Arabic word ‘ryad’, meaning a garden.
that art of moroccan riad in "Metropolismag" site
In the United States, people have to pay income taxes to the United States government, most state governments, and many local governments.
This means that people have to pay taxes to these governments, based on how much money they earn.
Income taxes are based on what a person earns in one calendar year  between January 1 and December 31.