the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The HGNC gives a long name, and an abbreviation (referred to as a symbol) to every gene.
The HGNC is part of the Human Genome Organisation (HUGO).
Traditional gene names and abbreviations are often not specific for a single gene.
Example: CAP (which means just "chromosome-associated protein") can refer to any of six different genes: (BRD4, CAP1 , LNPEP , PTPLA , SERPINB6 , and SORBS1 ).
Unlike traditional names like CAP, the HGNC short gene names, or gene symbols, are given to one gene only.
This reduces confusion as to which gene is referred to.
Naming guidelines
The HGNC approach to naming genes and assigning symbols (gene name abbreviations)is:
gene symbols must be unique
symbols should only use the Roman alphabet and Arabic numerals
symbols should not contain punctuation or "G" for gene
symbols do not contain any reference to the species they are encoded in, i.e. "H/h" for human
The full description of HGNC's nomenclature guidelines can be found on their web site .
HGNC advocates the appendices _v1, _v2,.. to distinguish between different splice variants and _pr1, _pr2,.. for promoter variants of a single gene.
HGNC also states that "gene nomenclature should evolve with new technology rather than be restrictive as sometimes occurs when historical and single gene nomenclature systems are applied".
The HGNC contacts authors who have published on the human gene in question by e-mail.
They are asked their opinion on the proposed nomenclature.
HGNC also works with other database curators, and experts for specific gene families or sets of genes.
Changing a standardised gene name after it has got established may cause confusion.
The merit of such changes are therefore controversial.
For this reason the HGNC changes a gene name only if agreement for that change can be got from most researchers working on that gene.
Human Genome Organisation (HUGO)
human genome
gene nomenclature
HGNC homepage
HUGO homepage
A weir is a barrier built across a river which changes the flow of the river.
Depending on the design, some pose problems for fish, as the fish cannot get across the weir.
Promoters are near the genes they transcribe.
They are on the same strand of DNA and are 'upstream'.
Promoters contain specific DNA sequences which give the RNA polymerase a place to bind.
Other proteins also help this to happen.
Some can also stop it from happening.
The whole thing is called "the regulation of gene expression".
In bacteria The promoter is recognized by RNA polymerase and another protein.
In eukaryotes The process is more complicated.
At least seven different factors are needed so RNA polymerase II can bind to the promoter.
Promoters are important parts of the DNA.
They work with other regulatory regions.
Together, they adjust the level of transcription of a gene.
So, genes get switched on when they are needed, and switched off when they are not.
When they are on, they get adjusted up or down as needed.
Elizabeth Anne "Lizzy" Caplan (born 30 June 1982) is an American television and movie actress.
She has played many roles.
She played Janis Ian in Mean Girls, Marlena Diamond in Cloverfield and Gena in Bachelorette.
She also played Amy Burley in the show True Blood.
Since 2013 she has played Virginia E. Johnson in Masters of Sex.
Tax evasion is criminal activity to evade taxes.
It may be done by trusts, persons or organizations.
The main way taxpayers evade taxes is by deliberately misrepresenting the actual state of their affairs to tax authorities to reduce their tax liability.
This includes dishonest tax reporting, such as declaring less income or profit than the amounts which were actually earned.
Tax evasion is an activity connected with the informal economy.
Paintball is a sport in which players try to eliminate opponents by shooting each other with balls of coloured dye.
The players can compete either in teams or individually.
The balls of dye (called "paintballs") are shot through a device called a paintball marker (or paintball gun).
When the paintballs hit, they release the dye.
When they hit a player, the dye marks that player as eliminated.
The game is often played as an organised competitive sport, involving leagues, tournaments, and professional teams.
Paintball can be played indoors or outdoors, on fields specifically made for the game.
The field is scattered with natural or artificial obstacles and terrain, which players use to hide behind.
The objective can vary according to the type of game being played.
Players may have to capture a flag held by the opposing team, defend or capture a particular point on the field, or simply eliminate all other players on the field until they are the only player or team remaining.
Depending on the variant played, games can last from seconds to hours.
In many countries, paintball is regulated by specific laws.
Players are usually required to wear protective gear (such as masks), and game rules are strictly enforced.
Paintball is also used by military forces and law enforcement for training recruits.
The playing field is scattered with several obstacles.
These are used to block the view of opponents and prevent them from firing accurately.
They may be a shelter, fallen tree, barrels, or a cylindrical tube.
In most modern speedball tournaments, inflatable vinyl objects of different shapes and sizes are used.
Scenario paintball - Scenario paintball games strive to be the most realistic paintball games you can play.
Scenario paintball games are usually based on a story line such as the Battles of Normandy or Iwo Jima, however they are not all limited to World War II.
Some go into the realm of Sci-Fi and play out an alien invasion.
In nearly every Scenario game there are props, character players, paintball grenades, smoke bombs and sometimes vehicles and bodies of water as well.
Scenario Paintball is very similar to big Airsoft games.
Scenario games also last much longer than the other types of paintball  games, usually lasting anywhere from 12 hours to several days.
Capture the Flag - There are two variations of this type: Normal two flag, and center flag.
In the normal two flag type game, each team has a flag on opposite sides of the field.
The objective is to capture the opposing team's flag and return it to your base.
Center flag is where there is a single flag in the center of the field.
The objective is to get the flag and take it to the far side of the field.
Elimination - The objective is to simply eliminate everyone else on the other team.
Games typically last from 15-20 minutes.
Big games, however, can last hours.
Most big games have rejuvenation every half hour or so, so if you get out in the first 10 minutes, you're not sitting on the sidelines for two hours.
A sham marriage is when people get married just for the sake of convenience or to deceive the public or society.
Entering such marriages is a violation of the law in some countries.
Usual reasons for sham marriages are to gain immigration rights for one of the spouses or to create defense against the suspicion of homosexuality.
The term lavender marriage relates to man-woman marriage which is for purposes of hiding homosexuality.
This is called a "beard" in slang terminology.
The term lavender marriage was started in the 1920s.
Such marriages are called marriages of convenience.
They are done to protect public reputations and preserve careers of some people.
1920s establishments
Mail-order brides are women who list themselves in catalogs and are picked by males for marriage.
The term mail-order bride dates back to the 19th century.
These brides often come from one country and immigrate to another for marriage reasons.
Paula Prentiss (born March 4, 1938) is an American movie and television series actress.
She first became famous in the 1960s.
She played Bobbie Markowe in the 1975 movie version of The Stepford Wives.
She played a maternity nurse in the 1996 movie Mrs. Winterbourne.
Alice Faye (May 5, 1915 – May 9, 1998) was an American singer and actress.
She was first in movies made by the 20th Century Fox, and then in other movies.
She sang the Academy Award winning "You'll Never Know", a 1943 song.
She also acted in the movie Poor Little Rich Girl in 1936 with Shirley Temple.
Faye was born in New York City.
She died from stomach cancer at age eighty-three.
Some cassette players also can record music or other sounds to cassette tapes.
If a microphone is built in, there is no need for a separate microphone but in that case the quality of sound may not be so good.
Most cassette decks were made in the late 20th century.
audio technology
Lucrezia Borgia  (18 April 1480 – 24 June 1519) was the daughter of Pope Alexander VI, and his long-term mistress Vannozza dei Cattanei.
Her brothers included Cesare Borgia, Giovanni Borgia, and Gioffre Borgia.
Lucrezia's family was typical of the ruthless Machiavellian politics and sexual corruption of the times.
It was alleged to be characteristic of the Renaissance Papacy.
Lucrezia was cast as a femme fatale, a role seen in many artworks, novels, and films.
Very little is known for sure about Lucrezia.
Whether she was involved in the political activities of her father and brothers is unclear.
They certainly arranged several marriages for her to important and powerful men.
Presumably, this helped their own political ambitions.
Lucrezia was married to Giovanni Sforza (Lord of Pesaro), Alfonso of Aragon (Duke of Bisceglie), and Alfonso I d'Este (Duke of Ferrara).
Tradition has it that Alfonso of Aragon was an illegitimate son of the King of Naples and that her brother Cesare may have had him murdered when his political value faded.
Lucrezia is described as having heavy blonde hair which fell past her knees, a beautiful complexion, hazel eyes which changed colour, a full, high bosom, and a natural grace which made her appear to "walk on air".
These features were highly appreciated in Italy during that period.
Another description said that "her mouth is rather large, the teeth brilliantly white, her neck is slender and fair, and the bust is admirably proportioned".
One painting, Portrait of a Youth by Dosso Dossi at the National Gallery of Victoria, was identified as a portrait of Lucrezia in November 2008.
This painting may be the only surviving formal portrait of Lucrezia Borgia; however, doubts have been cast on that claim.
Several other paintings, such as Veneto's fanciful portrait, have also been said to depict her but none has been accepted by scholars at present.
Several rumours have persisted throughout the years, especially about the extravagant parties thrown by the Borgia family.
There were allegations of incest, poisoning, and murder on her part, but no historical basis for these rumours has ever been found.
Most of the allegations were made by the rivals of the Borgias.
It is rumoured that Lucrezia was in possession of a hollow ring that she used to poison drinks.
An early 20th century painting by Frank Cadogan Cowper that hangs in the London art gallery, Tate Britain, portrays Lucrezia taking the place of her father, Pope Alexander VI, at an official Vatican meeting.
This apparently documents an actual event, although the precise moment depicted (a Franciscan friar kissing Lucrezia's feet) was invented by the artist.
Lucrezia Borgia: life, love and death in Renaissance Italy by Sarah Bradford; Viking 2004;
Lucrezia Borgia: a biography by Rachel Erlanger; 1978;
Lucrezia Borgia by Maria Bellonci; Phoenix 2002;
The Borgias (1971) by Michael Mallett
Lucretia Borgia (1874?)
by Ferdinand Gregorovius; translated in 1903 by John Leslie Garner
The Borgias by Christopher Hibbert; Constable 2011;
Helen Menken (December 12, 1901 – March 27, 1966) was an American actress.
She did some movies but was known mostly for stage plays.
She began acting on Broadway around 1917.
She was very active from the 1920s to the early 1940s.
Her greatest stage successes were Seventh Heaven (1922-24), The Old Maid and Mary of Scotland.
Menken was born in New York City.
She died there when she suffered a heart attack at the age of 64.
Dame Judith Anderson AC DBE (10 February 1897 – 3 January 1992) was an Australian actress.
She lived in the United States and performed on stage, television and movies.
She received two Emmy Awards and a Tony Award for her acting.
Her Hollywood movies included the Academy Award-nominated movie Rebecca, Laura in 1944 and The Diary of a Chambermaid in 1946.
Anderson was born in Adelaide, South Australia, although she later relocated to Santa Barbara, California.
Anderson died of pneumonia at 94.
2NE1 () was a K-pop girl group from South Korea.
They were formed in 2009 and split in 2016.
They are best known for their nine number one hit songs in South Korea.
They are "Try to Follow Me", "Go Away", "Lonely", "I Am the Best", "Ugly", "I Love You", "Falling in Love", "Missing You", and "Come Back Home".
Before their split, 2NE1 was one of the most successful girl groups in South Korea.
2NE1's first single was "Lollipop" and came out in March 2009 featuring BIGBANG.
Their official debut single "Fire" was released on May 6, 2009.
Their second single "I Don't Care" was released on 1 July 2009. "
I Don't Care" achieved great success, topping various Korean music shows and was also the most downloaded song of the year.
By the end of 2011 the song had sold 4,503,928 digital copies, becoming one of the most successful singles of all-time in Korea.
After the release of their second album Crush in 2014, the group became inactive for 2 years.
Minzy left in March 2016, while the rest of the group broke up in November 2016.
Their last song, Goodbye, was released in 2017 with the remaining members.
2NE1 1st Mini Album (2009)
To Anyone (2010)
2NE1 2nd Mini Album (2011)
Nolza (2011)
Collection (2012)
Crush (2014)
Goodbye (2017, a single)
Martha Raye (August 27, 1916 – October 19, 1994) was an American comedian, singer and actress.
She began acting in movies and then acted in television series.
She had her own show, The Martha Raye Show during the mid 1950s.
She also appeared as Carrie on CBS' sitcom Alice.
Raye was born in Montana.
She died from pneumonia at age 78 in Los Angeles.
Ida Lupino (February 4, 1918 – August 3, 1995) was an English-American author, director and actress.
She appeared in almost sixty movies and directed seven others.
She was also in television series, including The Donna Reed Show and Gilligan's Island.
She retired from acting at sixty.
Ida died in Los Angeles when she suffered a stroke at age seventy-seven.
Elisabeth Moss (born 24 July 1982) is an American actress.
She played Zoey Bartlet in The West Wing and Peggy Olson in the series Mad Men.
Moss was born in Los Angeles.
Ruby Dee (née Wallace; October 27, 1922 – June 11, 2014) was an American actress, screenwriter and playwright.
She acted in many television series and movies.
She won many awards, including Grammy Awards and Emmy Awards.
She starred in Do the Right Thing, Jungle Fever, No.
2 and in American Gangster.
She also did many stage plays.
She was married to activist and actor Ossie Davis.
Joan Leslie (January 26, 1925 – October 12, 2015) was an American actress.
She acted in television and movies until 1991.
Her first movie was Camille in 1936.
Her other movies included Nine Lives are Not Enough and Two Guys from Milwaukee.
She retired from acting around 1991.
Scripture means writing in Latin.
The word is mostly used to refer to the Bible or books that are considered sacred, like the Qur'an or Hindu scripture.
Daily Scripture
Marian Hall Seldes (August 23, 1928 – October 6, 2014) was an American actress.
She was known for her roles in Tom and Huck, Home Alone 3, The Haunting, If These Walls Could Talk 2, and in Mona Lisa Smile.
She won a Tony Award in 1967.
Seldes was born on August 23, 1928 in New York City, New York.
She is of Russian-Jewish descent.
Seldes studied at the Neighborhood Playhouse.
Seldes was married to Julian Claman from 1953 until they divorced in 1961.
Her marriage to Julian was abusive.
Seldes left the marriage after her father noticed marks on Seldes's face.
Then she was married to Garson Kanin from 1990 until his death in 1999.
She had one daughter with Julian, Katherine.
Lindsey Olin Graham (born July 9, 1955) is an American politician who serves as the senior United States Senator from South Carolina, serving in office since 2003.
He ran for President in 2016.
Graham was born on July 9, 1955 in Central, South Carolina.
his parents were Millie and Florence James "F.J." Graham.
He studied at the University of South Carolina.
U.S. senator (2003-present)
In 2002, Graham ran for the U.S. Senate after eight-term Republican incumbent Strom Thurmond announced his retirement.
Graham won the primary unopposed and defeated Democratic opponent Alex Sanders in the general election.
Graham was re-elected to a second term in 2008, defeating Bob Conley.
He won a third term in 2014, defeating Democrat Brad Hutto and Independent Thomas Ravenel.
Graham is known in the Senate for his support for a strong national defense, his support of the military, and as an advocate of strong United States leadership in world affairs.
He is also known for his willingness to be bipartisan and work with Democrats on issues like global warming, tax reform and immigration reform and his belief that judicial nominees should not be opposed solely on their philosophical positions.
He is also a critic of the Tea Party movement.
On May 18, 2015, Graham informally announced his candidacy for President of the United States; he made a formal announcement on June 1 in his hometown of Central, South Carolina.
He later announced his support for Jeb Bush for president.
Graham has never been married and has no children.
He was close friends with the late Arizona senator John McCain.
United States Senator Lindsey Graham official U.S. Senate site
Lindsey Graham for U.S. Senate official campaign site
"Swing Conservative: The perilous bipartisanship of Lindsey Graham."
Washington Monthly, April 2005
"The American Ghosts of Abu Ghraib", Sam Provance, Consortium News, March 27, 2007
United States representatives from South Carolina
Wagamama is an international restaurant chain serving East Asian food.
The name means 'selfish' in Japanese.
It was founded in 1992 by Alan Yau in Bloomsbury, central London.
As of 2013 there are 133 restaurants worldwide, mostly in Europe.
Despicable Me is a 2010 American family/animated/comedy/crime movie directed by Pierre Coffin.
It stars Steve Carell, Will Arnett, Kristen Wiig, Russell Brand, Jason Segel, Julie Andrews, Ken Jeong, and Miranda Cosgrove.
It was released on July 9, 2010.
A sequel Despicable Me 2 was released on July 3, 2013, while a another sequel Despicable Me 3 was released on June 30, 2017.
There is also a spinoff movie all about the comic relief characters in the series.
Steve Carell as Gru
Jason Segel as Victor "Vector" Perkins
Russell Brand as Dr. Nefario
Kristen Wiig as Miss Hattie
Miranda Cosgrove as Margo
Dana Gaier as Edith
Elsie Fisher as Agnes
Will Arnett as Mr. Perkins
Julie Andrews as Marlena, Gru's mother
Danny McBride as Fred McDade
Jack McBrayer as a Carnival Barker
McBrayer also voices a tourist, who is Justin's father
Additional Voices Lori Alan, Steve Alterman, Jeremy Bowker, Jack Angel, Dee Bradley Baker, Bob Bergen, Gregg Berger, J.B. Blanc, Rodger Bumpass, Earl Boen, David Cowgill, Darin De Paul, Jim Cummings, Holly Dorff, Richard Epcar, Eddie Frierson, Jackie Gonneau, Kyle Hebert, Ranjani Brow, Crispin Freeman, Katie Leigh, Wendy Hoffman, Greg Ellis, Don Fullilove, Philip L. Clarke, Anne Lockhart, Mike Gomez, Edie Lehmann-Boddicker, Luisa Leschin, Django Craig, Tony Lee, Tom Kane, Danny Mann, Mona Marshall, Scott Menville, Edie Mirman, Juan Pacheco, Bradley Pierce, Jonathan Nichols, Paul Pape, Phil Proctor, Tony Oliver, Al Rodrigo, Michelle Ruff, Regina Taufen, David Randolph, James Kyson, John Hans Tester, Randy Thom, Josh Petersdorf, Andre Sogliuzzo, Skip Stellrecht, Kirk Thornton, Claudette Wells, Debi Mae West, Dave Wittenberg, Jim Ward.
Additional Children's Voices Charles Bright, Mikaila Baumel.
Movies directed by Pierre Coffin
Despicable Me 2 is a 2013 American computer-animated action/comedy movie directed by Pierre Coffin.
It is a sequel to the 2010 animated movie Despicable Me.
It stars Steve Carell, Russell Brand, Kristen Wiig, Benjamin Bratt, Ken Jeong, Steve Coogan, and Miranda Cosgrove.
It was released on July 3, 2013.
It received good reviews from critics.
A spinoff/prequel movie, Minions, focusing on the little yellow henchmen before they met Gru, was released on July 10, 2015.
A sequel, Despicable Me 3, was released on June 30, 2017.
Jean Marsh (b.  London, 1 July 1934) is an English actress and screenwriter who appeared mostly on television.
Marsh co-created and starred in the television series Upstairs, Downstairs and created The House of Elliot.
She also starred in Doctor Who, and appeared in many other series, and in films.
She got an Emmy Award for the Outstanding Lead Actress for the role of the parlourmaid Rose Buck in Upstairs, Downstairs.
Lisa Olivia Munn (born July 3, 1980) is an American comedian and actress.
She acts in both movies and television programs.
She was in the 2010 action movie Iron Man 2.
She also models with Nike and Pepsi.
Olivia Munn was born in Oklahoma City.
Julianne Nicholson (born July 1, 1971) is an American actress.
She played the Detective Megan Wheeler in Law & Order: Criminal Intent.
She played Esther Randolph in Boardwalk Empire.
She was born in Medford, Massachusetts.
Piers Morgan Live (previously known as Piers Morgan Tonight) is a television talk show on CNN.
It is hosted by Piers Morgan.
It started on January 17, 2011.
It took over the timeslot that Larry King Live was in before Larry King retired.
On the show, Morgan interviews guests such as politicians, celebrities, and members of the public.
His first guest was Oprah Winfrey.
The show was cancelled on February 23, 2014 and the final episode was aired on March 28, 2014.
Hilarie Burton (born 1 July 1982) is an American actress.
She played Lauren in Grey's Anatomy.
She played Sara Ellis in the television show White Collar.
She has also been in movies.
Burton was born in Sterling, Virginia.
Evelyn King (born July 1, 1960) is an American singer.
She mostly performs disco and rhythm and blues.
She had the hit singles "Love Come Down" and "Shame".
King was born in the Bronx, New York.
She was raised in Philadelphia.
The View is an American television talk show that airs on ABC.
It started in 1997.
It features a panel of women who talk about current issues and news items such as tabloid headlines and celebrity news.
As of 2017, the panel included moderator Whoopi Goldberg, Joy Behar, Paula Faris, Sara Haines, Jedediah Bila, and Sunny Hostin.
Restorationism, also called Christian primitivism is a movement that tries to restore to model itself after what is known or believed of the Early Church.
Over the course of time, different groups have used the term, with different meanings:
In the Middle Ages, most groups were active during the time when the Protestant Reformation happened.
In the 15th century, a movement called the Lollards started.
Another group  with similar ideas was the Brethren of the Common Life.
Movements such as the Hussites, the Anabaptists,  the Landmark Baptists, the Puritans and the Waldensians were called Primitive, as is the Primitive Methodist Church.
After the Protestant Reformation, the Protestant movement split in many groups.
Some of these groups, such as the Churches of Christ and the Baptists are more restorationist than others.
Other movements include the Glasites, in Scotland.
In the United States, there was a Restoration Movement, which is also known as Stone-Campbell Movement and the Mormons
A number of Pentecostal movements has been described as restorationist: Among them are the Assemblies of God, and the evangelical British New Church Movement
Some movements use the term to say that Jewish people must be "restored" to the Promised Land.
These movements are usually called Christian Restorationism or Christian Zionism.
The term has also been used in reference to Muslim movements with similar aims, such as Salafism, Muwahhidism, Ghair Muqallids and Quranism.
Apocatastasis, which can be translated as universal restoration is a concept that can be found in Ancient Greece.
The theological idea was that people did not fully agree with their creator, and moved away; this is called Apostasy.
At the end of time, everything would be re-united with its creator, according to the idea.
Different people have seen the process differently: Some say, that everything, even those that have "fallen", will be reunited; these people speak about apokatastasis panton or restitutio omnium (quae locutus est).
Ancient Greek philosophy used the term, before it was used by Christian scholars.
That way, the Pythagoreans, Heraclitus, and the Stoics used the term.
Neoplatonism, as well as Friedrich Nietzsche also used the term in this meaning.
Most of these philiosophers believed, that this "restoration" was periodic, and not an event that occurred only once.
By far the greater number of wasps (over 500,000 species in the superfamily Chalcidoidea alone) are a special type of parasite.
They are parasitoids which lay their eggs in or on the bodies of other insect species (usually the larvae such as caterpillars).
Almost every insect  pest species has at least one wasp species that preys upon it or parasitizes it.
This makes wasps critically important in the natural control of pest numbers (biocontrol).
Parasitic wasps are increasingly used in agricultural pest control as they themselves do little or no damage to crops.
With most species, the adult parasitic wasps themselves do not get any nutrients from their prey.
Much like bees, butterflies, and moths, those which do feed as adults usually get all of their nutrition from nectar.
Parasitic wasps are extremely varied in their habits.
Many lay their eggs in inert stages of their host (egg or pupa).
If the prey is a caterpillar, they paralyze it by injecting it with venom through their ovipositor.
Then they insert one or more eggs into the host or deposit them upon the host externally.
The host remains alive until the parasitoid larvae are mature, dying later when the parasitoids pupate, or when they emerge as adults.
Basically, the hosts are eaten alive.
Ichneumons
The Ichneumonoidea is a superfamily of wasp parasitoids.
It has two main families:
Ichneumonidae: this is by far the largest family.
It is a very specific parasite, each species preying on only one or two prey species.
Braconidae: these are more all-round parasites which have a wide range of hosts they can parasitise.
Polydnavirus (PDV)
The virus protects the parasitic larva inside the host by weakening the host’s immune system.
It also alters the cells of the host in ways which help the parasite.
The polydnavirus, like all viruses, need a host to replicate itself.
This it does in the oviducts of the female wasp.
The two main genera of polydnaviruses are the Ichnoviruses (IV) and the Bracoviruses (BV).
The ichnoviruses occur in ichneumonid wasp species and bracoviruses in braconid wasps.
Host defence
The victims of parasitoids do have defences they can use.
Many try to hide from the wasps.
The egg shells and cuticles of the prey are thickened to prevent the wasp from penetrating them.
When the wasp arrives, prey may drop off the plant they are on, or twist and thrash to dislodge the female.
Some regurgitate onto the wasp to tangle it up.
The wriggling can sometimes help by causing the wasp to miss laying the egg on the host and instead place it nearby.
Wriggling of pupae can cause the wasp to lose its grip on the smooth hard pupa or get trapped in the silk strands.
Some caterpillars bite wasps that approach it.
Some secrete poisonous compounds that kill or drive away the parasitoid.
Ants that are in a symbiotic relationship with caterpillars, aphids or scale insects defend them from attack by wasps.
Even parasitoid wasps are vulnerable to hyperparasitoid wasps.
Some parasitoid wasps change the behaviour of the infected host to build a silk web around the pupa of the wasps after they emerge from its body to protect them from hyperparasitoids.
In endoparasitoids, host immune cells can encapsulate the eggs and larvae of parasitoid wasps.
In aphids, a secondary endosymbiont, Buchnera aphidicola carries a latent phage.
This phage makes the aphid relatively immune to their parasitoid wasps by killing many of the eggs.
However, wasps counter this by laying more eggs in aphids that have the endosymbiont so that at least one of them can hatch and parasitize the aphid.
Certain caterpillars eat plants that are toxic to both themselves and the parasite to cure themselves.
Drosophila melanogaster larvae also self-medicate with ethanol to treat parasitism.
D. melanogaster females lay their eggs in food containing toxic amounts of alcohol if they detect parasitoid wasps nearby.
Despite the alcohol slowing the growth of the flies, it protects them from the wasps.
Parasitoidism evolved only once in the Hymenoptera, during the Permian.
It lead to a single clade, the Apocrita.
Almost all parasitoid wasps are descended from this clade.
The parasitic lifestyle has been lost several times, including among the ants, bees, and yellowjacket wasps.
As a result, the order Hymenoptera has many families of parasitoids intermixed with non-parasitoid groups.
The Hymenoptera, Apocrita, and Aculeata are all clades, and each has both parasitic and non-parasitic species.
The parasitoid wasps do not form a clade on their own.
The parasitoid wasps include some very large groups.
Some estimates suggest the Chalcidoidea has 500,000 species, the Ichneumonidae 100,000 species, and the Braconidae up to 50,000 species.
A big increase of species in the Hymenoptera occurred soon after the evolution of parasitoidy in the order.
The parasitoidy may have been a main cause of it.
The evolution of a 'wasp waist' (a constriction in the abdomen) helped the Apocrita because it increased manoeuverability of the ovipositor (the organ used to lay eggs).
Before Midnight is a 2013 American romantic drama movie.
Ethan Hawke stars as Jesse Wallace and Julie Delpy as Celine.
This movie is set in Greece.
Before Midnight has gotten strong praise from the movie critics.
It was released during May and June of 2013 in the United States.
It was preceded by Before Sunrise and Before Sunset.