the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
The sale of a 13-year-old "nearly a fancy" is documented.
Furthermore, females who were able to become pregnant were supposed to be kept pregnant, so they could make more slaves to sell.
The differences in skin color found in the United States make it obvious how often black women were impregnated by whites.
For example, in the 1850 Census, 75.4% of "free negros" in Florida were described as mulattos, of mixed race.
Nevertheless, it is only very recently, with DNA studies, that any sort of reliable number can be provided, and the research has only begun.
Light-skinned girls, who contrasted with the darker field workers, were preferred.
Blacks who owned slaves
Some slave owners were black.
An African former indentured servant who settled in Virginia in 1621, Anthony Johnson, became one of the earliest documented slave owners in the American colonies.
This was documented when he won a civil lawsuit to own a man named John Casor.
In 1830, there were 3,775 black slave owners in the South.
They owned a total of 12,760 slaves.
80% of the black slave owners lived in Louisiana, South Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland.
National and comparative studies
Berlin, Ira.
Generations of Captivity: A History of African American Slaves. (
2003) .
Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America.
Harvard University Press, 1998.
Berlin, Ira and Ronald Hoffman, eds.
Slavery and Freedom in the Age of the American Revolution University Press of Virginia, 1983.
essays by scholars
Blackmon, Douglas A. Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II. (
Blassingame, John W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South Oxford University Press, 1979. .
David, Paul A. and Temin, Peter. "
Slavery: The Progressive Institution?",
Journal of Economic History.
3 (September 1974)
Davis, David Brion.
Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (2006)
Elkins, Stanley.
Slavery : A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life.
University of Chicago Press, 1976.
Fehrenbacher, Don E. Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective Oxford University Press, 1981
Fogel, Robert W. Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery W.W. Norton, 1989.
Econometric approach
Foner, Eric.
The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (2010), Pulitzer Prize excerpt and text search
Franklin, John Hope and Loren Schweninger.
Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation. (
1999) .
Gallay, Alan.
The Indian Slave Trade (2002).
Genovese, Eugene D. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made Pantheon Books, 1974.
Genovese, Eugene D. The Political Economy of Slavery: Studies in the Economy and Society of the Slave South (1967)
Genovese, Eugene D. and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Fruits of Merchant Capital: Slavery and Bourgeois Property in the Rise and Expansion of Capitalism (1983)
Hahn, Steven. "
The Greatest Slave Rebellion in Modern History: Southern Slaves in the American Civil War."
Southern Spaces (2004)
Higginbotham, A. Leon, Jr. In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period.
Horton, James Oliver and Horton, Lois E. Slavery and the Making of America. (
Kolchin, Peter.
American Slavery, 1619–1877 Hill and Wang, 1993.
Litwack, Leon F. Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (1979), social history of how slavery ended in the Confederacy
Mason, Matthew.
Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic. (
Moon, Dannell, "Slavery", article in Encyclopedia of rape, Merril D. Smith (Ed.),
Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004
Moore, Wilbert Ellis, American Negro Slavery and Abolition: A Sociological Study, Ayer Publishing, 1980
Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia  W.W. Norton, 1975.
Morris, Thomas D. Southern Slavery and the Law, 1619–1860 University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
Oakes, James.
The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders. (
1982) .
Ransom, Roger L. "Was It Really All That Great to Be a Slave?"
Agricultural History, Vol.
4 (1974) in JSTOR
Rodriguez, Junius P., ed.
Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World.
Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2007.
Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion.
Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007.
Scarborough, William K. The Overseer: Plantation Management in the Old South (1984)
Schermerhorn, Calvin.
The Business of Slavery and the Rise of American Capitalism, 1815–1860.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.
Snyder, Terri L. The Power to Die: Slavery and Suicide in British North America.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015.
Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (1956) Survey
Stampp, Kenneth M. "Interpreting the Slaveholders' World: a Review."
Agricultural History 1970 44(4): 407–12.
ISSN 0002-1482
Tadman, Michael.
Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South University of Wisconsin Press, 1989.
Wright, W. D. Historians and Slavery; A Critical Analysis of Perspectives and Irony in American Slavery and Other Recent Works Washington, D.C.: University Press of America (1978)
State and local studies
Fields, Barbara J. Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century Yale University Press, 1985.
Jewett, Clayton E. and John O. Allen; Slavery in the South: A State-By-State History Greenwood Press, 2004
Jennison, Watson W. Cultivating Race: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750–1860 (University Press of Kentucky; 2012)
Kulikoff, Alan.
Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800 University of North Carolina Press, 1986.
Minges, Patrick N.; Slavery in the Cherokee Nation: The Keetoowah Society and the Defining of a People, 1855–1867 2003 deals with Indian slave owners.
Mohr, Clarence L. On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia University of Georgia Press, 1986.
Mooney, Chase C. Slavery in Tennessee Indiana University Press, 1957.
Olwell, Robert.
Masters, Slaves, & Subjects: The Culture of Power in the South Carolina Low Country, 1740–1790 Cornell University Press, 1998.
Reidy, Joseph P. From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South, Central Georgia, 1800–1880 University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
Ripley, C. Peter.
Slaves and Freemen in Civil War Louisiana Louisiana State University Press, 1976.
Rivers, Larry Eugene.
Slavery in Florida: Territorial Days to Emancipation University Press of Florida, 2000.
Sellers, James Benson; Slavery in Alabama University of Alabama Press, 1950
Sydnor, Charles S. Slavery in Mississippi.
Takagi, Midori.
Rearing Wolves to Our Own Destruction: Slavery in Richmond, Virginia, 1782–1865 University Press of Virginia, 1999.
Taylor, Joe Gray.
Negro Slavery in Louisiana.
Louisiana Historical Society, 1963.
Trexler, Harrison Anthony.
Slavery in Missouri, 1804–1865 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1914) online edition
Wood, Peter H. Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion W.W. Norton & Company, 1974.
Jenkins, Gary (director).
Negroes To Hire (Lifedocumentaries, 2010); 52 minutes DVD; on slavery in Missouri
Ayers, Edward L. "The American Civil War, Emancipation, and Reconstruction on the World Stage," OAH Magazine of History, January 2006, Vol.
20, Issue 1, pp.
54–60
Berlin, Ira. "
American Slavery in History and Memory and the Search for Social Justice," Journal of American History, March 2004, Vol.
90, Issue 4, pp.
1251–1268
Boles, John B. and Evelyn T. Nolen, eds.,
Interpreting Southern History: Historiographical Essays in Honor of Sanford W. Higginbotham (1987).
Brown, Vincent. "
Social Death and Political Life in the Study of Slavery," American Historical Review, December 2009, Vol.
114, Issue 5, pp.
1231–49, examined historical and sociological studies since the influential 1982 book Slavery and Social Death by American sociologist Orlando Patterson
Campbell, Gwyn. "
Children and slavery in the new world: A review," Slavery & Abolition, August 2006, Vol.
27, Issue 2, pp.
261–85
Dirck, Brian. "
Changing Perspectives on Lincoln, Race, and Slavery," OAH Magazine of History, October 2007, Vol.
21, Issue 4, pp.
9–12
Farrow, Anne; Lang, Joel;  Frank, Jenifer.
Complicity: How the North Promoted, Prolonged, and Profited from Slavery.
Ballantine Books, 2006
Fogel, Robert W. The Slavery Debates, 1952–1990: A Retrospective (2007)
Frey, Sylvia R. "The Visible Church: Historiography of African American Religion since Raboteau," Slavery & Abolition, January 2008, Vol.
29 Issue 1, pp.
83–110
Hettle, Wallace. "
White Society in the Old South: The Literary Evidence Reconsidered," Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South, Fall/Winter 2006, Vol.
13, Issue 3/4, pp 29–44
King, Richard H. "Marxism and the Slave South", American Quarterly 29 (1977), 117–31.
focus on Genovese
Kolchin, Peter. "
American Historians and Antebellum Southern Slavery, 1959–1984", in William J. Cooper, Michael F. Holt, and John McCardell, eds.,
A Master's Due: Essays in Honor of David Herbert Donald (1985), 87–111
Laurie, Bruce. "
Workers, Abolitionists, and the Historians: A Historiographical Perspective," Labor: Studies in Working Class History of the Americas, Winter 2008, Vol.
5, Issue 4, pp.
17–55
Neely Jr., Mark E. "Lincoln, Slavery, and the Nation," Journal of American History, September 2009, Vol.
96 Issue 2, pp.
456–58
Parish; Peter J. Slavery: History and Historians Westview Press.
Penningroth, Dylan. "
Writing Slavery's History," OAH Magazine of History, April 2009, Vol.
23 Issue 2, pp.
13–20, basic overview
Rael, Patrick.
Eighty-Eight Years: The Long Death of Slavery in the United States, 1777–1865.
Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2015.
Sidbury, James. "
Globalization, Creolization, and the Not-So-Peculiar Institution," Journal of Southern History, August 2007, Vol.
73, Issue 3, pp.
617–30, on colonial era
Stuckey, P. Sterling. "
Reflections on the Scholarship of African Origins and Influence in American Slavery," Journal of African American History, Fall 2006, Vol.
91 Issue 4, pp.
425–443
Sweet, John Wood. "
The Subject of the Slave Trade: Recent Currents in the Histories of the Atlantic, Great Britain, and Western Africa," Early American Studies, An Interdisciplinary Journal, Spring 2009, Vol.
7 Issue 1, pp.
1–45
Tadman, Michael. "
The Reputation of the Slave Trader in Southern History and the Social Memory of the South," American Nineteenth Century History, September 2007, Vol.
8, Issue 3, pp.
247–71
Tulloch, Hugh.
The Debate on the American Civil War Era (1998), ch.
2–4
Albert, Octavia V. Rogers.
The House of Bondage Or Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves.
Oxford University Press, 1991.
Primary sources with commentary.
The House of Bondage, or, Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves, Original and Life-Like complete text of original 1890 edition, along with cover & title page images, at website of University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Berlin, Ira, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowlands, eds.
Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867 5 vol Cambridge University Press, 1982.
Very large collection of primary sources regarding the end of slavery
Berlin, Ira, Marc Favreau, and Steven F. Miller, eds.
Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk About Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Emancipation The New Press: 2007.
Blassingame, John W., ed.
Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies.
Louisiana State University Press, 1977.
Burke, Diane Mutti, On Slavery's Border: Missouri's Small Slaveholding Households, 1815–1865,
De Tocqueville, Alexis.
Democracy in America. (
1994 Edition by Alfred A Knopf, Inc)
A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845) (Project Gutenberg ), (Audio book at FreeAudio.org)
"The Heroic Slave."
Autographs for Freedom.
Julia Griffiths Boston: Jewett and Company, 1853.
174–239.
Available at the Documenting the American South website.
Frederick Douglass My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) (Project Gutenberg )
Frederick Douglass Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1892)
Frederick Douglass Collected Articles Of Frederick Douglass, A Slave  (Project Gutenberg)
Frederick Douglass: Autobiographies by Frederick Douglass, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. Editor. (
Omnibus of all three)
Litwack, Leon Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery. (
1979) Winner of the 1981 National Book Award for history and the 1980 Pulitzer Prize for History.
Litwack, Leon North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860 (University of Chicago Press: 1961)
Document: "List Negroes at Spring Garden with their ages taken January 1829" (title taken from document)
Missouri History Museum Archives Slavery Collection
Rawick, George P., ed.
The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography .
19 vols.
Greenwood Publishing Company, 1972.
Collection of WPA interviews made in the 1930s with ex-slaves
Scholarly pages
Oral histories and autobiographies of ex-slaves
Literary and cultural criticism
Ryan, Tim A. Calls and Responses: The American Novel of Slavery since Gone with the Wind.
Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008.
Van Deburg, William.
Slavery and Race in American Popular Culture.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984.
Kovgan, A. Ray, J. Browne, K. (Director). (
Traces of the Trade [Video file].
California Newsreel.
"How Slaves Built American Capitalism", CounterPunch, December 18, 2015
"Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers' Project, 1936–1938", Library of Congress
"Voices from the Days of Slavery", audio interviews of former slaves, 1932–1975, Library of Congress
Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice
"Slavery and the Making of America", WNET (4-part series)
"Slavery in the United States", Economic History Encyclopedia, March 26, 2008
North American Slave Narratives, Documenting the American South, Louis Round Wilson Library
"Slavery and Civil War digital collection", scanned original documents, Grand Valley State University
"How Slavery Really Ended in America", New York Times Magazine, April 1, 2011
"The Color Line", 6-page lesson plan for high school, Zinn Education Project
"The First Slaves", 15-page teaching guide for high school, Zinn Education Project
"Not Your Momma's History", historical education about slavery and the 18th and 19th-century African experience in America
"Harvesting Cotton-Field Capitalism: Edward Baptist's New Book Follows the Money on Slavery", The New York Times, October 3, 2014
"5 Things About Slavery You Probably Didn't Learn In Social Studies: A Short Guide To 'The Half Has Never Been Told'", HuffPost, October 25, 2014
9 Facts About Slavery They Don't Want You to Know
"Slavery" maps in the U.S. Persuasive Cartography collection, Cornell University Library
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database has information on almost 36,000 slaving voyages
Primatology is the study of nonhuman primates.
It is a diverse discipline, and primatologists can be found in biology, anthropology, psychology and other departments.
Strong intellectual traditions in primatology emerged after World War II in the US and Canada, Western Europe, and Japan.
In the US, primatologists are usually trained as psychologists, anthropologists, or, less often, biologists or zoologists.
The Territory of Nebraska was an organized incorporated territory of the United States.
It existed from May 30, 1854, until March 1, 1867, when the part of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Nebraska.
The Nebraska Territory was created by the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854.
The territorial capitol was Omaha.
The territory included areas of what is today Nebraska, Wyoming, South Dakota, North Dakota, Colorado, and Montana.
"Nebraska as a Territory," History of the State of Nebraska, Chicago: A. T. Andreas, 1882
History of Nebraska State Government Organization (PDF)
Hancock County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 43,929 people lived there.
Its county seat is Bay St. Louis.
The county was created in 1812.
It is named for Founding Father John Hancock.
Holmes County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 19,198 people lived there.
Humphreys County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 9,375 people lived there.
Issaquena County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 1,406 people lived there.
Its county seat is Mayersville.
Itawamba County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 23,401 people lived there.
Jackson County is a county in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 139,668 people lived there which makes it the fifth-most populous county in Mississippi.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (31%) is water.
It is the largest county in Mississippi by total area.
George County - north
Mobile County, Alabama - east
Harrison County - west
Stone County - northwest
Gautier
Moss Point
Ocean Springs
Pascagoula (county seat)
Big Point
Escatawpa
Gulf Hills
Gulf Park Estates
Hickory Hills (former CDP)
Vancleave
East Moss Point
Gulf Islands National Seashore
Official Website of Jackson County, Mississippi
Jasper County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 17,062 people lived there.
Its county seats are Bay Springs and Paulding.
Jefferson Davis County is a county located in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 12,487 people lived there.
The county was founded on March 31, 1906.
It is named in honor of Mississippi Senator and Confederate President Jefferson Davis.
Kemper County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 10,456 people lived there.
Its county seat is De Kalb.
Lafayette County is a county in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 47,351 people lived there.
Union County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 27,134 people lived there.
Lamar County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 55,658 people lived there.
Smith County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 16,491 people lived there.
Its county seat is Raleigh.
Raleigh is a town in, and the county seat of, Smith County, Mississippi, United States.
The population was 1,462 at the 2010 census, making it the largest town in Smith County.
Gainesville is a city in the U.S. state of Texas.
It is the county seat of Cooke County.
Lauderdale County is a county found in the U.S. state of Mississippi.
As of the 2010 census, 80,261 people lived there.
Its county seat is Meridian.
The county was founded in 1833.
It is named for Colonel James Lauderdale, who was killed at the Battle of New Orleans in the War of 1812.
Songtsen Gampo (Tibetan: སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ, srong btsan sgam po; 569–649) or Songzan Ganbu (), was the 33rd Tibetan king and founder of the Tibetan Empire.
He helped introduce Buddhism to Tibet.
He had a Nepali wife named Bhrikuti and a Tang wife named Princess Wencheng.
Both of them were Buddhists.
He also helped invent the Tibetan alphabet and made Classical Tibetan the official language of Tibet at the time.
He may have been born in 569 or 605.
Tibet used their own calendar so we are still trying to figure it out.
Songtsen Gampo was born at Gyama in Meldro, northeast of modern Lhasa.
His dad was the Yarlung king Namri Songtsen.
The book The Holder of the White Lotus says Gampo was the human form (incarnation) of the Avalokiteśvara.
Dalai Lamas are also thought to be human forms of the Avalokitesvara.
In the 11th century, Buddhists started calling him a cakravartin and incarnation of Avalokiteśvara.
Some Dunhuang documents say Gampo had a sister Sad-mar-kar and a younger brother.
His younger brother was betrayed and died in a fire after 641.
There may have been fighting between his sister and brother.
Songtsen Gampo's mother was part of the Tsépong clan (Tibetan Annals).
She helped unify Tibet.
Her name is Driza Tökarma ("the Bri Wife [named] White Skull Woman", Tibetan Annals).
According to Tibetan tradition, Songtsen Gampo became king when 13 after his father was poisoned around 618.
He was the 33rd king of the Yarlung Dynasty.
He was born in the Ox year.
Yarlung kings usually took throne at 13.
This accords with the tradition that the Yarlung kings took the throne when they were 13, when they were old enough to ride a horse.
If this is true, then Gampo may have been born in the Ox year 605 CE.
The Old Book of Tang confirms that he "was still a minor when he succeeded to the throne."
Gampo's wives and children
Gampo had six wives.
Five are listed:
Pogong Mongza Tricham (Mongza, "the Mong clan wife") was mother of Gungsong Gungtsen.
a noble woman of the Western Xia known as Minyakza ("Western Xia wife"),
a noble woman from Zhangzhung.
Nepali princess Bhrikuti ("the great lady, the Nepalese wife")
Tang Princess Wencheng (文成)
In Tibetan tradition, these last two wives helped bring Buddhism to Tibet.
The two great influences on Tibetan Buddhism are Indo-Nepali and Han Buddhism.
Gampo's son, Gungsong Gungtsen, died before his father.
So Gampo's son, Mangsong Mangtsen, took the throne.
His mother may have been Wencheng or Mangmoje Trikar.
Trikar is mentioned in Genealogy, in a hidden library in the caves in Dunhuang, and the Tibetan Annals, which list the names of the Tibetan emperors, their mothers, and their clans.
Some sources tell a different story.
When Gungsong Gungtsen turned 13 (nowadays 12 as Tibet used a different calendar), his dad Gampo retired, so Gungsong ruled for five years.
They say Gungsong married 'A-zha Mang-mo-rje when he was thirteen, and they had a son, Mangsong Mangtsen (r. 650-676 CE).
Gungsong then died when he was 18.
His dad Gampo then took the throne again.
Gungsong Gungtsen may be buried at Donkhorda, the site of the royal tombs, to the left of his grandfather Namri Songtsen (gNam-ri Srong-btsan).
The dates for these events are very unclear.
What did he do for Tibet?
He made an Alphabet
Songtsen Gampo sent Thonmi Sambhota to India to create a new alphabet for Classical Tibetan.
This led to the first written works, literature, and constitution.
He brought new culture
The Old Book of Tang (Jiu Tangshu 旧唐书) says in 648 a northern Indian army attacked some some Tang Chinese (including Wang Xuanze).
So with the Nepali and Tang, Gampo helped defeat the army and protect the Chinese.
In 649, the Tang Emperor Gaozong, a fellow Buddhist, gave him the title Binwang, "Guest King" or Zongwang, "Cloth-tribute King" and 3,000 rolls of colorful silk.
Gaozong also gave Gampo "silkworms' eggs, mortars and presses for making wine, and workmen to manufacture paper and ink."
He introduced Buddhism
Gampo brought Buddhism to the Tibetan people.
He built many Buddhist temples During his reign, people began translating Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan.
He created a big empire
He defeated the Sumpa in northeastern Tibet around 627 (Tibetan Annals [OTA] l. 2).
He may have conquered the Zhangzhung (around northern India, western Tibet), or that may have happened after he died.
The Old Book of Tang say that in 634, the Yangtong (the Zhangzhung) and various Qiang peoples "altogether submitted to him."
He conquered the Tangut people (who later formed the Western Xia in 942), the Bailang, and Qiang tribes.
The Bailang people were west of the Tanguts and east of the Domi.
The Tang previously ruled them since 624.
Nepali princess Bhrikuti
The Old Book of Tang says: Naling Deva's father was king of 泥婆羅 Nepal (Licchavi kingdom) died.
The king died, and then Naling Deva's uncle took over. "
The Tibetans gave [Naling Deva] refuge and reestablished him on his throne [in 641]; that is how he became subject to Tibet."
The Tibetans traveled to Nepal, and the Naling Deva was happy.
Then the Tibetans were attacked by the northern Indian king Harsha.
So Naling Deva helped Tibet defeat Harsha's army.
Gampo then married Princess Bhrikuti, daughter of Naling Deva.
Tang princess Wencheng
The Jiu Tangshu records that Gampo sent the first embassy from Tibet to the Tang in 634 CE.
It was a "tribute mission" with Tibet giving gifts to the Tang.
He gave gifts of gold and silk to the Tang emperor and asked for a Tang princess in marriage in return (heqin).
Tang said no.
So he attacked Songzhou (part of Tang) in 637 and 638.
But he then gave up and said sorry.
He asked for a wife again, and this time the Tang said yes.
And so he married Wencheng, niece of Emperor Taizong of Tang.
So there was peace between the Tang and Tibetan empires of China.
"Dolma, or Drolma (Sanskrit Tara).
The two wives of Emperor Srong-btsan gambo are venerated under this name.
The Chinese princess is called Dol-kar, of 'the white Dolma,' and the Nepalese princess Dol-jang, or 'the green Dolma.'
The latter is prayed to by women for fecundity."
"As the princess disliked their custom of painting their faces red, Lungstan (Songtsen Gampo) ordered his people to put a stop to the practice, and it was no longer done.
He also discarded his felt and skins, put on brocade and silk, and gradually copied Chinese civilization.
He also sent the children of his chiefs and rich men to request admittance into the national school to be taught the classics, and invited learned scholars from China to compose his official reports to the emperor."
Defended Xuanze for China
Chinese monk Xuanzang visited Harsha.
Harsha then sent some people to China.
China then sent Wang Xuanze and some others back.
They traveled through Tibet.
Their journey is written in stuff at northern India (Rajgir and Bodhgaya).
Harsha was then overthrown by Arjuna.
In 648 Wang Xuanze made a second journey, but Arjuna treated him badly.
So the Tibetans and Nepalese defeated Arjuna.
Gampo died in 649.
In 650, the Tang emperor sent an envoy with a "letter of mourning and condolences".
Gampo's tomb is in the Chongyas Valley near Yalung, 13 m high and 130 m long.
The 2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation.
The North Indian Ocean cyclone season has no official bounds, but cyclones tend to form between April and December, with two peaks in activity in May and November.
These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northern Indian Ocean.
The season's first named storm, Pabuk, entered the basin on January 4, becoming the earliest-forming cyclonic storm of the North Indian Ocean on record.
Due to the presence of an weak El Niño to continue through the season, the season's first named storm, Pabuk, entered the basin on January 4, becoming the earliest-forming cyclonic storm of the North Indian Ocean on record, tying with 2014 season.
The second Cyclonic Storm of the season was formed, Fani on April 26.
Fani became an extremely severe cyclonic storm on April 30, reaching an Category 4-equivalent tropical cyclone on the Saffir-Simpson Scale, then made landfall in India killing 89 people between Odisha and Bangladesh; Fani caused $1.812 billion in damages.
In early June, a strong pulse of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), led to the development of the third cyclonic storm, Vayu, which formed June 10 in the Arabian Sea, near the Maldives.
The storm subsequently intensified into a very severe cyclonic storm on June 12, after moving northwestward towards northwestern India and Pakistan.
The Deal barracks bombing was an attack on the Royal Marine Depot in Deal, Kent, England on 22 September 1989.
The Provisional Irish Republican Army used a time bomb to kill 11 military bandsmen.
Tropical Storm Pabuk, also referred to as Cyclonic Storm Pabuk, was a weak storm that hit the Malay Peninsula in January 2019.
It was also the earliest storm in both the Western Pacific and North Indian Ocean basins on record.
Forming on the last day of 2018, Pabuk went into 2019 and crossed into the North Indian Ocean basin several days later.
The first storm of the 2019 Pacific typhoon and North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons, Pabuk first appeared as a tropical disturbance in the South China Sea on December 28, 2018, which organized into a tropical depression on December 31.
A tropical disturbance formed over the southern portion of the South China Sea on December 28, 2018, absorbing the remnants of Tropical Depression 35W (Usman) on December 30.
Under high vertical wind shear, the low-pressure area remained messy until December 31 when it was upgraded to a tropical depression by both the JMA and the JTWC.
Soon after Pabuk crossed over into the basin, the IMD started to make warnings on the storm, making Pabuk the earliest-forming cyclonic storm for this basin, as well as the first cyclonic storm with a name originally assigned by RSMC Tokyo.
Over the few days days, Pabuk continued moved west-northwestward, before weakening into a well-marked low on January 7.
The system's remnant low then turned to the northeast.
Finally, it disappeared on January 8.
On Thailand, 8 of the 10 people were killed with many trees downed.
Elsewhere, many people were forced to evacuate coastal areas of Thailand.
In Bangkok, rain and storm surge flooded roads in the large city.
Pabuk killed 8 people in Thailand, including one Russian tourist.
Pabuk
The United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) is the corporate research laboratory for the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps.
It conducts basic scientific research, applied research, technological development and prototyping.
ride-sharing
e-hailing services (matches passengers with vehicles)
bike-sharing programs,
and car-sharing services
on-demand "pop-up" bus services.
self-driving cars
Short-term impact
MaaS may decrease how many people own cars.
This is already the case in China, where more than half of the population do not have cars--they just do not need it.
Self driving cars (AV)
Self-driving cars could take people where they wanted to go at a lower cost than a taxi or ridesharer.
It could help benefit the environment, make transportation faster, and even improve healthcare.
The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people.
They formed an empire called Khazaria in Russia from the 6th to 10th century CE.
They came from the Western Turkic Khaganate of the Eurasian steppe, after it was conquered by Tang China.
Khazaria was an international trading center.
It was an important place on the Silk Road that linked China, the Middle East, and the Kievan Rus'.
For three centuries (c. 650–965) the Khazars conquered the area from the Volga-Don steppes to Crimea and the Caucasus.
Khazaria was between the Byzantine Empire, the steppe nomads, and the Umayyad Caliphate.
It helped Byzantine defend itself from the Sasanian Persian empire.
The alliance ended around 900.
Between 965 and 969, the Kievan Rus replaced Khazaria.
Tengrism may have been the main religion, as it was for the Huns and Turkic peoples.
Abrahamic religions were also popular.
The ruling class may have converted to Judaism in the 8th century.
Some people think that the Cossacks, Muslim Kumyks, Kazakhs, and some Jews, like the Ashkenazi Jews, descended from the Khazars.
Some disagree.
Khazar or Xazar may have come from *Qasar.
The Turkic root qaz- means "to ramble, to roam" (used in Qazaqsa or Kazakh).
It is similar to the Common Turkic kez-.
Others say it is from qas- ("tyrannize, oppress, terrorize") because it is similar to the Uyghur name Qasar.
Others think it is a person or tribe's name.
For example the Chinese name Kesa for "Khazars" may be one of the tribal names of the Uyğur Toquz Oğuz (of the Gokturks), namely the Gésà.
But others say Kesa was not a tribal name but the name of the chief of the 思结 Sijie tribe of the Toquz Oğuz.
Also in Middle Chinese the name "Khazars" always comes before the word Tūjué (Tūjué Kěsà bù: 突厥可薩部; Tūjué Hésà: 突厥曷薩).
Khazar language is extinct.
But modern Turkic languages still refer to the Caspian Sea as the "Khazar Sea".
No known records of the Khazar language survive.
The state was polyglot (spoke multiple languages) and polyethnic.
The ruling elite probably spoke an eastern dialect of Shaz Turkic.
The ordinary people may have spoken Lir Turkic, such as Oğuric, Bulğaric, Chuvash, and Hunnish.
The Persian historian al-Iṣṭakhrī said that the Khazar language was different from any other known language.
After the Khazars became Jewish they may have written in the Hebrew alphabet.
Though they spoke a Türkic language, they may have also spoke Hebrew.
They appear to have came from Mongolia or northern China after the Xiōngnú (Huns) were defeated by Han dynasty of China (Han–Xiongnu war).
The tribes probably had Iranian, proto-Mongolic, Uralic, and Palaeo-Siberian people.
The ruling family may have came from the Āshǐnà (阿史那) clan of the West Türkic tribes.
The Chinese and Arabic records are almost identical, indicating strong support for this theory.
The leader may have been Yǐpíshèkuì (乙毗射匱).
He died around 651.
Moving west, the Khazars reached Akatziroi, one of the important friends of Byzantium fighting Attila's army.
How did it begin?
Khazaria began after 630.
It came from the Göktürk Qağanate, after it was crushed by Tang China between 630–650.
Göktürk armies conquered Volga by 549.
The Āshǐnà clan whose tribal name was 'Türk' (the strong one) arrived in 552.
They overthrew the Rourans and created the Göktürk Qağanate.
The Chinese Tang Dynasty defeated the Turkic Qağanate and established the Anxi protectorate (Tang dynasty in Inner Asia).
The Khaganate split into many tribes.
Some tribes went west to the Sea of Azov area.
Ashina and the Khazars went further west.
In 657, General Sū Dìngfāng (蘇定方) dominated the Turks and Central Asia.
They imposed Chinese overlordship to the east of those Turkic tribes.
In 659 the Chinese defeated the remaining tribes.
The Khazars did not dare return.
And so the Khazars Qaganate was born, from the ruins of a nomadic empire destroyed by the Tang armies to the east.
It became the westernmost successor state of the Gokturks.
The Khazars conquered the lower Volga region and the area between the Danube and the Dniepr.
In 670, they also conquered the Onoğur-Bulğar union and made the Onogur-Bulgar language the official language of the empire (lingua franca).
The empire is sometimes called a 'steppe Atlantis' (stepnaja Atlantida, Степная Атлантида).
Historians often call this period the Pax Khazarica.
The state became an international center of trade.
Ibn al-Balḫî wrote in Fârsnâma (c. 1100) that the Sasanian Shah (ruler), Ḫusraw 1, Anûsîrvân, said there were three kings who had as much power as he did: the King of China, the King of Byzantium, and the king of the Khazars.
This is the singles discography page of American rapper Eminem.
This list has his 78 singles, he had made in his music career.
To date, Eminem has sold over 42 million track downloads in the United States alone.
Batam (also called Batam City) is an industrial city in the province of Riau Islands, Indonesia.
Over 1 million people live in it.
It is the biggest city in Riau Islands, and the third biggest city in Sumatra.
It is part of the Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand and Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore free-trade zone.
The city administrative covers an area of 3 big islands with some small islands surround them.
The 3 big islands are Batam, Rempang, and Galang.
The islands are conected by bridges called Barelang Bridges () that is a short name for Batam-Rempang-Galang Bridges.
Republic of Upper Volta is an old name for the country in Africa which is known as Burkina Faso today.
It was a French colony, which became independent in 1960.
Upper Volta existed as a French colony from 1918 to 1932.
In 1932, it was disbanded, and its territory was shared between the neighboring countries, French Sudan, Niger and Ivory Coast.
In 1947, Upper Volta was restored, with its former borders.
The earliest known use is a passage in Henry George's best known work, Progress and Poverty (1879).
It is a well-provisioned ship, this on which we sail through space.
If the bread and beef above decks seem to grow scarce, we but open a hatch and there is a new supply, of which before we never dreamed.
And very great command over the services of others comes to those who as the hatches are opened are permitted to say, "This is mine!"
George Orwell later paraphrases Henry George in The Road to Wigan Pier:
We travel together, passengers on a little space ship, dependent on its vulnerable reserves of air and soil; all committed for our safety to its security and peace; preserved from annihilation only by the care, the work, and, I will say, the love we give our fragile craft.
We cannot maintain it half fortunate, half miserable, half confident, half despairing, half slave—to the ancient enemies of man—half free in a liberation of resources undreamed of until this day.
The following year, Spaceship Earth became the title of a book by a friend of Stevenson's, the internationally influential economist Barbara Ward.
Also in 1966, Kenneth E. Boulding, who was influenced by reading Henry George, used the phrase in the title of an essay, The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth.
Boulding described the past open economy of apparently illimitable resources, which he said he was tempted to call the "cowboy economy", and continued: "The closed economy of the future might similarly be called the 'spaceman' economy, in which the earth has become a single spaceship, without unlimited reservoirs of anything, either for extraction or for pollution, and in which, therefore, man must find his place in a cyclical ecological system".
(David Korten would take up the "cowboys in a spaceship" theme in his 1995 book When Corporations Rule the World.)
The phrase was also popularized by Buckminster Fuller, who published a book in 1968 under the title of Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth.
This quotation, referring to fossil fuels, reflects his approach:
…we can make all of humanity successful through science's world-engulfing industrial evolution provided that we are not so foolish as to continue to exhaust in a split second of astronomical history the orderly energy savings of billions of years' energy conservation aboard our Spaceship Earth.
These energy savings have been put into our Spaceship's life-regeneration-guaranteeing bank account for use only in self-starter functions.
Spaceship Earth is the name given to the  diameter geodesic sphere that greets visitors at the entrance of Walt Disney World's Epcot theme park.
Housed within the sphere is a dark ride that serves to explore the history of communications and promote Epcot's founding principles, "[a] belief and pride in man's ability to shape a world that offers hope to people everywhere."
A previous incarnation of the ride, narrated by actor Jeremy Irons and revised in 2008, was explicit in its message:
David Deutsch has pointed out that the picture of Earth as a friendly "spaceship" habitat is difficult to defend even in a metaphorical sense.
The Earth environment is harsh and survival is a constant struggle for life, including for whole species trying to avoid extinction.
Humans wouldn't be able to live in most of the areas where they are living now without the knowledge necessary to build life-support systems such as houses, heating, water supply, etc.
Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani: Energy for a Sustainable World – From the Oil Age to a Sun-Powered Future, Wiley-VCH 2011, .
Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani and Nick Serpone: Powering Planet Earth – Energy Solutions for the Future, Wiley-VCH 2013, .
Italian original edition: Energia per l’Astronave Terra- Quanta ne usiamo, come la produciamo, che cosa ci riserva il futuro, Zanichelli 2008, .
Sabine Höhler: Spaceship Earth in the Environmental Age, 1960-1990 (History and Philosophy of Technoscience, 4).
London: Pickering & Chatto 2015, .
Spaceship Earth (en wiki)
Sir Edward Frederick William David Walugembe Mutebi Luwangula Muteesa II (19 November 1924 – 21 November 1969) was Kabaka of the Kingdom of Buganda from 22 November 1939 until his death.
He was the thirty-fifth Kabaka of Buganda and the first President of Uganda.
The foreign press often referred to him as King Freddie, a name rarely used in Uganda
Erwang Sanke (二王三恪) or "the two crownings and the three respects" is something Chinese emperors did to honor the previous dynasty.
For example the Sui dynasty came directly before the Tang.
So the Tang may honor descendants of the Sui royal family.
The Tang would do this by giving these Sui descendants land to rule over.
The Tang said you can control these lands and use laws of the previous Sui dynasty if you wish.
There may also be a sacrifice at a religious place.
This was done to show respect to previous dynasties.
This was also to make a peaceful transition of power.
Er wang 二王 means two rulers.
This refers to the current ruler and the previous ruler.
San ke 三恪 means three respects.
This could refer to how this was done for the first three generation descendants of the previous ruler (their children, grandchildren, and great grandchildren).
is a Japanese multinational provider of information technology (IT) services and products.
It is headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.
It provides IT and network solutions to businesses, communications services providers and to government agencies.
It has also been the biggest PC seller in Japan since the 1980s.
The company was known as the Nippon Electric Company, Limited, before rebranding in 1983 as NEC.
NEC was the world's fourth biggest PC manufacturer by 1990.
Its NEC Semiconductors business unit was the global semiconductor sales leader between 1985 and 1990, the second largest in 1995, one of the top three in 2000, and one of the top 10 in 2006.
It was still one of the top 20 semiconductor sales leaders before merging with Renesas Electronics.
NEC is a member of the Sumitomo Group.
Neoconservatism refers to things that are pro-American nationalist interest in international affairs.
This includes bigger military, pro-democracy, nationalism, anti-communism.
It started in the United States during the 1960s.
Neocons supported the Vietnam war, but disliked the Democratic party, Great Society, and the New Left.
Some neocons are Republicans, like the presidents between from the 1970s to the 2000s.
For example, George W. Bush started the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
His neocon friends include Paul Wolfowitz, Elliott Abrams, Richard Perle, and Paul Bremer.
Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld also listened to these neocons.
Together they supported the defense of Israel and the American invasion of the Middle East.
Neocon started in the 60s with Jewish magazine Commentary, edited by Norman Podhoretz and published by the American Jewish Committee.
They opposed the New Left and thus started the neocon movement.
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Han Buddhism () or Chinese buddhism refers to Buddhism written in Chinese characters (hanzi) or that of the East Asian cultural sphere.
It is one of the three main existing schools of Buddhism: the other two are Tibetan Buddhism and Theravada.
It is mainly practiced in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
It has had a great impact on East Asian culture.
There are legends that Laozi was the Buddha himself, or that the Buddha came from the Tibetan kingdom of Zhangzhung.
There are other legends that Buddhism had existed in China since ancient times (before the Qin dynasty).
Qin dynasty (221–206 bc)
The Shiji 《史記·秦始皇本紀》has a section called「禁不得祠」(jin bude ci).
In the 20th century, Japanese scholar Fujita Toyohachi (藤田丰八) said Buddhism entered China during the Qin dynasty.
The word 不得 (pinyin: "bude"; rough pronunciation: boo-duh) is pronounced nearly exactly like the Sanskrit word "Buddha".
It was used to write down Buddha in the Chinese language.
Others (like 铃木券太郎) disagreed.
Moreover it is unlikely 得 would be used to transliterate.
And based on the evolution of Chinese tones, 不得 would sound something like putug (郑张尚芳 says “不得” is [pɯtɯːɡ]).
Han Dynasty (206 bc–220 ce)
It is generally believed Buddhism was introduced during the (Western, before 1 BC) Han dynasty.
It came from the western regions and Silk Road.
According to the Weilüe《魏略‧西戎傳》、《魏書‧釋老志》and other records, Emperor Ai of Han's men gave the people the Pagoda Sutra《浮屠经》。
In 67, Emperor Ming of Han dreamed of the "Golden People".
He sent people to meet monks in the western regions.
These monks brought back more Buddhist texts.
He built the White horse temple (白马寺) and translated 42 chapters of the scripture 《四十二章經》。
There is one account that Emperor Ming of Han (28–75 CE) helped introduce Buddhism into China.
The (3rd - 5th century) Mouzi Lihuolun says:Ming then sent people to Tianzhu (Southern India) to learn more.
Buddhist scriptures returned to China on the backs of white horses, after which White Horse Temple was named.
Two Indian monks also returned with them, named Dharmaratna and Kaśyapa Mātaṅga.
Whether Emperor Ming actually dreamed of Golden people is debated.
However scholars agree that around his time Buddhism arrived from the xiyu.
During this time, Mahayana Buddhism became popular in China.
The Han would then "sinicize" it to turn it into Han Buddhism.
In Chongqing an ancient Yao Qian Shu (money tree artifact) was dug up.
A Buddha was sitting on it.
It said it was made in the fourth year of Yan guang (125 CE).
This is the earliest known bronze Buddha found in China.
There is another early Buddha sculpture in Sichuan above a grave.
Early Buddhist schools
Six Dynasties (220–589)
Some Chinese thought Buddhism was harmful to the authority of the government, that Buddhists did help improve the economy, that Buddhism was barbaric and did not deserve to be part of Chinese culture.
However, others mixed Buddhism with Taoism.
The two went well together.
Both encourage meditation.
And so Buddhist ideas were used in Taoism and vice versa.
Around this time, Han Buddhism began spreading to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
It was already popular in South China.
Kumārajīva (334–413)
China controlled Kucha, a Buddhist kingdom in Xinjiang.
They imprisoned Kumarajiva but released him in 401 because he was good at Buddhism.
This includes the Diamond Sutra, the Amitabha Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, and the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
In the 5th century, the Chán (Zen) teachings began in China.
Bodhidharma, a legend, started it.
The school follows the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) .
It was also called the "One Vehicle School."
They were famous for their encounter stories and koans and their teaching methods.
Nan Huai-Chin says:
Xuanzang's journey to the west
During the Tang dynasty and 629 - 645, the monk Xuanzang went to India and visited over one hundred kingdoms.
He and wrote about his journey to the west.
His writing is important for studying India during this period of time.
He visited many spiritual sites, many spiritual people, and learned a lot of spiritual things.
He met Buddhist celebrities.
Xuanzang created a translation center in Chang'an (now Xi'an).
It attracted people from all over East Asia.
Xuanzang translated 1,330 books into Chinese.
His favorite part of Buddhism was Yogācāra, or "Consciousness-only".
During the Song dynasty, Chán (禪) was used by the government to strengthen its control over the country.
Chán became the most popular type of Chinese Buddhism.
Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368)
During the Yuan dynasty, the Mongol emperors liked Tibetan Buddhism so they hired Tibetan monks as government officials.
This caused corruption.
Later the Ming dynasty overthrew the Yuan, and Tibetan lamas no longer influenced the court.
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
The Chan school was so popular that all monks belonged to it.
Male and female Chinese buddhists wrote nice poetry during this time.
Qing dynasty (1644–1911)
Around 1900, Buddhists from other Asian countries became interested in Chinese Buddhism.
Anagarika Dharmapala visited Shanghai in 1893.
He and other Indians tried to get Chinese to help revive Buddhism in India.
Japanese Buddhists also visited China.
By this point (and perhaps earlier) China had the most Buddhists in the world.
Han Buddhism uses concepts from Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism.
They worship the Buddha and Bodhisattvas by giving food, flowers, etc.
They are vegans.
They believe in god and hell, life after death and karma.
is a Japanese video game programmer, designer, and producer.
He is best known as the former head of Sonic Team, where he was the lead programmer of the original Sonic the Hedgehog series of games on the Sega Genesis.