the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
So were some Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany.
However, none of this was as common as it was with Japanese-Americans.
In 1945, the year World War II ended, the United States let people out of the camps.
However, many of the people who were interned had lost everything they had.
In 1988, the United States government finally apologized and said that there was no reason for the internment other than racism.
Racial segregation (about segregation in other countries)
Laws which ended legal segregation: Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965, Civil Rights Act of 1968
Norris Edwin Bradbury (30 May 1909 – 20 August 1997), was an American physicist.
He served as Director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory for 25 years from 1945 to 1970.
He replaced Robert Oppenheimer.
Bradbury worked with Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project during World War II.
Bradbury was in charge of the final assembly of "the Gadget", detonated in July 1945 for the Trinity test.
Leon Charney (1938 – 22 March 2016) was an American real estate tycoon, author, philanthropist, political pundit, media personality and Jewish cantor.
He lived in Manhattan in New York City.
In March 2012, Forbes listed Charney as #353 among the wealthiest Americans.
L. H. Charney Associates Inc.
Jack Mansell (22 August 1927 – 19 March 2016) was a British professional footballer.
He made 274 appearances in the Football League as a fullback for Brighton & Hove Albion, Cardiff City and Portsmouth.
After retiring as a player he joined the coaching staff at Sheffield Wednesday.
He coached many clubs with his longest spell being at Reading and had experience overseas with the likes of Blauw-Wit Amsterdam, Boston Beacons and the Israel national football team.
In 1982, Mansell was chosen to train Maccabi Haifa, after a year at the Israeli national team.
Managerial statistics of Jack Mansell on Soccerbase.com
League Managers' Association profile
Sergey Viktorovich Lavrov (, ; born 21 March 1950) is a Russian diplomat.
He was the Foreign Minister of Russia since 2004.
From 1994 to 2004, Lavrov was a Soviet diplomat, and the Permanent Representative of Russia to the United Nations.
Rita Gam (April 2, 1927March 22, 2016) was an American and television actress and documentary filmmaker.
She was nominated for a Golden Globe and won the Silver Bear for Best Actress.
She was known for her roles in The Thief and King of Kings.
She was also known for being Sidney Lumet's first wife.
Gam shared the Silver Bear for Best Actress award with Viveca Lindfors at the 1962 Berlin Film Festival, for their performances in Tad Danielewski's No Exit.
Rita Gam at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection
Loratadine (also known as Claritin) is a drug used to treat hay fever, urticaria and skin allergies.
It is closely related to tryciclic antidepressants.
It is distantly related to quetiapine.
Loratadine was discovered in 1981.
It was first sold in 1993.
Allergic rhinitis (also known as hay fever or pollinosis) is a type of inflammation in the nose.
It occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air.
Symptoms include sneezing, red, itchy and watery eyes, and swelling around the eyes.
Michael Hutter (born March 18, 1983) is an American professional wrestler.
He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name EC3.
He is perhaps best known for his stint in Impact Wrestling, where he won the TNA World Heavyweight Championshipthree  times.
José Paolo Guerrero Gonzales (born 1 January 1984 in Lima, Peru)  is a Peruvian footballer who plays as a striker for Brazilian club Flamengo and the Peru national team.
"Wildest Dreams" is a song by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift.
The song was released on August 31, 2015.
Swift co-write the song with its producers Max Martin and Shellback.
It got generally positive reviews from music critics.
The song hit #5 on the American Billboard Hot 100.
Hernandez v. Texas, , was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court.
In a unanimous ruling, the Court held that Mexican Americans and all other racial or national groups in the United States had equal protection under the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
The ruling was written by Chief Justice Earl Warren.
This was the first case in which Mexican-American lawyers had appeared before the US Supreme Court.
Pete Hernandez, a Mexican-American agricultural worker, was convicted for the 1950 murder of Joe Espinosa.
Hernandez's pro bono legal team, including Gustavo C. García, wanted to challenge what they knew was "the systematic exclusion of persons of Mexican origin" from all types of jury duty in at least seventy counties in Texas.
His defense lawyers argued that persons of Mexican descent had not been allowed to serve on juries even though numerous Mexican Americans were citizens and had qualified for jury duty in Jackson County.
Even though 14 percent of the county was Hispanic, none had served on juries for at least the last 25 years.
This meant Hernandez had been deprived of his Fourteenth Amendment rights.
Hernandez and his lawyers appealed to the Supreme Court of Texas, then to the United States Supreme Court through a writ of certiorari.
Ruling
The unanimous majority opinion was delivered by Chief Justice Earl Warren.
The Court ruled the Fourteenth Amendment protects persons beyond the racial classes of white or black, and extends protection to other racial or national groups, as well as legal classes.
Mexican Americans were such a "special class" and were entitled to equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment.
Pete Hernandez was granted a new trial with a jury that included Mexican Americans.
Hernandez was found to be guilty of murder.
The ultimate effect of this ruling was that the protection of the 14th Amendment was ruled to cover any racial, national and ethnic groups of the United States for which discrimination could be proved.
The Court's ruling served as a legal precedent used in legal challenges against unfair housing laws, school segregation, and voting rights of Mexican Americans nationwide.
Majority Opinion written by Chief Justice Earl Warren
Judge Carlos Cadena, lead petitioner before the US Supreme Court
Gustavo C. Garcia, co-petitioner before the US Supreme Court
Gideon v. Wainwright, , is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history.
The Court decided that if a person is charged with a crime, and they cannot pay for a lawyer, the state has to give them one for free.
This case caused the public defender program to be created in the United States. (
A public defender is a lawyer who defends clients who cannot pay them.)
Between midnight and 8:00 a.m. on June 3, 1961, someone broke into the Bay Harbor Pool Room in Panama City, Florida.
The person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole coins from a cash register.
Later that day, a witness said he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the pool room at around 5:30 that morning.
The witness said Gideon left with a wine bottle and money in his pockets.
Based only on this information, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny.
This charge means a person broke into a place, meaning to steal someone else's property. (
In Florida, at the time, "petty" larceny meant that the person stole something that was worth less than $50.)
Under Florida law, if Gideon was found guilty, he could be put in prison for up to five years.
Laws about rights to counsel
In state courts
In 1961, state courts had to follow the Supreme Court's decision in Betts v. Brady.
In this case, the Court ruled that if a defendant was charged with a capital crime, he had to be be assigned a lawyer if he could not pay for one.
However, as long as the defendant was not charged with a capital crime, the states did not have to assign free lawyers to every defendant who could not afford them.
The Court ruled that having a lawyer was not a basic right, and was not necessary for a fair trial.
In their decision, the Court did rule that there were special cases where a court should assign a lawyer.
In these special cases, not having a lawyer would make it difficult for a defendant to get a fair trial.
These "specialized circumstances" included things like a defendant not having education or not knowing the rules of the court.
What this meant was that in 1961, throughout the state of Florida, most defendants did not have lawyers.
They had two choices: to plead guilty, or to defend themselves at trial.
A Florida lawyer remembers that "[before] 1963, lawyers were likely to appear in Florida courtrooms only for the wealthy."
First, Gideon filed a writ of habeas corpus with the Florida State Supreme Court.
This is a request to be set free from unfair imprisonment.
The Florida Supreme Court summarily denied his request  meaning they refused to even hold a court hearing or hear Gideon's arguments.
From his prison cell, using the prison library and writing in pencil on prison paper, Gideon then appealed to the United States Supreme Court.
He asked the Supreme Court to review his case "because the 'due process clause' of the fourteenth admendment of the constitution and the fifth and sixth articales of the Bill of rights has been violated" sic.
Gideon argued that he had been denied a lawyer, which violated his Sixth Amendment rights.
In Betts v. Brady, the Supreme Court had ruled that the Sixth Amendment did not apply to the states.
However, Gideon argued that it did, because of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws."
Gideon argued that without assigning lawyers to poor defendants, the state of Florida was not giving those defendants due process or equal protection under the laws.
The Supreme Court agreed to hear Gideon's appeal.
They had decided to think about whether Betts v. Brady should be "reconsidered" (re-thought).
Supreme Court case
The legal issue
The basic question the Supreme Court had to answer had to do with the Sixth Amendment.
They had already decided that under the Sixth Amendment, everyone accused of a crime in federal court had the right to have a lawyer, even if they could not pay for one.
Now they needed to decide whether the Sixth Amendment applied to the states like it did to the federal government.
In other words, did every person accused of a crime in state court have the right to a lawyer?
For Gideon
The Supreme Court had assigned Gideon a well-known lawyer from Washington, D.C. named Abe Fortas. (
In 1965, Fortas would become a United States Supreme Court Justice.)
Fortas argued that it was impossible for a person to get a fair trial without a lawyer.
He argued that under the Fourteenth Amendment's "due process" requirement, the states had to give a person a fair trial before taking away their freedom.
By denying Gideon a lawyer, the state of Florida denied him a fair trial and violated his right to due process under the Fourteenth Amendment.
Against Gideon
A lawyer named Bruce Jacob argued the case against Gideon in front of the Supreme Court.
He made a few different arguments.
Jacob argued that the Constitution allows states to make their own rules about the criminal procedure (how to run criminal trials).
He talked about federalism  the separation of powers between federal and state governments that is written into the Constitution.
By making a rule saying the states always had to give poor defendants free lawyers, the federal government would be over-stepping its powers.
The states would be unable to make their own rules, and this would take away a right the Constitution gave to the states.
Jacob also argued that a person does not need a lawyer to get a fair trial.
He said that judges, and even prosecutors, help protect the rights of people who defend themselves in court.
In addition, Jacob said that if the Court ruled in favor of Gideon, the effects would be harmful.
If the Court ruled that a lawyer was needed for a fair trial, then the state would also have to give poor defendants free lawyers for other types of trials, like appeals and civil trials.
The state would never have enough lawyers for this or enough money to pay them, he said.
Also, out of Florida's 8,000 prisoners, 65%  5,200 prisoners  had not had lawyers.
Jacob argued that many of these prisoners could go free if the Court ruled in favor of Gideon.
On March 18, 1963, the Supreme Court voted 9-0 that Gideon was right.
His rights had been violated.
The Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment's right to a lawyer does apply to the states.
It reasoned that without a lawyer, a person cannot get a fair trial.
If a person does not get a fair trial, they are not getting the "due process of law" that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees.
In other words, because people have the right to due process, they have the right to a fair trial; and because they cannot get a fair trial without a lawyer, they also have the right to a lawyer.
The Court also said that its earlier decision in Betts v. Brady had been wrong.
This ruling overturned the Supreme Court's earlier decision in Betts v. Brady (meaning the Betts decision was no longer valid).
Justice Black (who had disagreed with the Betts decision when the Court made it) wrote:
The Supreme Court's ruling did not mean that Gideon could automatically go free.
It meant he got a new trial  this time, with a free lawyer assigned to him.
Gideon asked for a lawyer named Fred Turner, who had a very good reputation, and the judge agreed.
With Turner arguing the case, it took jurors less than an hour to find Gideon not guilty.
Gideon was set free that day.
Gideon died on January 18, 1972, from cancer and tuberculosis.
He was buried in an unmarked grave in Missouri.
Almost thirteen years later, the American Civil Liberties Union paid for a headstone to be put on Gideon's grave.
On the gravestone, there is a quote based on something Gideon wrote in a letter to Abe Fortas: "I believe that each era finds an improvement in law for the benefit of mankind.
Based on the Supreme Court decision, each of Florida's 5,200 prisoners who had been convicted without counsel had the right to a new trial  this time with a lawyer.
However, about 1,200 of these prisoners were set free without a new trial.
This happened because witnesses in their cases had died or moved away, and the state of Florida did not have enough evidence to try them again.
The same year Gideon was decided, the Florida state legislature set up their public defender system.
Throughout the 1960s, states that did not already have public defender systems created them.
When Gideon was decided, there were still 13 states that did not always give lawyers to poor criminal defendants.
Like in Florida, many of these poor defendants did not get fair trials because they did not have a lawyer's help.
After the Gideon decision, every person who is charged with a crime, in any court in the United States, has the right to a lawyer  even if they cannot pay for one.
Defendants can decide they do not want a lawyer, but when they do that, they are giving up their right to a lawyer because they want to.
Four years after Gideon, in a case called Burget v. Texas, the Supreme Court ruled that the Gideon decision applied "retroactively."
This means it applies even to defendants who were convicted before Gideon was decided in 1963.
In other words, the Court was admitting that defendants should have had the right to counsel all along, even before Gideon.
The Court decided in Gideon that people could not get a fair trial without lawyers; that was just as true for people who were convicted before 1963.
These people, too, now deserved new trials, with free lawyers to help them.
Gideon today
The Gideon decision still guarantees free counsel to every poor individual charged with a crime in the United States.
However, many legal scholars agree that there are many problems with the public defender system in the 21st century.
Because of these problems, they argue, many poor defendants are not getting the rights the Gideon decision gave them.
According to these scholars, one of the biggest problems with today's public defender programs is that they do not get enough money from the government to deal with the number of poor defendants they have to represent.
Programs cannot hire enough lawyers
Public defenders have to take on many different cases at a time
When lawyers have too many cases, they have very little time to work on each case, and they cannot do their jobs as well
These lawyers are not paid well, and because their jobs are also very stressful, many lawyers do not stay in public defender jobs for long
Some public defenders have very little experience in criminal law
Many poor defendants are given free counsel at trial, then later are told they have to pay for the lawyer's services
Radical Face is a musical act whose main member is Ben Cooper, who sings and plays multiple instruments.
All the sounds are put together on a computer.
Cooper is also in Electric President, an electronic music group.
However, Radical Face has an acoustic sound.
Radical Face's music has been on television programmes and in the movie Wish I Was Here.
Cooper's first album to be recorded under the name Radical Face was The Junkyard Chandelier (2003).
The album was never released.
However, it can be downloaded for free online.
Ghost was the first official studio album, released in March 2007.
On November 16, 2010, Cooper released an EP titled Touch The Sky.
It was a preview for a trilogy of albums called Family Tree.
This trilogy is about a fictional family from the 1800s, the Northcotes.
It is also really about Cooper's own life.
The albums are The Roots, The Branches, and The Leaves.
Another EP, The Bastards: Volume One, was released before The Roots.
In August 2011, iTunes accidentally released The Roots to users outside of the US.
It was released in the US on October 4, 2011.
The Family Tree: The Branches was released on October 22, 2013 in America and on November 1 in Europe.
The Bastards: Volume Two was also released that year.
The Bastards: Volume Three and The Bastards: Volume Four were both released in 2015, before the release of The Family Tree: The Leaves in March 2016.
The Leaves has songs that are about Cooper's own life.
Clone, an album by Ben Cooper and Richard Colado, was supposed to be released before fall of 2012, but it kept getting delayed.
The first track of the album, "The Laboratory", was finally released on September 23, 2014.
Cooper then released one track per week.
The Sounds & Sights of Radical Face - Short documentary by Justin Mitchell
Radical Face Live in San Francisco - 2011 Behind the Scenes video By Connor Ellmann
The 2015–16 La Liga season (known as the Liga BBVA for sponsorship reasons) is the 85th since its establishment.
The season started on 22 August 2015 and will conclude on 15 May 2016.
Zamora Trophy
4 Player scored four goals5 Player scored five goals(H) - Home ; (A) - Away
Most yellow cards (club): 131
Most yellow cards (player): 16
Rubén Pérez (Granada)
Recio (Málaga)
Most red cards (club): 6
Most red cards (player): 1
31 players
2010s in Spain
In case law, a test case is a legal action whose purpose is to set a precedent.
An example of a test case might be a person who files a lawsuit in order to see if the court considers a certain law or a certain legal precedent applies in certain circumstances.
This is useful, for example, in order to later file similar lawsuits in similar circumstances.
Sometimes, lawyers delay filing a lawsuit to wait and see how a test case is decided.
Test cases are sometimes used to challenge a law to have it possibly overturned.
Government agencies sometimes bring test cases in order to confirm or expand their powers.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Scopes v. Tennessee (1925)
United States v. One Book Called Ulysses (1933)
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State v. Oneida County (1974)
Adams v Cape Industries plc (1990)
Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992)
National Westminster Bank plc v Spectrum Plus Limited (2005)
District of Columbia v. Heller (2008)
Strict scrutiny is the most stringent standard of judicial review used by United States courts.
It is part of the hierarchy of standards that courts use to weigh the government's interest against a constitutional right or principle.
These standards are used to test statutes and government action at all levels of government within the United States.
The idea of "levels of judicial scrutiny", including strict scrutiny, was introduced in United States v. Carolene Products Co. (1938), one of a series of decisions testing the constitutionality of New Deal legislation.
The first and most notable case in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard and found the government's actions valid was Korematsu v. United States (1944).
In Korematsu the Court upheld the government ruling 6-3 that the need to protect the country from espionage outweighed the rights of Mr. Korematsu.
Applicability
Compelling governmental interest.
While the Courts have never clearly defined how to determine if an interest is compelling, the concept generally refers to something necessary or crucial.
Examples include national security, preserving the lives of multiple individuals, and not violating explicit constitutional protections.
Narrowly tailored refers to achieve that goal or interest.
If the government action includes too much (overbroad) or fails to address important parts of the compelling interest, then the rule is not considered narrowly tailored.
least restrictive means must be used for achieving that interest.
That is, there cannot be a less restrictive way to effectively achieve the compelling government interest.
The test will be met even if there is another method that is equally the least restrictive.
Some legal scholars consider this "least restrictive means" requirement part of being narrowly tailored, though the Court generally evaluates it separately.
Cancer of unknown primary origin (CUP, "occult cancer") is a term used to describe a cancer that is said to be at the metastatic stage at the time of diagnosis, but a primary tumor cannot be identified.
A diagnosis of CUP requires a clinical picture  with metastatic disease and one or more biopsy results inconsistent with a primary tumor.
CUP is found in about 3 to 5% of all people diagnosed with invasive cancer, and carries a poor prognosis in most (80 to 85%) of those circumstances.
The other 15 to 20% of patients, however, have a relatively long survival with appropriate treatment.
Joseph Henry Garagiola, Sr. (
February 12, 1926 – March 23, 2016) was an American professional baseball catcher and later an announcer and television host.
Garagiola played nine seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs and the New York Giants.
He was also well known outside of baseball for having been one of the regular panelists on The Today Show for many years and for his many appearances on game shows both as a host and panelist.
http://appelpr.com/ARTICLES/A-funny.htm
Joe Garagiola hosting "Monitor" on the NBC Radio Network, Saturday, February 22, 1969, from 3 to 4 p.m. ET
Joe Garagiola at the Internet Movie Database
He was a member of the group A Tribe Called Quest with high school classmates Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad (and for a short time Jarobi White).
He was also known as the "Five Foot Assassin" and "The Five Footer", because he stood at .
Peter Brown (October 5, 1935 – March 21, 2016) was an American television actor.
He was known for his four-year role as young Deputy Johnny McKay in the 1958 to 1962 ABC/Warner Brothers western television series, Lawman and as Texas Ranger Chad Cooper on Laredo from 1965 to 1967.
Glen Dawson (June 3, 1912 – March 22, 2016) was an American rock climber, mountaineer, antiquarian bookseller, publisher and environmentalist.
In 1929, Glen began serious mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada.
On July 6, 1930, during the Sierra Club's annual High Trip, he first teamed up with Jules Eichorn to make the third ascent of Red-and-White Mountain in the Sierra.
Martin James Norman Riley (22 May 1954 – 23 March 2016), better known as Jimmy Riley, was a Jamaican singer.
Along to recording solo, he was also a member of the Sensations and The Uniques.
He was the father of Tarrus Riley.
In September 2013 he released the album Contradiction, that featured guest appearances from his son Tarrus, Sizzla, and Fantan Mojah.
Carolyn M. Squires (September 25, 1940 – March 21, 2016) was an American politician.
Squires was a member of the Montana House of Representatives for the 96th district from 2010 to 2015.
From 2002 to 2010, she was a member of the Montana Senate, representing District 48, where she served as Majority Whip.
Earlier she was a member of the Montana House of Representatives from 1987 through 2000.
Project Vote Smart - Senator Carolyn M. Squires (MT) profile
Follow the Money - Carolyn Squires
2008 2006 2002 Senate campaign contributions
1998 1996 1994 1992 1990 House campaign contributions
Politicians from Montana
Missoula is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County. ,
the United States Census Bureau estimated the city's population at 69,821 and the population of the Missoula Metropolitan Area at 112,684.
It is the second largest city in Montana.
It is home of the University of Montana.
Santiago Jesus Erevia (December 15, 1946 – March 22, 2016) was an American U.S. Army-veteran.
He was born in Nordheim, Texas.
Erevia served in the Vietnam War starting at the age of 22.
In 1970, Erevia left active service with a two-year reserve obligation.
In 1972 he joined the Texas National Guard and went on to serve 17 years.
Erevia worked as a mail carrier for the United States Postal Service, retiring in 2002 after thirty-two years of service.
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one of the first electronic computers.
Unlike the computer before it, the ENIAC, EDVAC operated in binary and was able to store programs.
Functionally, EDVAC was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with a capacity of 1,000 44-bit words.
EDVAC's average addition time was 864 microseconds and its average multiplication time was 2,900 microseconds.
By 1960, EDVAC was running over 20 hours a day with error-free run time averaging eight hours.
EDVAC ran until 1961 when it was replaced by BRLESC.
In general relativity, a naked singularity is a gravitational singularity that is viewable from the outside.
The event horizon is like a bubble which surrounds a black hole.
Inside the event horizon, the pull of the light cannot escape, so we are unable to view objects inside the event horizon.
This includes the event horizon itself.
Naked singularities do not have an event horizon, hence the term 'naked'.
The existence of naked singularities is a very important topic in physics, because it would mean we could actually see phenomena made by black holes that we wouldn't be able to see otherwise.
In addition, naked singularities would pose big problems for general relativity, since scientists still have not figured out a working idea for what happens to space-time in and around a black hole.
Quantum mechanics, the main other scientific theory scientists turn to in physics, is also unable to explain how space-time would behave in such a situation.
Although the cosmic censorship hypothesis says that naked singularities cannot exist, some research says that if loop quantum gravity (a scientific theory that says the universe is made of small 'loops') is correct, naked singularities could exist in nature.
Other calculations and arguments have been made to support this.
Possible formation
There are black holes known as Kerr black holes which have spin (they rotate).
But, there is a maximum spin rate.
If it spins faster than that maximum, its horizon disappears, leaving the singularity inside it wide open.
Mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou has shown that naked singularities also occur in nature.
M. C. Werner and A. O. Peters, "Magnification relations for Kerr lensing and testing cosmic censorship", Physical Review D, Vol.
76, Issue 6 (2007).
Marcus Chown, "Fast-spinning black holes might reveal all"  New Scientist, August 2009.
Pankaj S. Joshi, "Naked Singularities" Scientific American, May 2013.
The Civil Rights Cases , were a group of five similar cases consolidated into one issue for the United States Supreme Court to review.
The Court held that Congress lacked the constitutional authority under the Fourteenth Amendment to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals and organizations, rather than state and local governments.
The decision itself involved five consolidated cases (United States v. Stanley, United States v. Ryan, United States v. Nichols, United States v. Singleton, and Robinson v. Memphis & Charleston Railroad 109 U.S. 3, 3 S. Ct.
18, 27 L. Ed.
835.)
coming from different lower courts in which Black Americans had sued theaters, hotels and transit companies that had refused them service or excluded them from "white only" facilities.
Decision of the Court
The Court, in an 8-1 decision by Justice Joseph P. Bradley, held that the language of the 14th Amendment, which prohibited denial of equal protection by a state, did not give Congress power to regulate these private acts.
This was because it was the result of conduct by private individuals, not state law or action, that blacks were suffering.
Legislation by Congress on subjects which are within the domain of the state are not authorized by the 14th Amendment.
Private acts of racial discrimination were simply private wrongs that the national government was powerless to correct.
Bradley commented that "individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject-matter of the [14th] Amendment.
It has a deeper and broader scope.
It nullifies and makes void all state legislation, and state action of every kind, which impairs the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, or which injures them in life, liberty or property without due process of law, or which denies to any of them the equal protection of the laws."
The Court also acknowledged that the 13th Amendment does apply to private actors, but only to the extent that it prohibits people from owning slaves, not exhibiting discriminatory behavior.
The Court said that "it would be running the slavery argument into the ground to make it apply to every act of discrimination which a person may see fit to make as to guests he will entertain, or as to the people he will take into his coach or cab or car; or admit to his concert or theatre, or deal with in other matters of intercourse or business."
Many African-American leaders were outraged and disappointed that the Supreme Court declared the first two sections of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional.
On October 20, 1883, T. Thomas Fortune, the editor of the New York Globe wrote: "The colored people of the United States feel to-day as if they had been baptized in ice water".
Many felt it was the end of an era in which the Federal government would protect the rights of African-American citizens.
The Supreme Court decision severely restricted the power of the federal government to guarantee equal status under the law to blacks.
State officials in the South took advantage of the decision and began to enact laws that legalized the treatment of blacks as second-class citizens for another seventy years.
The court's decision thus ultimately led to the enactment of state laws, such as Jim Crow laws, which made racial segregation the law.
The United States Statutes at Large, commonly referred to as the Statutes at Large and abbreviated Stat.,
is the official record of Acts of Congress and concurrent resolutions passed by the United States Congress.
Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law (abbreviated Pub.
L.) or private law (Pvt.
L.), and designated and numbered accordingly.
At the end of a Congress session, slip laws (now commonly called session laws) are compiled into Statutes at Large, which are numbered and organised by Congress session.
They are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws (Statutes at Large), and codification (United States Code).
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 (–337), sometimes called Enforcement Act or Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prevent being excluded from jury duty.
The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.
Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in Civil Rights Cases (1883) that sections of the act were unconstitutional.
History of Act
Legislative History
The drafting of the bill was done in early 1870 by Senator Charles Sumner.
It was with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African-American who established the law department at Howard University.
The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st United States Congress in 1870.
The act was eventually passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875.
Constitutional challenge
The Supreme Court, in an 8 to 1 decision, declared the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15, 1883.
The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations.
The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations.
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law in the United States until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.
Legacy of law
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as one of the major pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War.
These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870.
Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later adopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968.
This legislation relied on the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States.
Garner v. Louisiana, , was an important civil rights case argued by Thurgood Marshall before the Supreme Court.
On December 11, 1961, the court unanimously ruled that Louisiana could not convict peaceful sit-in protesters who refused to leave dining establishments under the state's "disturbing the peace" laws.
African-American students from Southern University sat at a "whites only" segregated lunch bar at Sitman's Drugstore in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
The manager called the Police after the students quietly remained even though they were asked to move to another counter.
After ordering the black patrons to leave, the Police arrested them and charged them with disturbing the peace.
The claim was that their behavior could "foreseeably disturb or alarm the public," according to the state's "disturbing the peace" statute.
In a 9-0 decision, the court ruled in the African-American students' favor, arguing the state violated due process of law under the Fourteenth Amendment and finding there was no evidence the students' behavior could have foreseeably disturbed the peace.
In his written opinion, Justice John Marshall Harlan compared sit-in demonstrations to verbal expression as a form of free speech.
Justice William O. Douglas in his concurring opinion said, “For the police are supposed to be on the side of the Constitution, not on the side of discrimination.
Yet if all constitutional questions are to be put aside and the problem treated merely in terms of disturbing the peace, I would have difficulty in reversing these judgments.
I think, however, the constitutional questions must be reached and that they make reversal necessary.”
Garner v. Louisiana was an important case for the Civil Rights Movement, and one of many civil rights cases argued before the Warren Court (1953-69).
The federal judiciary of the United States is one of the three co-equal branches of the Federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution.
Article III of the Constitution requires the establishment of a Supreme Court and permits the Congress to create other federal courts, and place limitations on their jurisdiction.
Article III United States federal judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve until they resign, are impeached and convicted, retire, or die.
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court.
It is generally an appellate court that operates under discretionary review, which means that the Court can choose which cases to hear, by granting of writs of certiorari.
There is generally no right of appeal to the Supreme Court.
In a few situations (like lawsuits between state governments or some cases between the federal government and a state) it sits as a court of original jurisdiction.
There are 13 appellate courts that determine if the law was applied correctly in trial courts.
In some cases, Congress has diverted appellate jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review.
There are 94 United States district courts.
These are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals.
The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)
Rob Paulsen (born 1956) is an American voice actor, singer and former film and television actor who has done many voice roles in various films, television shows and video games.
He is best known for his roles as Pinky from Pinky and the Brain, P.J. in A Goofy Movie and Goof Troop, Carl Wheezer from The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron Boy Genius, Raphael (1987) and Donatello (2012) from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Plank from Ed, Edd n Eddy,  and Yakko Warner and Dr. Otto Scratchansniff from Animaniacs.
ABC Weekend Special – Spike Funnybunny, Moe Weasel, Policeman
The Mask: (TV series) Stanley Ipkiss/The Mask
The Addams Family – Mr. Normanmeyer, Van Swash, Additional Voices
Adventures from the Book of Virtues – Peter, Classmate
The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius – Carl Wheezer, Ebenezer Wheezer, Martha Wheezer, Butch Pakovski, Principal Willoughby, Additional Voices
Aladdin – Omar
American Dragon: Jake Long – Groom, Additional Voices
The Angry Beavers – Terrence
Animaniacs – Yakko Warner, Pinky, Dr. Otto von Scratchansniff, Additional Voices
Attack of the Killer Tomatoes – Mummato, Tomato Worm
The Batman – Kid
Batman: The Animated Series – Jay ("I've Got Batman in My Basement")
Back at the Barnyard – Peck, RoboPeck, Skunky, Joey, Badger, Pizza Twin #1
Ben 10 – Ditto
Ben 10: Alien Force – Baz-El, Rhomboid Vreedle
Ben 10: Ultimate Alien – Baz-El, Rhomboid Vreedle, Magister Patelliday
Ben 10: Omniverse – Magister Patelliday, Rhomboid Vreedle, Ditto, Captain Kork, Tummy Head, Gorvan, Phil, Gutrot
Big Time Rush - C.A.L. ("Big Time Jobs"), Sam Sellmart ("Big Time Merchandise")(uncredited)
Biker Mice from Mars – Throttle, Fred the Mutant, Additional Voices
Biker Mice from Mars (2006 TV series) – Throttle, Hairball, Additional Voices
The Blues Brothers Animated Series – Benny Fingers, Doctor
The Boondocks (TV series) – The Art Teacher, Additional Voices
Bubsy: What Could Possibly Go Wrong? –
Bubsy Bobcat
Bump in the Night – Squishington
Butt-Ugly Martians – 2-T Fru-T, Mike, Ronald
Buzz Lightyear of Star Command – AP-06, Additional Voices
Can You Teach My Alligator Manners? –
Capitol Critters – Additional Voices
The Spooktacular New Adventures of Casper – Spooky the Tuff Little Ghost
CatDog – Hotdog, Hamburger (Meat, Dog's Friends), Additional Voices
Catscratch – Gordon Quid
Cédric - Nicholas
Centerville – Mitch & Brad
Challenge of the GoBots – Additional Voices
Channel Umptee-3 – Ogden Ostrich
ChalkZone – Vinnie Raton, Walrus, Craniac
Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers – Captain Finn, Flash The Wonder Dog, Chief Marley, Shakabaka, Darby Spree
Chowder – VG, Dom, Additional Voices
Coconut Fred's Fruit Salad Island – Coconut Fred
Codename: Kids Next Door – Rupert Puttkin/The Great Puttinsky, Shaunie Fulbright, Robin Food, Mr. Mogle, Additional Voices
The Crow: Stairway to Heaven – James
Curious George – Compass, Charkie, Mr. Glass, Mr. Reloj, Additional Voices
Dan Dare: Pilot of The Future – The Mekon
Danger Rangers – Squeaky
Danny Phantom – Jack Fenton, Nicolai Technus, The Box Ghost
Darkwing Duck – Steelbeak
Dave the Barbarian – Malsquando, Additional Voices
Denver, the Last Dinosaur – Nick, Chet
Detention – Uncle Kelly
Dexter's Laboratory – Major Glory, Puppet Pal Mitch, Additional Voices
Dino-Riders – Faze, Kameelian
Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears – Gusto Gummi
Disney's House of Mouse – José Carioca
Disney's Sheriff Callie's Wild West – Tricky Travis
Doc McStuffins – Sir Kirby
Duck Dodgers – Mac Gopher, Porko, Captain Peters, Axl Gator
DuckTales – Gladstone Gander
El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera – Additional Voices
Elena of Avalor - Macoco
Eloise: The Animated Series – Bill
The Fairly OddParents –  Mark Chang, Happy Peppy Gary, King Gripullon, Bucky McBadbat, Mr. Ed Ledly, Additional Voices
Fish Hooks – Magic Hamster Mirror, Additional Voices
Fish Police – Richie
Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends – Additional Voices
Fraggle Rock: The Animated Series – Boober Fraggle, Sprocket, Marjory the Trash Heap, Henchy Fraggle, Rhinestone Doozer, Additional Voices
Yakko Warner, Additional Voices
Funniest Pets & People – Announcer
Game of Thrones - ADR Loop Group
Gargoyles – Helios
Gary the Rat – Additional Voices
Generator Rex – Providence Agent Jackson, Providence Tech, Additional Voices
G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero (1985 TV series)  – Snow Job, Tripwire, Flash (ARAH), World War I American Warrior, Cobra slavemaster
Goof Troop – P.J. Pete, Additional Voices
Gravity Falls – Additional Voices
The Greatest Adventure: Stories from the Bible – Moki
Green Lantern: The Animated Series – Goggan, Bumpy
The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy – Tooth Fairy, Additional Voices
Hannibal - ADR Loop Group
Half-Shell Heroes: Blast to the Past - Donatello, Additional Voices
Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law – Baba Louie, Kids, Announcer
Henry Hugglemonster – Denzel Dugglemonster
Higglytown Heroes – Barber Hero
Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi – Atchan, Additional Voices
The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange – Broccoli Alien Overlord, Marshmallow Warriors, Dr. Sigmund Fruit, Dr. Fruitenstein, Thomas Jefferson, Rock, Apricot, President Dane, Junior
Mr. Smartypants, Sammy Melman, Additional Voices
I Am Weasel – Stevie, Admiral Algebra Doll
Jackie Chan Adventures – Magister #2, Punk Magister
Jake and the Never Land Pirates – Bobble
Jem – Prescott A. Wentworth III
The Jetsons – Gus Guesser, Blinky "Boy Boy Nova" Sunspot, Hall Monitor
Johnny Bravo – Green Swoosh
Jungle Cubs – Hathi, Akela, Additional Voices
Justice League – Lightray
K10C: Kids' Ten Commandments – Zeek, Josephat, and Joshua
Kim Possible - François, Prince Wally, Dallas, Hank Perkins, Vinnie Wheeler, Additional Voices
Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness – Han Sr.
The Land Before Time – Spike/Ruby's Father/Angry Apatosaurus #1/Hidden Runner/Mo/Milo/Stegosaurus Leader/Guido/Lambeosaurus
The Legend of Prince Valiant – Robert Draconarius, Prince Edwin, Soldier
The Legend of Tarzan – Radio Voice
The Life and Times of Juniper Lee – 10th Level Warlock, Leonard the Goblin, Additional Voices
Lilo & Stitch: The Series – Reuben, Squeak, Houdini
Loonatics Unleashed  – Rev Runner, Gorlop, Mr. Leghorn (2nd Time)
The Looney Tunes Show – Mac Gopher, Chuck Berost
The Loud House – Lane Loud, Mrs. Coconuts, Senior Announcer, and Seymour
Mad – Lex Luthor, Various
The Magician – Cosmos, Sonny Boy
The Mask: Animated Series – Stanley Ipkiss/The Mask
Megas XLR – V'arsin
Mickey Mouse – Referee
Mickey Mouse Clubhouse – Toodles
Mickey Mouse Works – José Carioca
Midnight Patrol: Adventures in the Dream Zone – Nightmare Prince
Mighty Ducks – Shecky 'The Comedian' Carter, Dr. Swindle
Mighty Max – Mighty Max
Mrs. Munger's Class – Rock and Lance
My Friends Tigger & Pooh - Raccoon
The New Adventures of Jonny Quest – Hadji
The New Woody Woodpecker Show – Additional Voices
The New Yogi Bear Show – La Bamba Bear
Cartoons – Mother Goose, Home Owner
Ozzy & Drix – Travis Lum, Backseat, Chief Maximus
The Penguins of Madagascar – Various
Pepper Ann – Larry, Danny
Phantom 2040 – Sean One, Heisenberg, Additional Voices
Phineas and Ferb – Additional Voices
Pinky and the Brain – Pinky
Pinky, Elmyra & the Brain – Pinky
Planet Sheen – Doppy Dopweiler
The Plucky Duck Show – Mr. Bughari, Furrball, Additional Voices
Poochini's Yard – Additional Voices
Pound Puppies – King (AKA No-Name) (uncredited)
Pound Puppies (2010) – Pet Delivery Guy, Suds, Yakov
The Powerpuff Girls – Brick, Boomer, Additional Voices
Power Eons: Super Legends – Demeon (Ninja Storm)
A Pup Named Scooby-Doo – Professor Digby/Were-Doo
Quack Pack – Nigel Nightshade
Cartoons – Solomon Fix, Danny, Tickle Monster, Handycat, Drillbit, and Flavio
Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja – Jacques
The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest – Hadji, Additional Voices
Recess – Additional Voices
Regular Show – Additional Voices
Rick and Morty – Snowball
Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles - Foot Lieutenant
Road Rovers – Gas Station Attendant
Robot and Monster – Bob, Scale
Rocko's Modern Life – Additional Voices
Rude Dog and the Dweebs – Rude Dog, Additional Voices
Saber Rider and the Star Sheriffs – Saber Rider, Jesse Blue
Sabrina: The Animated Series – Uncle Zamboni
Samurai Jack – Rothchild
Savage Dragon – Octopus
Ghastly Goals – Julio
Mystery Incorporated – Winslow Fleach, Radio Newsman
The Secret Saturdays – Baron Finster, Car Driver
The Silence of the Lambs - ADR Loop Group
Slimer and the Real Ghostbusters – Robby, Additional Voices
The Smurfs – Marco Smurf (1985)
Snorks – Corky
Sonic the Hedgehog – Antoine D'Coolette
Space Cats – Thomas 'Tom' Spacecat, Chelsie Pipshire
Spider-Man – Morris Bench / Hydro-Man
Squirrel Boy - Rodney J. Squirrel (pilot)
Star vs. the Forces of Evil – Gustav, Charlie Booth
Stripperella – Carl, Milton Gibbs
SpongeBob SquarePants – "Escape from Beneath Glove World"
The Super Hero Squad Show – Werewolf by Night, Baron Strucker
Super Secret Secret Squirrel – Anteater, Snooper and Blabber
SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron – Hard Drive, Al
The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries – Mechanic
Tak and the Power of Juju – Party Juju, Judge Juju, Gillbert
TaleSpin (Plunder & Lightning) – Ratchet and Dr. Debolt
Tasty Time with ZeFronk – Frankie "ZeFronk"
Taz-Mania – Digeri Dingo, Francis X. Bushlad, Axl Gator, Timothy Platypus, Marvin the Martian, Road Runner
Teacher's Pet – Ian Wazselewski
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles – Raphael, Donatello
1987 – Raphael, 2012 Donatello, Zach the Fifth Turtle, Wingnut, HiTech, The Grybyx, Mister Ogg, Professor Sopho, Tokka, Additional Voices
2012 – Donatello, Speed Demon Donatello, Metalhead, 80's Raphael, Shopkeeper, Cat Owner, Other Guy, Sir Paul, Triceraton Pilot, Sumo Glen, Triceraton Commander, Additional Voices
Teen Titans – The Source, Quiz Monkey Host, Stunt Show Host
The Upside Down Show - Cactus
ThunderCats – Shen, Rezard
The Tick (1994 TV series) – Arthur (Season 2 and Season 3), Brainchild (1st Time), Crusading Chameleon, Captain Mucilage, The Forehead, The Terror
Tigger & Pooh and a Musical, Too- Raccoon
The Transformers – Air Raid, Chase, Fastlane, Slingshot
This Just In! –
Time Squad – Buck Tuddrussel
Timon & Pumbaa – Banzai, Cheetata