the-french-artist/wikipedia_20220301.simple_sentence_split huggingface dataset:
Winston Churchill asked Stalin and Franklin D. Roosevelt to help the Polish troops, but the Soviets would not help.
Churchill sent over 200 drops of supplies by air.
The US Army Air Force sent one drop of supplies by air.
About 16,000 members of the Polish resistance were killed and about 6,000 were badly wounded.
In addition, between 150,000 and 200,000 Polish civilians were killed.
The Germans also found many Jews the Poles were hiding.
More than 8,000 German soldiers were killed or went missing, and 9,000 were wounded.
During the fighting in the city about a quarter  of Warsaw's buildings were destroyed.
After the surrender of Polish forces, German troops destroyed 35% of the city.
By July 1944, Poland had been occupied by Nazi German troops for almost five years.
The Polish Home Army was loyal to the Polish government in London.
It had planned to attack the Germans.
Germany was fighting a group of Allied powers, led by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States.
At the start, the plan of the Home Army was to join with the invading forces of the Western Allies as they freed Europe from the Nazis.
However, in 1943, the Soviets were about to reach the pre-war borders of Poland before the Allied invasion of Europe got very far.
The Soviets and the Poles were both enemies of Nazi Germany.
But they had different goals.
The Home Army wanted a democratic capitalist Poland that was allied with the West.
The Soviet leader Stalin wanted to make Poland a communist country that was allied to the Soviet Union.
The Soviets and the Poles did not trust each other.
Soviet partisans in Poland often disagreed with Polish resistance troops that were allied to the Home Army.
Stalin stopped all Polish-Soviet relations on 25 April 1943 after the Germans told the world about the Katyn massacre of Polish army officers.
Stalin refused to admit that he ordered the killings.
The Home Army commander, Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski made a plan on 20 November, called Operation Tempest.
On the Eastern Front, local units of the Home Army were to attack the German Wehrmacht and help Soviet troops.
Evening before the battle
On 13 July 1944 as the Soviet attack crossed the old Polish border, the Poles had to make a decision.
They could either start to attack the Germans, which might not be supported by the Soviets, or do no attacks and be criticized by the Soviets.
When the Poles saw the actions of the Soviet forces, they realized they needed to make a decision.
In Operation Ostra Brama, NKVD forces shot or arrested Polish officers and forced lower ranks to join the Soviet-controlled Polish forces.
On 21 July, the Home Army decided to launch Operation Tempest in Warsaw soon.
The plan was intended as a way of showing Poland was its own country and as an attack against the German occupiers.
On 25 July, the Polish government-in-exile (against the views of Polish Commander-in-Chief General Kazimierz Sosnkowski) approved the plan for an uprising in Warsaw.
In the early summer of 1944, German plans required Warsaw to be the defensive centre of the area.
The Germans wanted to hold on to Warsaw no matter how many losses they had.
The Germans had built fortifications and sent many new troops to the area.
This slowed after the failed '20 July plot' to kill Adolf Hitler.
The German troops in Warsaw were weak and did not feel confident.
However, by the end of July, German forces in the area had new troops sent to them.
On 27 July, the Governor of the Warsaw District, Ludwig Fischer, called for 100,000 Polish men and women to build fortifications around the city.
The inhabitants of Warsaw did not follow his demand.
The Home Army became worried about possible revenge actions by the Germans or mass arrests, which would make it hard for the Poles to start an attack.
The Soviet forces were approaching Warsaw, and Soviet-controlled radio stations called for the Polish people to attack the Germans.
On 25 July, the Union of Polish Patriots made a radio broadcast from Moscow.
It told Poles to attack the Germans.
On 29 July, the first Soviet tanks reached the edges of Warsaw.
They were counter-attacked by two German Panzer Corps: the 39th and 4th SS.
On 29 July 1944 Radio Station Kosciuszko located in Moscow told Poles to "Fight The Germans!".
Bór-Komorowski and several senior officers held a meeting on that day.
Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, who had arrived from London, said support from the Allies would be weak.
On 31 July, the Polish commanders General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski and Colonel Antoni Chruściel ordered the Home Army forces for to be ready by 17:00 the following day.
Wola massacre
During the uprising, Heinrich Himmler had given the order to storm Wola, a part of Warsaw.
The rebels were holding this quarter.
Himmler ordered that all people in Wazaw, which were not German, must be killed.
This order was applicable to both civilians, and fighters, and also did not take into account if the people supported the uprising.
With this order, Himmler wanted to break down the resistance of the Polish people against the German occupation.
As a result, there were mass killings of people, mostly between August 5 and August 7.
Estimates are that between 20,000 and 30,000 civilians were killed.
in these three days.
According to sources, about 20 German soldiers were killed, about 40 were wounded.
Until August 12, about 50,000 Polish civilians lost their lives in Wola.
September 1944 events
Martin Bashir (born 19 January 1963) is a British journalist.
He is known for interviewing Princess Diana in 1995 and Michael Jackson in the 2003 documentary Living with Michael Jackson.
That year he was voted the fifth 'worst Briton'.
He started being a journalist in 1986.
He worked with BBC until 1999.
Then he joined ITV.
In December 2010 he joined MSNBC.
He hosted Martin Bashir on MSNBC on weekdays.
On 15 November 2013, Bashir made people angry when he said on his MSNBC show Clear the Air that someone should defecate in Sarah Palin's mouth and called her a 'world-class idiot'.
In December 2013 Bashir stopped working at the MSNBC.
Bashir was born to Pakistani parents in Wandsworth in South London.
He speaks English and Urdu.
In the military, chaff are small thin pieces of metal which are shot out of an airplane or warship.
These thin strips of metal make it harder for enemy radar to detect where the plane or ship is.
The thin strips of metal also make it harder for radar-guided missiles to hit the plane or warship.
The chaff tricks the enemy and helps to keep the plane or warship safe.
In the military, a flare countermeasure is a very hot, burning object which is shot out from a warplane or helicopter.
Warplanes and helicopters shoot out flares if the enemy has fired a heat-seeking missile at them.
The flare may trick the missile into hitting into the hot, burning flare.
This helps to protect warplanes and helicopters from enemy missiles.
If a warplane or helicopter has had a radar-guided missile fired at them, they may shoot out chaff.
Chaff is thin strips or fibres of metal which make if hard for the enemy missile to target the plane or helicopter.
In the United States, a Terry stop is a when police stop a person and quickly check the person's clothes for guns or knives.
To do this action, the police officer has to have a good reason to think that the person may be involved in a crime.
Traffic calming measures are changes to a road to make car drivers slow down and to make the road safer for people who have to walk across the road.
Some traffic calming techniques include installing speed bumps and narrowing roads, which make drivers slow down.
Another way to make drivers slow down is to set speed limits.
These speed limits can be enforced with automatic speed cameras.
These cameras take photographs of people who are driving too fast.
Another way to slow drivers down is to make curbs wider.
Earl is the debut mixtape by Earl Sweatshirt.
It was released on March 31, 2010 as a free digital download on Odd Future's website.
The mixtape was recorded when Earl was between 15 and 16.
The album is short and the lyrics are about murder, rape, drugs and critism of religion.
Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott, (March 12, 1821 – October 30, 1893) was the third Prime Minister of Canada.
He served in the office for seventeen months, from June 16, 1891 to November 24, 1892.
Through his daughter, Abbott is the great-grandfather of Canadian Academy Award-winning actor Christopher Plummer.
Abbott died on March 12, 1893 from complications of pneumonia in his Montreal, Quebec home.
Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, edited by James Grant Wilson, John Fiske and Stanley L. Klos.
Six volumes, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1887-1889
Mayors of Montreal
Bike rage refers to using bad words, bad gestures, or physcial conflict between cyclists and others on the road, including pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, and drivers.
Bike rage is similar to other road rage.
A bike rage event can start because a cyclist, driver, or pedestrian thinks that another road user was breaking traffic rules, or in other ways because someone felt that their safety was threatened by another road user.
Some people consider that the problem is city planners have mixed bikes and cars together in the same ways and may cause lots of chances for conflict.
As such, cyclists feel threatened in traffic and hard done by and under attack.
An article in Toronto Life magazine argued that the source of the problem bike rage is neither the problem of drivers nor the problem of cyclists, but the environment in which they interact.
A possible explanation between cyclists and drivers is the anonymity of the big city; all the cyclists and drivers know they will never meet each other again.
An event from New York Times show that a 41-year-old cyclist, Dan Cooley was injured by a driver who became angry at him after an exchange of insults.
The event began when the driver overtake in front of Mr. Cooley.
As Mr. Cooley moved off the road, the driver drove the car to him, and used car to hurted him.
Mr. Cooley fell on the ground and then the driver got out of the car and attacked him.
Mr. Cooley got concussion and a torn ligament when he was taken to hospital.
Mr. Cooley said that the reason for anger between cyclists and drivers is the car had monopolized the road for long time, however, bicyclists become more and more popular to save gas in this time.
No one knows how to share the road.
In 2004 Chicago had an event that a cyclist attacked a driver.
A Pennsylvania bicyclist shot a truck driver after an altercation.
The truck driver, William Nicoletti, 51, when he drove past the cyclist, the man on the bike made obscene gesture to him.
Not only for this, but also he drew a pistol and shot Mr. Nicoletti.
The man on the bicycle, Robert Urick, 41, was "charged with attempted homicide, aggravated assault and weapons offenses."
In Toronto in January 2006, a driver threw his lunch out the window of his car.
A 26-year-old bike courier threw the food back into the car.
The driver tossed two cups of hot coffee at the courier.
Then the driver attacked the woman and her bike.
A cyclist named Jefferey Guffey from Indiana told a driver to slow down.
The driver attacked Guffey and bit part of his ear off.
Police charged the driver with an offence.
In Toronto in 2007, a cyclist got angry at a driver.
The cyclist then stabbed the driver in the face and neck with a screwdriver.
Sir Trevor McDonald OBE (born George McDonald on 16 August 1939) is a British journalist.
He was ITN's first black journalist.
In 1992, McDonald became the presenter of the ITV News at Ten.
In 1999 the programme ended.
In 1999 Tonight with Trevor McDonald started on ITV.
In 2007 McDonald stopped presenting the programme.
It is now simply called Tonight.
He was born in Trinidad.
In 1969 he started working for the BBC.
Jeremy Kyle (born 7 July 1965) is an English television presenter.
He is best known for presenting British talk show The Jeremy Kyle Show from 2005 to 2019.
He also hosted the American version until May 2013.
He was born in Reading, Berkshire.
He went to the Reading Blue Coat School.
He married Carla Germaine in 2003.
In late 2007 Kyle started a radio show called The Jeremy Kyle Show.
In 2009 his first book, I'm Only Being Honest, was published.
In it he talks about 'Broken Britain'.
On 11 October 2011 a game show called High Stakes started on ITV.
Kyle presented the show until it ended 13 December 2011.
Jeremy Kyle's website on ITV
Vandal-resistant switches (sometimes referred to as vandal-proof switches or tamper-proof switches) are electrical switches that are designed to be so strong that people cannot break them.
To make switches strong, they are often made out of stainless steel or other durable metals.
Buttons are often made so that they do not come very far out.
This makes it harder for vandals to pry them out with a screwdriver.
Examples of vandal-resistant switches include the buttons that you press to cross the street, the buttons on bank machines, and the buttons on public telephones.
A zine (a short way of referring to a fanzine) is a photocopied newspaper or magazine about music, politics, or another issue.
Zines are usually photocopied by hand, and made by amateurs who do not have training in journalism.
Only a small number of copies of a zine are usually made.
Zines are often sold at record stores.
A music zine might include reviews of line music shows, interviews with bands, and advertisements for CDs.
Zines were an important part of the punk rock and hardcore punk subcultures.
A shed is a simple, single-storey structure in a garden which is used for storage.
Some people use their shed to do hobbies or as a workshop.
There are many types of sheds.
Some sheds are small open-sided structures with tin rooves.
Some sheds are large structures framed by wood.
Some sheds are made out of plastic.
Sheds used on farms can be large and tall structures.
Sheds can be made with metal panels attached to a metal frame, plastic or vinyl panels attached to a frame, all-wood construction.
Water politics are the politics related to whether people have enough fresh drinking water (see water scarcity).
There is less fresh water available for many reasons.
One reason is that some industries use huge amounts of water.
Another problem is water pollution, which occurs when dangerous chemicals or human waste gets into the water.
Currently, 40% of the people in the world do not have enough fresh water.
More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases that were caused by drinking polluted, dirty water or drought.
The M60 is a type of American-made machine gun.
The M60 fires 7.62mm NATO cartridges.
The cartridges are fed into the gun using a belt.
The United States Army started to use the M60 in 1957.
It has been used by all the branches of the U.S. military.
The United States Army used the M60 during the Vietnam War, Gulf War, Afghanistan War and the Iraq War.
Recently, the U.S. military has started to replace the M60 with the M240 machine gun.
When she was at college she started a rock band called Kenickie with her brother Peter, Marie Nixon and Emma Jackson.
The band broke up in 1998.
In 2000 she sang on the single "Don't Falter" by Mint Royale.
It reached No.15 in the UK Singles Chart.
In 2010 her first novel was Candypop – Candy and the Broken Biscuits was published by HarperCollins.
From 2010-2013 Laverne presented 10 O'Clock Live.
The M240 machine gun is a type of machine gun.
It fires the 7.62mm NATO cartridge.
It is gas-operated and the bullets are fed into the chamber by a belt.
The M240 has been used by the United States Armed Forces since the late-1970s.
It is used a lot by infantry.
The M240 is also mounted onto ground vehicles, boats, and helicopters.
Kamala Khan is a fictional character appearing in comic books published by Marvel Comics.
She first appeared in Captain Marvel #17 (November 2013).
Khan is a 16-year-old Pakistani-American Muslim.
She is from the suburbs of New Jersey.
She can shapeshift.
She was made by Sana Amanat, Steve Wacker, and G. Willow Wilson.
A clonewheel organ is an electronic musical instrument that copies the sound of the Hammond organ.
The first group of clonewheel organs designed used synthesizer sounds.
In the 1990s and 2000s, clonewheel organs began using sampling or digital techniques.
Robert James Kenneth Peston (born 25 April 1960) is a British journalist.
In 2005 his biography of Gordon Brown, Brown's Britain was published.
In 2013, How Do We Fix This Mess?:
The Economic Price of Having it All, and the Route to Lasting Prosperity was published.
On 17 October 2013 he was made the Economics Editor for BBC News.
Joseph Paul Franklin (April 13, 1950 – November 20, 2013) was an American serial killer.
He tried to kill Larry Flynt, a magazine publisher, in 1978 and Vernon Jordan, Jr., the civil rights activist, in 1980.
He has been given six life sentences.
He lived at Potosi Correctional Center on death row.
On November 20, 2013 he was executed at 8:30am with Propofol, a lethal drug, for killing a Jewish man outside a synagogue.
Franklin said that he thought he deserved to die for his crimes.
Larry Flynt wrote in an essay published in the Hollywood Reporter, “I do not want to see him die.”
Franklin was executed on November 20, 2013 by lethal injection.
Canistota is a city in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota.
It is located in McCook County, and 656 people lived there at the 2010 census.
Canistota became a city in 1883.
City of Canistota website
Bridgewater is a city in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota.
It is located in McCook County, and 492 people lived there at the 2010 census.
Bridgewater became a city in 1889.
City of Bridgewater website
Garretson is a city in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota.
It is located in Minnehaha County, and 1,166 people lived there at the 2010 census.
Garretson became a city in 1891.
A popular place in the city is Devil's Gulch, the place where Jesse James jumped over a wide cliff on his horse and got away from the police after trying to rob a bank in Northfield, Minnesota, in 1876.
Garretson gets its name from a banker named A.S. Garretson.
City of Garretson website
Survivor Series (2007) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE).
It was held on November 18, 2007 at the American Airlines Arena in Miami, Florida.
It was the twenty first Survivor Series event held by the WWE.
Official Survivor Series 2007 website
Iyengar Yoga is a type of yoga named after and developed by B. K. S. Iyengar (1918-2014).
It is a form of Hatha Yoga.
It emphasizes detail, precision and alignment.
It focuses performing postures (poses) and breath control.
This type of yoga helps to develop strength, mobility and stability.
B. K. S. Iyengar has created over 200 yoga poses.
Students start with simple poses and move on to more complex ones.
Iyengar Yoga often uses belts, blocks, and blankets to help people get into the postures.
By using belts, blocks and blankets, people are less likely to hurt themselves.
Chinatown is a 1974 American movie directed by Roman Polanski, written by Robert Towne, and starring Jack Nicholson, Faye Dunaway, John Hillerman and John Huston.
The movie is based on a true story about arguments that people had over the water politics in 1937 Los Angeles.
It is considered to be a film noir.
It was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1991.
The movie is often considered to be one of the greatest movies ever made.
During the 1975 Academy Awards, an Oscar award was given to Robert Towne for Best Original Screenplay.
The Golden Globe Awards gave the movie awards for Best Drama, Best Director, Best Actor, and Best Screenplay.
The American Film Institute says that it is the second-best of all mystery movies.
1974 mystery movies
All Souls College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford.
It was founded in 1438 by Henry VI and the Archbishop of Canterbury Henry Chichele.
The full name of the college is "The Warden and the College of the Souls of all Faithful People deceased in the University of Oxford".
All Souls does not have any undergraduate students.
It only has graduate students.
1438 establishments
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a way to help organisms change their behavior, and to identify the environmental contingencies that result in this behavior change.
ABA, the application of behavior analysis, is based on the scientific approach known as radical behaviorism, which views covert events as behavior that are to be subjected to the same conditions as overt behavior.
ABA can be used as a treatment for animals, mental disorders, and developmental disabilities, and is based on the principles of behavior that were discovered using experiments.
Scientific experiments and articles about ABA are published in the Journal for Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA.)
This journal was founded in 1968.
In the first issue of JABA, three people wrote an article explaining what Applied behavior analysis is.
Psychologists who study the way the environment influences behavior are called behaviorists.
They study the external causes of behavior instead of a person's feelings.
A person's feelings are internal so behaviorists think they cannot be studied scientifically.
Psychologist John B. Watson founded Behaviorism in 1913 and he is regarded as one of the first psychologists to study the applied science of behavior.
He thought that internal feelings should not be studied at all.
He also thought that behavior is shaped by the environment over time due to the outcome of a person's actions.
He believed all behavior is learned and can be changed.
If a person gets something good as a result of doing a behavior they are more likely to repeat that behavior.
If something bad happens as a result of a behavior a person is less likely to do that thing again.
This is an idea that is used a lot in ABA.
One of the most famous behaviorists was the psychologist B.F. Skinner.
Skinner first published his ideas about behaviorism in 1938.
He wrote a lot about behaviorism throughout his career.
He made some of the behavior principles that ABA uses.
ABA emerged when experimental behavior principles were applied to social behavior.
There are various people that began the process of applying these principles to social behavior.
One of the most famous was Ole Ivar Lovaas.
In the 1960s, Lovaas became one of the first people to use applied behavior analysis as a treatment for autism.
When Lovaas began using ABA to treat children with autism he changed the way developmental disorders were treated.
Lovaas also thought that treatments would be more successful if they are started early in a child's life.
The idea of starting treatment with a child as soon as possible is called 'early intervention'.
Early intervention is still thought to be very important in ABA.
One of the more recent developments in Applied Behavior Analysis is the founding of the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB).
The BACB is a non-profit corporation that was started in 1998.
The BACB certifies behavior analysts.
In order to become a behavior analyst a person must go to a special school and then pass an exam.
Once they pass this exam they will be  board certified behavior analysts.
The BACB sets standards to make sure board certified behavior analysts (BCBAs) are good at their jobs.
The BACB makes sure that the BCBAs are using ethical, legal, and professional practices when they work.
There are seven characteristics of ABA  A treatment that is based on ABA must have all of these things.
Applied: This means that the behavior being studied must be socially important.
Socially important behavior is behavior that happens in everyday life.
Behavioral: A behavior is anything that a person does.
Feelings are not studied because they are internal so they cannot be measured.
ABA treatments measure rates of behavior.
Analytic: For behavior to be analytic a behavior analyst has to have control over it.
This means they have to be able to make the behavior happen at certain times.
The data from before the experimental variable is applied is called baseline data.
Technological: The word technological is used to describe the amount of explanation necessary for a treatment.
A behavioral intervention must be explained very well.
If an intervention is not explained well it is not technological.
Conceptually systematic: For an ABA treatment to be conceptually systematic it must be related to behavior principles that are already known.
Using principles that are already known makes ABA more effective.
Effective: This means that behavioral interventions must produce good results to be used in ABA.
The purpose of applied interventions is to improve an aspect of social behavior.
Generality: This is used to show how meaningful a behavior change is.
A behavior change has high generality if:
The change keeps happening for a long time after the intervention is over
The change happens in different environments
The change causes a change in other behaviors
Definitions and concepts
The following terms and ideas are used in Applied Behavior Analysis.
It is important to understand these ideas when using ABA based interventions.
Problem behavior
In ABA, a behavior that is bad is called a problem behavior.
Problem behavior is something that hurts the person doing it or hurts other people around them.
A problem behavior makes it harder for a person to learn new things.
Operant behavior is the opposite of respondent behavior.
Operant behavior is voluntary and can be changed.
A person has control over their own operant behavior.
They decide which behaviors they want to do.
Respondent behavior cannot be controlled like operant behavior.
ABA studies operant behavior more than respondent because it can be controlled.
If a behavior can be controlled then it can be changed.
Three-term contingency is a concept for understanding operant behavior that was first used by B.F. Skinner.
It is still used in ABA.
The three-term contingency says that every behavior has an antecedent and a consequence.
An antecedent is what happens right before the behavior.
The antecedent can change the chance that a behavior will happen.
Some antecedents make a behavior more likely to happen.
Other antecedents make a behavior less likely to happen.
The consequence is what happens after the behavior.
It is the response to the behavior.
ABC data can be used to find things that may be causing behavior.
Then these causes can be tested using experimental variables.
An operational definition tells people exactly what a target behavior looks like.
The target behavior is the behavior that is trying to be changed.
The operational definition of the target behavior needs to be very good.
People that have not seen the target behavior before should be able to tell when it happens based only on the operational definition.
A good operational definition makes the study of behavior better.
Reinforcement: When something increases the likelihood of a response happening again it is called a reinforcement.
A reinforcement is often thought of as a reward.
A reward is anything that is given after a response happens.
A reward can only be a reinforcement if it increases the rate of response in the future.
If it does not increase the rate of response then it is not a reinforcement.
All reinforcers do not work for all people.
So it is important to try different types of reinforcers to find out what works best for a person.
Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that fill a biological need.
The four primary reinforcers are food, water, warmth and sex.
Reinforcers that do not fill biological needs are called secondary reinforcers.
Secondary reinforcers are not naturally reinforcing.
A person needs to learn that they are reinforcing.
They learn that they are reinforcing because they are paired with other things that are known to be reinforcing.
They are also called conditioned reinforcers.
A discriminative stimulus (SD) is something that tells a person that reinforcement is available.
The presentation of a SD should cause a response.
Positive reinforcement (SR+) is when the addition of a stimulus leads to an increase in responding.
There are four different types of positive reinforcement:
Tangible reinforcers are things that can be held.
Toys or food would be tangible reinforcers.
Tangible reinforcers can be expensive.
They should not be the first choice for positive reinforcement.
Social reinforcement is one of the best types of positive reinforcement.
It is good because it is not expensive.
It is also easy to use.
Social reinforcers are things that have social value or meaning.
Examples of social reinforcers would be awards, praise, or compliments.
Social reinforcement can be very effective.
Activity reinforcers are any events that a person can earn.
Examples of some activities would be getting to play games, go to the movies, or earning a break.
Activity reinforcers can work really well if the person really wants to earn the activity.
But activity reinforcers may not be able to be earned right after the behavior happens.
This would result in a delay of reinforcement.
The reinforcer will be less effective if it is given a long time after the behavior happens.
Token reinforcers are any neutral stimulus that can be traded for an object or activity.
The objects or activities they can trade tokens for are known as back-up reinforcers.
The tokens do not have value by themselves.
They are only valuable because the person knows that they can trade them for something they want to earn.
Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement (SR-) happens when the removal of a stimulus increases the likelihood a person will do a behavior in the future.
In this case the term negative does not mean bad.
The stimulus that is removed from the environment is something aversive.
This means that the person does not like it.
People will want to do a behavior if they know that something they do not like will be taken away.
Reinforcement schedules
Reinforcements are given based on schedules of reinforcement.
The schedule will explain the ways reinforcement is earned.
Behavior analysts decide which reinforcement schedule is best.
Different schedules are useful for different things.
The schedule used depends on the person.
It also depends on the behavior that is being reinforced.
Continuous reinforcement schedules
Continuous reinforcement schedules (CRF) reinforce a person every time they do the target behavior.
There are a few problems with CRF schedules though.
The rates of behavior are not long-lasting.
If the person stops being reinforced they may stop doing the target behavior.
Another issue is satiation.
If the person becomes satiated it means that they do not want the reinforcer anymore.
Intermittent reinforcement schedules
These schedules of reinforcement only reinforce the target behavior sometimes.
The four most common types of intermittent schedules are:
Fixed-ratio schedules (FR) give reinforcement after a certain number of responses.
Variable-ratio schedules: With variable-ratio (VR) schedules the amount of responses needed for reinforcement changes.
The number of responses needed for reinforcement will be different every time.
Fixed-interval schedules:  With fixed-interval (FI) schedules reinforcement is delivered for the first response that happens after a fixed amount of time passes.
Variable-interval schedules (VI) give reinforcement after an variable amount of time passes.
Differential reinforcement
Differential reinforcement teaches a person the difference between a SD and a non-discriminative stimulus (S-delta).
A SD signals that reinforcement is available.
A S-delta does not tell the person anything about the availability of reinforcement.
A S-delta is not likely to produce responses because there is reinforcement is not given.
It is also used to decrease problem behavior.
There are four types of differential reinforcement that can be used to decrease a problem behavior.
DRL stands for differential reinforcement of a "low-rate" of response.
DRL is helpful when trying to decrease a behavior but not get rid of it completely.
DRO stands for differential reinforcement of "other" behavior.
With DRO, a person gets a reinforcer if they do not do the problem behavior for a set amount of time.
DRI stands for differential reinforcement of "incompatible" behavior.
A DRI program reinforces behavior that is incompatible with the problem behavior.
An incompatible behavior would stop them from being able to do the problem behavior.
DRA stands for differential reinforcement of "alternative" behavior.
For a DRA program the person is taught an alternative behavior that they can do instead of the problem behavior.
Extinction is a way to decrease rates of problem behavior.
A DRA program should be used at the same time as an extinction program.
This will make the extinction program more effective.
Reinforcement is always the first thing that is tried when trying to change a behavior.
Reinforcement produces long-lasting results and is better for the person.
However reinforcement does not always reduce problem behavior.
If reinforcement does not work it may be necessary to try punishment.
Punishment is effective but it can have bad consequences.
It can cause emotional harm if it is not used correctly.
Punishment is any response to a behavior that "decreases" the likelihood of a behavior happening in the future.
Punishment of a problem behavior should be used with reinforcement of the appropriate behavior.
Appropriate behavior should always be reinforced even when using punishment for problem behavior.
Just like reinforcement, punishment can be both positive and negative.
Positive punishment is the addition of an stimulus that decreases the chances of future responses.
This stimulus that is added is something aversive.
Negative punishment is the removal of a stimulus that decreases the chance of future behaviors happening.
The stimulus that is removed is something that the person likes.
Prompting increases the likelihood that a behavior will be done the right way.
Using prompts will make the learning process easier and quicker.
Someone that is teaching a new behavior can use prompts to help the person that is learning the behavior.
The two broad categories of prompts are stimulus and response.
Response prompts do not involve a change in the antecedent.
There are three types of response prompts.
The first type is verbal prompts.
The second type of response prompt is a gestural prompt.
The most common gestural prompt is pointing to the correct response.
The third type of response prompt is a physical prompt.
A physical prompt is when the teacher touches the learner in order to help them perform the correct behavior.
Physical prompts are often used when teaching new skills that involve movement of the body.
Fading prompts is a way to increase the independence of the learner.
Once the learner can do the behavior on their own they will not need the help of the teacher.
However, if a teacher stops using prompts quickly it may confuse the learner.
So prompts should be decreased slowly.
The process of gradually decreasing prompting is called 'fading'.
Shaping is a way to teach new behaviors or improve behaviors that have already been taught.
It involves reinforcing steps towards a target behavior.
Complex behaviors are made up of smaller simple behaviors.
This is what the concept of behavior chains is based on.
A behavior chain is when smaller behaviors are combined to form a complex behavior.
These smaller behaviors are done in a certain order.
Each of the smaller behaviors is a step in the behavior chain.
Each step in a behavior chain is a response on its own.
There are three different ways to teach a behavior chain:
Forward chaining is the most common way to teach a behavior chain.
The chain is taught starting with the first step.
Once the learners can do the first step they move on to the second step.
This continues until they have completed all of the steps.
Backward chaining is the opposite of forward chaining.
With backward chaining the last step is taught to the learners first.
Once they can do the last step they move on to the second to last step.
This continues until they make it to the first step.
Total task presentation is the third way to teach a behavior chain.
With forward and backward chaining only one step in the behavior chain is taught at one time.
But with total task the learner completes every step in the chain every time they do the program.
They should complete every step in the correct order.
Total task requires the learner know how to do all of the steps in the chain before they start the program.
Analyzing behavior
ABA relies on data to make decisions about behavior.
Behavior analysts are always collecting data about a person's behavior.
Direct observation is when behavior is watched and recorded.
Indirect measures compare one person's behavior to other people's behavior.
An example would be an intelligence test.
One person's score is compared to the scores that other people got.
There are three common methods of data collection.
They are frequency, interval, and time sampling.
These methods are used for direct observation.
Frequency is how often a behavior happens.
So frequency recording just counts the number of times a behavior happens.
Interval recording breaks the observation time into smaller pieces.
The total time is divided into smaller intervals.
If the behavior happens at any time during one of the smaller intervals it is recorded.
Time sampling methods are a little different from frequency and interval methods.
The observer will only look to see if the behavior is happening every once in a while.
If the behavior is happening when the observers looks it gets recorded.
But if the behavior happens any other time it does not get recorded.
So the behavior is only recorded sometimes.
A functional analysis (FA) is done to find the reason for problem behavior.
The reason for problem behavior must be known before a behavioral intervention can be done.
Behavior analysts came up with the idea of a functional analysis in 1982.
Since then it has become an important part of ABA.
The behavior analyst is tries to find the situations that cause the highest rates of problem behavior.
The situations that cause the highest rates of problem behavior tell the behavior analyst the reason for the behavior.
Once the reasons for problem behavior are known treatment can begin.
Use for treatment of autism
Applied behavior analysis is commonly associated with autism.
This is because ABA is the only treatment for autism that has been scientifically proven to be effective.
The Queen Elizabeth Islands are a group of islands in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
They are split between Nunavut and Northwest Territories.
In the past the islands were called Parry Archipelago or Parry Islands.
They were named after British Arctic explorer Sir William Parry.
In 1953 the islands were renamed after Elizabeth II.
According to the Atlas of Canada there are 34 large and 2,092 small islands in the archipelago.
Many of the islands are among the largest in the world.
The largest island in the archipelago is Ellesmere Island.
Juan Cristobal Tapia de Veer also known as Cristo, is a film and television score composer, arranger, producer and multi-instrumentalist based in Montreal, QC, Canada.
He is mostly known for his music to the British 6-part drama UTOPIA for which he won an RTS Craft Award in the best original score category in 2013.
Cristo was born during the military coup d'état in Chile.
First, his parents fled to Paris, France.
While his father decided to stay there, his mother took him back to Chile.
Life under Pinochet's dictatorship still proved impossible, so they found political refuge in Québec, Canada.
He obtained a master's degree in Classical Music (specialization in percussion) from the Conservatoire de musique du Québec.
In 2001 he got signed to Warner Music with his pop-band One Ton, putting a hold on his classical career.
The trio won the Canadian Dance Music Award (SOCAN) in 2003 with the electro-dance single "Supersex World".
It was Cristo who produced the album.
Movie & TV scoring
In 2011, his music for the Victorian 4-part drama The Crimson Petal and the White (dir: Marc Munden, BBC2) totally surprised the audiences.
"The soundtrack ranges from gnawing electronic hums to choral ecstasy.
It's all brilliantly, effectively, appropriately jarring, even if it sends the Masterpiece crowd to the medicine cabinet for Dramamine."
His latest work is in the conspiracy thriller UTOPIA created by Dennis Kelly, that aired on Channel 4.
A second series has already been commissioned.
He wrote music for a new TV-show called Série Noire, written and directed by the writers of "Les Invincibles", released in January 2014 on Radio-Canada.
Cristobal Tapia de Veer on soundcloud
Canova is a town in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota.
It is located in Miner County, and 105 people lived there at the 2010 census.
Canova became a town in 1898.
Monroe is a town in the eastern part of the U.S. state of South Dakota.
It is located in Turner County, and 160 people lived there at the 2010 census.
Monroe became a town in 1901.
Eruption was a popular disco, R&B and soul band in the 1970s and 1980s.
It was created by German producer Frank Farian.
1977: Eruption
1978: Leave a Light
1980: Fight Fight Fight
1983: Our Way
1994: Gold 20 Superhits
1995: I Can't Stand The Rain
"Let Me Take You Back In Time" (1976)
"I Can't Stand The Rain" / "Be Yourself"  (1977)
"Party Party" (1978)
"Leave A Light" (1978)
"One Way Ticket" / "Left Me In The Rain"  (1979)
"Sweet Side" (1979)
"Go Johnnie Go" / "Call My Name" (1980)
"Runaway" / "Good Good Feeling" (1980)
"You (You Are My Soul)" (1981)
"Up And Away" (1982)
"In A Thousand Years" / "We Don't Need Nobody" (1983)
"I Can't Help Myself" / "It's The Same Old Song" (1983)
"Joy To The World" / "Time" (1983)
"Where Do I Begin" (1984)
"I Can't Stand The Rain '88" (1988)
"One Way Ticket '94" (1994)
Survivor Series (2006) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view show made by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE).
It was held on November 26, 2006 at the Wachovia Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
It was the twentieth Survivor Series event held by the WWE.
Official Survivor Series 2006 website
This song is a cover version of song One Way Ticket (To The Blues) by Neil Sedaka.
Elitserien () is the men's bandy top division of Sweden since the 2007–2008 season.
It consist of 14 teams, and is followed up by the Swedish championships playoffs, ending with one single final game.
Season structure
The season starts with a regular season comprising 14 teams and 26 rounds.
The first eight teams qualify for the quarter finals, the eleventh and twelfth plays a relegation round robin tournament against teams from the Allsvenskan and the last two teams are relegated.
2007 establishments in Sweden
Allsvenskan () is since the 2007–2008 the second highest division of men's bandy in Sweden.
It is made up of 24 teams in two regional groups.
Allsvenskan (the all Swedish) is also the name of several Swedish sport leagues:
Damallsvenskan, highest women's association football league
Allsvenskan (bandy), highest bandy league for since the 2007–08 season
Allsvenskan and Elitserien (bandy), highest bandy leagues until the 2007–08 season
Allsvenskan (men's handball), second highest men's handball league
Allsvenskan (women's handball), second highest women's handball league
Allsvenskan (rugby), highest rugby league
Hockeyallsvenskan, second highest ice hockey league
Superallsvenskan, defunct ice hockey league
Allsvenskan play-offs, a Swedish association football cup held to decide the Swedish football champions between 1982 and 1990
The European Cup is an annual bandy club competition between teams from Europe.
The first edition of the tournament was held in 1974.
Swedish bandy association - European Cup
Sweden women's national football team () represents Sweden on the women's side in association football.
Sweden won the 1984 UEFA European Championship.
In the FIFA World Cup, the team ended up second in 2003, and won the bronze medals in 1991 and 2011.
Sweden women's national team
A homeless shelter is a place for homeless people to take refuge.
Shelters provide safety and protection from exposure to the weather.
These shelters also provide food, warmth, and the basic needs for any person.
The determinant of a square matrix is a scalar (a number) that indicates how that matrix behaves.
It can be calculated from the numbers in the matrix.
The determinant of the matrix  is written as  or  in a formula.
Sometimes, instead of  and , one simply writes  and .
An  matrix can be seen as describing a linear map in  dimensions.
In which case, the determinant indicates the factor by which this matrix scales (grows or shrinks) a region of -dimensional space.
For example, a  matrix , seen as a linear map, will turn a square in 2-dimensional space into a parallelogram.
That parallellogram's area will be  times as big as the square's area.<p>In the same way, a  matrix , seen as a linear map, will turn a cube in 3-dimensional space into a parallelepiped.
That parallelepiped's volume will be  times as big as the cube's volume.
The determinant can be negative or zero.
A linear map can stretch and scale a volume, but it can also reflect it over an axis.
Whenever this happens, the sign of the determinant changes from positive to negative, or from negative to positive.
A negative determinant means that the volume was mirrored over an odd number of axes.
"System of equations" interpretation
One can think of a matrix as describing a system of linear equations.
That system has a unique non-trivial solution exactly when the determinant is not 0 (non-trivial meaning that the solution is not just all zeros).
Singular matrices
A matrix has an inverse matrix exactly when the determinant is not 0.
For this reason, a matrix with a non-zero determinant is called invertible.
If the determinant is 0, then the matrix is called non-invertible or singular.
Geometrically, one can think of a singular matrix as "flattening" the parallelepiped into a parallelogram, or a parallelogram into a line.
Then the volume or area is 0, which means that there is no linear map that will bring the old shape back.
Calculating a determinant
Formulas for small matrices
For  and  matrices, the following simple formulas hold:
For  matrices, the formula is:One can use the Rule of Sarrus (see image) to remember this formula.
Cofactor expansion
For larger matrices, the determinant is harder to calculate.
One way to do it is called cofactor expansion.
Suppose that we have an  matrix .
First, we choose any row or column of the matrix.
For each number  in that row or column, we calculate something called its cofactor .
Then .
To compute such a cofactor , we erase row  and column  from the matrix .
This gives us a smaller  matrix.
We call it .
The cofactor  then equals .
Here is an example of a cofactor expansion of the left column of a  matrix:
As illustrated above, one can simplify the computation of determinant by choosing a row or column that has many zeros; if  is 0, then one can skip calculating  altogether.
Philip () was born in around 204.
He got the name "Philip the Arab" ( or ). (
The Chronicon Paschale, a Greek chronicle, and the Latin historian Aurelius Victor each have different dates for Philip's birth.)
He was the son of Julius Marinus.
Philip was probably born in the city he later named Philippopolis, in the Roman province of Arabia Petraea (now the city of Shahba, Syria).
244–245
Philip became emperor at the start of 244. (
The Justinianic Code's writing means that Philip became emperor after 13 January 244 and before 14 March the same year.)
Philip's wife, Marcia Otacilia Severa, became augusta (empress) early in 244.
After Philip became emperor, the Romans and the Sasanian Empire made peace.
With this success, Philip got the name  (or ) in the middle of 244.
Philip came to Rome in 244, probably in early summer.
245–247
In 245, Philip was Roman consul for the first time.
That year, the Romans went to war with the Carpi.
On 12 November 245, Philip was at Aquae in Dacia (Vidonac, Serbia).
Wars against the Carpi and Germanic peoples continued into 247.
In 247, Philip was Roman consul for the second time.
In late summer 247, Philip held a triumph in Rome.
For his military success against the Carpi, Philip probably got the name  at the end of 247.
247–249
In 248, Philip was Roman consul for the third time.
In April 248, Philip held a festival for the one thousandth anniversary of Rome, a thousand years since Romulus became the first king of Rome. (